RQ1. Does motivation for children's experiential learning lead toactive engagement at WHSs, which in turn brings educational benefitsto children?A number of studies have noted, however, that brand awareness ofWHS varies across attractions (Dewar, Du Cros, & Li, 2012). World-famous monuments with a salient brand name, usually consideredmust-see attractions, have an edge in attracting family tourists whoshow great interest in engaging their children in experiential learning.In comparison, WHS locations that are less recognizable may not be ontourists' top list, despite their rich heritage. Families, therefore, are lesslikely to get deeply involved at these WHSs or to actively appreciatetheir appeal. This could be particularly true for Chinese parents, whoadore brand names and must-see landmarks (Li et al., 2008; Shen et al.,2009). Therefore, brand awareness could be a decisive catalyst inChinese children's engagement and learning at a WHS. Despite ad-vances in the literature that vastly document the positive effects ofWHS′ brand awareness (e.g., Poria, Reichel, & Cohen, 2011; Yan &Morrison, 2008), little has been done to further investigate the mod-erating role of brand awareness in children's learning, which raises thesecond research question:RQ2. Does brand awareness reinforce children's experientiallearning at a WHS?A closer investigation into Chinese tourists reveals that generationaldisparity largely resides in this market. The growing corpus of literatureon Chinese generations also provides insight into the distinctive dif-ferences in their lifestyles, values, beliefs and consumption behaviors(Cheng & Foley, 2018; Jin, Lin, & Hung, 2014; Yang & Lau, 2015). Inparticular, Generation Y in China, the first generation after the one-child policy, frequently are compared with their previous generation,i.e., Generation X born before the 1980s. Being more internet savvy andfluent in English, Gen Y parents are keener to engage in in-depth toursand to appreciate a relaxed schedule to deepen their knowledge of adestination (Arlt, 2013; Jin et al., 2014). Unlike their preceding gen-erations who, in general, favor famous attractions with high brandawareness (Truong & King, 2009), Gen Y parents are more likely totreasure unique experiences in exotic locations and new areas, and tolook for values beyond what a must-see landmark can offer (Arlt, 2006;Pendergast, 2010). The importance of WHS brand awareness, e.g.,whether brand awareness matters or not, could be immensely differentbetween Gen X and Gen Y. This distinction makes it worth scrutinizingthe role of WHS brand awareness on learning in family travel amongdifferent generations, raising the third research question:RQ3. Does generation moderate the moderating effect of brandawareness in children's experiential learning?This study aims to answer these research questions by investigatingchildren's experiential learning at WHS locations. A framework is pro-posed to test hypothesized relationships leading from experientiallearning motivation to educational benefits through the engagement ata WHS. In addition, the joint moderating effect of brand awareness andgeneration is investigated. The main contributions of this study arethreefold. First, tourism scholars have noted the lack of empirical evi-dence of children's educational benefits in travel, and have called forfurther investigation (Durko & Petrick, 2013). The current study fillsthis void by scrutinizing experiential learning during family travel,revealing how parents' earnest expectations could urge engagement atthe WHS visited, and further yield substantial educational benefits forchildren. Second, it advances literature on WHSs and underscores thesignificance of brand names, pointing out that how well a site is knownand understood matters in experiential learning. Third, this paperbridges the gap in research that seldom examines generational differ-ences in family travel. In addressing this purpose, it adds to the existingknowledge of Chinese family tourists and their generational differencesin educational practices during excursions. Managerial and marketingimplications are also provided for tourism operators.2. Literature review2.1. Family travelers and benefits of family travelAlthough there is a plethora of tourism studies focusing on in-dividual travel motivations, perceptions, and behaviors, relatively lessattention has been devoted to group travel characteristics, such as thoseof family travelers (Durko & Petrick, 2013; Poria, Atzaba-Poria, &Barrett, 2005; Schänzel, Yeoman, & Backer, 2012). For a narrow defi-nition from tourism literature, a family vacation is mostly described asone that involves leisure travel undertaken by family members con-sisting of at least one child and one adult, including a parent, legalguardian, or caregiver (Schänzel, Smith, & Weaver, 2005). Family,being the basic unit in society, exhibits strong bonding within the unit,and this group of travelers tends to seek fulfillment of the overall in-terests of the group beyond individualistic pleasure in travelling.One stream of family travel research was marketing driven with anemphasis on selections of travel products for families (Poria et al., 2005;Schänzel et al., 2005). These studies view family travelers as a disparatemarket segment that demonstrates unique attributes and behaviors. Inparticular, children have a growing influence on the purchase of familytravel products because vacation planning generally consumes con-siderable time, money, and effort, and careful evaluations and con-sultations are expected (Kozak, 2010). Children's influence is evident atdifferent stages of family vacation planning, from making an early de-cision to taking a trip, and from an initial information search to on-sitebehaviors (Blichfeldt, Pedersen, Johansen, & Hansen, 2011; Kozak,2010). Parents, however, while willing to attend to and acknowledgechildren's wishes, still have the final say on vacation decisions (Gram,2007; Wang, Hsieh, Yeh, & Tsai, 2004). In other words, children's rolein family travel remains limited to that of a passive influencer whereasoutcomes are subject to the parents' perceived benefits to the children,as well as to the whole family.Another stream of studies focuses on the social and psychologicalbenefits generated from family vacation experiences through interac-tions and relationship developments of family members (Durko &Petrick, 2013; Schänzel et al., 2005). Balance between family and workis forever hard to strike, and vacation is increasingly viewed as a re-medy for discharging stress and fostering family well-being (Strauss-Blasche, Ekmekcioglu, & Marktl, 2000, 2002).Family travel also entails deeper relational benefits, such that thewell-being of both adults and children could be enhanced by sharingexclusive quality moments (Dolnicar, Yanamandram, & Cliff, 2012;Durko & Petrick, 2013). Therefore, parents are keen on creatingchildhood memories for their kids, a desire that holds intact a perpetualreminiscence of family attachments, as the kids will “not remember anew couch … but, they will remember a trip” (Shaw, Havitz, &Delemere, 2008, p. 22). A good family vacation is perceived as one thatbinds the family together while enabling the children to engage instimulating activities. After all, the happiness of children in turn in-creases that of the parents and the overall well-being of the family(Hilbrecht, Shaw, Delamere, & Havitz, 2008).2.2. Experiential learning for children and educational benefits during travelIn particular, children's experiential learning is considered one ofthe most prominent benefits as they may acquire extensive knowledgewhile travelling to appreciate cultures and history (Poria et al., 2005).Experiential learning is defined as a particular form of learning that isin contrast with traditional classroom learning (Kolb, 2014). The role ofacademic knowledge in lecture learning is down-played, while studyingthrough in-context actions, sense experiences, and bona fide explora-tion is accentuated in the out-of-class learning process. This approachfor deeper learning allows individuals to immerse themselves in a real-life and non-threatening learning environment, and better cultivate aninterest in the topic (Ruhanen, 2006).F.X. Yang, V.M.-C. Lau Tourism Management 72 (2019) 1–112
Travel has been acknowledged to be an enriching context for ex-periential learning (Falk, Ballantyne, Packer, & Benckendorff, 2012). Inrecent years, “education tourism” has gained much significance, espe-cially for family travelers whose main travel motive is their children'slearning experience (Ritchie, Carr, & Cooper, 2003). In this regard,museums, national parks and heritage sites alike are popular educa-tional spots where parents purposely plan their travel itineraries for theperceived learning benefits of their children (Kerstetter, Hou, & Lin,2004; Poria et al., 2005; Prentice, Witt, & Hamer, 1998).Children are expected to acquire educational benefits, i.e., “possi-bilities for personal growth and enriched experience” (Greene, 1973, p.183), from experiential learning in travel. These benefits could be newknowledge and perspective, social and cultural awareness, autonomy,and self-confidence (Stone & Petrick, 2013). In previous studies, edu-cational benefits are conceptualized in two approaches: (1) a set ofquestions to assess the children's knowledge acquisition regarding theheritage attraction (e.g., Prentice, Guerin, & McGugan, 1998), and (2) ameasure of positively-valenced outcomes perceived by the respondents(e.g., Ballantyne et al., 2011; Kang, Scott, Lee, & Ballantyne, 2012; Oh,Fiore, & Jeoung, 2007; Pearce & Foster, 2007). The first approach, al-beit relatively objective, is rather context-specific and may not be ap-plied to different heritage sites. In addition, it has been pointed out thatsurveys with children as respondents should be exercised with caution,depending on their age, cognitive capacities, verbal comprehension andso on (Borgers, De Leeuw, & Hox, 2000). Therefore, a one-size-fits-allinstrument may not be viable, and it is not an uncommon practice inprevious studies to measure the constructs from the parents' perspec-tive. Finally, in the context of family travel, it is still the parents whohave the decisive vote on family holidays, and their perceived benefitsfor the children are crucial (Gram, 2007; Wang et al., 2004). Therefore,the current research adopts the second approach to measure parents'perceived educational benefits for their children.The Chinese education tourism market has been growing at a rate of30% in recent years, representing an annual revenue of $4.5 billion(Yan & Zhuang, 2017). It is not uncommon to see Chinese parentsflocking to renowned cultural sites and universities with their childrenduring summer to broaden their horizons. In this sense, children areconsidered catalysts for family trips, exerting significant influences oneducational travel planning and arrangements, especially in initiatingsuch trips and making suggestions (Connell, 2005; Wang et al., 2004).Through travel experience, parents hope that their children engage inexperiential learning and develop personal growth, life skills and worldknowledge through observation and participation (Stone & Petrick,2013).2.3. Brand awareness of World Heritage SitesUNESCO is the authoritative organization that recognizes the spe-cial cultural or physical significance of a destination by listing it as aWHS. This listing is regarded as equivalent to a star rating in theMichelin Guide, which greatly enhances the awareness of a destination(Evans, 2004). Destination marketing organizations (DMOs) increas-ingly are capitalizing on WHS designations and managing heritage sitesas brands (Dewar et al., 2012). The fame of a WHS designation is apowerful marketing tool that serves as a magnet, pulling tourists in topay homage to these sites (Li et al., 2008). Positive outcomes from theinscribed title of WHS include an increasing number of tourists, a strongbrand equity and perceived superior quality and experience (Buckley,2004; Dewar et al., 2012; Schänzel et al., 2005; Yang, Lin, & Han,2010).Other studies, however, indicate that some visitors only have avague understanding of the WHS designation; the tourism-enhancingeffects are minimal and short term (Dewar et al., 2012; Huang, Tsaur, &Yang, 2012). In their attempts to assess the WHS brand power, Poriaet al. (2006) note that it only has a moderate net brand equity, and nosignificant difference has been found between WHSs and non-WHSs interms of travelers’ motivation and willingness to visit. This calls for amore in-depth investigation of WHS brand effectiveness with con-siderations of plausible variables and moderators.WHS locations have a mission to advocate learning among youngpeople about the history, tradition, and culture of the sites to supportfuture heritage conservation. The WHS designation, together with itseducational appeals, is particularly welcome by family travelers(Schänzel et al., 2005). Poria et al. (2006) indicate that main motiva-tions to visit a heritage site are mostly children driven, including thevalues of the sites to children and the contribution to education.The Historic Center of Macao, including more than 20 monuments,was listed as UNESCO WHSs in 2005 as a living testimony to the in-tegrated Eastern and Western influences reflected through the uniqueco-existence of architectures and cultures (UNESCO, 2018). Rich inhistorical and cultural significance, these sites are visited by millions ofvisitors every year. In this paper, we attempt to evaluate the brandeffectiveness of WHSs in Macao from the viewpoint of family travelerswho undertake education endeavors during site visits.2.4. Chinese family travelers and generational differencesInarguably, China has emerged as the most powerful source marketin the world accompanied with a double-digit growth in tourism ex-penditure (UNWTO, 2017). Family travelers, in particular, have been amajor segment among Chinese tourists. For instance, recent statisticshave referred to Chinese family travelers as the main drivers for theNational Day travel (also known as “Golden Week” for travel andconsumption in China). In 2017, those travelling with children haveaccounted for 32% of the total travelers, representing a 50% increasefrom the previous year (China Internet Watch, 2017). Little research,however, has recognized the huge potential of Chinese family travelers.Under the harsh one-child policy implemented in China in the late1970s, the Chinese nuclear family has become smaller in size and moreclosely bonded. The only child is the center of the family with full at-tention of two parents and four grandparents, giving rise to the “fi-liarchy” form of family in which the child is in charge (McNeal & Ji,1999). According to McNeal and Yeh (2003), an improvement in livingconditions has enabled Chinese families to spend in a more generousway, with children being particularly influential in their parent's pur-chase decisions. As indicated in this spending pattern, Chinese parentshave high expectations and standards for their perceived well-being ofthe child, especially in the form of education and health.Under the influence of Confucian value in their culture, Chinesepeople exhibit a distinctive style in travelling, education practice, andfamily relationship (Huang & Gove, 2015). In the hierarchical socialclass of the ancient Chinese, a person is judged by his occupations andmoral character instead of his wealth; scholarship is the only way toattain such a status. Educational benefits for children are bundled as thetriumph of the entire family and, vice versa, failure as the shame of theparents (Leung, 2002). Education is emphasized and embedded in dailyfamily activities, which demands sacrifices on the part of parents. Inreturn, children are bounded by the Confucian value of filial piety toobey their parents and to take learning seriously (Bodycott, 2009).Chinese consumers are brand-conscious, even when it comes toeducation choices; awareness and reputation of the institution areamong the top considerations (Li, 2015). According to O'Cass and Choy(2008), Chinese customers are prone to react positively to premiumbrands as a recognition of status especially for high-involvement pur-chase decisions. Education and tourism products fit in this category ascustomers display high interest and concern in such consumption,which in turn is believed to symbolize one's status and success.With rapid developments in China, the value system has evolvedquickly among generations who display distinct characteristics.Generation X (born 1965–1979) refers to the older generation that ismore attached to traditional values; on the other hand, Generation Y(born 1980–1995), the first generation after the one-child policy, isF.X. Yang, V.M.-C. Lau Tourism Management 72 (2019) 1–113
more individualistic and westernized (Erickson, 2009). These genera-tional differences can be observed in their beliefs and perceptions oneducation, brand consumptions, and travel preferences.Although the core value of education among Chinese families stillprevails today, the means and ends of learning are interpreted differ-ently by younger parents. Learning is no longer confined to scholasticattainment but extends to enrichments in more dynamic forms of ex-tracurricular activities. Modern parents are more supportive and re-sponsive to their children's interests and take the lead to expose theirchildren to different experiences and possibilities (Huang & Gove,2015). The intangible aspects of education abroad, such as interna-tional and intercultural experiences, are of imperative concerns(Bodycott, 2009). In terms of travel preferences, the younger generationenjoys exotic cultures to broaden their horizons. They appreciate a lesshectic tour schedule and enjoy exploring the destination at their ownpace (Jin et al., 2014). Taken together, Generation Yers are experience-seekers who pursue holistic and unique experiences beyond merelywhat a generic brand could offer. They do not solely fall for brandnames, but also treasure the combination of hedonic and utilitarianvalues entailed in a brand.3. Hypotheses development3.1. Motivation and engagementTourist motivation refers to the psychological/biological conditionsthat arouse and direct one to travel decisions, behaviors and experi-ences (Dann, 1981; Fodness, 1994). It conveys the underlying “whys”that drive tourists to satisfy different needs and wants through travel.Two main streams stem from prior literature, distinguishing the pushfactors associated with internal demands from the pull factors per-taining to destination attributes (Uysal & Hagan, 1993; Uysal &Jurowski, 1994). In particular, the first type of force describes howindividuals are pushed by their inner desire or emotional aspects, e.g.,the desire for escape, exploration, relaxation, prestige, rejuvenation,interaction and togetherness with family members (Crompton, 1979).Although family togetherness emerges as a prominent travel motiveand a considerable number of tourists travel with their families, rela-tively few studies have elaborated on the benefits sought by familytravelers, in particular those travelling with children (Lehto et al.,2017). When planning trips, parents always place children as their topconsideration, driven by a desire to spend time together, experiencenew cultures, and inspire children's learning in a new way.Prior studies have delineated four dimensions for family travelmotivations, including family togetherness, novelty pursuits, relaxationand children's experiential learning (Fu, Lehto, & Park, 2014; Lehtoet al., 2017). Chinese parents, in particular, value the opportunities toignite children's curiosity and learning in a new wave of family travel(Fu et al., 2017; Lehto et al., 2017; Zhou, Shen, Wu, Wall, & Shen,2018). In a practice started under the long-standing, one-child policy,Chinese parents spend generously on their children's education underthe premise that the time and money they invest on such activities canindeed broaden their children's horizon. That being said, Chinese par-ents consider taking their children for a vacation to be a part of theireducation, and rationalize their travel decisions and engagement withan expectation of their children's experiential learning and educationalbenefits (Wu & Wall, 2016).Parents' strong motivations are considered to be drivers of engage-ment at tourist attractions. Visitors' level of engagement, gauged by thedegree of being involved with and committed to their travel experi-ences, reflects the initiative, devotion, and attachment to the tourismofferings (Taheri, Jafari, & O'Gorman, 2014). The construct of en-gagement encompasses two dimensions: experiential engagement thatincludes the enjoyment of feelings and behavioral involvement, andreflective engagement that describes tourists' cognitive and affectiveresponse to their experiences (Ballantyne et al., 2011; Kim, Chiang, &Tang, 2017). The self-system model of motivational development pos-tulates that engagement is driven by one's motivations, suggesting thatthe willingness to engage in a task reflects how the task can tap theunderlying human needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness(Connell & Wellborn, 1991). From the perspective of the motivation-opportunity-ability model, perceived benefits have been identified as aninternal driving force for participation, determining the direction andintensity of behaviors (Hung, Sirakaya-Turk, & Ingram, 2011; Jepson,Clarke, & Ragsdell, 2013).In the context of tourism, visitors' decisions and behaviors are lar-gely conditioned by their motivations to travel. Empirical evidence hasshown that motivated tourists are more deeply involved in activities ina destination/tourist site in both experiential and reflective ways (Kimet al., 2017; Taheri et al., 2014). In this respect, parents who envisionchildren's learning through travel are more motivated to encouragetheir children to immerse themselves at a WHS, and to ponder thehistory and culture thereafter. Hence, the following hypothesis is pro-posed:H1. Motivation for children's experiential learning is positively relatedto engagement at a WHS.3.2. Engagement and educational benefitsThe nexus between on-site engagement and educational benefits hasbeen well documented. Pine and Gilmore (1999) have introduced adiagram of four experience realms, in which educational outcomes arisefrom an individual's active participation and absorption of on-site ac-tivities and destination offerings. If children merely passively ap-preciate the appeals at a destination/attraction, they just enjoy being inthe environment with aesthetic or entertainment experiences. “To trulycreate an educational experience, a tourist must increase his knowledgeand/or skills through educational events that actively engage the mind… and/or the body” (Oh et al., 2007, p. 121). Children's on-site en-gagement and their cognitive/affective processing of the experiencepushes forth the deepening and broadening of knowledge, and gen-erates both short-term and long-term learning outcomes (Ballantyneet al., 2011). Therefore, the second hypothesis is proposed:H2. Engagement is positively related to educational benefits.3.3. The moderating effect of brand awarenessBrand awareness is conceptualized as the strength of a brand'spresence in consumers' mind, and it intensifies at three levels: re-cognition, recall, and top-of-mind (Aaker, 1996). Atop the hierarchy istop-of-mind awareness, referring to a brand coming to mind first whencustomers are asked to think of a particular category. Borrowed fromthe marketing literature, the concept of top-of-mind brand awareness isalso widely used in tourism and hospitality research (Boo, Busser, &Baloglu, 2009; Pike, Bianchi, Kerr, & Patti, 2010; Tsai, Cheung, & Lo,2010). In the context of heritage places, the world heritage designationis widely acknowledged as raising national and global awareness ofheritage sites. The brand name conveys prestige and unique testimonyto a culture and has thus been an exceptional lure for tourists (Buckley,2004). This is particularly true for Chinese tourists, who adore brandnames and must-see attractions; therefore, brand awareness of heritagesites is a decisive catalyst for this market segment (Li et al., 2008; Shenet al., 2009).The moderating effect of brand awareness has been documented inprevious studies (e.g., Algesheimer, Dholakia, & Herrmann, 2005;Lemmetyinen, Dimitrovski, Nieminen, & Pohjola, 2016; Sirgy, Lee,Johar, & Tidwell, 2008). The Associative Network Theory suggests thatsemantic information is stored in hierarchical networks of nodes andcan be triggered through a stimulus or associated connections(Anderson & Bower, 1979). Salience of a brand, therefore, reinforcesF.X. Yang, V.M.-C. Lau Tourism Management 72 (2019) 1–114
this association. A high level of brand awareness embodies priorknowledge and experience with the brand, suggesting that aware cus-tomers are more involved in the process of service or visitation(Algesheimer et al., 2005). In this respect, a heritage site with highbrand awareness, i.e., one that “stands out” in a tourist's cognitivethinking, results in increased engagement incidents for a motivatedvisitor. In contrast, when information on the site is new, the tourist maystill be in the process of learning or forming new links, and the asso-ciation between motivation and on-site engagement is thus attenuated.Likewise, a salient brand name of WHS is a retrieval cue when one isdigesting the on-site experience and thus facilitates experientiallearning. A less well-known heritage site, in comparison, may not beperceived to work well for children's learning and produce substantialeducational outcomes. Given this rationale, the following hypothesesare proposed:H3a. The effect of motivation for children's experiential learning onengagement is stronger when the brand awareness of the WHS is high.H3b. The effect of engagement on educational benefits is stronger whenthe brand awareness of the WHS is high.3.4. The joint moderating effect of awareness and generationDifferent generational cohorts manifest distinctive characteristics,determined by their proximities in critical life events, socio-economictrends, and lifestyles (Benckendorff, Moscardo, & Pendergast, 2010).Drawing on the lens of generational theory, it is suggested that in-dividuals of the same generation acquire shared experience in theirformative time and therefore gain collective memory that shapes theiroutlooks, behavior patterns, values and attitudes (Gardiner, King, &Grace, 2013). This is particularly true for Chinese Gen X and Y tourists,who have undergone major social transformations in different periodsof life (Cheng & Foley, 2018).This evident intergenerational discrepancy also determines how thepower of WHS brand awareness differs for Gen X and Y family tourists.First, the English-literacy of Gen Yers, the “new Chinese tourist”, makespossible more in-depth tours (Arlt, 2013). Compared with Gen Xers,Gen Y tourists are keener to engage in long-haul adventures and toexplore exotic locations and new areas, and they are more likely toappreciate the opportunity to be immersed in less well-known sites(Arlt, 2006; Pendergast, 2010). In addition, the young generation thathas grown up in a burgeoning society is characterized by their pro-nounced aspiration for both value and high quality (Yang & Lau, 2015).Although Chinese tourists in general favor famous attractions withhigh awareness (Truong & King, 2009), Gen Y tourists demonstrate anurge to connect globally and are eager to benefit from visiting nicheattractions that also have high values, rather than checking in at severalmust-see landmarks. This forges a better understanding of the im-portance of the WHS brand awareness for these two cohorts. Brandawareness is postulated to play a less important role for Generation Yparents such that the experiential learning also could be rewarding at alittle-known WHS. Therefore, the last two hypotheses are made:H4a. . The moderating effect of brand awareness on the motivation-engagement path is weaker for Generation Y parents.H4b. . The moderating effect of brand awareness on the engagement-educational benefits path is weaker for Generation Y parents.Based on this discussion, Fig. 1 outlines the conceptual model of therelationships among the research constructs.4. Methodology4.1. Sample and data collectionThe data were collected using a convenience sampling method atmajor WHSs in Macao such as the Ruins of St. Paul's, A-Ma Temple andMandarin's House. Mainland Chinese family travelers with childrenyounger than 18 were the population of interest in this study. FollowingLehto et al. (2017, p. 309), this study only sampled “nuclear families oftwo parents and one child” to match the census data. Prior to datacollection, student surveyors were trained on survey administration toenhance the efficiency and credibility. Family travelers were ap-proached by convenience sampling at WHSs on completion of theirvisit, and were invited to participate in the survey on a voluntary basis.Qualified respondents were identified through screening questions.They were informed about the confidentiality of the data provided, andhad to decide which parent would help to complete the questionnaire.The questionnaire was first pilot tested with 30 respondents to ensurethat the questions were correctly worded, relevant and easy to under-stand. Following the pilot test, the main survey was conducted. Finally,557 usable responses were collected, coded and analyzed, with a validresponse rate of 58%.4.2. Measures in the questionnaireThe survey instrument used in this study was developed using aback-to-back translation method by two bilingual researchers. Thequestionnaire with five sections then was finalized.Motivation for children's experiential learning. The first sectionadopted a three-item scale from Lehto et al. (2017) to measure parents'motivations for children's experiential learning. A sample question was“We visit the heritage site to let children learn about culture, history,and people”.Brand awareness of WHS. The second section measured re-spondents’ awareness of the heritage site they were visiting, using afour-item brand awareness scale modified from Boo et al. (2009). Asample question was “[Name of the WHS] is very famous”.Engagement. The third section sought to measure respondents’engagement, using five items to measure experiential engagement andfour items for reflective engagement, respectively (Ballantyne et al.,2011). A sample question of experiential engagement was “We felt asense of wonder”, and a sample question of reflective engagement was“We found ourselves reflecting on new ideas about history”.Children's educational benefits. The fourth section assessed par-ents' perceived educational benefits for their children. As the learningoutcomes in Ballantyne et al. (2011) were quite context-specific, sixitems were adopted and modified from Oh et al. (2007). A samplequestion was “The experience has made my child more knowledge-able”.All scale items above were measured using a 7-point Likert scale,ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 7= strongly agree. Finally, thelast section obtained demographic profiles of the respondents.Frequency of family visits to Macao, gender and age of the child, andeducational levels of the parents were controlled to rule out impacts onthe dependent variables.Among the respondents, 31.9% were fathers and 68.1% were mo-thers. Regarding their educational levels, 68.8% of the mothers and66.8% of the fathers had a bachelor's degree or higher. About 48.4% oftheir children were boys and 51.6% were girls, with an average age of8.5 years old. The respondents reported an average of four family tripsper year, among which 30.2% were oversea trips. Their householdmonthly income varied, with approximately one half of the sample(55.0%) earning more than RMB 12,000.The sample comprised four age groups: a) both parents were GenXers (38.8%), b) both parents were Gen Yers (52.7%), c) the father wasGen X and the mother was Gen Y (8.1%), and d) the mother was Gen Xand the father was Gen Y (0.4%). Due to the small proportion of re-spondents in the last two groups, we excluded them from the analysis.Only the first two types were retained and compared, denoted as Gen Xand Gen Y groups, respectively.F.X. Yang, V.M.-C. Lau Tourism Management 72 (2019) 1–115
4.3. A cross-validation studyTo cross-validate results in the first survey, another online surveywas conducted six months later through a professional marketing firmin mainland China. Cross-validation is widely adopted to further assesswhether the statistical results can be generalized to an independentdata set. Random invitations were sent to users in the company's da-tabase. Target population of this survey was also defined as nuclearmainland Chinese families of two parents and a child younger than 18.An additional filter question was asked to identify respondents whohave traveled with their child at a WHS within the past 6 months. Therespondents first indicated the destination and the name of WHS theyhad traveled with their children last time; invalid responses with non-WHS attractions indicated in the survey were excluded. Quality assur-ance practices were implemented in the online survey, including arandom order of the measurement items, the removal of responsescompleted within 3min, and the removal of those with 80% or more ofthe same response score. Finally, a total of 389 valid responses werecollected and analyzed. The cross-validation test further supported thefindings obtained in the first survey by providing substantial results in adifferent context. Details were provided in the appendix.5. Results5.1. Confirmatory factor analysisThe study first conducted a confirmatory factor analysis with all theconstructs of interest in AMOS 24.0 (Table 1). The fit indices indicated agood model fit (χ2/df= 2.53, CFI= 0.98, GFI= 0.93, AGFI= 0.90,NNFI= 0.97, RMSEA=0.05, SRMR=0.03). The loadings on eachconstruct were significant, ranging from 0.68 to 0.96. Cronbach's alphavalues for the scales ranged from 0.90 to 0.95, assuring internal relia-bility. In addition, the composite reliability (CR) values ranged from0.90 to 0.96, exceeding the 0.70 threshold. The average variance ex-tracted (AVE) values ranged from 0.70 to .87, all of which exceeded0.50. The results indicated acceptable levels of internal consistencyreliability and convergent validity.As shown in Table 2, square root of the AVE values exceeded thecorrelations between a construct and other constructs, thus ensuringdiscriminant validity. In addition, the assumption of normality wasexamined by calculating skewness and kurtosis. The absolute values ofskewness and kurtosis were all lower than 2 and 10, respectively, sa-tisfying requirements in Kline (2011).Table 2 also presented the descriptive statistics and inter-factorcorrelations of the focal variables. The results indicated a strong mo-tivation for children's experiential learning (M=5.15, SD=1.08),adequate awareness of the WHSs (M=4.98, SD=0.99), and a highlevel of engagement (M=4.44, SD=1.17) and educational benefits(M=4.64, SD=1.16) at WHSs. The significant intra-factor correla-tions also provided preliminary support for Hypotheses 1 and 2.5.2. Results of hypotheses testingHierarchical moderated regression has been widely adopted to testinteraction hypotheses (Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2014). Despite someimperfections of this method such as potential multicollinearity issues,inflated standard errors, and uninterpretable estimates (Lance, 1988), itis still one of the most frequently used techniques to empirically ex-amine the moderating and joint moderating effects of focal variables.In the current study, four regression models were established forengagement and educational benefits, respectively. Model 1 controlledfor frequency of family visits to Macao, child's gender and age, and theparents' educational levels. All three predictors were added to Model 2.Model 3 examined the moderating effect by adding three two-way in-teractions. Finally, Model 4 tested the joint moderating effect by addingthe three-way interactions. The predictors were centered to reducemulticollinearity (Aiken & West, 1991).Engagement as the dependent variable. Model 2 was used to testthe main effects. The result indicates that motivation for children'sexperiential learning exerts a significantly positive impact on engage-ment (β=0.30, p < .001), supporting H1. Model 3 added two-wayinteractions into the model. The results show that the interaction ofmotivation and awareness on engagement is significant (β=0.10,p < .05), supporting H3a. That is, the motivation-engagement re-lationship is stronger with a high awareness of the WHS. Finally, Model4 tested H4a, which posits that the moderating effect of awareness onengagement is weaker for Generation Y families. The results show thatthe three-way interaction is negatively significant (β=−0.60,Fig. 1. Conceptual framework.F.X. Yang, V.M.-C. Lau Tourism Management 72 (2019) 1–116
p < .001), supporting this hypothesis. In addition, the R square valuesof Model 2, 3 and 4 were 0.55, 0.58 and 0.64, respectively. The changein R square values were 0.53, 0.03 and 0.06, all significant at p < .001.Table 3 presents the results.Educational benefits as the dependent variable. Results in Model2 shows that engagement has a significantly positive impact on edu-cational benefits (β=0.61, p < .001), supporting H2. In Model 3 theinteraction of engagement and awareness on educational benefits issignificant (β=0.18, p < .001), supporting H3b. This implies thatchildren's experiential learning is more effective with a high awarenessof the WHS. Finally, Model 4 supports H4b, as the three-way interactionis negatively significant (β=−0.18, p < .001). The result shows thatthe moderating effect of WHS awareness is less salient for Gen Y familytravelers. In addition, the R square values of Model 2, 3 and 4 were0.49, 0.51 and 0.53, respectively. The change in R square values were0.45, 0.02 and 0.02, all significant at p < .001. Table 4 shows theresults.6. Conclusion and discussions6.1. ConclusionThe significance of children to a family has made children's ex-periential learning one of the most critical motives for family travel.The main objective of this study is to investigate the influence of mo-tivation for children's experiential learning on engagement at WHSs,and the subsequent influence of engagement on children's educationalbenefits. In addition, it also examines if WHS brand awareness matters,and if a moderating effect differs in Gen X and Y cohorts. This studymakes several important contributions. First, it bridges gaps in previousresearch that is seldom dedicated to empirically investigating whetherfamily travel benefits children, providing empirical evidence of edu-cational benefits generated through on-site experiential learning.Second, it enriches studies on WHSs and accentuates the moderatingrole of brand awareness. Third, it advances tourism literature on gen-erational differences by pointing out disparities of family travelers indifferent generational cohorts. The results suggest many nuances inthese areas remaining to be explored.6.2. Theoretical implicationsExperiential learning at WHS locations. Children's experientiallearning has been noted for its nonnegligible influence as a main driverfor family travel (Bos, McCabe, & Johnson, 2015). However, previousstudies seldom test the antecedents and consequences of experientiallearning in family travel, and empirical evidence of children's educa-tional benefits remains limited. In addition, as summarized by Stoneand Petrick (2013), studies on educational benefits of travel pre-dominantly center on youth and student travel, while the role of parentshas been under-researched. The current research advances the litera-ture on family travel by filling this void. In a context of world heritage,Table 1Scale items and validation.Scale items Standardized loadings α CR AVEMotivation for children's experiential learning .95 .95 .87We visit the heritage site to broaden children's horizon. .94We visit the heritage site to extend children's knowledge. .95We visit the heritage site to let children learn about culture, history, and people. .91Experiential engagement .95 .94 .77The experience was engaging. .89It was exciting to see this heritage site. .91We were able to get a good view of this heritage site. .88There was plenty of activity to see. .86We felt a sense of wonder. .84Reflective engagement .91 .93 .76We felt an emotional connection with this heritage site we saw .93We found ourselves reflecting on new ideas about history .92I discussed new information with my companions .92Something we saw made us feel sad about historical problems .68Brand awareness of WHS .91 .90 .70[Name of the WHS] has a good name and reputation. .82[Name of the WHS] is very famous. .80The characteristics of [name of the WHS] come to my mind quickly. .88When I think about heritage site in Macao, [name of the WHS] comes to my mind immediately. .85Children's educational benefits .91 .96 .81The experience has made my child more knowledgeable. .90My child learned a lot. .93It stimulated my child's curiosity to learn new things. .86It was a real learning experience. .93The experience was highly educational to my child. .90The experience really enhanced my child's skills. .86Engagement (second-order) .86 .90 .82Experiential engagement .96Reflective engagement .85Note: χ2/df= 2.53, CFI= 0.98, GFI= 0.93, AGFI= 0.90, NNFI=0.97, RMSEA=0.05, SRMR=0.03, α=Cronbach's alpha, CR= composite reliability,AVE=average variance extracted.Table 2Descriptive statistics and inter-factor correlations.Mean SD Skewness/Kurtosis1 2 3 41. Motivation 5.15 1.08 −1.22/0.85 0.932. Engagement 4.44 1.17 −0.84/0.57 0.62 0.903. Educationbenefits4.64 1.16 −0.65/0.10 0.65 0.68 0.904. Awareness 4.98 0.99 −0.69/-0.33 0.58 0.70 0.49 0.84Note: Diagonal elements are the squared root of AVE for each construct.Inter-factor correlations are all significant at p < .001.Motivation, engagement, educational benefits and awareness are measuredusing a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 7.F.X. Yang, V.M.-C. Lau Tourism Management 72 (2019) 1–117
this study is the first to empirically examine perceived children's edu-cational benefits in family travel, revealing that parents' earnest ex-pectations could urge devotion and attachment to the WHS locationsvisited, and further yield substantial educational outcomes. Thecheering findings no doubt add value to research in this realm.Educational benefits for children are derived from deep engagementat the heritage sites, not only through appreciation of the landscape,architecture and cultural relics, but also in a reflective manner thatinvolves the feeling of emotional connections, understanding thebooming civilization, and reflecting on the past and present. This way,the children acquire knowledge about the history, people and society,and learn an illuminating lesson about finding themselves and growingup as well. The findings also highlight the “absorption” dimension inLehto et al. (2017), and underscore the need for in-depth tours at WHSlocations, rather than only casting a passing glance. The burgeoningfamily tours among Chinese consumers laid the foundation for parentsand their children to capitalize on visits to WHSs by spending qualitytime together.To some extent, learning from family travel could have more long-term significance than other forms of travel, with parents being thosewho accompany and have the greatest influence on children in theirgrowth. On one hand, this learning could be longitudinal and step bystep; on the other, the whole family could benefit from bonding andtogetherness, a further understanding of cultural connotations, andrestoration (Zhou et al., 2018).Awareness of WHS. Another main contribution of this study is thatTable 3Results of hierarchical moderated regression analyses: engagement as the dependent variable.Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4ControlsFrequency of visits 0.10* 0.07* 0.06 0.01Gender of child 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.02Age of child 0.09* 0.09* 0.09* 0.06*Mother's educational level −0.04 −0.03 −0.02 −0.05Father's educational level 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.05Main effectsMotivation 0.30*** 0.37*** 0.29***Awareness 0.50*** 0.53*** 0.48***Generation −0.07* −0.05 0.03Two-way interactionsMotivation×Awareness 0.10* 0.57***Motivation×Generation −0.04 −0.06Awareness×Generation −0.09* −0.03Three-way interactionsMotivation×Awareness×Generation −0.60***R2 0.02 0.55 0.58 0.64ΔR2 0.02 0.53*** 0.03*** 0.06***Note: *p < .05; ***p < .001.Frequency of visits and age of child are ratio scale variables.Gender: 0=Male; 1= Female.Generation: 0=Generation X; 1=Generation Y.Educational level: 1= primary school or below; 2= secondary school; 3= bachelor; 4=master; 5= doctoral.Coefficients are standardized.Table 4Results of hierarchical moderated regression analyses: educational benefits as the dependent variable.Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4ControlsFrequency of visits 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.01Gender of child 0.16** 0.12** 0.11** 0.10**Age of child 0.05 −0.03 −0.03 −0.01Mother's educational level −0.07 −0.02 −0.01 −0.01Father's educational level −0.06 −0.08 −0.11* −0.10*Main effectsEngagement 0.61*** 0.67*** 0.65***Awareness 0.07 0.10* 0.07Generation −0.07* −0.08* −0.01Two-way interactionsEngagement×Awareness 0.18*** 0.26***Engagement×Generation 0.11* 0.10*Awareness×Generation −0.01 −0.01Three-way interactionsEngagement×Awareness×Generation −0.18***R2 0.04 0.49 0.51 0.53ΔR2 0.04** 0.45*** 0.02*** 0.02***Note: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.Frequency of visits and age of child are ratio scale variables.Gender: 0=Male; 1= Female.Generation: 0=Generation X; 1=Generation Y.Educational level: 1= primary school or below; 2= secondary school; 3= bachelor; 4=master; 5= doctoral.Coefficients are standardized.F.X. Yang, V.M.-C. Lau Tourism Management 72 (2019) 1–118
it well extends beyond the literature on WHSs, and takes a different tackto further the understanding of WHSs and their brand names. Twoprominent and countervailing discourses have emerged in the literatureand debate continues about the impact of WHS on tourism. One streampostulates that the inscribed title of WHS attracts visitors and induces astrong brand equity/superior experiences (Buckley, 2004; Dewar et al.,2012; Schänzel et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2010). The other stream,however, affirms that the WHS designation does not induce touristarrivals (Dewar et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2012).One of the findings is the corroboration of WHS brand effects amongChinese family travelers who crave nurturing their offspring. Suchfindings, not only confirm the importance of the WHS designation as abranding tool, but also respond to the call to understand the benefitssought by Chinese parents for their children during family trips (Lehtoet al., 2017).First, the findings indicate that the awareness of different WHS lo-cations, while all included in the UNESCO world heritage list, exerts asalient moderating effect in family travel such that children's experi-ential learning is more effective with a high awareness of the WHS. Thisimplies that not only the WHS designation, but also how well a site isknown and understood, matters. Second, the results also encouragemore studies to scrutinize the WHS effect in different tourist segments.Although the literature mostly examines WHS-related impacts amongall tourists, this study shows that brand awareness has a strong impactamong the family as the unit of analysis, who are driven by strongeducational benefit pursuits.Finally, the results echo major findings on Chinese consumers'preference for recognized brands. For customers who are new to amarket, best-known brands are their safety-first options to avoid po-tential risks (Heilman, Bowman, & Wright, 2000). This is particularlytrue for China, an emerging giant and fast-growing market for tourismconsumption that prefers travelling on well-established itineraries. Inaddition, Chinese consumers' favor for best-known brands escalateswith their value consciousness (Zhan & He, 2012), partially supportingthe rationale of visiting the most famous landmarks with limited timeavailable, which is believed to be the most effective for children's on-site learning experiences.Generational disparities in China. This research also makes no-teworthy contributions to existing knowledge of generational analysis.Studies on generational differences in tourism still remain sporadic andfragmented. In particular, little has been done to scrutinize the nuancesamong parents in different generational cohorts during family travel.The results elucidate that the moderating effect of brand awareness isfar less salient for Chinese Gen Y tourists. Characterized by their higherattainment of education, newfound excitement for consumerism andoptimism, the younger subsets of parents are taking a more nuancedview of brands, prioritizing values rather than merely brand names. Astravelers, they are more sophisticated than their parents’ generations,displaying more willingness to embrace adventures and visit new areasand less well-known attractions that are also rich in historical heritage(Arlt, 2006; Sparks & Pan, 2009).When it comes to the defining traits of their educational philosophy,the way that Gen Yers assess children's experiential learning in familytravel is a manifestation of their own values and beliefs. The extent towhich brand awareness matters is far lower for Gen Y parents, in-dicating demands for more value-centric tourism offerings. Unlike GenX, the cohort that is firmly attached to traditional routines, Gen Y isemerging as a strong engine of tourism consumption, and new desti-nation marketing approach is needed to cater to this new wave.6.3. Managerial implicationsThe study offers a comprehensive understanding on education mo-tivations and benefits of Chinese family travelers in their visitation ofWHS locations. The means for all focal variables in our study (moti-vation for children's experiential learning, engagement, educationalbenefits and awareness of WHS) are all above the scale midpoint of 4,showing great potential to explore the educational travel market forChinese family travelers. The Chinese family bonding and education-centricity rooted from thousands of years of Confucius philosophyshould not be underrated. It is noted that the branding of WHSs isparticularly appealing to Chinese families as a meaningful educationaloccasion, hence tourism operators should capitalize on such accred-itation and tailor promotions to this lucrative market.WHS locations should allocate more resources in promotion cam-paigns targeting family travelers, and enhance children-friendly facil-ities augmented with technologies to create an immersive learningenvironment. WHS destinations could be presented as avenues oflearning for children that create transformative family learning ex-periences through interactivity with the environment, technology andparents. Sound and light shows, augmented reality, QR codes, capaci-tive touch devices among other technologies are popular means forvisitors and their children to explore and interact with the WHS, whichstimulates spontaneous learning at the same time.In addition, Chinese families generally are regarded as high-achie-vers who possess positive attitudes toward exams and quizzes, whichare viewed as a way to ascertain one's own ability and that of theirchildren. They also favor materialistic substance to make tangible theirexperience which also serves as a token of memory and accomplish-ment (Leung, 2008). In this regard, tourism authorities could considerorganizing more educational sessions emphasizing fun facts regardingthe cultural and history aspects of the sites. Simple games, puzzles andquizzes for both parents and children would be appropriate, and smallsouvenir and/or certification would be appreciated to symbolize theirexperience at the WHS.According to the study, engagement in the heritage sites derivedfrom families' motivations and awareness plays a key role in de-termining the ultimate perceived educational benefits. It therefore iscrucial for destination marketers to cater to unique educational ex-periences and enhance family travelers’ involvement in the WHS bothbefore and after their trip. For example, when tourists are more in-volved in understanding and participating in WHS activities, they aremore prone to show interest in learning and to feel emotional con-nected. Through social media, heritage sites operators could design andpromote family activities highlighting interactivity and knowledgetransfer, such as role-play, little curators, and workshops. In this way,families would be more involved with the WHS even before they em-bark on the journey, and the relationship will linger after their trip withfollow-up emails and updates on the WHS.The study also indicates generational differences in the role of WHSbrand awareness on the experiential learning during family trips. Thisresult supports the conclusions of Poria et al. (2011) that WHS desig-nation is not the panacea for all; the related brand equity effects appliesmore effectively to the targeted group that has high involvement in thecultural meaning of the WHS. Based on the research findings, brandawareness of WHSs are not as influential in the experiential learningprocess for Gen Y compared to that of older Chinese parents. That is tosay, Gen Yers treasure more the experience provided by the heritagesite more than the frame alone.For this segment of family travelers, site operators could develophands-on programs to enable them to freely immerse in the site ex-ploration at their own pace without restrictions. One-on-one interac-tions and activities with locals and WHS narrators also could enhancetheir involvements and interest at the site. Thematic program offeringssuch as movies, art, and music revolving around aspects of the WHS areparticularly appealing to Gen Y family travelers and could pull them tothe site for a unique experience. Understanding the brand effects ofWHSs and the appeal to different travelers may encourage heritage sitemanagers to further investigate the needs of family travelers and designdifferent experiences in accordance with the travelers’ desires.F.X. Yang, V.M.-C. Lau Tourism Management 72 (2019) 1–119
6.4. Limitations and future researchThere are also limitations that suggest directions for future work.Firstly, the main sample was conveniently derived from Macao, a des-tination where local cultures and tourism offerings largely differ fromother countries. The impact of cultural distance could be minimal whenmainland Chinese visit this destination, and more investigations inother countries and cross-culture studies could be conducted for a morerobust result. Secondly, the results of this study, focusing on theChinese family travelers who exhibit unique educational and travelcharacteristics, might not be readily generalized to family travelers inother markets. Thirdly, this study adopted a measure of perceivededucational benefits to assess the learning outcomes through WHSvisitation. Future research could cross-validate the results by con-ducting a longitudinal study that associates the on-site evaluation andchildren's long-term academic performance. 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