半年刊 2007年6月創刊第十二卷 第二期 2018年12月出版JOURNAL OF MACAU UNIVERSITYOF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYSemiannual, Started in June 2007Vol.12 No.2 December 2018定價: 20元澳門幣(人民幣/港幣)ISSN 1994-4926二 一八年 第十二卷 第二期JOURNAL OF MACAU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYVol.12 No.2 December 2018半年刊Semiannual Vol.12澳門基金會資助出版
編輯委員會Editorial Board編委會主席:劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編 :許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編委:劉良、許敖敖、祈務晨、余秋雨、張志慶、姜志宏、方泉、林偉基、戴龍基、黎曉平、唐澤聖、陳乃九、龐川、孫立雲、孫建榮Editorial Board Members:Liu Liang, Xu Ao Ao,Keith Robert Barclay Morrison, Yu Qiu Yu, Zhang Zhi Qing, Jiang Zhi Hong, Fang Quan, Lam Wai Kei, Dai Long Ji, Li Xiao Ping, Tang Ze Sheng, Chan Lai Kow, Pang Chuan, Sun Li Yun, Sun Jian Rong澳門科技大學學報Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology主辦單位: 澳門科技大學Organizer: Macau University of Science and Technology編委會主席: 劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編: 許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編輯: 《澳門科技大學學報》編輯部Editor: The Editorial Department, Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話: +853-8897-2173 Tel: +853-8897-2173 ● 傳真:+853-2888-0022 Fax: +853-2888-0022 ● 電郵:publication@must.edu.mo E-mail: publication@must.edu.mo ● 地址: 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau出版及總發行:澳門科技大學Publisher & Distribution: Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話:+853-8897-2166 Tel: +853-8897-2166 ● 電郵:cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo E-mail: cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo ● 地址: 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau 封面及版式設計:高鴻 王港Graphic & Layout Designers: Gao Hong, Wang Gang印刷: 400本Print Run: 400出版日期:2018年12月Issued Date: December 2018國際標準期刊號:ISSN: 1994-4926規格: 21cm×29.7cmSize: 21cm width by 29.7cm height版權所有,翻印必究All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher.
ContentsHumanities and ArtsTouching OASIS: The Embodied Experience in the Film of Ready Player One ………………Yaqing LI (1)An Analysis of Internet Dominance ………………………………………………………… Jiali KANG (7)A Study of the Factors Affecting Selfie Posting in Social Media …………………………………………………………………… Di WANG, Xiaofengling ZHU (17)Management and TourismMeasuring the Role of Entrepreneurship in China's Economic Growth, 1978-2008 …………………………………………………………………… Shiyong ZHAO, Wenbo SONG (25)Empirical Analysis of Life Quality of College Students in Macau: Evidence from MUST …………………………………………………… Yongdong SHI, Wenchi ZOU, Xiaohong PU (38)An Analysis of Two-Sided Jump and Time-Varying Diffusion of SSCI ………………………………………………………………………… Wei YUE, Jihong KONG (46)Three-Way Interactions of Emotional Intelligence, Inclusive Leadership, and Power Distance Orientation on Two-Dimensional Employee Voice ………………………………… Xiang CHEN (60)Application Value of BIM in Whole Life Cycle Management of Construction Project …………………………………………………………………… Yansheng CHEN, Zhijun LIN1 (75)Inclusive Leadership: Review and Direction for Future Research …………………………………………………… Yanni ZHU, Fang HONG, Chieh Yun YANG (89)A Model Based on Hidden Markov Chain and Convolution Neural Networks for Predicting the Order Spread Prices of Futures …………………………………………Li SUN, Ligang ZHOU (96)The Impact of FDI on Economic Growth: An Empirical Analysis Based on Developing Countries …………………………………………………………………………………… Xiaolei TANG (103)
1第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 體觸“綠洲”:電影《挑戰者1號》的具身體驗李亞青*(澳門科技大學國際學院,澳門)摘要: 2018年春季上映的美國科幻驚險電影《挑戰者1號》在全球範圍內獲得空前成功,卷起“遊戲電影+VR科技"的一股旋風,影片呈現了現實世界和虛擬世界完美轉換的未來場景,喚起觀影者對體感科技的無限想像和嚮往。本文從電影現象學理論具身感概念著眼,分析《挑戰者1號》電影文本的具身性;探討受眾的具身感;強調通過臨在感和交互感,觀眾的身體感觸和體感記憶被打開,從而獲得具身體驗;思考具身影像的未來並提出體感科技在營造具身體驗的過程中對於具身體驗者的身體及意識可能產生負面影響的擔憂。關鍵詞: 具身體驗;具身影像;臨在感;交互感Touching OASIS: The Embodied Experience in the Film of Ready Player OneYaqing LI*( Macau Academy of Cinematic Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstract: Ready Player One is an American science fiction adventure film released in the spring of 2018. It achieved unprecedented success worldwide and was noted to set off a wave of “game film plus VR tech”, through demonstrating a perfect future scenario between the real world and the virtual world, and evoking infinite imagination and yearning of the film spectators for haptic technology. Based on contemporary phenomenological film theory about embodiment, this paper analyses the film text of Ready Player One, discusses the embodied experience of the film-viewers, and explores how the film activates the viewers’ embodied reception and experience in the film-viewing process by building strong senses of presence and interactivity. It also looks into the future of embodied images and presents concern on the adverse effect of haptic tech on the mind and body of embodied receivers in the process of producing the embodied experience.eeyords: The embodied experience; Embodied images; Presence; Interactivity收稿日期:2018-07-17;修訂日期:2018-10-31。*通訊作者:李亞青,女,在讀博士,澳門科技大學國際學院講師。主要研究方向:電影學。E-mail:yqli@must.edu.mo Tel:00853-889721450 引言由美國華納公司出品,斯蒂文 · 斯皮爾伯格執導的科幻冒險片《挑戰者 1 號》於 2018 年 3 月 30日在中國大陸上映,內地總票房 13.96 億人民幣,全球票房累計達到 6 億美元,在全球範圍內引發巨大的觀影熱潮和好評。除了高潮迭起的劇情,讓人應接不暇的 80 年代美國及日本電影、遊戲、動畫、音樂等流行文化斯丁格(彩蛋)大大提升了觀影趣味,最令全球 ACG(動畫、漫畫、遊戲)迷們為之歡呼雀躍的是貫穿全片的“遊戲 +VR(虛擬實境)科技”的完美結合。片中高度成熟的各類 VR 具身裝置,如體感手套、X1 體感套裝等,帶給遊戲玩家超強具身體驗,幫助他們實現現實與虛擬世界的快速連接。
2《挑戰者 1 號》電影上映後,片方和其 VR合作公司 HTCVive 一起推出了八款與電影相關的VR 體驗產品:Battle for the OASIS, Avatar Creator, Rise of the Gunters 等。如果使用者已經擁有 Vive設備就可以從 Viveport 應用商店下載到這八款遊戲。這些遊戲和男主在電影裡玩“綠洲”時的體驗極為相似,玩家可以根據個人的身材、臉型、五官等定制自己的專屬角色並分享到社交主頁上。電影之外,微軟 VR 研究團隊公開了 4 個最新 VR研究成果:CLAW(觸感臂)、Haptic Wheel(觸感輪)、Haptic Links(觸感鏈)、Canetroller(觸感仗),能幫助用戶“觸摸”甚至“抓住”虛擬場景中的物體,感受指尖在物體表面的滑動,盡情享虛擬世界的奇妙。無論是《挑戰者 1 號》中構建的配備好 VR裝置就能瞬間抵達的虛擬世界“綠洲”,還是HTCVive 推出的與該電影相關的 VR 體驗遊戲亦或微軟研發的 VR“觸感”系列研究成果,具身感、體觸感或身體感都是實現連接現實與虛擬世界的關鍵。而具身感這一概念也是九十年代以來電影現象學理論電影“觸感學派”頗為關注並且持續探討的熱點。1 電影具身感電影現象學理論認為,影像與觀影主體之間相互作用,身體在影院空間中發揮著引發觀影者體感觸動的功能,這裡的身體不僅是肉身,更是作為一種具有感知力和主觀意識的介質。法國現象學派哲學家莫里斯 · 梅洛-龐蒂在他的專著《知覺現象學》中提出“身體性”[1]這個概念,並指出身體不單是一個客觀物體,對知覺的分析必須同時考慮意識與身體的內在關係。“身體是內在意識世界和外在客體世界之間的介質……身體同時是主體也是客體”[1],他強調了身體感知在知覺系統中的主觀性和動態性。梅洛-龐蒂有關身體性的概念啟發了一些後來的電影現象學理論學者,如衛威恩 · 索布切克、蘿拉 · 馬克思和派特麗夏 ·品斯特等,她們均對電影具身感這一理論概念進行了深入思考,從不同維度完善且豐富了這一概念。衛威恩 · 索布切克在其九十年代初發表的論文《眼目所及:電影經驗現象學》[2](The Address of the Eye: A Phenomenology of Film Experience)中指出電影本身所具有的主體性和觀影人群的主體性二者之間互為主體,正是這種“互主體性”[3] 構成了理解和解讀電影的過程,觸發了觀影人群在觀影過程中的身體感觸即具身感,從而實現觀影主體精神的昇華及思維的飛躍。世紀之初,索布切克又在其著作《肉身思想:身體化和活動影 像 文 化 》[2](Carnal Thoughts: Embodiment and Moving Image Culture)一書中 , 繼續陳述了她對於電影——身體——觀者三者之間密切聯繫的電影體感論。她堅持身體在影像文化中發揮著重要作用,身體不僅僅是可視的物體,而且是能夠建構意義的視覺主體。“我們不僅僅是通過眼睛來觀看電影,更是通過整個身體來觀看,理解和感覺電影”[4]。觀者通過身體感受與電影交互,從而產生觀影體驗。在這一意義上,身體既是客觀主體又是主觀客體,是感性、感官與感知三者物化的結合。蘿拉 · 馬克思是另一位闡述電影體感的學者,她與索布切克一樣關注觀者的感知模式與移動影像的感知性能之間的關係。在其專著《電影皮膚:跨文化電影、身體性和感覺機制》[2](The Skin of the Film: Intercultural Cinema, Embodiment, and the Senses)中,她運用了近兩百部跨文化電影及視頻來證實影像如何使觀影者獲得身體上的、多感官的文化具身感。她提出“觸感視覺”[5]概念,即一種引發身體嗅覺、觸覺和味覺記憶的可觸視覺功能。“視覺是可觸的,就像是用眼睛觸摸電影”[5]。她的論斷“銀幕即皮膚”[5]不僅僅是一個隱喻,也是一種視覺影像。銀幕是一系列傳播過程中的一個階段,在這一階段電影遇上觀眾,觸動觀眾的身體,如同其他身體接觸一樣,對觀眾產生主觀影響,於是觸感影像促成喚醒體感記憶的體感反應。當移動影像展示在銀幕上時,銀幕和影像
3李亞青 體觸“綠洲”:電影《挑戰者1號》的具身體驗是重疊的,然而,觀眾對於銀幕和影像的反應卻是偏離的。當同一影像借助於不同的平臺播放,例如電視、手機、視頻網站等和它在銀幕上播放,觀眾的反應就截然不同。當這種偏離出現的時候,新的體感經驗才有可能生成,而舊的體感經驗也隨之式微。有鑑於此,電影在物質流通過程中會發生變化,但它從觀眾那裡獲取的含義永遠要大於電影自身所傳遞的資訊。主要研究大腦科學與神經影像的荷蘭學者派特麗夏 · 品斯特在其著作《神經—影像:數字銀幕文化的德勒茲電影哲學》[2](The Neuro-Image: Deleuzian Film-philosophy of Digital Screen Culture)中通過大量分析影片進而提出“神經影像”[6]一詞,成為與德勒茲“運動影像”[7]、“時間影像”[8]並列的第三類影像。在總結前人認知電影理論以及鏡像神經元理論的基礎上,運用德勒茲的精神分裂分析法,品斯特將神經影像的功能從三個方面展開:虛幻的力量、感知的力量和癲狂的力量[6]。“影像的感觸力打開了電影語言外的近身的感覺官能(如觸感、味覺、嗅覺、動作感、自發性神經系統等)[9]。”從身體感知電影到電影與觀眾的互為主體性,從觸感視覺到電影皮膚,從觸感影像到神經影像,身體感觸即具身感都是貫穿于電影和觀眾之間關係的關鍵字。這不單是對銀幕與影像、銀幕與觀眾、影像與觀眾之間三維關係的深度思考,同時刷新了電影現象學派對於具身感研究的認知,更打開了電影理論研究新的視域,為資訊時代蓬勃發展的高概念電影,如 3D/4D/5D 電影、高幀率電影、VR 電影和 AR 電影等提供了極具價值的理論依據。2 《挑戰者1號》文本的具身性電影《挑戰者 1 號》的時空背景設置在未來世界的 2045 年,現實世界破敗,人們迷戀在一款VR 遊戲“綠洲(OASIS)”的虛幻世界裡,以此尋求精神慰藉。主人公韋德也是這樣一個在現實生活中一事無成,整日沉迷“綠洲”的普通大男孩。但是憑藉其驚人的遊戲天賦和對“綠洲”遊戲設計者意圖的精准理解,歷經磨難後最終找到隱藏在關卡裡的三把鑰匙,成功通關遊戲,並在這一過程中收穫友情與愛情。影片中 VR 科技與現實世界的完美融合是近幾十年來 VR 研究人員希冀看到的景象,如何讓身體成功進入虛擬實境並擁有如同在現實世界裡的真實感知,即虛擬性具身感,是一個無比複雜的過程,它涉及到虛擬呈現、虛擬化身、虛擬觸感及其他視覺、聽覺感官線索來幫助打造身體進入虛擬空間的具身體驗。而這種“具身化體驗” [10] 在影片《挑戰者 1 號》中首先是通過電影文本的具身性得以體現。基於索布切克的電影體感論,電影——身體——觀者三者之間聯繫緊密,電影本身所具有的主體性和觀影者的主體性互相作用,通過身體這一介質觸發觀影者的身體感觸。電影若要更好地與觀眾共鳴,觸發其體感經驗,那麼作為電影主體的電影文本應該要貼合觀影者的興趣及口味,滿足其情感需求,營造豐富的具身體驗。這部豆瓣高達 8.7 分 IMDb7.6 分的集科幻、遊戲、動漫、二次元等元素於一身的電影,集合了眾多七八十年代廣為熟悉的遊戲、音樂、電影、動漫、服裝等多種流行文化元素與符號,而每一個曾經風靡的流行文化符號就是一個代表兒時回憶的具身性文本,無時無刻地喚起一代人的記憶以及共情。這類文本從頭到尾貫穿劇情發展的全過程,使得整部影片堪稱一部具身性文本大集合。例如電影的英文片名 Ready Player One,來自早期街機遊戲(如“街頭霸王”等)螢幕上的開始介面玩家選項,“ready player one”指“一位玩家”或“單人玩家”,如果是雙人組隊就叫“ready player two”,因此影片片名實際上既是一個流行文化彩蛋,也是一個引發集體記憶的具身性文本。再如其他眾多小細節:賽車時選手的座駕包括蝙蝠俠的車、《瘋狂的麥克斯》裡的 V8 攔截者、《天龍特攻隊》裡的 GMC 麵包車、《克裡斯汀魅力》裡的普利茅斯復仇女神、《員警雙雄》裡的老爺車、《馬赫 5 號》的馬赫 5 號、《頂尖賽手》裡
6作品不論以哪種形式來呈現,其主題都是一以貫之地具有普世價值和人類共同情感。《挑戰者 1號》運用大量七八十年代流行文化符號,喚醒人們的共同記憶,抒發導演關乎愛、理解、從心、堅持等主題。而這些細節與理念又恰好呼應了影片的劇情發展,對增強觀影者的具身體驗功不可沒。綜上所述,電影《挑戰者 1 號》中呈現的虛擬化具身影像積極作用顯而易見,但其負面影響也不難發現。首先,隨著 VR 頭顯日益普及,體驗越來越交互和沉浸,社交隔離難以避免。就像電影中的韋德在現實生活裡不善言辭、羞澀膽怯、形單影隻,在綠洲世界裡卻是氣宇軒昂、呼朋喚友、無所不能的帕西法爾,但是虛擬世界裡的英雄並不能馳騁于現實的存在。當越來越多的人沉浸于虛擬空間時,其相應的現實社交時間會大大減少,社交能力也無法得到鍛煉和提高,社交恐懼症會更普遍。“綠洲”只是哈勒迪本人為了逃避現實構建的一個完美烏托邦,它並不是解決現實問題的良藥。第二,身體與思維的隔斷與分離成為可能。影片所呈現的虛擬化具身影像讓遊戲玩家產生錯覺,無法區分現實與虛擬。這一點可從影片中韋德介紹 2045 年的 VR 世界可見一斑:只要配有四聲道音響和壓敏全向跑步機,就可以閉門不出而遊天下,人類可以模擬所有運動例如跑步、游泳、攀爬和翻轉等。大作戰時,韋德佩戴好所有裝置,將自己固定在艾奇的貨車上,身體限在車內現實裡,而意識早已經飛躍到綠洲的戰場上,科技的助力讓小說《西遊記》裡描繪的“靈魂出竅”在具身影像裡得以實現。儘管許多VR 研究者認為 VR 遊戲裡的身體動作等同于現實裡的相應身體動作,但是目前該方面的研究成果甚為有限,VR 的身體體驗是否真的能夠等同于現實的體驗?當身體與意識高度分離時,帶給 VR 體驗者的到底是大汗淋漓的快感和等量運動帶來的鬆弛與健康還是意識的高度集中而導致的筋疲力盡元氣耗損?當意識抽離身體游走於虛擬世界時,對於肉身的安全又應該如何保障? ......參 考 文 獻[1] 梅洛-龐蒂. 知覺現象學 [M],姜志輝譯. 北京:商務印書館,2001.[2] 孫紹誼. 重新定義電影:影像體感經驗與電影現象學思潮 [J]. 上海大學學報(社會科學版),2012(5): 17-29.[3] Sobchack, V. (1992). The Address of the Eye: A Phenomenology of Film Experience. Princeton: Princeton University Press.[4] Sobchack, V. (2004). Carnal Thoughts: Embodiment and Moving Image Culture. Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.[5] Marks, L. U. (2000). The Skin of the Film:Intercultural Cinema, Embodiment, and the Senses. Durham and London: Duke University Press.[6] Pisters, P. (2012): The Neuro-Image: Deleuzian Film-Philophy of Digital Screen Culture. [M]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.[7] Deleuze, G. (1983) Cinema 1: The Movement-Image. London: Athlone Press. (Trans. Martin Joughin.)[8] Deleuze, G. (1985) Cinema 2: The Time-Image. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. (Trans.HughTomlinson & Robert Galeta.) [9] 孫紹誼. 大腦即銀幕:從神經科學到神經-影像 [J]. 上海大學學報(社會科學版). 2015(11): 40-50.[10] 孫紹誼. 被“看”的影響與被“玩”的影像:走向成熟的遊戲研究 [J],文藝研究. 2011,6(12): 91-99.[11] 李樅. 以《頭號玩家》市場反應為契機——淺談“遊戲題材+電影”敘事因革 [J]. 觀察與思考,2018 (5) : 24-26.[12] https://movie.douban.com/subject/4920389/comments?status=P[13] https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/ready_player_one/reviews/學生活動 科大學子榮獲澳门“蓮花徵文比賽”公開組冠軍 澳門科技大學法學院學生李紫瑄榮獲“蓮花徵文比賽”公開組冠軍。她的作品題為《蓮花城中憐花情》。比賽由澳門蓮藝文化協會主辦,澳門日報及澳門中華教育會協辦,內容以“愛蓮新說 ─ 澳門情”作主題撰寫中文文章。目的為推廣對蓮花之研究及認識,同時傳遞與蓮花精神相連的美善、正義及團結。同时,澳科大商學院學生朱奕瑤以《同是芙蕖別樣情》和徐佳怡以《拈花一笑,君子其人》獲得入圍奬。
7第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 淺析互聯網的主導權康佳立*(澳門科技大學社會和文化研究所,澳門)摘要: 隨著科技的發展和人類社會的進步,網絡空間(Cyberspace)成為繼陸地、海洋、天空、外空以外的“第五空間",越來越彰顯其在維護國家安全、保護人民利益、保持經濟發展上的重要性。多年來的運營與發展,令我國的互聯網呈現出規模龐大、結構複雜、參與群體層級多的基礎局面,也表現出業務環境多樣、面臨安全威脅複雜的情形,網絡空間安全防護工作任重而道遠。這其中最基礎和關鍵的則是互聯網的主導權問題,需要進行深入的研究。本文按照“是什麼"即對互聯網主導權的理解,“為什麼"即互聯網主導權的重要性,“怎麼辦"即如何爭奪互聯網主導權的邏輯脈絡,闡述了對人們生活乃至世界格局具有重大影響的虛擬互聯網絡,存在某一實體具備主導權力時帶來的影響,以及給當代人的啟發。並嘗試為破除主導權的負面影響提供一些有建設性的指導意見。關鍵詞: 網絡政策;主導權;社會治理;全球治理An Analesis of Internet Dominance Jiali KANG*( The Institute for Social and Cultural Research, Macao University of Science & Technology, Macao, China )Abstract: With the development of science, technology and the progress of human society, Cyberspace has become the "Fifth Space" except for land, sea, sky and outer space. It increasingly demonstrates the importance in safeguarding national security, protecting the people’s interests and maintaining economic development. With years of management and development, China's Internet presents a large-scale, complex structure and has a large number of groups to participate in. It also shows a variety of business environments and complex security threats. Cyberspace Security Protection has heavy responsibilities and hard work ahead. Among all of those, the dominance of the Internet is the most fundamental and critical, which requires in-depth research. In a logic order, this article discusses “WHAT” is the Internet dominance, “WHY” is important, and “HOW” to compete for Internet dominance. It also demonstrates the influence of one entity having a dominant power on the Internet which already has a significant impact on people’s lives and even the world’s situation, and its inspiration for the contemporary. At last, this article tries to provide some constructive guidances to break the negative influence of this dominance.eeyords: Network policy; Dominance; Social governance; Global governance收稿日期:2018-07-25;修訂日期:2018-09-21。* 通訊作者:康佳立,男,澳門科技大學社會和文化研究所博士研究生,廣州市智慧治理研究中心兼職研究員。主要研究方向:公共政策、全球治理。Email:public@we.hk,Tel:0086-13116887778
10別於以往單純的實體間影響與轉化,虛擬環境相對于現實環境所具有的完全不同的體系和運行狀態下出現的截然不同轉化功能是一種全新模式,所產生的結果亦有很大不同。這是當代國與國之間的關係不能簡單概括為實體關係的一種表現形式,需要加以重視。同時作為虛擬的互聯網,人們無法直接感知到其存在,它需要通過眾多可以被人感知的事物來間接加以證實。事實上的互聯網,應該被視作眾多能夠被人感知的實體為表現虛擬形態的集合體。而這種感知是一種動態發展的過程,因為其受到實體和虛擬兩方面的共同影響,這在虛擬事物有體系的構建成虛擬環境之時就更趨顯著,畢竟任何具有一定規模的環境是一個有機聯繫並得以運動的整體,含有自身特殊的結構。其驅動力有“自動”和“它動”兩個層面。只是現階段的互聯網自身在技術上尚無法呈現自我發展的態勢,包括任何模擬人腦的機器學習過程在內的互聯網前沿科技,眼下仍舊處於一種簡單的被動反饋階段,其強大的運行性能甚至在遠超人腦的基礎上還是無法在自我學習與發展上和人腦匹敵。因此接受其它的推動力形成“它動”,就替代“自動”成為互聯網有機發展的驅動。鑒於此,本文就含有對互聯網甚至是更大範疇的虛擬環境動力來源的思考。正如前文所述,現代的互聯網需要通過實在的人來發展。於是可以這樣概括,以互聯網為基礎構築的虛擬環境與當前現實世界最重要的關係,是基於人類社會現實建構的虛擬映射。這在政治層面呈現出現實世界中全球範圍內的“無政府”狀態但仍有個別超級大國可以發揮全球影響力,卻不是“控制力”。它在互聯網中體現的是創造者獨大,並具備對別國的網絡生存空間巨大破壞的能力。這是一種互聯網的“主導權”並非“控制權”。對互聯網主導權的研究在虛擬環境對現實影響越來越大的情況下,就顯得尤為必要。這既是作為虛擬環境互聯網創造者透過轉變身份而成為管理者的需要,也是互聯網本身特點的要求。(3)互聯網本身的特點,使其具備被主導的因素。有人會天然的認為“互聯網是全球性的,是全球各地電腦、網絡互連的結果”以及“聯入網絡的每台電腦、每個局域網都是平等的”。[5]這種認知的局限著重體現在:“不平等性”是互聯網存在的先決條件,是互聯網“主導權”存在的基礎。標榜“平等”的互聯網都是對本質上不平等事實的歪曲甚至是掩蓋。這是人類社會對以互聯網為主的虛擬環境映射的重要表現形式。甚至可以這樣認為,在互聯網誕生的那一刻起,證明的就是信息技術在人際間和國際間呈現的顯著差異。畢竟直到今天,互聯網在全球的推廣和普及仍然是一個困難的過程。這除了體現在經濟實力和社會發展水平的差異造成的互聯網軟硬件水平參差不齊,以及使用者對互聯網本身的影響外,差異化造成的不平等亦成為互聯網進步的源動力之一,促使互聯網本身及其使用者不斷追求高品質的服務。這可以通過美國總統特朗普上臺之後就廢除了前任推出的“網絡中立原則”來證明——廢除了美國國內的“網絡服務提供商必須平等對待不同公司的合法內容,不得向支付更高費用的互聯網公司提供更快網速,即所謂‘快速通道’服務”[6]。然後基於網絡的本質而言,互相聯繫的網絡本來就是“互聯”網,這種網絡即存在于單一的網絡上,同時對於多個網絡相互聯繫來構成更大規模的網絡同樣適用。所以並不會出現限制在一定的實體或者區域內部的局域網不是互聯網的問題。而 FNC 認定的互聯網全球性概念,主要體現在統一的規則和相互的聯通上,它是通過全球這一宏觀視角來審視互聯網存在的一種條件而已,對由於視角不同所認定的其它網絡類型而言並不相悖。再次,對每台主機進行地址的分配,絕不僅僅是簡單的體現在數據庫中的 IP 地址和域名的“命名權”。其需要對 IP、IP 地址和域名的理解為前提。根據前文所述的作為協議存在的 IP 充當
11康佳立 淺析互聯網的主導權了網絡中聯繫的功能,這種聯繫在鏈接到節點處充當對鏈接識別的作用即為 IP 地址,它是由一連串的數字符號和作為區分的點組合而成。每個不重複的數字編號都對應一個單獨的節點甚至是節點的部分,用以區分其它類似的數據來維持整個互聯網系統的條理性。而域名的存在主要是在始創期為方便記憶所發明的一系列字母、數字和特殊符號組成的對 IP 地址作出系統映射的字符段。通俗而言,域名讓人們尋找網絡的某一部分變得更加富有意義,其延伸的副業也帶來了一個產業的蓬勃發展。由於同樣是基於網絡的核心要素,聯繫在互聯網中存在的前提條件是對節點的辨識,它是透過節點被賦予的唯一性編號來實現。這種對節點命名權的重要性體現在一旦有意或者無意喪失了這種命名權聯繫就無法建立,其在浩如煙海的互聯網世界中被視為該節點的不存在。因為互聯網的虛擬特徵勢必要求節點通過編號首先在網絡內進行身份識別與定位,方能在其間通過一定的規則建立聯繫,沒有被編號的節點就不能被納入網絡。它是以數字構築的虛擬環境存在的基本條件,並隨著其發展越來越影響到現實人們生活的方方面面,是“數字鴻溝”的表現之一。這就造成了一種現狀——“命名權”即“主導權”,它是被命名對象獲得定義,更進一步的說是得以存在的前提,在虛擬環境中的重要性不言而喻。2 互聯網主導權的重要性互聯網擁有的主導權在褒義上可以被認定為加強了互聯網的治理,對於互聯網的健康發展意義重大。不過從貶義上而言,虛擬的互聯網絡內部體系單一體的獨大終究對其它參與者會帶來安全隱患。特別是一國對互聯網所具有的主導權在虛擬和實體兩方面對別國造成了巨大影響。不論及這種影響的好壞,對於十分強調國家主權的現階段各個民族國家而言,均會受制於其而無法獨善其身。正因如此,才會有國家主席習近平在第二屆世界互聯網大會開幕式上主旨演講所強調的那樣,一國之“網絡主權”與領土、領空、領海等領域一樣,需要得到尊重、維護、提攜和構建。由此可見,互聯網的主權已經上升到與其它三種領域同等的地位,領土、領空、領海的“三領”在加入“領網”後的“四領”,成為我國的國家“核心利益”。結合以上論述再跳出國內的範疇,擴展到國家主體之間的關係和全球治理這一層面上而言,爭奪互聯網的主導權,更有十分積極的意義。(1)從互聯網宏觀層面來看。互聯網的現實影響力和重要性首先體現在它重塑了人們的生活習慣上。首當其衝就是互聯網所具備顯著的“接觸便利性”。從加拿大傳播學家 M· 麥克盧漢最先提出的“地球村”伊始,電子技術的飛速發展對互聯網普及運用的推動,在顯著縮小了人們之間心理感知上的距離外,極大的拓展了人與人接觸的範圍。直到當前移動互聯網的蓬勃發展,幾乎讓互聯網和人無法分離。單一個體的人通過互聯網作為媒介,可以更加簡單的聯繫和接觸到無窮無盡的資源和信息。這種不斷強化的接觸便利性在一面固化互聯網對人的迎合同時,讓人們對其的依賴程度顯著加深,甚至不惜成為互聯網的一個分支,出現愈發嚴重的“網癮”行為,這本身就是互聯網對人們生活的重大影響。同時透過互聯網這一鍥子,外界繁雜的資訊反過來又加深了這種影響。其次,基於此互聯網透過對現實層面的生活習慣不斷強化的影響力,也會間接造成意識層面的思維方式改變,畢竟生活習慣對於思維方式一直保有巨大的影響力。同時各種訊息也會透過互聯網對人們的思維方式產生直接影響。這在不同文化潮流和表現個性的不同表達方式通過互聯網的快速傳播,深刻影響著各類群體的思維方式上表現明顯。最後宗以上兩者所述,現階段人們行為模式的變化很大程度是兩者綜合影響的結果,遵循“生活習慣→思維方式→行為模式”的遞進式變化。其在互聯網大潮的影響力不斷加深的情況下,成為普遍現狀。以上三點在我國蓬勃發展的移動互聯網,深
14儲。大多數情況下為其提供存儲服務的工具就應運而生。這種工具與個人使用的電腦大同小異,也都需要用到處理器、硬盤、內存、系統總線等實體的器件。而數據傳輸賴以為基礎的硬件更是互聯網存在和發展必不可少的條件,作為載體它伴隨數據量的增大和質的提高不斷進行自我提升。這些微觀意義上的硬件設備等等的基礎設施和數據、軟件、平臺,相比人類的神經系統具有一定類似,它們共同構成了更高一級的彼此互聯互通的宏觀“互聯”網。以此為基礎,形成了連接物與物的互聯網——物聯網(Internet of things,簡稱 IoT)等等的嶄新形態。此外還有對被認為是國際互聯網最重要戰略基礎設施——互聯網根服務器的控制上,包括被管理者直接掌控和交由其盟友掌控的根服務器。它們存在的意義之一在於對域名的解析,這是域名能夠實用的前提。正因為具有這種解析的能力,全球互聯網才成為整體而不分裂,從而最大程度維護了創造互聯網的初衷。然而從反面來看對根服務器的控制具有直接“斷網”的能力。其表現一是被排除出國際互聯網這一整體,二是被排除對象的互聯網數據呈現不存在的狀態。這是因為包括域名在內的互聯網地址需要在因特網上生效,即能通過輸入這些地址訪問網站,基礎要求是其後綴被加入根服務器(Root Servers)。這些根服務器由初期被美國及其盟友壟斷的 13 個,新增了包括駐點中國在內的 25 個。它們由位於美國的互聯網名稱與數字地址分配機構(The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers,簡稱ICANN)進行管理與分配。綜上所述,提升包括硬件在內的互聯網基礎設施水平,是互聯網主導權爭奪的基礎,它決定了互聯網是否“有”,即一種存在性的基礎性權力,任何力圖在此領域有所作為的組織和個人都無法擺脫它的制約。只有不斷通過提升這種底層的基礎權力,才能維繫眾多互聯網設備、內容等等服務商面向受眾提供產品的可能性和有用性。因為這些產品的產生在本質上是基於基礎權力的一種擴展性權利,即錦上添花的解決“好不好”的問題。無論其在這一層面擁有多大的實際控制力,均需要受基礎權力的制約。所以只有通過不斷自主創新來追求領域內的制高點,並時刻保持清醒緊盯世界最前沿的科技發展,才能為互聯網提供一個良好的生存基礎,爭奪主導權才是切實可行,才有利於推進網絡強國的建設。(2)提高軟件技術是核心這一層面首先就是人們慣常所認定的各種數據信息乃至由其組成的實用軟件技術,它是虛擬環境得以存在的基本元。這是以實體形態諸如芯片等等的元器件作為載體,在本質上可以被人感知卻無法實際接觸的數據信息,成為一種與人類為代表的炭基生命體完全不同的客觀存在。軟件在這個環境內能夠讓硬件發揮出所具有的機能,同時只有通過軟件硬件才可能維持虛擬環境的運行。軟件和硬件兩者相輔相成缺一不可,硬件的發展決定了軟件勢必需要與其相適應來協同提升,而軟件在低水平的硬件上運轉則會嚴重限制其功能。正如沒有系統和軟件的電腦僅僅是一堆電子元器件和輔助材料一樣,無法讓電腦發揮自身的功用。作為驅動力存在的軟件,其發展水平的高低直接決定了互聯網賴以生存的虛擬環境的質量,它是互聯網是否“好”的前提。畢竟無法想像一個處於低水平發展的互聯網軟件體系,在激烈的互聯網主導權爭奪時所面臨的困境。(3)充分參與規則的制定以獲得有限資源和話語權軟件層面還包括對互聯網規則的制定,其仍然是建立在提升自身軟硬件水平的前提下。這在互聯網形成伊始就建立的各種運行標準和結構框架以外,更顯著的表現形式就是這些規則所賦予的對互聯網有限虛擬資源的掌控,其核心表現就是對其的分配。理論上每個計算機都可以依據各自唯一的 IP地址進行識別和聯繫。IP 地址長度的固定性,導
15康佳立 淺析互聯網的主導權致了它是一種有限的資源。同時也像街道名稱和門牌號碼需要經由官方承認,才能發揮其區別和標示作用來彰顯權威性一樣,IP 地址也需要一個被廣泛認可的國際化權威機構管理。同樣位於美國的“互聯網數字分配機構(The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority,IANA)”就成了它在這層意義上的管理部門。只是現階段 ICANN 通過一個可以無限期續約的協議代替履行了 IANA 的職能,被認為是 IANA 的上級機構。[10]IANA 職 能 的 表 現 就 是 對 IP 地 址 和 域 名 進行 分 配 管 理。IANA 把 IP 地 址 的 註 冊 權 限 劃 分給五大洲的五個區域性註冊局(Regional Internet Registry),其中負責亞洲與太平洋地區 IP 分配任 務 的 是 亞 太 互 聯 網 絡 信 息 中 心(Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre, 簡 稱 APNIC)。 作為一個非營利性的服務於相應區域互聯網註冊管理的國際組織,它接受各成員國內部的本地互聯網註冊局(LIR)和國家級互聯網註冊局(NIR)所提出的 IP 申請,而一般用戶則需要通過本地 IP註冊局來進行申請。這種人為劃分的做法從 IP 出現開始就體現了極大的不公平。統計顯示美國擁有 IPv4 地址最多,平均每個網民可分到近 6 個地址,而中國、巴西、墨西哥等發展中國家網民人均僅有不到半個 IPv4 地址。[11] 我國在十多年前就發出了要求提高 IP 數量看似十分悲壯的呼籲:“(中國)擁有的 IP 數量甚至還不及美國的一所大學”[12]。不過這種情況在 IPv6 出現後得到暫時緩解。IANA 在 對 域 名(domain name) 進 行 分 配時,只負責後綴即“域”(domain)的分配。各自“域”下“名”(name)的註冊則由獲得分配的域名註冊局(Registry),或是直接提供給註冊人(Registrant)申請,或是提供給域名註冊商(Registrar)由它來向註冊人提供相應的註冊服務。相較於 IP 分配而言,域名的分配要公平一些,這主要體現在域名後綴分類上的開放程度各異。眾多後綴下的域名均面向全球交納一定費用的人士申請,並無資格限制。(4)獲得認可不失為有效手段在充分提升前文論及的各項基本要求外,通過高水平的發展實現自身實力的提升來獲得外界的認可,是當今各項規則以外通行於世的另一種規範性意識。其中可分為被動性認可,即單純以自身實力來佔據相應地位獲得對應的權力利益,這一層面更多體現在地位上本體“占”與客體“讓”的博弈。此外主動性認可,即以自身實力為前提,通過團結協作等方式多方面施加影響,特別是在軟實力層面推行本質上是有利於自身的模式,與他人達到合作共贏的目的,在此過程中建立影響力進而實現領域內主導權的一種方式。當前互聯網體系是以全球為基本面,爭奪互聯網主導權本質上也是樹立自身在全球地位的有效手段,無可避免的會與域外各種實體產生接觸甚至碰撞。在和平與發展成為當今世界潮流的大前提下,有效化解衝突和對抗但不懼威脅與訛詐就是先進且成熟國家所具備的要件之一。在此基礎上以“顧己”即以自身為出發點來考慮和解決問題,“及人”即在此過程中不以危害他人利益為手段,並在可能的情況下協同發展,才是負責任大國在爭奪互聯網主導權上理應遵循的軌跡,才能持久的獲得別國的主動認可,來維繫現在世界秩序下互聯網的穩定與發展。4 結語ICANN 長期被美國官方控制是美國對互聯網具有主導權的重要標誌,雖然在多方壓力下放鬆了對互聯網表面上的主導,在名義上交出了相應的權力,但事實上美國當局憑藉其所具有的全方位實力,仍然在實質上扮演著主導互聯網的角色。這不但表現在美國所具有的強大軟硬件在內的信息技術實力上,同時也是其綜合國力的體現,能夠準確表達出虛擬的互聯網絡是實體映射這一本文的主要觀點。面對這種局面,我國除了緊跟世界先進技術的發展、努力提高自身實力外更應有所作為,廣泛運用本質上不同於實體的虛擬網絡所具有的規
17第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 影響社交媒體中發佈自拍行為的因素研究王 迪*,朱曉風齡(澳門科技大學人文藝術學院,澳門)摘要: 在現今這個互聯網自媒體飛速發展的時代,越來越多的人們喜歡在社交媒體上發佈自己的自拍照片。本研究旨在探索影響人們在社交媒體上發佈自拍照頻率的內在因素。前人研究主要集中於把自戀作為自拍發布頻率的唯一預測因素。我們在前人的基礎上,引入了兩個新的變量,外向型人格和隱私關註度。我們假設自戀程度越高,越外向,隱私關註度越低的人越頻繁地在社交媒體上發佈自拍。結果顯示自戀程度越高,隱私關註程度越低的人越頻繁地在社交媒體上發佈自拍,而外向型人格與自拍發佈頻率無顯著相關。關鍵詞: 自拍;自戀;外向型人格;隱私關注度A Study of the Factors Affecting Selfie Posting in Social MediaDi WANG*, Xiaofengling ZHU( Department of Humanity and Art, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstract: In today's era of the rapid development of we media, more and more people like to post their selfies on social media. The purpose of this study is to explore the intrinsic factors that affect people's selfie posting frequencies on social networking sites. Previous research mainly focused on narcissism as the sole predictor of selfie posting frequency. Based on previous studies, we introduced two new variables, extraversion and privacy concern. We hypothesize that people who are more narcissistic, more extroverted, and less concerned about privacy, post selfies more frequently on social networking sites than others. The results showed that people who are more narcissistic, less privacy concerned, posted selfies more frequently on social media than others, while extroversion had no significant relationship with the frequency of selfie posting.eeyords: Selfie; Narcissism; Extroversion; Privacy concerns收稿日期:2018-09-13;修訂日期:2018-11-06。* 通訊作者:王迪,女,博士,澳門科技大學人文藝術學院助理教授,主要研究方向:新媒體使用心理,新媒體的商業傳播。E-mail: dwang@must.edu.mo,Tel:00853-88971965. 0 緒論自拍作為一種全球流行的文化現象,已經不知不覺的滲透到我們的生活中來,迅速成為人們生活中不可分割的一部分。2013 年,“Selfie 自拍”成為牛津詞典年度熱詞。在中國,艾瑞大資料與美顏相機在 2015 年聯合發佈了第一份女性自拍研究報告,報告表明,愛自拍的女性主體都是 85 後,一天自拍三次以上的人最多[1]。在美國,皮尤研究中心 2015 年 3 月對自拍的一項研究發現,其中 55%的千禧世代(1980 ~2000 年出生的美國年輕人)在社交媒體上發佈過自拍,而他們自拍的原因是將其發佈在社交媒體上與親朋好友進行分享[2]。在參與這次調查的1000 人中有 95% 的人都承認至少拍過一次自拍。
22將為自戀者尋求社會關注和欽佩的需求[13, 46]。研究結果反駁了 Sorokowski 等人的研究。在本研究中,我們在控制了性別變量之後仍發現自戀能顯著的預測自拍發佈頻率,這個關係不只存在於男性中,而是男女皆存在。假設 2 提出越外向的人越喜歡在社交媒體上發佈自拍,沒有受到數據支持。在相關性分析中,外向型人格和自拍發佈頻率有著顯著的正相關關係,但是在回歸分析中,外向型人格與發佈頻率卻沒有顯著關係。這有可能是因為外向型人格和自戀人格存在一定的共線性,即外向的人同時也是自戀程度高的人。當控制了自戀程度後,外向型人格不能預測自拍發佈頻率。假設 3 提出隱私關注度和在社交媒體上發佈自拍也有顯著的關係,受到數據支持。因為越注重自己隱私的人,越不喜歡把自己的個人資料發佈在網路上進行資訊公開,在現在這個看似透明實則網路資訊不安全的社會,各種盜用、冒用資訊及騙子層出不窮。而避免這些最好的方法就是多多注重自己個人資料的私密性,少將個人的真實資訊發佈到社交媒體上。因此越注重自己隱私的人,越不會在社交媒體上發佈自拍。那些對網路更加信任的,對自己隱私關注度沒有那麼高的人,越容易在社交媒體上發佈自拍。在人口統計學變量中,只有性別與因變量顯著相關。與男性社交媒體用戶相比,女性在社交媒體上發佈自拍方面更積極。這個發現與之前的自拍文獻的結果一致[6, 47]。與男性相比,女性更傾向於尋求“喜歡”和“評論”的滿足感,這表明女性傾向於對自我形象進行美化,來創造令人印象深刻的形象來吸引異性。在以往的關於自拍和在社交媒體上發佈自拍情況的研究中,學者們都集中研究自拍的表像,比如自拍的類型,自拍現象產生的原因等等,從受眾的角度去研究社交媒體上自拍發佈行為影響內在因素的維度不夠全面,並且文獻較少。因而本文著重從發佈自拍人群的內在因素進行研究,根據發佈自拍者的自身特點,在通過文獻及理論假設這些內在因素對自拍發佈情況的行為進行剖析,最後通過問卷調查法進行驗證。本文為自拍發佈行為及其傳播這方面研究增添了一份貢獻,為往後的研究也提供另一個新的參考角度與思路。本研究也存在一定的局限性。首先,本研究樣本的性別比例不平衡(女性為 242,男性為39)。由於性別與因變量有顯著相關,因此這可能會使研究結果存在偏差。其次,本研究以青年人為研究對象,青少年及中老年様本數較少,因此本研究結果可能不能有效反應所有社交媒體使用人群的自拍情況。未來的研究中可以擴大樣本範圍,優化樣本中年齡的分佈,使得各個變量在分佈上更加均勻,這樣得出的結果才更具有普遍性。最後,本研究只著重的研究了影響在社交媒體上發佈自拍行為的部分內在因素,如自戀、外向型人格、和隱私關注度。未來研究可以研究外在因素,例如社會資本的等等。參 考 文 獻[1] 艾瑞諮詢系列研究報告.艾瑞與美顏相機聯合發佈:中國第一份女性自拍研究報告[R].北京:上海艾瑞市場諮詢有限公司,2015.[2] Pew Research Center. Photos and video sharing grow online, (October, 28, 2013). [Aug, 23, 2018].http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/10/28/photo-and-video-sharing-grow-online/ [3] Hu, Y., Manikonda, L., & Kambhampati, S. What We Instagram: A First Analysis of Instagram Photo Content and User Types. 2014, In Icwsm.[4] Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford DictionariesThe Oxford dictionaries word of the year 2013 is“selfie.” (November, 18, 2013). [Aug, 23, 2018]. http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2013/11/word-of-the-year-2013-winner/[5] Kiprin, B. (2013). Go Selfie Yourself!. (2013). [Aug, 23, 2018]. https://borislavkiprin.com/2013/12/13/go-selfie-yourself/[6] Sorokowski P., Sorokowska A., Oleszkiewicz, A., Frackowiak T., Huk, A.& Pisanski, K. Selfie posting behaviors are associated with narcissism among men.Personality and Individual Differences. 2015, 85(10):123-127.[7] Weiser, E. B. # Me: Narcissism and its facets as predictors of selfie-posting frequency. Personality and Individual Differences, 2015, 86: 477-481.[8] Katz, J. E., & Crocker, E. T. Selfies| Selfies and Photo Messaging as Visual Conversation: Reports from the United States, United Kingdom and China. International Journal of Communication, 2015, 9, 1861-1872.[9] Senft, T. M., & Baym, N. K. (2015). What does the selfie say? Investigating a global phenomenon introduction.
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24[45] Campbell, W. K., Rudich, E. A., & Sedikides, C. Narcissism, self-esteem, and the positivity of self-views: Two portraits of self-love. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2002, 28(3): 358-368.[46] Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model. Psychological inquiry, 2001, 12(4): 177-196. [47] Cao, Y., & O’Halloran, K. Learning human photo shooting patterns from large-scale. Community Photo Collections, 2014, http://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-014-2247-0附件 1 自戀量表1. 我知道我很好,因為每個人都一直這樣告訴我2. 我喜歡成為關注的中心3. 我認為我是一個特殊的人 4. 我喜歡對人有權威5. 我發現很容易操縱人6. 我堅持要得到應有的尊重7. 如果我有機會,我很容易炫耀8. 我總是知道我在做什麼9. 每個人都喜歡聽我的故事10. 我期望從其他人那裡獲得很多11. 我真的很想成為關注的中心12. 人們似乎總是認可我的權威13. 我將成為一個偉大的人14. 我可以讓任何人相信我想要的東西15. 我比其他人更有能力16. 我是一個非凡的人附件 2 外向型人格量表1. 我喜歡周圍有很多朋友2. 我很容易笑3. 我喜歡那些可以單獨做事,不被人打擾的工作 4. 我很喜歡與別人聊天5. 我經常置身於激烈的活動之中6. 我通常回避人多的場合7. 我常常感到自己精力旺盛,好像充滿能量8. 我是一個樂天開朗的人9. 我不太喜歡和人聊天,很少從中獲得太多樂趣10.我的生活節奏很快11.我是一個十分積極活躍的人12.我寧願自己獨自做事,而不是領導指揮別人附件3 隱私關註度量表1. 社交媒體網站詢問我的個人資料時通常使我很困擾2. 企業在交易過程中要求我去點贊或添加關注他們的社交媒體網站時通常使我很困擾3. 在我註冊過的社交媒體網站上向他人提供個人資訊,通常使我困擾4. 我擔心企業通過我註冊過的社交媒體網站收集太多關於我的個人資訊5. 不管需要花費多少成本,包含個人資訊的電腦資料庫應該免受未經授權的訪問6. 社交媒體網站應該採取更多措施去確保未經授權的人無法通過他們的電腦訪問個人資訊7. 包含個人資訊的資料庫應該存儲在一個高度安全的位置8. 社交媒體網站應該刪除非法訪問其他使用者個人資訊的使用者帳號9. 企業應該採取更多措施去確保他們文檔中的個人資訊是準確無誤的10.企業應該有更好的程式去更正個人資訊中的錯誤11.企業應該投入更多的時間和精力去驗證他們個人資訊數據庫的準確性12.除非獲得授權,否則社交媒體網站和企業不應將個人資訊用於任何目的13.當人們出於某種原因將個人資訊提供給社交媒體網站或企業,企業不該將這些資訊用於其他目的14.社交媒體網站或公司不應該與其他公司分享個人資訊,除非獲得個人資訊提供者的授權澳科大普通話辯論隊奪得紅十字會澳門高校辯論賽冠軍 澳門科技大學辯論隊普通話組於10月28日澳门红十字会主办的“紅十字會青少年國際人道問題澳門高等院校辯論比賽”中经初赛、决赛,最终奪得澳门区冠軍,將代表澳門赴上海參加“中國紅十字會青年國際人道問題辯論賽”。學生活動
25第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 Received 12 Dec. 2017; Revised 25 Jul. 2018* Corresponding author: Shiyong Zhao, Male , Ph.D. in Economics, Associate Professor of School of Business. Research Areas: Applied Microeconomics, Economic Growth, Financial Reform and Development.E-mail: syzhao@must.edu.mo, Tel: 00853-88972860Measuring the Role of Entrepreneurship in China’s Economic Groyth, 1978-2008Shiyong ZHAO*, Wenbo SONG( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )eeyords: Using China’s provincial-level panel data over 1978-2008, we examine the effects of entrepreneurship on economic growth in the context of China’s transition from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented one. We divide entrepreneurship into two types: one is business creation and the other is innovation. Our estimation results show that both types of entrepreneurship have significant positive effects on growth rate of China’s GDP per capita over the sample period. Specifically, the annual growth rate of GDP per capita will increase by 1.48 percentage points if business creation entrepreneurship increases by one standard deviation. And the annual growth rate will increase by 1.34 percentage points if innovation entrepreneurship increases by one percent. We use instrumental variable method to overcome the possible endogeneity problem and establish the causal relationship between entrepreneurship and growth. The results are robust even when we control for different sets of demographical and institutional variables. China’s experience shows that a strong government does not conflict with entrepreneurs’ role. China’s growth confirms the old wisdom that only in an economic system with well-protected private property, well-constructed infrastructure and well-safeguarded free market can entrepreneurship be brought into full play and serve as a driver of economic growth.eeyords: Business Creation; China; Economic Growth; Entrepreneurship; Innovation企業家精神在中國經濟增長中的作用(1978~2008)趙世勇*,宋文博(澳門科技大學商學院,澳門)摘要: 本文根據1978~2008年的中國省級面板數據,研究了企業家精神在中國經濟增長中的作用。我們將企業家精神分為企業家創業精神和企業家創新精神。估計結果表明,企業家創業精神和創新精神都對中國人均GDP的增長產生了顯著的正效應:企業家創業精神每增加一個標準差,人均GDP增長率就會增加1.48個百分點;企業家創新精神每增加1%,人均GDP增長率就會增加1.34個百分點。我們使用工具變量法來克服企業家精神可能的內生性問題,進而確立企業家精神和經濟增長之間的因果關係。我們進一步控制了不同組合的人口和制度變量,迴歸結果依然是穩健的。中國的經驗表明強勢政府和企業家精神並不矛盾,也證明了經濟成功需要有私有產權、自
260 IntroductionIt has long been recognized since Adam Smith (1776) [1] that entrepreneurs spur improvements in living standards. For example, Schumpeter (1934) [2] argues that entrepreneurs drive economic growth by undertaking risky ventures that create and introduce new goods, services, and production processes that displace old businesses. Lucas (1978) [3], Baumol (1990) [4], Murphy, Shleifer, and Vishny (1991) [5], and Gennaioli et al. (2013) [6] stress that the human capital of entrepreneurs plays a unique role in shaping the productivity of firms and the growth rate of entire economies. For example, Baumol (1990) [4] claims that the main impediment to China’s industrialization during its Song Dynasty (A.D. 960-1270) was a social system that inhibited entrepreneurship, and that is why medieval China stagnated economically. Zhuang’s model (2003) [7] suggests that economies with more entrepreneurs grow faster than those with fewer ones. Most theoretical studies suggest that entrepreneurship is of critical importance to the long-run sustainable growth of an economy, among which Porter (1990) [8] even claims that entrepreneurship is “at the heart of national advantage.”It has now been quite some time that researchers have been confronting real data with ideas. Empirical evidence and the lessons of experience both seem to confirm the role of entrepreneurship in growth. Initially, much of this work was conducted on the basis of the data of the developed industrialized countries (Data availability may have had a significant role in this choice of sample). Beugelsdijk and Noorderhaven (2004) [9] use self-employment rate as a proxy for entrepreneurship and study the growth difference of 54 European regions. They find that a high score on entrepreneurial characteristics is correlated with a high rate of regional economic growth. Glaeser (2007) [10] uses two measures of entrepreneurship: one is self-employment rate and the other is the number of small firms. Using city data of the U.S., he finds that more entrepreneurial cities are more successful and particularly there is even a strong connection between area-level education and entrepreneurship. As more wide-ranging data sets become available, empirical regularities of the entrepreneurship-growth relationship in transition and developing economies start to draw the attention of researchers. For example, using China’s provincial-level data over 1983-2003, Li et al. (2009) [11] conclude that entrepreneurship significantly promotes economic growth. Inspired by the theoretical insights and empirical findings in the literature, we are going to examine the role of entrepreneurship in China’s economic growth by using the provincial-level panel data of China over 1978-2008. China’s transition from a bureaucratic central planning to a private market starts from 1978 and that’s why our sample data set starts also from that year. As officially worded, Chinese economy was on the verge of collapse in 1978 after two decades of central planning and political movements. Then from 1978 to 2008, China had enjoyed substantial economic growth. Its GDP had been growing at an average annual rate of 9.93 percent, which was historically unprecedented (Lin 2012) [12]. From 1978 to 2016, China’s GDP has been growing at an average annual rate of 9.6 percent (NBS, 2017) [13]. It is widely recognized that the Chinese government has been playing a fairly proactive role in the economic transition and development since 1978. While in this period numerous entrepreneurs have emerged and started their businesses. By the end of 2015, the number of self-employed individuals and people employed in private enterprises accounted for 36 percent of the total number of employed persons in China (NBS 2016) [13], while the number was less than 4 percent in 1990 (NBS 1991) [13]. Before 1989 there were even no officially registered private enterprises in the People’s Republic of China. In a sense, China’s 由市場以及良好的基礎設施,這樣企業家精神才能得到最大程度的發揮。關鍵詞: 創業;中國;經濟增長;企業家精神;創新
27Shiyong ZHAO, et al Measuring the Role of Entrepreneurship in China’s Economic Growth, 1978-2008economic reform since 1978 is a transformation from the extreme of total collectivism to greater reliance on individual initiative (entrepreneurship) and voluntary cooperation (free market). The transformation converts economic stagnation into rapid growth. The country grows more prosperous and more productive, and also grows in power and influence. The present paper has three strengths. First, we focus on China. Many previous studies have shown that entrepreneurship plays a critical role for a transition economy’s success such as Russia, Poland, and Vietnam (McMillan and Woodruff 2002[14]; Berkowitz and Dejong 2005[15]). However, studies using China’s data on the role of entrepreneurship in China’s transition are far from sufficient. After all, China’s transition path and growth pattern are quite different from other transition economies like Russia and East European countries (gradual reform versus shock therapy in the literature). By western standards China is an authoritarian state and some people may wonder whether entrepreneurship is smothered by a strong government. Therefore, it’s intriguing to examine the role of entrepreneurship in China’s transition under China’s political regime. Second, our data are consistently collected and variables consistently defined. Whether data are gathered consistently or not may affect the regression results in a significant degree. Many cross-country studies suffer inconsistencies in terms of statistical methods and variable measurements. These inconsistencies will, to a certain extent, undermine the reliability of the results (Barro 1991) [16]. All the data in our sample follow consistent statistical methods and all the variables have consistent definitions and measurements. All the data and variables are gathered and defined by the National Statistical Bureau of China, China’s central statistical authority. The consistency will enhance the reliability of our results from the very beginning. Third, we use system Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) and valid instrumental variables to overcome the possible endogeneity problem. On the relationship between entrepreneurship and growth, the causation may flow in both directions. On the one hand, entrepreneurship serves as a driver of growth. Entrepreneurs start businesses and innovate, leading to higher productivity and economic growth. On the other hand, economically developed regions have a favorable environment to encourage, cultivate and stimulate entrepreneurship (Zhao 2010) [17]. This bidirectional causality may lead to simultaneous bias. Moreover, entrepreneurship may be correlated with other unmeasurable variables affecting growth. This will cause omitted variable bias. Either because of simultaneous bias or omitted variable bias, endogeneity problem is present. Realizing that entrepreneurship may be endogenous, we use “the share of employees working in state-owned enterprises (SOEs) with a twenty-five-year lag” as an instrumental variable for entrepreneurship. This method has been used by some studies in the literature, such as Li et al. (2009) [11]. In doing so, we can consistently estimate the causal effect of entrepreneurship on economic growth. The paper is organized as follows. In Section II we provide the notion, theory and measurement of entrepreneurship. In Section III we formulate the growth equation as a dynamic panel data model and discuss the relevant issues of panel estimation. In Section IV we report the data and samples. Estimation results and their interpretation are presented in Section V. Section VI concludes. 1 Entrepreneur and EntrepreneurshipEntrepreneurs are those who create new enterprises, or specifically according to Hebert and Link (1989)[18], who “specialize in taking responsibility for and making judgmental decisions that affect the location, the form, and the use of goods, resources, or institutions.” Entrepreneurship has been viewed as an important factor of production and one of the most important sources of sustainable economic growth (Schumpeter 1934[2]; Baumol 1968[19]; Leff 1979[20]; Wennekers and Thurik 1999[21]; Glaeser 2007[10]). Friedman and Friedman (1980)[22] observe that in the countries that have developed most rapidly and
28successfully, a minority of enterprising and risk-taking individuals have forged ahead, created opportunities for imitators to follow, have enabled the majority to increase their productivity. In the literature, however, there has not yet been a universally agreed definition of entrepreneurship. According to Li et al. (2009)[11], there are three schools of thought on entrepreneurship. They are related but with different focuses. The German school, represented by Schumpeter (1934)[2] and Baumol (1968[19], 1990[4]), stresses innovation or “creative destruction” of entrepreneurs. The neoclassical school represented by Knight (1921)[23]and Schultz (1980)[24] focuses on risk-bearing of entrepreneurs. The Austrian school, with Mises (1951)[25] and Kirzner (1973)[26] as the representatives, emphasizes the ability of entrepreneurs in discerning market opportunities. It is impossible for us to capture all the connotations of entrepreneurship in a single empirical study. Moreover, we cannot measure the character traits and human capital of entrepreneurs, such as “strong nonroutine cognitive abilities” (Levine and Rubinstein 2017)[27]. Notwithstanding the micro-level difficulty, we can still measure entrepreneurship with macro-level data because we can measure the businesses entrepreneurs created and the innovations they made. Following Wong et al. (2005)[28], we measure entrepreneurship in two ways. One is new firm creation (“business creation entrepreneurship”) and the other is innovation (“innovation entrepreneurship”). Entrepreneurs are generally viewed as those people who start new businesses and innovate. Wong et al. (2005)[28] argue that business creation and innovation are “two distinct and separate factors that manifest different facets of the entrepreneurship phenomenon.” This is also in line with Davidsson’s (2003)[29] and Kirzner’s (1973)[26] view of entrepreneurship as embodying both new firm entry, and imitative and innovative entries by established firms. Risk is inherently involved in entrepreneurs’ activities: they can reap the benefits of their success but must also bear the cost of their mistakes. Considering data availability and statistical consistency, we use “the fraction of urban nonpublic sector employment,” i.e., the share of “employed persons not working in state-owned and collective-owned organizations in urban areas” in “total number of employed persons in urban areas” to measure “business creation entrepreneurship.” The implication is that the private sector is the domain of entrepreneurs. At the national level the fraction of urban nonpublic sector employment increased from 0.16 percent to 76.5 percent over 1978-2008 (NBS 2009) [30]. As to measuring “innovation entrepreneurship,” most studies in the literature use the number of patent grants or inventions. For example, Acs et al. (1996)[31] use the number of inventions per thousand people to measure innovation. Wong et al. (2005)[28] use the ratio of patents to GDP to measure “technological innovation intensity.” Li et al. (2009)[11] use “number of patent applications” to measure innovation. In this paper we use the “number of patent grants” in each region to measure innovation entrepreneurship. From 1985 when China’s Patent Law was passed to 2008 when our sample data ended, the number of patent grants grew from 138 to 411,982 with an average annual growth rate of 42 percent (NBS 2009) [30]. The full play of entrepreneurship needs a free enterprise system. It’s not hard to comprehend that entrepreneurs must play a negligible role under a centrally planned economic system, because under such a system a bureaucracy is there for everything. Specifically, production and distribution are determined by specific instructions from the planning agencies to the factories, indicating from whom and in what quantities they should receive raw materials and services, what they should produce, and to whom they should distribute their output. The workforce is assumed to be fully employed and wages are predetermined. Missing is the ultimate consumer, who in a centrally planned economy is assumed to passively accept the goods planning agencies order produced. Missing also are entrepreneurs, because prices don’t transmit information on market demand and supply and people have no incentive to act on that
29Shiyong ZHAO, et al Measuring the Role of Entrepreneurship in China’s Economic Growth, 1978-2008information in a centrally planned economy. Moreover, the whole ideology centers on the alleged exploitation of labor under capitalism. By this ideology, private commerce and industry are considered low-status activities, not fit for a respectable person. Therefore, when we talk about the role of entrepreneurs, we must be clear of the institutions in which they are living. Entrepreneurs need an environment in which they are free to experiment with new businesses and innovations - at their risk if the experiment fails, and to their profit if it succeeds (The free enterprise system is a profit and loss system). And they need clear price signals to adopt those methods of production that are least costly and thereby use available resources for the most highly valued purposes. Anything that prevents prices from expressing freely the conditions of demand or supply interferes with the transmission of accurate information and thus hampers the functioning of entrepreneurs. For example, one of the major adverse effects of erratic inflation is the introduction of static into the transmission of information through prices. Government, of course, is to blame for inflation. Therefore, the government must provide an environment in which private property is well protected and free market is well safeguarded (including keep inflation low and stable). As Greenspan (2007, p.251-255) [32] put it, “My experience leads me to consider state-enforced property rights as the key growth-enhancing institution. For if those rights were not enforced, open trade and the huge benefits of competition and comparative advantage would be seriously and dramatically impeded. People generally do not exert the effort to accumulate the capital necessary for economic growth unless they own it. … The rule of law and property rights appear to me to be the most prominent institutional pillars of economic growth and prosperity.” This may be taken for granted in industrialized nations but worth emphasis in a transition economy like China, because both private property and free markets were largely absent before its transition. 2 Model Specification and Estimation MethodsFollowing Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995)[33] and Li et al. (2009)[11], we formulate the following dynamic panel data model:log(eit/ei,t– 1)=β1logei,t– 1+β2Eit+β3xit– τt+ηi+εit (1)Here, log(y i t/y i , t–1) is the growth rate of real GDP per capita from period t–1 to period t; logy i,t–1 is the natural logarithm of the initial real GDP per capita. Eit represents entrepreneurship, which includes business creation entrepreneurship and innovation entrepreneurship. xit are a set of control variables that may affect economic growth; τt are year dummies, and ηi stand for regional (province) fixed effect. The subscripts i and t stand for province i and period t. In most empirical studies xit include such traditional determinants of the steady state level of income as saving rate, human capital, and population growth rate (Levine and Renelt, 1992[34]; Islam, 1995[35]). In the following sensitivity analyses, xit also include some demographic and institutional variables like birth rate, dependence ratio, foreign direct investment (FDI) and government size. The unobservable individual “regional effects” ηi in Eq.(1) are usually correlated with other included explanatory variables including entrepreneurship, which implies that the estimation results obtained from single cross-section regression are biased and inconsistent as well (omitted variable bias). Islam (1995)[35] suggests a panel data formulation which makes it possible to correct the bias. He divides the entire growth period into several shorter periods that constitute it. Then the individual fixed effects will be differenced out. Many later studies follow this approach, such as Topel (1999)[36] and Li et al. (2009)[11]. Following the practice, we divide our sample period (1978-2008) into six consecutive five-year time intervals, i.e., 1978-1983, 1983-1988, 1988-1993, 1993-1998, 1993-2003, and 2003-2008. Thus over the period 1978-2008, we have six data (time) points for each province: 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993,
301998, and 2003. When t =1983, for example, t –1 is 1978, and the explanatory variables are averages over 1978-1983. We can also rule out the time-invariant regional fixed effects by taking first-order difference to Eq.(1), but because (logy i , t–1–logy i , t–2)( in the difference equation would be correlated with error term (ε i,t–ε i,t–1), therefore essentially the differenced lagged dependent variable (logy i,t–1–logy i,t–2) is still endogenous. To overcome the endogeneity problem, we use GMM method to estimate the growth regression Eq. (1). According to Arellano and Bond (1991)[37], GMM estimation follows two steps: first, difference out regional fixed effects and then estimate the differenced equation using the lagged variables as instruments of the corresponding endogenous variables in the equation. In this way we get the first-differenced GMM estimator (DIF-GMM hereafter). DIF-GMM, however, suffers from weak instruments and small-sample bias. Therefore, to improve on DIF-GMM, Arellano and Bover (1995)[38] and Blundell and Bond (1998)[39] propose system GMM estimator (SYS-GMM hereafter). According to SYS-GMM, the first differenced lagged variable will be used as the instrument for the level variable in the level equation. That is, (logyi,t–1–logyi,t–2) and even earlier (logyi,t–2–logy i,t–3) (if existent) will be used as the instruments for logyi,t–1 in the level equation. In this paper we will report estimates from SYS-GMM.Entrepreneurship may be an endogenous variable in the regression equation. Differencing cannot rule out the potential simultaneous bias of the entrepreneurship variable. Moreover, if other unobservable time-variant factors affect entrepreneurship, then omitting these factors may still cause bias in the coefficient estimations. To overcome the endogeneity of the entrepreneurship variable, we use the share of employees working in SOEs in total employment with a twenty-five-year lag as an instrument for entrepreneurship (i.e., over 1953-1983). China nationalized its private sectors from 1949 to 1952 so the “planned economy” officially started from 1953. Under a planned economy it was enough for SOE managers to routinely carry out government production plans. Under such a system, people’s incentive of starting businesses or innovating was greatly constrained and even snuffed out. Predictably, provinces with lower shares of SOEs employment are associated with higher degree of entrepreneurship or more entrepreneurs. To test this, we regress business entrepreneurship on SOE employment share with a 25–year lag, the IV, the coefficient is –0.552 (t=–3.03, n=174, R-squared=0.051.) Then we regress innovation entrepreneurship on the IV, the coefficient is –0.096 (t =–7.69, n =142, R-squared=–0.297). This indicates that entrepreneurship and its IV we choose have a statistically significant negative correlation. In fact, the IV explains 5% the variation in business entrepreneurship and nearly 30% variation in innovation entrepreneurship in the sample.3 DataThe data used in this paper are from China Compendium of Statistics 1949-2008 and China Statistical Yearbook (various years). The data set includes 31 provinces of mainland China over 1978-2008 (i.e., except Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan). We start from 1978 because that year marks China’s initiation of market-oriented reform and opening-up policy. We choose this period because the three-decade transition since 1978 had brought astonishing changes to China. Under a centrally planned society before 1978, there was little role of entrepreneurs, or as Greenspan (2007)[32] put it, there was no creative destruction, no impetus to make innovations. Actually whether entrepreneurs play an important role in the economy embodies a key difference between a centrally planned society and a capitalist one. China’s economic reform since 1978, in a sense, is a transition from the extreme of total collectivism to greater reliance on individual initiative (entrepreneurship) and voluntary cooperation (free market). We take the average values of all the other explanatory variables over five years except . Take the period 2003-2008 as an example, is the natural logarithm of GDP per capita in 2003; variables
31Shiyong ZHAO, et al Measuring the Role of Entrepreneurship in China’s Economic Growth, 1978-2008like entrepreneurship, human capital and other demographic and institutional variables take the average values over the five years. With this setup, the error term in the regression equation are now five calendar years apart and hence may be thought to be less influenced by economic fluctuations and less likely to be serially correlated than they would be in a yearly data setup. Table 1. Definitions and descriptive statistics of the variablesVariable Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min Maxgrowth 186 0.09 0.03 -0.08 0.27log(y) 186 6.75 0.99 4.76 9.92startup 186 24.60 24.69 0.02 85.16innovation 152 6.64 1.75 0 10.74birth 186 15.53 5.57 4.80 27.92education 186 3.31 0.98 1.69 5.83dependency 155 9.69 2.47 5.08 18.85government 186 15.67 10.05 5.19 73.09investment 186 32.93 12.39 10.73 78.39FDI 186 2.06 3.18 0 20.24SOE 174 81.87 10.24 43.46 100.00Note. (i) “innovation” has only 152 observations because China didn’t accept patent application until 1985. (ii) “dependency” only has 155 observations because data over 1978-1982 were not available from official statistics. (iii) “SOE” only has 174 observations because data of Inner Mongolia, Anhui and Gansu were not attainable from official sources. (iv) GDP per capita is calculated at constant prices in 1952. (v) Regarding measuring “human capital,” we follow Yao and Wei (2007) [40] and Zhao (2013) [41] and use the number of university student enrollment per 10,000 people to measure human capital. In the literature, other measures are also used. For example, Barro and Lee (1993) [42] construct a human capital variable which gives the average schooling years in the total population over age twenty-five. Definitions of the variables are as follows:(1) growth: annual average growth rate of GDP per capita(2) log(y): logarithm of real GDP per capita(3) startup: share of employed people in non-public sectors (%)(4) innovation: logarithm of number of patents granted(5) birth: birth rate (1/1000)(6) education: logarithm of university student enrollment per 10,000 people(7) dependency: ratio of population over 65 to population between 15-64 (%)(8) government: ratio of government expenditure to regional GDP (%)(9) investment: ratio of fixed asset investment to regional GDP (%)(10) FDI: ratio of FDI actually utilized to regional GDP (%)(11) SOE: share of staff and workers working in SOEs with a 25-year lag (%)Table 1 presents the definitions and descriptive statistics of the variables. We can find that China’s regional economies have experienced rapid growth during the period. GDP per capita has been growing at an annual average rate of about 9 percent. The distribution of business creation entrepreneurship is dispersed across regions; the mean and the standard deviation are roughly equal. Innovation entrepreneurship is relatively less dispersed. Other variables are significantly different across regions. For example, over our sample period the average ratio of actually utilized FDI to regional GDP was only about 0.6% in west China provinces like Guizhou, Yunnan, Tibet, Ningxia and Xinjiang, but was 6% in Guangdong province. Table 2 shows that there is no serious multicollinearity problem among the variables.4 Estimation ResultsIn this section, we present the estimation results Table 2. Correlation matrixVariable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)growthlog(y) 0.06business creation 0.25 0.61innovation 0.30 0.60 0.66investment 0.02 0.55 0.59 0.12education 0.13 0.87 0.73 0.64 0.58birth -0.12 -0.72 -0.49 -0.63 -0.30 -0.76dependency 0.28 0.63 0.69 0.73 0.31 0.63 -0.59FDI 0.24 0.49 0.33 0.34 0.23 0.34 -0.30 0.44government -0.12 -0.02 0.08 -0.48 0.51 0.02 0.24 -0.27 -0.24SOE -0.31 -0.15 -0.31 -0.55 0.14 -0.18 0.21 -0.44 -0.29 0.36
32of the effects of business creation entrepreneurship and innovation entrepreneurship on economic growth in Tables 2 and 3 respectively. 4.1 Effect of business creation entrepreneurship on economic groyth First, we treat business creation entrepreneurship as an exogenous variable and report the estimation results in the first three models. In Model (1) we include two control variables: one is “ratio of fixed asset investment to regional GDP” (investment), and the other is “logarithm of university student enrollment per 10,000 people” (education or human capital). China’s economy had relied heavily on fixed investment. Growth theory claims that both investment and human capital contribute to economic growth (Solow 1956[43]; Romer 1986[44]). The regression coefficient of business creation entrepreneurship is 0.005 and is statistically significant at 5 percent level. This shows that business creation entrepreneurship has a positive effect on economic growth. The coefficient of the initial output level (logyt-1) is negative and statistically significant, which implies that different regions of China tend to converge both to similar rates of growth and to similar levels of per capita income. This is consistent with Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1992)[45] for the case of the United States. As to regional convergence, Islam (1995)[35] suggests that persistent differences in technology and institutions, rather than capital per capita, are major obstacles to convergence. Of course, differences in technology and institutions are much less persistent across regions in a country than across different countries in the world. As to overidentification tests, both Sargan and Hansen tests fail to reject the null hypothesis that the instruments variables used in the GMM estimations are valid (p-value being greater than 0.1). Moreover, Arellano-Bond serial correlation test also fails to reject the null hypothesis of no second-order serial correlation (GMM estimation only requires the error term have no second-order serial correlation).Model (1), however, may have omitted other important variables in the growth equation. For example, some studies show that demographic factors like birth rate and senior dependency ratio may affect economic growth (Li and Zhang 2007[46]; Bloom and Williamson 1998[47]). Therefore, we control for these two variables in Model (2). There are also some studies that stress the impact institutional variables like government size and openness on growth (Barro 1991[16]; Levine and Renelt 1992[34]). Then we further include these two variables in Model (3). If entrepreneurship is related to these variables, then omitting them may lead to omitted variables bias. After including these control variables, we find that the economic significance and statistical significance of entrepreneurship change very little. This shows that our estimation results are fairly robust. In Model (3), FDI and human capital has a significantly positive effect on economic growth, which is consistent with our prediction. The other control variables, however, do not show any significant effect on growth. In the first three models, entrepreneurship is treated as an exogenous variable. However, entrepreneurship could be endogenous, which implies that the estimations in the first three models may not be consistent. To confirm that the positive effect of business creation entrepreneurship on economic growth is a causal relationship, we use “the share of staff and workers working in SOEs with a twenty-five-year lag” as the instrument for business creation entrepreneurship in Models (4), (5) and (6). We find that business creation entrepreneurship still has a significant positive effect on economic growth in Model (4), and the coefficient and significance do not change much after we control for other variables in Models (5) and (6). Human capital and FDI both have a positive impact on growth as expected. According to Bond et al. (2001)[48], a simple method to determine whether GMM estimation is biased or not is to check whether the coefficient of the lagged dependent variable is between the coefficients of pooled OLS regression and fixed effect regression. To roughly test the efficiency of GMM estimation, we do the pooled OLS estimation and fixed effect estimation including all the control variables, and the results suggest that the coefficient interval for the lagged dependent
33Shiyong ZHAO, et al Measuring the Role of Entrepreneurship in China’s Economic Growth, 1978-2008variable is (-0.561, -0.094). The actual coefficient of the lagged dependent variable in Model (6) is -0.486, which falls into the interval, suggesting that the GMM estimation is reliable. The robustness test shows that business creation entrepreneurship contributes to economic growth. Given the average coefficient of business creation entrepreneurship being 0.004, the economic growth rate over five years will increase by 4 percentage points (0.8 percentage points annually) if the share of employed people in private sectors increases by 10 percentage points. Or, if business creation entrepreneurship increases by one standard deviation, the annual growth rate will increase by 1.98 percentage points.1 If we use model (6) as an example, then the annual growth rate of per capital GDP will increase by 1.48% if business creation entrepreneurship increases by one standard deviation. This implies that business creation entrepreneurship has both an economically and statistically significant positive impact on economic growth. FDI shows 1. According to Table 1, the standard deviation of business-creation entrepreneurship is 24.69, so the annual growth rate will increase 0.004*24.69/5=1.975%. If we only use model (6), then the number is 0.003*24.69/5=1.48%.Table 3. The effect of business creation entrepreneurship on economic groythIndependent VariablesDependent variable: log(yit)-log(yi,t-1)Business creation entrepreneurship as an exogenous variableBusiness creation entrepreneurship as an endogenous variable(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)Business creation0.005**(2.55)0.006**(2.40)0.003**(2.07)0.004**(2.10)0.004**(2.29)0.003**(2.23)Log(yt-1)-0.169*(-1.85)-0.533*(-1.88)-0.493***(-3.16)-0.291**(-1.95)-0.469**(-2.28)-0.486***(-2.99)Investment0.000(0.17)0.003(0.54)-0.004(-1.43)-0.002(-0.70)-0.003(-0.85)-0.005(-1.61)Education0.042(0.83)0.106(0.70)0.192*(2.02)0.283*(1.87)0.262**(2.22)0.235**(2.23)Birth0.005(0.52)-0.004(-0.47)0.000(0.05)-0.003(-0.38)Dependency0.007(0.25)0.017(1.02)0.050**(2.81)0.039**(2.50)FDI0.014**(2.28)0.014*(2.02)Government0.009(1.50)0.001(0.23)D_1988-930.149***(4.58)0.256***(3.25)0.245***(5.98)0.150***(4.56)0.186***(3.23)0.195***(4.84)D_1993-980.033(0.43)0.266*(1.94)0.239***(3.34)0.059(0.86)0.127(0.98)0.138*(1.80)D_1998-030.088(0.79)0.388*(2.01)0.338***(2.88)0.027(0.28)0.115(0.55)0.198*(1.93)D_2003-08-0.016(-0.09)0.354(1.40)0.288(1.64)-0.195(-1.61)-0.078(-0.25)0.094(0.69)AR(1) 0.152 0.023 0.050 0.122 0.086 0.042AR(2) 0.370 0.388 0.459 0.227 0.436 0.548Sargan test 0.838 0.102 0.488 0.257 0.595 0.975Hansen test 0.278 0.220 0.446 0.278 0.204 0.745Observations 155 124 124 145 114 114Instruments 18 24 23 16 16 27Note. (1) Numbers in the parentheses are heteroscedasticity-robust t statistics. (2) *, ** and *** stand for 10%, 5% and 1% significance level respectively. (3) Sargan test and Hansen test both report the p-values of the test of overidentification restrictions. (4) AR(1) and AR(2) report the p-values of first-order and second-order Arellano-Bond serial correlation test. (5) In Models (4), (5) and (6), we use the share of employees working in SOEs in total employees twenty-five years ago as an instrumental variable for entrepreneurship. (6) Instruments report the number of instrumental variables used in each model.
34Table 4. The effect of innovation entrepreneurship on economic growthIndependentVariablesDependent variable: log(yit)-log(yi,t-1)Innovation entrepreneurship as an exogenous variableInnovation entrepreneurship as an endogenous variable(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)Innovation0.022(1.10)0.017(1.25)0.013(0.76)0.058**(2.33)0.065**(2.73)0.067**(2.64)Log(yt-1)-0.201(-1.65)-0.197*(-1.89)-0.303**(-2.43)-0.472**(-2.48)-0.559***(-3.33)-0.581***(-3.38)Investment0.000(0.21)0.001(0.73)-0.003(-1.17)-0.000(-0.04)-0.003(-0.83)-0.005*(-1.76)Education0.132(1.07)0.024(0.19)0.223**(1.80)0.166(1.47)0.270**(2.44)0.261**(2.48)Birth-0.012(-1.26)-0.004(-0.70)0.000(0.11)-0.000(-0.03)Dependency0.011(0.64)0.024**(2.07)0.064**(2.70)0.040*(1.90)FDI0.020**(2.44)0.014* (1.73)Government0.007(1.39)0.006(1.27)D_1988-930.140***(3.21)0.165***(3.54)0.156***(3.34)0.171***(4.33)0.120**(2.28)0.141***(3.72)D_1993-980.066(0.95)0.065(0.94)0.050(0.84)0.205**(2.23)0.126(1.34)0.162**(2.50)D_1998-030.184**(2.36)0.209**(2.64)0.133**(2.14)0.365**(2.46)0.195(1.26)0.269***(3.12)D_2003-080.085(1.27)0.170(1.34)-0.010(-0.12)0.356*(1.82)0.058(0.24)0.200(1.64)AR(1) 0.135 0.151 0.101 0.101 0.082 0.034AR(2) 0.375 0.413 0.448 0.206 0.345 0.992Sargan test 0.690 0.142 0.165 0.436 0.657 0.797Hansen test 0.692 0.137 0.507 0.176 0.473 0.432Observations 152 152 152 111 111 111Instruments 16 24 28 14 16 22Notes are the same with Table 3. significant positive effect on growth in both Model (3) and Model (6). Both models show that the annual growth rate will increase by 0.28 percentage points if FDI increases by 1 percentage point as a fraction of GDP. This result is consistent with Yao and Wei (2007) [40] and Zhao (2013)[41], which assert that China has benefited from foreign investment that enabled it to develop more rapidly than it could have developed if it had chosen or been forced to rely solely on its own savings. Education also shows significant positive effect on growth in Models (4), (5) and (6), which echoes Squicciarini and Voigtländer (2015)[49], who claim that “human capital is a strong predictor of economic development.” It is safe to say that without FDI inflow and human capital accumulation the kind of economic growth that China has enjoyed could never have occurred. Moreover, the two have reinforced one another. FDI inflow enables workers to be far more productive by providing them with the tools and technology to work with and increasing their knowledge and skills through “learning by doing.” And in turn the increased knowledge and skills of workers enable the foreign firms to be more productive. 4.2 Effect of innovation entrepreneurship on economic groyth In th is subsect ion , we use “ the number of patent grants” as a measure of innovation entrepreneurship and examine its effect on growth. In the first three models of Table 4, we treat innovation
35Shiyong ZHAO, et al Measuring the Role of Entrepreneurship in China’s Economic Growth, 1978-2008entrepreneurship as an exogenous variable. We find that although innovation entrepreneurship has an expected positive effect on growth, the estimation coefficients are not statistically significant even at the 10 percent level. The coefficient of initial per capita output level is basically significant at the 10 percent and 5 percent levels.As aforement ioned, ent repreneurship is potentially endogenous. To overcome the endogeneity problem, we also use the number of employees working in SOEs as a fraction of total urban employment with a twenty-five-year lag as an instrumental variable for innovation entrepreneurship in Models (4) – (6). Compared with Models (1) - (3), Models (4) - (6) show statistically significant positive effects of innovation entrepreneurship on growth and the coefficients are economically much larger. Moreover, the coefficient grows larger as we add more control variables into the regression model. Take Model (6) as an example, when innovation entrepreneurship increases by 1 percent, growth rates over five years will increase by 6.7 percentage points (or annual growth rate will increase by 1.34 percentage points). We pick model (6) to calculate the effect because model (6) controls for the most variables, and IV method is used. Therefore, model (6) is supposed to be the most robust. The p-values show that these models pass Sargan test, Hansen test and Arellano-Bond test. Moreover, the coefficients of the initial per capital output, education and FDI all show expected signs and are basically significant. All this shows that the GMM estimations with exogenous instruments are robust. In both Tables 2 and 3, government size, which is measured by the ratio of government expenditures to GDP, does not show any significant effect on growth. It is understandable because we don’t know where the government expenditures go. They may be used to build highways, railways or airports, which increases productivity; or they may be transferred to the poor, the elderly, or the unemployed, which has no obvious effect on growth. It is clear that the effect of entrepreneurship on economic growth is both statistically and economically significant over the sample period. Our finding is consistent with the predictions of Schumpeterian growth models . We bel ieve that the role of entrepreneurs in China’s economic growth will be even larger in both relative and absolute terms in the future. Because the main sources of growth in China have gradually shifted from heavy fixed investment and low labor cost advantage to business creation and technological innovation, in which entrepreneurs excel. In the 2017 World Economic Forum held in Dalian of China, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang reported that since 2014 there are on average 14,000 new firms get established every day, that is, more than 5 million new enterprises come out annually. As to innovation, as we mentioned above, there was no patent law in China before 1985, but by 2015 China has become the country with the largest number of patents granted in the world. The number of patents granted in China increased from 138 in 1985 to 1.72 million in 2015. The expenditure on R&D increased from RMB 10.26 billion to RMB 1.42 trillion over the same period (Ouyang, 2017) [50]. 5 ConclusionEntrepreneurs and entrepreneurship have played a critical role in China’s economic growth over the past thirty years. Based on China’s provincial-level panel data over 1978-2008, in this paper we include entrepreneurship into the growth regression model and explore the impact of entrepreneurship on economic growth. We further decompose entrepreneurship into business creation entrepreneurship and innovation entrepreneurship. Business creation entrepreneurship is measured by the share of employed persons in urban areas outside of state-owned and collective-owned organizations in total number of employed persons in urban areas. Innovation entrepreneurship is measured by the number of patents granted. To alleviate the possible endogeneity problem, we use the share of employees working in SOEs in total employment with a twenty-five-year lag as an instrumental variable for entrepreneurship. The regression results show that over our sample period both business creation
36entrepreneurship and innovation entrepreneurship have positive effects on China’s economic growth. On average, the annual growth rate will increase by 1.48 percentage points if business creation entrepreneurship increases by one standard deviation. And the annual growth rate will increase by 1.34 percentage points if innovation entrepreneurship increases by one percent. That is to say, economy grows faster in regions with more entrepreneurship. The results are still robust even when we control for different sets of demographic and institutional variables. O u r f i n d i n g a d d s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t o Schumpeter’s view that entrepreneurship is the engine of economic growth. However, to stress the role of entrepreneurship is not to denigrate the role of government. We hasten to add that entrepreneurship is not a sufficient condition for prosperity and it must be supplemented by “right” government policies. History suggests that the entrepreneurial spirit will always exist; the challenge to society is to channel entrepreneurial energies in economically productive ways. For example, government should protect the initiative and incentive of entrepreneurs to start businesses and innovate, and to provide basic infrastructure without which the economy would operate at a lower level of efficiency and effectiveness. Sloth and lack of enterprise flourish when hard work and the taking of risks are not rewarded. The lesson of history to date has shown that only in an economic system with well-protected private property, well-constructed infrastructure and well-safeguarded free market can entrepreneurship be brought into full play. The logic is straightforward: knowing that the government will protect one’s property encourages citizens (entrepreneurs) to take business risks, a prerequisite of wealth creation and economic growth. 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37Shiyong ZHAO, et al Measuring the Role of Entrepreneurship in China’s Economic Growth, 1978-2008New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980.[23] Knight, F. Risk, uncertainty, and profit. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1921.[24] Schultz, T. Investment in entrepreneurial ability. Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 1980, 82(4): 437-448.[25] Mises, L. Profit and loss. Illinois: Consumers Producers Economic Services, 1951.[26] Kirzner, I. Competition and entrepreneurship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973. [27] Levine, R., Rubinstein, Y. Smart and illicit: Who becomes an entrepreneur and do they earn more? Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2017, 132(2): 963-1018.[28] Wong, P., Ho, Y., Autio, E. Entrepreneurship, innovation and economic growth: Evidence from GEM data. Small Business Economics, 2005, 24(3): 335-350.[29] Davidsson, P. The domain of entrepreneurship research: Some suggestions. In Katz, J. and Shepherd, S. (Eds.) Advances in entrepreneurship, firm emergence and growth, Amsterdam, London: JAI Press, 2003.[30] NBS. China Statistical Yearbook. Beijing: China Statistical Press, 2009. [31] Acs, Z., Carlsson, B., Thurik. Small business in modern economy, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.[32] Greenspan, A. The Age of Turbulence. The Penguin Press, 2007.[33] Barro, R., Sala-i-Martin, X. Economic growth. New York, McGraw Hill, 1995.[34] Levine, R., Renelt, D. A sensitivity analysis of cross-country regressions. American Economic Review, 1992, 82(4): 942-963.[35] Islam, N. Growth empirics: A panel data approach. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1995, 110(4): 1127-1170.[36] Topel, R. Labor market and economic growth. Handbook of Labor Economics, 1999, 3(3): 2943-2984.[37] Arellano, M., Bond, S. Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. Review of Economic Studies, 1991, 58 (2): 277-297.[38] Arellano, M., Bover, O. Another look at the instrumental variable estimation of error-components models. Journal of Econometrics, 1995, 68(1): 29-51.[39] Blundell, R., Bond, S. Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. Journal of Econometrics, 1998, 87(1): 115-143.[40] Yao, S., Wei, K. Economic growth in the presence of FDI: The perspective of newly industrializing economies. Journal of Comparative Economics, 2007, 35(1): 211-234.[41] Zhao, S. Privatization, FDI inflow and economic growth: Evidence from China’s provinces, 1978-2008. Applied Economics, 2013, 45(15): 2127-2139. [42] Barro, R., Lee, J. International comparisons of educational attainment. Journal of Monetary Economics, 1993, 32(3): 363-394.[43] Solow, R. A contribution to the theory of economic growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1956, 70(1): 65-94.[44] Romer, P. Increasing return and long-run growth. Journal of Political Economy, 1986, 94(5): 1002-1037.[45] Barro, R., Sala-i-Martin, X. Convergence. Journal of Political Economy, 1992, 100(2): 223-251.[46] Li, H., Zhang, J. Do high birth rates hamper economic growth? Review of Economics and Statistics, 2007, 89(1): 110-117. [47] Bloom, D., Williamson, J. Demographic transitions and economic miracles in emerging Asia. World Bank Economic Review, 1998, 12(3): 419-455.[48] Bond, S., Hoeffler, A., Temple, J. GMM estimation of empirical growth models, 2001, CEPR Discussion Paper No. 3048. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=290522.[49] Squicciarini, M., Voigtländer, N. Human capital and industrialization: Evidence from the age of Enlightenment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2015, 130(4): 1825-1883.[50] Ouyang, Y. China style innovation: Pursuing and surpassing. Guangming Daily, 2017, July 30, 7.科研進展澳科大《葡萄牙投資環境報告》出版發行2018年是中國-葡語國家經貿合作論壇(澳門)成立的十五周年。回顧十五年來,澳門一直致力於服務和促進中國與葡語國家之間的經貿關係及在更多元領域的交流與合作。在國家發展的宏偉戰略下,澳門如何實踐、落實“中國與葡語國家商貿合作的服務平臺”的定位,助力和參與粵港澳大灣區和“一帶一路”建設是一個持續且需要不斷深化的課題。為響應特區政府建設“中葡平臺”及“促進本澳邁向亞太地區葡語人才培訓基地”,澳門科技大學商學院葡語國家研究團隊開展了葡語國家投資環境的系列國別研究報告編寫工作,《葡萄牙投資環境報告》作為葡語國家投資環境系列研究的第一部,已由經濟科學出版社出版。該報告從投資環境、政治與經濟環境、商業與政策及“澳門平臺”四個方面,分別針對葡萄牙的整體投資和產業發展狀況、中葡政治關係、葡萄牙貿易投資狀況和金融市場、消費市場等發展狀況進行了介紹和分析;特別針對在葡投資中的難點和熱點問題,給予了分析和建議。同時,也對如何利用澳門平臺及中葡平臺的發展給了政策建議。為配合研究系列,該報告還推出了“葡語國家投資環境資料庫(PLPIDB)”(www.plpidb.com),將葡語國家資料和研究成果與讀者和用戶分享。
38第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 澳門大學生生活質量的實證分析 ——以澳門科技大學為例石永東1,鄒文篪1,蒲小紅2*(1. 澳門科技大學商學院,澳門;2. 澳門科技大學國際學院,澳門)摘要: 目的 從人口統計特徵來分析比較不同大學生的生活質量差異及其原因,并提出改進建議。方法 本研究遵循世界衛生組織生活質量測定量表簡表(WHOQOL-BREF)對澳門科技大學362名學生進行了問卷調查。結果 澳門大學生的生活質量總體良好,不同大學生在生活質量的諸多方面有顯著差別,還有部分群體的生活質量偏低。結論 高校應該有針對性地開展多種活動、提供心理諮詢、實行培訓輔導等來幫助大學生提高生活質量。創新與貢獻 這是為數不多的以澳門大學生為研究對象、分析其生活質量的實證研究;所採用的研究方法更加規範科學;由於深入到條目上進行比較研究,所得到的發現更顯具體,所提出的改進措施針對性更強。關鍵詞: 澳門;大學生;生活質量;實證分析Empirical Analysis of Life Quality of College Students in Macau: Evidence from MUST Yongdong SHI1, Wenchi ZOU1, Xiaohong PU2*( 1. School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China ; 2. University International College, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstract: Objective To compare the differences in quality of life among various demographic student groups and discuss the probable causes and to provide a theoretical basis for its improvement. Method This study utilizes the WHOQOL-BREF scale (Chinese version) to measure the quality of life of 362 students from MUST (Macau University of Science and Technology) by questionnaire. Results The results show that most of the university students in Macau have general good quality of life. Various demographic student groups have significant differences in many items. A number of student groups have relatively low quality of life. Conclusion Accordingly universities in Macau ought to hold various activities, provide consultations and implement educations and trainings actively and effectively to help students to improve their quality of life. Innovation and contribution This empirical research is one of a small number of existing studies that examine quality of life of college students in Macau. With more standard and scientific methodology, and comparison analysis of the specific items, the results turn out to be more concrete and the measures put forward are more applicable.eeyords: Macau; College students; Quality of life; Empirical analysis收稿日期:2018-07-16;修訂日期:2018-08-08。資金資助項目:《賭博、喝酒、網癮對生活質量的影響:跨領域的比較研究》,澳門科技大學研究基金,項目號0500* 通訊作者:蒲小紅,女,博士,澳門科技大學國際學院助理教授,主要研究方向:博彩行為與心理、市場調研。 E-mail: xhpu@must.edu.mo,Tel: 00853- 88972956。
44研究發現澳門大學生在生活質量的諸多方面有顯著差別,這種差異可以概括為:女生的生活質量比男生高、≥ 25 歲的大學生比 18 ~ 24 歲的高、研究生比本科生的高、高收入的比低收入的高,非本澳的學生比本澳學生的生活質量高。研究還發現:18 ~ 24 歲、本科生、本澳學生,這樣一個群體在四個領域諸多條目上的得分都偏低,這個群體尤其值得高校管理者進一步關注。在社會關係和環境領域的多個方面女生得分高於男生,可能因為女生更擅長於處理複雜的社會關係、有更強的環境適應能力,這與同類研究結果相似[21]。而在生理和心理領域,男女生的得分無顯著差異,這與董曉梅等的研究不一致[9],可能原因為隨著經濟發展和女性社會地位的提高,性別間在生理和心理領域的差異逐步減小。大學生 25 歲及以上年齡組的得分在生理和心理上都高於 18 ~ 24 歲組,可能因為隨著年齡進入到 25 歲及以上,機體功能和心理逐步日趨成熟,同時因為成家立業生活條件改善、有來自家庭配偶的關愛等,所以生理和心理上的生活質量更高[22],這與馮文靜等的研究結果相似[23]。研究生學歷的得分明顯高於本科生,這可能與較高文化程度的人具有更多的知識去處理生理、心理健康問題,有較高的情商去處理社會關係和環境領域問題有關。對於不同收入而言,收入≥ 30000 澳門元學生的生活質量明顯高於收入< 30000 澳門元的學生,因為收入高的學生可以有更多的財務資源來滿足生活需要。對於不同生源而言,在心理和社會關係領域,非本澳學生的生活質量明顯高於本澳生。可能因為本澳學生大多有兼職,面臨學習和工作雙重壓力。另外可能因為本澳學生除了處理師生、同學關係之外,還要處理家庭和社會的多重關係。本研究以澳門大學生為研究對象、以澳門科技大學為例,從人口統計特徵來分析比較了不同大學生的生活質量差異及其原因,并提出了改進建議。由於深入到條目上進行比較研究,所得到的發現更顯具體,所提出的改進措施針對性更強。未來的研究可以進行多因素的綜合分析,比如同時考慮性別、年齡、學歷和生源地等若干因素的組合,可能會有更多發現。或者,如果能對澳門不同大學分別做類似研究,并將研究結果進行橫向比較,也可能會有一些有趣且有價值的發現。參 考 文 獻[1] 謝玉亮.當代大學生生活世界的人文審視.貴州師範大學學報(社會科學版),2007,(6):76-79.[2] 陳曉愛,茅力. 大學生生活品質研究現狀及展望. 中國學校衛生,2010,31(7):892-894.[3] 張文悅,郭天蔚,郭卓,等. 大學生的抑鬱狀態及生存品質與人格特質的關係. 中國心理衛生雜誌,2015,29(8):635-640.[4] 李雁楠,李鎰沖,張梅,等.健康相關生命質量的研究進展. 中華流行病學雜誌,2016,37(9):1311-1317.[5] 苗春霞,劉慎軍,卓朗,等. 江蘇省大學生生命品質現狀研究. 中國社會醫學雜誌,2017,34(2):149-152..[6] 高婷婷,項玉濤,張昭,等. 醫學院校大學生生活品質調查研究. 中國高等醫學教育,2017(4):36-37.[7] 郝峰,鄭鍇. 某高校檢驗學院在校大學生生命品質調查研究. 吉林醫藥學院學報,2017,38(3):181-183.[8] 白東豔,官坤祥,李強,等.廣州市高校大學生生存質量及其影響因素研究.中醫教育,2009,28(2):11-13.[9] 董曉梅,陳雄飛,王聲湧,等.粵港澳三地大學生生活質量現狀研究.中華預防醫學雜誌,2003,37(4):301.[10] 孔兆偉,楊忠偉,梁洪波,等. 澳門廣州兩地大學生生活品質比較分析. 中國學校衛生,2008,29(7):605-606.[11] 王琪,李小杉,趙薇,等. SF-36量表用於大學生生活品質調查的信效度評價. 中國學校衛生,2014,35(1):118-120.[12] 苗春霞,張萬紅. 大學生生命品質研究進展. 中國公共衛生,2009,25(9):1061-1062.[13] Huebner E S, Antaramian S P, Hills K J, et al. Stability and Predictive Validity of the Brief Multidimensional Students' Life Satisfaction Scale. Child Indicators Research, 2011, 4(1): 161-168.[14] Huebner E S. Initial Development of the Student's Life Satisfaction Scale. School Psychology International, 1991, 12(3): 231-240.[15] 苗春霞,張萬紅,黃水準. 大學生生命品質研究工具的敏感性分析. 中國衛生統計,2009,26(4):383-386.[16] Ziapour A, Kianipour N. Health-related quality of life among university students: The role of demographic variables. Journal of Clinical & Diagnostic Research, 2018, 12(3):JC01-JC04.[17] 澳門高等教育指標報告. https://www.gaes.gov.mo/big5/education/pdf/Report2015-2016sc.pdf[18] Skevington SM, Lotfy M, O'connell KA. The world health organization's WHOQOL-BREF quality of life assessment: Psychometric properties and results of the international field trial. A report from the WHOQOL group. Quality of Life Research, 2004, 13(2): 299-310.[19] 邢海燕,談榮梅,高向華,等.WHOQOL-BREF量表在流動人口生存質量評價中的應用.中國衛生事業管理,2011,6(276):471-473.[20] 苗春霞,張萬紅.大學生生命質量評價的理論建構.現代教育管理,2012,(5):105-108.
46第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 上證綜指的雙邊跳躍和時變擴散研究岳 偉1,孔繼紅2*(1. 澳門科技大學商學院,澳門;2. 南京師範大學商學院,南京)摘要: 本文提出了一個包含雙邊跳躍和非對稱擴散的跳躍擴散模型,以刻畫股價指數的動態性特徵。其中,擴散過程用於刻畫正常的連續性價格變動,跳躍過程用於捕捉非連續的異常價格突變;時變性波動率及維納過程生成了擴散過程,由泊松程序控制的上下跳躍大小分別遵循Pareto分佈和Beta分佈。採用上證綜指日交易資料的實證顯示,TSJDAGARCH模型很好地擬合了股指收益率的樣本矩特徵,其中時變性波動率和更多的向下跳躍共同驅動了收益率負偏性的形成,且跳躍是形成條件超額峰度的關鍵因素。而常數波動率TSJD模型將很多連續性波動識別為跳躍,高估了跳躍的強度。關鍵詞: 資產價格過程;雙邊跳躍擴散模型;最大似然估計;上證綜指An Analesis of Tyo-Sided Jump and Time-Vareing Diffusion of SSCIWei YUE1, Jihong KONG2*( 1.School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China; 2.School of Business, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China )Abstract: A proposed jump-diffusion model with two-sided jump and asymmetric diffusion process is specified to model the feature of dynamics of stock price index. In the model, diffusion process is designed to describe the normal continuous price innovation, while jump process is applied to capture discontinuous abnormal price sudden change. Diffusion process is produced by time-varying volatility and Wiener process, and jump arrival is controlled by Poisson process with up-jump and down-jump size following the Pareto and Beta distribution, respectively. The empirical analysis on Shanghai Securities Composite Index daily data concludes that TSJD-AGARCH model can fit the sample moments successfully, in which the dynamic volatility and more down jump of the model jointly drives the negative skewness of distribution of stock index return, and jump is a key factor forming conditional excess kurtosis. In comparison, TSJD model with constant volatility identifies much continuous innovation as jump, which overestimates the arrival rate of jump.eeyords: Asset Price Processes; Two Sides Jump-Diffusion model; MLE; SSCI收稿日期:2018-06-25;修訂日期:2018-09-14。*通訊作者:孔繼紅,男,管理學博士,南京師範大學金融學副教授。研究方向:金融工程與風險管理。E-mail: kongjihong@njnu.edu.cn,Tel: +0086- 025- 858982950 引言現代金融資產價格模型嚴重依賴于證券價格增量(或收益率)所遵循的概率分佈設定。其中,基本的常參數對數正態分佈假設(即幾何布朗運動),構成了 Black-Scholes 期權定價模型及其擴展的基礎[1]。二十世紀以來,金融資產收益率的波動率集聚性和高波動率的持久性現象[2],與條件分佈的厚尾性、非零偏態和超額峰度,以及期權價格的波動率微笑等一系列統計特徵,頻繁地被
58的影響,並類比預測了幾個模型下的收益率條件 / 無條件偏度和峰度係數。對上證指數的實證結果強烈地支持了 TSJD- AGARCH 模型的卓越表現。本文的主要結論如下:一、總體上,表明上證指數在正常消息驅動下表現出顯著的波動率集聚性和杠杆效應,而在異常消息衝擊下則表現出顯著的雙邊跳躍特徵。二、具體地,各模型在對收益率期望(水準值)的解釋上並無明顯不同。而對波動性的捕捉卻存在明顯的差異。具體地,方差的 AGARCH設定對收益率的正常變動部分形成的波動性(方差)提供了合理的解釋,糾正了常數方差設定下的 TSJD 模型下過高的泊松到達率估計值。三、更關鍵的是,對 AGARCH 設定所不能解釋的異常變化,通過模型中跳躍項的增加來捕捉。實證表明跳躍對收益率水準值和方差都產生了重要的影響,但對方差過程的影響比重更大。同時,非對稱跳躍設定更能區分上下跳躍的不同貢獻。而上證指數則表現為更多的下跳,且其至少對方差提供了更大的貢獻。此外,類比顯示含有跳躍項的模型能有效地捕捉到異常觀察資料,這有助於糾正 GBM- AGARCH 模型下,擬合得到的方差過程的非平穩性現象。參 考 文 獻[1] Black, F., and M. Scholes, The Pricing of Options and Corporate Liabilities[J], Journal of Political Economy, 1973, 81(3): 637-659.[2] Hwang, S., S. E. Satchell and P. L. Valls Pereira, How Persistent is Volatility? An Answer with Markov Regime Switching Stochastic Volatility Models [J], Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, 2007, 34(5-6): 1002–1024.[3] Jacquier, E., Polson, N. and Rossi, P., Bayesian analysis of stochastic volatility models with fat-tails and correlated errors [J], Journal of Econometrics, 2004, 122(1): 185- 212.[4] Andersen T. G., L. Benzo and J. Lu, An empirical investigation of continuous-time equity return models [J], Journal of Finance, 2002, 57(3): 1239- 1284.[5] Engle, R. F., V. Ng and M. Rothschild, Asset pricing with a factor ARCH covariance structure: Empirical estimates for treasury bills, Journal of Econometrics, 1992, 45(1): 213–238.[6] Merton, R. C., The impact on option pricing of specification error in the underlying stock price returns [J], Journal of Finance, 1976, 31(2): 333-350.[7] 孔繼紅. 基於非對稱擴散跳躍過程的利率模型研究[J]. 數量經濟技術經濟研究. 2014,(11): 103-117.[8] Ramzani C A, Zeng Y, Maximum likelihood estimation of asymmetric jump-diffusion process: Application to security prices [J], Social Sci-ence Research Network, 2002, http://ssrn.com/abstract= 606361.[9] Kou, S.G., A jump-diffusion model for option pricing [J], Manage-ment Science, 2002, 48(8): 1086-1101.[10] Ramezani, C. A., Y. Zeng, Maximum likelihood estimation of the double exponential jump-diffusion process [J], Annals of Finance, 2007, 3(4): 487-507.[11] Frame, S. J., C. A. Ramezani, Bayesian Estimation of Asymmetric Jump- Diffusion Processes [J]. Social Science Electronic Publishing, 2012, 9(3).[12] 任楓,汪波,段晶晶. 非對稱雙指數跳躍擴散模型的MCMC估計[J]. 系統工程. 2009(7): 39-42.[13] 劉曉曙. 三種雙指數跳躍擴散模型實證比較研究[J]. 南方經濟. 2008(2): 64-72.[14] Kou, S., and H. Wang, Option Pricing Under a Double Exponential Jump Diffusion Model [J]. Social Science Electronic Publishing, 2004, 50(9): 1178- 1192.[15] Sepp, A., Analytical pricing of double-barrier options under a double-exponential jump diffusion process: applications of Laplace transform [J]. International Journal of Theoretical & Applied Finance, 2011,7(2): 151-175.[16] Lee, R. W., Implied Volatility: Statics, Dynamics, and Probabilistic In-terpretation [C]. Recent Advances in Applied Probability, 2005: 241-268.[17] Anderluh, J. H. M., and J. A. M. V. D. Weide, Double-sided Parisian option pricing [J], Finance & Stochastics, 2009, 13(2): 205-238.[18] Albrecher, H., D. Kortschak and X. Zhou, Pricing of Parisian Options for a Jump-Diffusion Model with Two-Sided Jumps[J]. Applied Math-ematical Finance, 2012, 19(2): 97-129[19] Huang, J., and M. Huang, How Much of the Corporate-Treasury Yield Spread is Due to Credit Risk? [J] Working Paper, Social Science Elec-tronic Publishing, 2003, 2: 153-202.[20] Xu Y., and Y. Dong, Two-sided Jump-diffusion Model with Correlated Jumps under the Barrier Dividend Strategy [J], Contemporary Math-ematics and Statistics, 2013, 1: 92-108.[21] 董迎輝,徐亞娟. 障礙分紅策略下的相關雙邊跳擴散模型[J]. 數學學報(中文版). 2014,57(3): 581-592.[22] Cont, Rama, and P. Tankov, Financial Modelling with Jump Processes[M], Chapman & Hall, 2004: 79-114.[23] Ait-Sahalia, Y., Disentangling diffusion from jumps [J], Journal of Financial Economics, 2004, 74(3): 487- 528.[24] Ball, C. A., Torous, W. N., A simplified jump process for common stock returns. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 1983, 18(1): 53–65[25] Nowman, B., Gaussian estimation of single- factor continuous time models of the term structure of interest rates [J], Journal of Finance, 1997, 52(4): 1695- 1706.[26] Cox, J., J. E. Ingersoll, and S. A. Ross, A theory of the term structure of interest rates [J], Econometrica. 1985, 53: 385- 407.[27] Ait-Sahalia, Y., Testing continuous-time models of the spot interest rate [J]. Review of Financial Studies, 1996, 9(2): 385-426.[28] Eraker, B., M. Johannes and N. Plson, The Impact of Jumps in Volatil-ity and Returns [J], Journal of Finance, 2003, 58(3): 1269-1300.
60第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 Received 16 Jul. 2018; Revised 12 Oct. 2018*Corresponding author: Xiang Chen, Male, Ph. D student of School of Business of Macau University of Science and Technology. Research area: Organizational Behavior and Leadership. Email: gzurick@163.com, Tel: 00853-65705229Three-Wae Interactions of Emotional Intelligence, Inclusive Leadership, and Power Distance Orientation on Tyo-Dimensional Emploeee VoiceXiang CHEN*( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstract: Previous studies revealed that constructive voice produces innovation, whereas destructive voice elicits discord in organizations. Emotional intelligence has been identified to create one’s attitudes and influence employee voice. Drawing upon the framework of social exchange, inclusive leadership develops the leader-follower relationship into a higher level, by which the prosocial voice might be promoted while the destructively challenge-oriented expression would be decreased. However, employees with high power distance are less likely to value the norms of reciprocity than who with low. Hence, we investigated the three-way interaction of emotional intelligence, inclusive leadership, and power distance orientation on the two-dimensional voice. Participants were 214 subordinate-supervisor dyads who were surveyed in China. As expected, higher power distance orientation significantly weakened the effects of inclusive leadership on the positive relationship between emotional intelligence and constructive voice. However, the three-way interaction with destructive voice was insignificant. We discuss the limitations and directions for future research.eeyords: two-dimensional voice; Emotional intelligence;Inclusive leadership; Power distance orientation; Social exchange relationship情商,包容性領導和權力距離定位的三方互動與二維員工建言行為的關係陳 翔*(澳門科技大學商學院,澳門)摘要: 早期的研究中已指出建設性的建言行為能夠帶來企業創新,而破壞性的建言行為則會引起企業內部的失序。利用社會交換理論,包容性領導能夠提升領導—下屬關係的水平; 在一個高質量的關係水平下,親社會性的建言行為可能會被提高,而破壞性的挑戰言論將會被減少。然而,相比於低權力距離感的員工,高權力距離感的員工很少重視互惠的原則。這樣我們調查了情商,包容性領導和權力距離感在二維建言行為中的作用。調查數據來源於214份主管—下屬的問卷。正如理論假設,高權力距離取向減弱了包容性領導在情商與建設性建言行為關係中的作用;然而,卻未能影響其對於情商與破壞性建言行為的關係。我們同時討論了文章的不足和未來研究的方向。關鍵詞: 二維建言行為;情商;包容性領導;權力距離取向;社會交換關係
61Xiang CHEN Three-Way Interactions of Emotional Intelligence, Inclusive Leadership, and Power Distance Orientation on Two-Dimensional Employee Voice0 IntroductionIn the modern world, a leader needs to rapidly detect and correctly interpret the work-related issues, identify opportunities, and implement strategic adaptions. However, solutions to the problems cannot come from the leader alone (Hollander, 2012)[1]. Employees are required to provide valuable information for coping with fierce competition in the economic environment. Employee voice as a challenge-oriented organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) refers to the expression to influence organization’s policies and practices for improving organizational performance (Avery, 2003; Van Dyne & LePine, 1998)[2~3]. In terms of the message, voice behavior categorized into two forms, constructive and destructive. Constructive voice relates to the voluntary expression to speak up with suggestions, new ideas, and personal opinions (Maynes & Podsakoff, 2014)[4]; by which to benefit organizational innovation (Chen & Hou, 2016)[5]. In contrast, destructive voice describes the voluntary expression to speak out with grievances, harsh comments, and even disparaging opinions in workplace (Maynes & Podsakoff, 2014)[4]. Although destructive voice may aim at drawing members of organization attention to underlying or current problems within organization, it tends to undermine the cohesiveness among employees (Whiting et al., 2008)[6] and is harmful to organizational performance (Maynes & Podsakoff, 2014)[4]. Hence, academics and practitioners look forward to exploring what kinds of factors trigger employee to express constructive voice and withdraw overly criticizing opinions in organizations. According to the negative outcomes of voice behavior (Terwel et al., 2010)[7], individuals are required to weigh up the costs and gains before voicing their thoughts and opinions (Van Dyne et al., 2003)[8]. Sanfey and colleagues (2003)[9] recognized that people do not make decisions without emotions. Positive emotional states have been evidenced to promote cognitive intelligence in problem solving (Joseph & Newman, 2010)[10], it might increase the frequency of constructive voice. On the contrary, negative affective states tend to draw individual attention on the details, error, and mistake (Sinclair & Mark, 1992)[11]. As such, individuals who holds such emotional states are readily to speak out with complaints, criticizing opinions, and bad-mouthing in workplace. Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to manage one’s emotions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990)[12], it allows individual better to channelize emotional stress as well as employ cognitive thinking in problem solving. Previous studies suggested that emotional intelligence has a strong association with the quality of relationship, such that, high emotional intell igently individuals are more appreciate interpersonal relationships with others than who with low (Badawy & Magdy, 2015; Law, Wong, & Song, 2004)[13~14]. Drawing upon the affective information processing (AIP), employees with high emotional intelligence are likely to recognized that positive voice is beneficial to establish a high-quality relationship with their authorities, whereas negative message may undermine the interpersonal relationship. Therefore, we expected to find the effects of emotional intelligence on the two-dimensional employee voice behavior.Based on the framework of social exchange (Blau, 1964)[15], employees’ attitudes and initial behaviors can be altered by leadership in organizations (Northouse, 2015)[16]. Prior studies emphasized that social exchange is a reciprocal relationship which through normative commitment. However, normative commitment cannot guarantee to produce extra-role behaviors (Saks, 2006)[17]. Inclusive leadership refers to the managerial style to seek out an optimal spot between belongingness and uniqueness, as well as devotes to cultivate followers to be a leader (Hollander, 2012)[1]. As such, an affective commitment might be shape between leaders and followers. The relationship between them would be transform into the higher level. Hence, inclusive leadership may facilitate the quality of leader-follower relationship and promote prosocial behavior, whereas deviance would be reduced in organizations. Therefore, we investigated the effects of inclusive leadership on the relationship between emotional intelligence and
62two-dimensional voice behaviors. However, power distance is one of cultural value dimensions that impact exchange ideology and expectations of leadership schemata (Kirkman et al., 2009; Wu & Charurvedi, 2009)[18~19]. Power distance orientation is located at the individual level instead of societal level, reflects individual how to perceive unequal power distributed (Hofstede, 2001)[20]. Previous researches proposed that power distance orientation can model leader prototype by which to influence the effects of leadership on employee behaviors (Kirkman et al., 2009; Wu & Charurvedi, 2009)[18~19]. If the leadership is incongruent with the expectation of leader schemata, followers tend to believe that such managerial style is futile (Yuan & Zhou, 2015)[21]. Therefore, we examined how power distance orientation effects the moderating role of inclusive leadership on the relationship between emotional intelligence and two-dimensional voice behavior.This study aims to examine the three-way interactions of emotional intelligence, inclusive leadership, and power distance orientation on constructive and destructive voice. First, earlier researches simply emphasized on the positive side of employee voice, the present study breaks through the limitation of the past. Distinguish from the promotive-prohibitive employee voice (Liang et al., 2012)[22], we concerned the challenge-oriented characteristic of voice, and regarded the constructive and destructive voice on the present research. Second, voice is a planned behavior that requires individuals to analyze the pros and cons before speaking up. Emotional intelligence not only influences the frequency of employee voice, but also alters the message of speaking out; therefore, the present study was attempted to complete the literature regarding the emotion-voice relationship. Third, most of researches simply concentrated social exchange theory on the norms of reciprocity. However, we considered that the exchange relationship between leaders and followers should be categorized into a progressing model with three phases. As such, this study explored the framework of social exchange on the relationship between leaders and followers. Forth, inclusive leadership has been suggested to encourage divergent thinking in organization, hence it impacts the forms of employee voice directly. Moreover, such managerial style concerns about how to cultivate subordinates to be a leader, that would develop the follower-leader relationship into the higher level. Therefore, we explored the effects of inclusive leadership on the social exchange relationship between leaders and followers. Last but not the least, power distance orientation as a cultural value effects how employees perceive exchange ideology and leaders’ behaviors. Therefore, we examined the effect of power distance orientation on the processes of social exchange, as well as explored such cultural value altering inclusive leadership effectiveness on employee voice behavior.1 Theoretical background Traditional perspectives at the framework of social exchange concern about a fair equilibrium and the past experiences during the proceeding, but less value the interpersonal development and the future relationship between the parties. Social exchange theory as a quasi-economic proceeding remains certain economic attributions (Emerson, 1976)[23], where the receivers must return an equal-valued favor to the givers. Moreover, the exchange is not a one-off process (Cropanzano, Russell, & Mitchell, 2005)[24], rather, it is a self-reinforcing cycle system. However, the norms of reciprocity value the quid pro quo of exchange in a fair equilibrium, and that is inconsistent with an incremental interpersonal model. Therefore, we proposed that the exchange relationship should be classified into three phases: (a) negotiated, where the parties can bargain the exchange arrangement (Molm et al., 2000)[25]; (b) reciprocal, in which two parties cannot specify the exchange resources and relies on the future obligation (Molm et al. 2003)[26]; and (c) productive, where the parties tend to exert more efforts on a high-quality interpersonal relationship and affective commitment between each other. These three exchange relationships are a
63Xiang CHEN Three-Way Interactions of Emotional Intelligence, Inclusive Leadership, and Power Distance Orientation on Two-Dimensional Employee Voiceprogressive model. If the parties perceive fairness, then the interpersonal relationship would stay in the initiating phase (Masterson et al., 2003)[27]; on the contrary, if they perceive the exchange is injustice, then their relationship might be regressed to the lower level (Colbert et al., 2004)[28]. Alternatively, if a party recognizes an extra investment from another, hence then the relationship between them might be developed into the higher level (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002)[29]. However, the norms and rules of social exchange are not universal principles and have boundary conditions. Power distance has been recognized to influence the exchange ideology (Wu & Charurvedi, 2009)[19], it can alter the perceptions of fairness as well as the attitudes about the relationship between leaders and followers (Lee & Antonakis, 2014)[30]. Taken together, we believed that the framework of social exchange serves to understand the assumptions presented in this study. 2 Hypotheses development2.1 Emotional intelligence and employee voiceEmotion has been recognized in relation to creativity (Li, 2011)[31], contextual performance (Ahlstrom, 2014)[32], and organizational commitment (Li, Ahlstrom, & Ashkanasy, 2010)[33]. Emotional intelligence refers to a set of competencies to accurately identify specific emotion, correctly analyze the causes and consequences of emotion, rapidly adapt to changing situation, and effectively improve self-efficacy (Mayer & Salovey, 1997)[34]. The perception of emotions involves the competency to use multiple perspectives in situation evaluation (Jordan et al., 2002)[35], hence then employees with higher emotion perception tend to express with new ideas and better methods to solve work-related problems. In addition, emotion utilization has been recognized can allow individual to think in positive and make an optimal decision (Grant & Berry, 2011)[36]. For example, individuals who with high emotional intelligence are more likely to understand what kinds of emotional states should be employed in problem solving than those with low (Seo & Barrett, 2007)[37]. Drawing upon the AIP model, employees with high emotional intelligence tend to create enthusiastic affective states to direct their attention to creativity (Parke et al., 2015)[38]. Therefore, high emotional intelligently employees are more likely to express with constructive voice in workplace than those with low. On the other hand, theorists indicated that emotional intelligence is beneficial to social skill (Law, Wong, & Song, 2004)[14], interpersonal interaction (Joseph & Newman, 2010)[10], and a high-quality relationship (Farh et al., 2012)[39]. For example, employees with high emotional intelligence may have high-quality relationships with their co-workers, hence then they are more likely to perceive support than those with low in organizations. Therefore, they would like to exhibit risk-taking behaviors, such as constructive voice. Moreover, high interpersonal relationship between leaders and followers allows employees to perceive in-group status and promotes prosocial behaviors, such that, improve-oriented voice would be increased in organizations. Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis: ● Hypothesis 1a: Emotional intelligence will be positively associated with constructive voice.Emotion understanding refers to the capability to recognize the causes and results of emotions, by which, individual can read the information behind the emotional cues correctly (Joseph & Newman, 2010)[10]. For example, individuals with higher emotion understanding tend to identify that harshly criticizing opinions would evoke negative feelings to supervisor and may result in formal sanctions, hence then they are less likely to speak out with destructive voice in organizations. In terms of cascading model, emotional awareness provides knowledges of emotion and builds up a set of emotional diagnostic procedure, hence then trigger strategic emotional responses in a given situation (Joseph & Newman, 2010; Mayer et al., 2008)[10, 40]. Emotion regulation refers to the capability to employ appropriate strategies for coping with emotional issues (Côté, 2014)[41]. As such, employees with high emotion regulation are more likely to capitalize an effective strategy on
64channelizing negative emotions than those with low, hence then they would withdraw complaints and disparaging comments in workplace (Gross & John, 2003)[42].Mayer and Salovey (1997: 22)[34] summarized “using the emotions as one basis of thinking, and thinking with emotions themselves, may be related to important social competencies and adaptive behavior.” Individuals with high emotional intelligence can rapidly and correctly interpret others’ moods and feelings, by which, they are readily to have high-quality relationships with others and social capital. In other words, high emotional intelligently employees are less likely to perceive powerlessness than those with low. As such, they are unlikely to speak out with grievances and harsh comments in organizations. Moreover, poor interpersonal relationships with others are harmful to organizational commitment (Jehn & Chatman, 2000)[43]. For example, low-quality relationships with others allow individuals to perceive powerlessness and psychological detachment; as such, they are more likely to express with overly criticizing opinions and complaints in workplace than those have high-quality interpersonal relationships. Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis: ● Hypothesis 1b: Emotional intelligence will be negatively associated with destructive voice.2.2 Interaction betyeen emotional intelligence and inclusive leadershipBased on the ideas of interdependence, the contemporary models of leadership are emphasized the role of follower on the leadership effectiveness. Inclusive leadership has been recognized as an effective managerial style to make balance between belongingness and uniqueness (Carmeli et al., 2010; Hollander, 2012)[44, 1]. Inclusive leaders tend to invite and value divergent thoughts and different perspectives, as well as encourage followers to challenge the traditional work patterns and provide better methods for improving work efficiency (Mitchell et al., 2015)[45]. In this case, employees would perceive new ideas, suggestions, and dissenting opinions are welcomed; therefore, they are likely to speak out with challenge-oriented voice in organizations. Moreover, inclusive leadership allows followers to perceive in-group status and respected (Bower, Robertson, & Parchman, 2012)[46], as well as, it has been identified to promote organizational commitments (Detert & Burris, 2007)[47]. As such, employees are more likely to speak up with improve-oriented voice in the workplace when they are treated by inclusive leadership rather than lack of it.Previous studies theorized that employees who perceive organizational support are more likely to shape affective commitment to organization than those who lacks of it (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002)[29]; such that, they are not simply to promote in-role performances but also exhibit extra mile for organizational improvement. Inclusive leadership is demanded to provide supportive behaviors for cultivating followers to be leaders (Hollander, 2012)[1], by which, employees are likely to perceive organizational support. In terms of social exchange theory, employees tend to seek a balance in the relationship with organizations. As such, the exchange relationship between leaders and followers are developed into productive level, in turn, employees would exert more efforts to the organization, such as constructive voice. In contrast, low inclusive leadership less concerns employees’ personal achievement and few trusting feelings on them. As such, the interpersonal relationship between leaders and followers tend to stay at the initiating phase. In this situation, employees may exhibit more defense-oriented responses and less risk-taking behaviors to organizations. Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis: ● Hypothesis 2a: Inclusive leadership will moderate the effects of emotional intelligence on constructive voice, such that when it is high, the positive effect of emotional intelligence on constructive voice will be stronger than when it is low.Compared to constructive voice, destructive voice is more likely to receive negative appraisal although its purpose is in order to draw the attention
65Xiang CHEN Three-Way Interactions of Emotional Intelligence, Inclusive Leadership, and Power Distance Orientation on Two-Dimensional Employee Voiceof organization to the underlying problems. In terms of cost-benefit calculation, employees are less likely to speak out with grievances, overly criticizing opinions, and even disparaging comments in workplace; unless they are short of capabilities to channelize the initial or negative feelings, as well as cannot find a better way to cope with the work-related issues. Drawing upon the fairness theory (Brockner & Wiesenfeld, 1996)[48], inclusive leadership emphasizes to invite maximum employees to participate in decision making and executions, hence then an inclusionary climate would be formed (Jawahar, 2007)[49]. In this situation, employees tend to perceive procedural fairness and decrease the frequency of grievances. Moreover, approachable behaviors from supervisors are likely to allow employees to perceive interpersonal fairness and even in-group status (Chen & Aryee, 2007)[50]; therefore, followers are more exhibit affiliative behaviors and less display hostile attitudes in organizations (Shaw et al., 2003)[51]. In contrast, employees would less perceive procedural and interpersonal fairness when leaders are reluctant to exhibit openness and accessibility during interaction with them. As such, they tend to speak out with complaints, harsh comments, or even debasing opinions in the organization. Employees with low emotional intelligence have been evidenced that are less interaction with others due to their social skills are weak (Goleman, 2006)[52]; such that, the relationship between leaders and followers are simply at the negotiated level. In this case, individuals tend to speak out with grievances and overly criticizing opinions when organizations cannot satisfy their demands during limited time. Although low emotional intelligently individuals are likely to perceive powerlessness and uncertainty, supportive behaviors from supervisors may alleviate such negatively affective states and improve their confident to fix the problems. Inclusive leadership has been identified to provide supportive behaviors to followers, such as substantive and psychological support. Therefore, they might perceive organizational support and promote their self-efficacy to coping with work-related issues. In terms of resource dependence theory, leaders as a dominant role influence on the relationship with their follower (Kirkman et al., 2009)[18]. As a result, the exchange relationship could be developed into a higher level – reciprocal stage. Within the reciprocal exchange relationship, employees tend to form normative commitments (Choi, Tran & Park, 2015)[53] and obligations to organizations (Walumbwa et al., 2011)[54]. Therefore, they are less likely to speak out with destructive voice among co-workers. Consequently, we proposed the following hypothesis: ● Hypothesis 2b: Inclusive leadership will moderate the effects of emotional intelligence on destructive voice, such that when it is high, the negative effect of emotional intelligence on destructive voice will be weaker than when it is low.2.3 Interactive effects of emotional intelligence, inclusive leadership, and power distance orientationAccording to the characteristics of inclusive leadership, it has been categorized into people-oriented managerial styles (Hollander, 2012)[1]. Power distance orientation as one of cultural values could alter the beliefs about the relationship between supervisors and subordinates (Hofstede, 2001)[20]. For example, employees who hold high power distance tend to accept and expect the status difference between leaders and followers, hence then they are more likely to exhibit compliance and deference to the authority than those with low (Taras et al., 2010)[55]. Inclusive leaders incline to utilize the heuristics to promote employees’ competencies of analyzing and solving problems, hence then they are likely to invite and encourage followers to voice during decision making (Van der Vegt et al., 2005)[56]. However, individuals with high power distance orientation prefer to be ordered with explicit instruments rather than open-ended questions, such that, subordinates would feel confused and uncomfortable to speak out with personal opinions in workplace. As a result, inclusive leadership is incongruent with the expectations of leadership schemata in high power distance orientation.
66Dominance complementarity theory suggests that an effective and continuing interpersonal relationship depends on the complementary dominance and submissiveness values. In the situation of high power distance, leaders as an agent are located on the dominant role identity and are expected to make all decisions; as opposite, followers as a submissive role tend to comply with the directions from their authorities and accept the centralization in organizations (Kirkman, et al., 2009)[18]. However, inclusive leaders are required to exhibit supportive and affirmative behaviors for facilitating their followers to achieve organizational and personal performance. Hence, the effects of inclusive leadership on the relationship between leaders and followers would be weakened. On the contrary, individuals with lower power distance are more likely to anticipate leaders to share the power and participate in decision making and executions. In this case, employees tend to take the dominant role identity, while inclusive leadership would be aligned with their expectation; such that, the effects of leadership on the exchange relationship between supervisors and subordinates could be strengthened. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: ● Hypothesis 3a: The positive relationship b e t w e e n e m o t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d constructive voice will be moderated by a combination variable of inclusive leadership and power distance orientation, such that emotional intelligence positively associated with constructive voice will be strongest when power distance orientation is low and inclusive leadership is high.Previous research has evidenced that followers with high power distance orientation are less likely to voice in front of a high-status individual than those with low (Hui et al., 2004)[57]. Moreover, they prone to feel uncomfortable and stressed when the authority invite them to participate in decision making (Sadri et al., 2011)[58]. As such, employees who holds high power distance tend to perceive an openly mutual communication with leaders is void and even fake. In this case, they are reluctant to speak up with personal opinions in organization, especially challenge-oriented voice. However, high-power-distance-oriented individuals prefer to express their ideas or comment work-related issues by an indirect way (Chen et al., 2011)[59]. As such, they might speak out with grievances, harsh comments, and disparaging opinions among peers. In contrast, employees with low power distance orientation prone to concern about a fair treatment from their supervisors (Daniels & Greguras, 2014)[60]. In this case, inclusive leadership is more likely to facilitate followers to perceive fairness in organizations. As a result, they would less express with destructive voice toward their supervisors and co-workers. Moreover, individuals with high power distance orientation are less likely to establish a personalize relationship with supervisor (Farh et al., 2007)[61], rather, they expect a formal and regimented working relationship with their authority (Lian, Ferris & Brown, 2012)[62]. In such situation, employees with high power distance orientation tend to feel uncomfortable and stressed when the authority exhibit amiable and affiliative treatment to them. Therefore, the effects of inclusive leadership on interpersonal relationship between leaders and followers would be weaken. On the other hand, individuals with high power distance assume that the status and power between leader and follower are different (Ratcliff et al., 2012)[63]. As such, employees hesitate to be trained for becoming a leader. In other words, they would less perceive organizational support even if their supervisors provide supportive behaviors. Consequently, power distance orientation tends to weaken the effects of inclusive leadership on diminishing the possibility of destructive voice in organizations. Therefore, we proposed the following hypotheses: ● Hypothesis 3b: The negative relationship b e t w e e n e m o t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d destructive voice will be moderated by a combination variable of inclusive leadership and power distance orientation, such that
67Xiang CHEN Three-Way Interactions of Emotional Intelligence, Inclusive Leadership, and Power Distance Orientation on Two-Dimensional Employee Voiceemotional intelligence negatively associated with destructive voice will be weakest when power distance orientation is low and inclusive leadership is high.3 Methodologe3.1 Participants and procedureWe collected data from four accounting firms in the south of China. All respondents were full-time employees in the companies. In this research, independent variables (Emotional intelligence, Inclusive leadership, and Power distance orientation) were estimated by subordinates, whereas, dependent variables (Constructive and Destructive voice behaviors) were assessed by their immediate supervisors. The investigated ratio of subordinate to supervisor was 5:1.Initially, we contacted the human resource departments of the companies and explained the objectives of our study, assuring that responses would be kept confidential, and encouraging participation. We coded the questionnaires to identify coupled responses. During the respondents’ working hours, the questionnaires were completed through on-site processing. We translated all questions into Chinese followed by the procedure of back-translation (Brislin, 1980)[64]. The Chinese version of the questionnaire was compared by two bilingual Chinese Ph.D. students in university, and no inconsistencies, inappropriate or ambiguous words were detected. Consequently, 214 supervisors–subordinates pairs of questionnaires were available, which corresponds to a response rate of 89.2%. For the employee respondents, the average age was 30.93 years (SD = 4.247); 57.9% were female; 91.6% had achieved at least an undergraduate degree; the average for occupational experience was 7.883 years (SD = 4.192); and the average tenure with their immediate supervisor was 5.818 years (SD = 2.651).3.2 MeasureAll measurements used in this study were adapted from existing scales in the prior literature. We conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine the reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity among key variables. To preserve appropriate statistical power, all assumptions were operated by two-stage approach. We concerned emotional intelligence as a latent variable, it with four dimensions serving as second-order factors. Similarly, inclusive leadership was a latent variable, with three dimensions serving as second-order indicators. In the second stage, we used latent variable scores to assess structural model.3.2.1 Emotional intelligenceEmotional intelligence was measured from WLEIS, developed by Law and colleagues (2004)[14]. Ratings were “1 = totally disagree’ to ‘7 = totally agree.” It consists of four dimensions (16 items): Appraisal and expression of emotion in oneself (4 items), a sample item includes “I have a good sense of why I have certain feelings most of the time”; Appraisal and recognition of emotion in others (4 items), a sample item involves “I am a good observer of others’ emotions”; Regulation of emotion in oneself (4 items), a sample item includes “I am quite capable of controlling my own emotions.”; Use of emotion to facilitate performance (4 items), a sample item includes “I always tell myself I am a competent person”. We obtained values of 0.974 for composite reliability (CR), and with value of 0.700 for average variance extracted (AVE).3.2.2 Inclusive leadershipInclusive leadership comprised openness, availability, and accessibility, using a 9-item scale developed by Carmeli et al. (2010)[44]. The scales were evaluated by a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from “1 = not at all” to “5 = to a large extent.” Sample items were “The manager is open to discuss the desired goals and new ways to achieve them” (openness, 3 items); “The manager is available for professional questions I would like to consult with him/her” (availability, 4 items); “The manager is accessible for discussing emerging problems” (accessibility, 2 items). We obtained CR values of 0.974, for AVE the value was 0.805.3.2.3 Power distance orientationWe measured power distance orientation using
68a 6-item scale developed by Dorfman and Howell (1988)[65]. The response scale for all items ranged from “1 = strongly disagree” to “5 = strongly agree.” A sample item incorporates “Managers should make most decisions without consulting subordinates”. The construct of power distance orientation obtained a CR value was 0.938, while the AVE value of 0.716 gave a strongly convergent validity.3.2.4 Constructive voiceDist inct from the earl ier measurements , constructive voice scales rely on voice events instead of voice actor, which were developed by Maynes and Podsakoff (2014)[4]. The five items were rated by a 7-point Likert-type scale, where “1 = strongly disagree” to “7 = strongly agree.” A sample item is “This employee often speaks up with recommendations about how to fix work-related problems.” We obtained a CR of 0.867. Moreover, and the AVE value of 0.570 was acceptable (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988)[66].3.2.5 Destructive voiceWe investigated destructive voice using a 5-item scale developed by Maynes and Podsakoff’s (2014)[4] measurement of destructive voice. The response scale for all items ranged from “1 = strongly disagree” to “7 = strongly agree.” A sample item includes “This employee often bad-mouths the organization’s policies or objectives.” We obtained a CR value of 0.919, while the AVE value of 0.696.3.2.6 Control variablesIn the present study, we controlled for a set of demographic variables to investigate the robustness of the assumptions. The set of variables comprised age (years), gender (0 = female, 1 = male), educational level (1 = high school, 2 = college, 3 = undergraduate degree, 4 = master’s degree, 5 = doctoral degree), tenure with subordinate’s immediate supervisor (years), and occupational experiences (years), which have been associated with voice behavior (LePine & Van Dyne, 1998)[67].We used Forne l l -Larcker Cr i te r ion and Hetrotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) to investigate the discriminant validity for all key latent variables. As Table 1 shows, all values on the diagonal are greater than the others values, such that, they may have discriminant validities. Further, Table 2 presents that all values were lesser than 0.85, that proving all key variables had stronger discriminate validity as well (Chin, 2010)[68]. Taken together, proposed variables are revealed significantly discriminant validities. Table 1. Fornell-Larcker Criterion for All ee Latent VariablesEI IL PDO CV DSVEI 0.837IL –0.070 0.897PDO –0.005 0.142 0.846CV 0.304 0.296 –0.253 0.755DSV –0.227 –0.346 –0.183 –.0323 0.834Note. N = 214. EI = Emotional Intelligence, IL = Inclusive Leadership, PDO = Power Distance Orientation, CV = Constructive Voice, DSV = Destructive VoiceTable 2. Hetrotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) for All ee Latent VariablesEI IL PDO CV DSVEIIL 0.080PDO 0.051 0.141CV 0.296 0.291 0.234DSV 0.225 0.346 0.183 0.325Note. EI = Emotional Intelligence, IL = Inclusive Leadership, PDO = Power Distance Orientation, CV = Constructive Voice, DSV = Destructive Voice3.3 Analesis procedureWe used latent variable scores to assess structural models, as well as conducted hierarchical moderated regression models to investigate all assumptions. In the analyses presented, we entered the demographic information (age, gender, educational level , experiences, and tenure with supervisor) as the control variables in Step 1. In Step 2, emotional intelligence as a main independent variable was entered, in Step 3, we entered two moderators (inclusive leadership and power distance orientation), subsequently, the two-way interaction terms (emotional intelligence × inclusive leadership, emotional intelligence × power distance orientation, and inclusive leadership × power distance orientation) were entered in Step 4, and in the final Step, the three-way interaction (emotional
69Xiang CHEN Three-Way Interactions of Emotional Intelligence, Inclusive Leadership, and Power Distance Orientation on Two-Dimensional Employee Voiceintelligence × inclusive leadership × power distance orientation) was entered.4 Results Descriptive statistics and correlations among the key variables (without control variables) are reported in Table 3. As indicated by the correlation matrix, emotional intelligence, inclusive leadership, and power distance orientation correlated to the two dependent variables separately. Moreover, constructive voice was negatively and significantly correlated to destructive voice.Table 3. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation for Key VariablesVariables Mean S.D. 1 2 3 41. EI 5.629 0.7152. IL 3.029 0.962 −0.0683. PDO 2.459 0.801 −0.006 0.1354. CV 4.329 0.576 0.286** 0.276** −0.241**5. DSV 3.83 0.707 −0.215** −0.328** −0.171* −0.290**Note: N = 214. All variables CR > 0.7, AVE > 0.5. EI = Emotional Intelligence, IL = Inclusive Leadership, PDO = Power Distance Orientation, CV = Constructive Voice, DSV = Destructive Voice. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, two-tailed.Table 4. Results of Hierarchical Moderated Regression Analyses for Constructive VoiceVariablesConstructive voiceModel 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5Age −0.251 −0.231 −0.207 −0.179 −0.206Gender −0.220 −0.229 −0.216 −0.154 −0.131Educational level 1.044* 0.768 0.796 0.751 0.817Experiences 0.194 0.182 0.178 0.163 0.188Tenure with supervisor 0.140* 0.075 0.047 0.031 0.031EI 0.249** 0.261** 0.228** 0.264**IL 0.331*** 0.292*** 0.294***PDO −0.283*** −0.243*** −0.246***EI × IL 0.131* 0.120EI × PDO −0.127* −0.106IL × PDO −0.134* −0.117EI × IL × PDO −0.117*R2 0.081 0.114 0.276 0.317 0.332Adjusted R2 0.058 0.088 0.248 0.280 0.292F 3.643** 4.428*** 9.785*** 8.535*** 8.327***F change 7.762** 23.030*** 4.040** 4.438*Note. N = 214. All variables used latent variable scores via PLS Algorithm. EI = Emotional Intelligence, IL = Inclusive Leadership, PDO = Power Distance Orientation. *p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, two-tailed.Table 5. Results of Hierarchical Moderated Regression Analyses for Destructive VoiceVariablesDestructive voiceModel 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5Age −0.112 −0.143 −0.178 −0.194 −0.201Gender 0.093 0.108 0.087 -0.023 −0.019Educational level 0.246 0.678 0.701 0.680 0.698Experiences 0.121 0.140 0.173 0.169 0.176Tenure with supervisor −0.017 0.085 0.071 0.089 0.089EI −0.390*** −0.380*** −0.327*** −0.317***IL −0.316*** −0.260*** −0.260***PDO −0.122 −0.179** −0.180**EI × IL −0.243*** −0.246***EI × PDO 0.259*** 0.264***IL × PDO 0.074 0.078EI × IL × PDO −0.032R2 0.004 0.086 0.209 0.304 0.305Adjusted R2 −0.020 0.060 0.178 0.266 0.264F 0.184 3.247** 6.762*** 8.019*** 7.352***F change 18.485*** 15.906*** 9.206*** 0.316Note. N = 214. All variables used latent variable scores via PLS Algorithm. EI = Emotional Intelligence, IL = Inclusive Leadership, PDO = Power Distance Orientation. *p < 0.05, ** p <0.01, ***p < 0.001, two-tailed.
70The results involving two forms of voice behaviors as the dependent variables are presented in Tables 4 and 5 with unstandardized beta coefficients. Model 2 in Table 4 shows that emotional intelligence was positively associated with constructive voice ( β = 0.249, p < 0.01). Moreover, emotional intelligence explained 11.4% variance in constructive voice (F = 4.428, p < 0.001). As a result, Hypothesis 1a was supported. Model 2 in Table 5 shows that the negative relationship between emotional intelligence and destructive voice ( β = −0.390, p < 0.001) was significant. Further, emotional intelligence explained 8.6% variance in destructive voice ( F = 3.247, p < 0.01). Hypothesis 1b was therefore supported.Model 4 in Table 4 posited that inclusive leadership strengthens the positive relationship of emotional intelligence and constructive voice ( β = 0.131, p < 0.05). Moreover, emotional intelligence explained an additional 4.1% (F = 8.535, p < 0.001) variance on constructive voice. Further, consistent with Aiken and West (1991)[69], the simple slope test of moderating effect showed that when inclusive leadership was high the relationship between emotional intelligence and constructive voice was strongly positive and significant ( β = 0.359, p < 0.001), but when inclusive leadership was low the positive relationship between emotional intelligence and constructive voice was insignificant ( β = 0.097, ns). We plotted Figure 1 as the graphical representation of this interactional effect, each variable with one standard deviation above and below the mean. Therefore, Hypothesis 2a was supported.Note. EI = Emotional Intelligence, IL = Inclusive LeadershipFigure 1. Two-way Interaction with Constructive VoiceLikewise, the results from Table 5 show that in-clusive leadership moderated the negative relationship of emotional intelligence and destructive voice, such that in the case of high inclusive leadership the nega-tive relationship was weaker ( β = −0.243, p < 0.001) than in the case of low. Moreover, emotional intelli-gence explained an incremental variance of 9.5% ( F = 8.015, p < 0.001) on destructive voice. The simple slope test showed that in high inclusive leadership emotional intelligence was negatively related to de-structive voice and weaker ( β = −0.570, p < 0.001), but the negative relationship between emotional intel-ligence and destructive voice in low inclusive leader-ship was insignificant ( β = −0.084, ns). Therefore, Hypothesis 2b was supported. The effects of the inter-action of emotional intelligence and inclusive leader-ship on destructive voice are shown in Figure 2.Note. EI = Emotional Intelligence, IL = Inclusive Leadership, PDO = Power Distance OrientationFigure 2. Three-way Interaction with Constructive VoiceModel 5 shown in Table 4 revealed that a combination moderator of inclusive leadership and power distance orientation significantly influenced the positive relationship between emotional intelligence and constructive voice behavior ( β = −0.117, p < 0.05). It was appropriate to investigate the nature of the three-way interaction, which increased the overall variance by 1.5% (F = 8.327, p < 0.001). The simple slope test demonstrated that emotional intelligence was significantly and most strongly positively related to constructive voice when inclusive
71Xiang CHEN Three-Way Interactions of Emotional Intelligence, Inclusive Leadership, and Power Distance Orientation on Two-Dimensional Employee Voiceleadership was high and power distance orientation was low ( β = 0.607, p < 0.001). However, the three-way interaction with constructive voice was insignificant, when inclusive leadership was high and power distance orientation was high ( β = 0.161, ns). We plotted one standard deviation above and below the mean of each variable. Hypothesis 3a was supported. Figure 3 depicts the three-way interaction effects on constructive voice behavior.Note. EI = Emotional Intelligence, IL = Inclusive LeadershipFigure 3. Two-way Interaction with Destructive VoiceTo test Hypothesis 3b, we operated a similar analysis of three-way interaction with destructive voice. The results are presented in Model 5 from Table 5, which illuminated that the three-way interaction of emotional intelligence, inclusive leadership, and power distance orientation effects on destructive voice were insignificant ( β = −0.032, ns). As a result, Hypothesis 3b was not supported.5 DiscussionIn this s tudy, I examined the three-way interactions with two-dimensional voice behavior. As expected, the abilities of emotion management can shift the forms of voice. High emotional intelligence allows individuals capitalize more cognitive intelligence on coping with work-related problems, hence then they are likely to speak up with constructive voice in organizations. In contrast, individuals with low emotional intelligence are readily to be affected by negative events. Moreover, they tend to pay attention on the details and errors simply but are less to seek another or better methods for solving problems. As such, low emotional intelligence is more likely to evoke negative affective states as well as trigger destructive voice than high ones. On the other hand, emotional intelligence has been identified is relation to social skills and the quality of interpersonal relationship. Employees with high emotional intelligence are readily to establish a reciprocal exchange relationship with their leaders, hence then they prone to speak up with prosocial voice in the workplace. In contrast, employees with low emotional intelligence are likely to have negotiated exchange relationship with supervisors. As such, they tend to express with complaints, harsh comments, and even disparaging opinions if organizations cannot satisfy their specified demands.In terms of the quality, exchange relationship can be classified into three phases, involving negotiated (lower-quality), reciprocal (medium-quality), and productive (high-quality). If the parties simply comply with the norms of give-and-take, the interpersonal relationship between them would stay at the initiating level. In order to develop the exchange relationship into the higher level, leaders as a dominant role in the relationship are required to provide assistances to their followers and allow them to perceive organizational support. In this study, inclusive leadership facilitates the quality of exchange, as well as motivates the interpersonal relationship between followers and leaders transforms into a higher level. Therefore, inclusive leadership increases the frequency of constructive voice while decreases the possibility of destructive expressions. However, power distance orientation alters the perspectives at the interpersonal relationship between supervisors and subordinates. High power distance orientation less value the personalize relationship, as well as, it accepts and expects the centralized managerial styles. In contrast, low power distance orientation concerns about the fair treatment and expects people-oriented leadership in organizations. As
72such, power distance orientation tends to weaken the effects of inclusive leadership on improving exchange relationship. In this research, the results of three-way interaction with constructive voice are consistent with the proposed hypothesis; whereas, the outcomes of three-way interaction with destructive voice are incongruent with the assumptions. There are three reasons may explain such consequences. Although power distance orientation reduces the frequency of these two voice behaviors ( β = −0.246, p < 0.001, Model 5 Table 4; β = −0.180, p < 0.01, Model 5 Table 5), destructive voice is less likely to emerge than constructive ones according to such voice are inclined to receive negative outcomes. Therefore, the effects of power distance orientation on destructive voice may be more significantly than it impacts on the inclusive leadership in this study ( β = 0.078, ns, Model 5 Table 5). Despite power distance orientation has been identified that is less sensitive to justice (Lee, Pillutla & Law, 2000)[70], inclusive leadership may yet allow employees to perceive procedural and interpersonal fairness. As such, they are unlikely to speak out with destructive voice while their socioemotional needs were satisfied. Third, destructive voice is less likely to emerge in front of supervisors, especially in China. As such, the data for destructive voice simply gather from supervisors may be inappropriate, as well as cannot provide substantial information about it. 6 Limitations and future researchThere are several shortcomings to our findings. First, although our data were taken from multiple organizations, they were all obtained from the same industry. Therefore, we cannot guarantee the findings are generalizable to other industries in China. Therefore, in future research, scholars need to investigate such assumptions in other industries.Second, employee voice has been identified to be affected by cultural values at societal level (Morrison, 2011)[71]. In China, voice is regarded as an undesirable behavior (Nederhof, 1985)[72], especially with negative message. In this situation, destructive voice is less likely to emerge in work environments. Therefore, data collected for destructive voice may be not precisely. In future research, scholars need to use multiple resources to collect data for negative and challenge-oriented voice, as well as to ensure such variables can be measured in different cultural contexts.Third, in line with the Maynes and Podsakoff’s (2014)[4] categorizations of voice, employee voice was broken down into four dimensions. Constructive voice and destructive voice were fallen into the quadrants of challenging voice, whereas supportive voice and defensive voice were labeled as preserving expressions. In current study, we concentrated on constructive voice and destructive voice. In the future, researchers need to investigate the others form of voice, and then complete the map of employee voice. 7 ConclusionDespite reciprocal exchange relationship between leaders and followers cannot guarantee employees to engage in extra-role behaviors, productive interpersonal relationship tends to trigger employees exerting more efforts and even prosocial risk-taking behaviors to organizations. References [1] Hollander, E. (2012). Inclusive leadership: The essential leader-follower relationship. Routledge.[2] Avery, D. R. (2003). Personality as a predictor of the value of voice. The Journal of Psychology, 137(5), 435-446.[3] Van Dyne, L., & LePine, J. A. (1998). Helping and voice extra-role behaviors: Evidence of construct and predictive validity. Academy of Management Journal, 41(1), 108-119.[4] Maynes, T. D., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2014). Speaking more broadly: An examination of the nature, antecedents, and consequences of an expanded set of employee voice behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(1), 87.[5] Chen, A. S. Y., & Hou, Y. H. (2016). The effects of ethical leadership, voice behavior and climates for innovation on creativity: A moderated mediation examination. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(1), 1-13.[6] Whiting, S. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & Pierce, J. R. (2008). Effects of task performance, helping, voice, and organizational loyalty on performance appraisal ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 125.[7] Terwel, B. W., Harinck, F., Ellemers, N., & Daamen, D. D. (2010). Voice in political decision-making: The effect of group voice on perceived trustworthiness of decision makers and subsequent acceptance of decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 16(2), 173.
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European Journal of Social Psychology, 15, 263-280.科研進展澳科大中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室研究團隊應邀於世界著名期刊著文最近,中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室(澳門科技大學夥伴實驗室)劉良講座教授帶領的研究團隊應邀於世界著名期刊《藥理學與治療學》(Pharmacology & Therapeutics)發表了題為“Novel therapeutic strategy for cancer and autoimmune conditions: modulating cell metabolism and redox capacity”(治療癌症和自身免疫性疾病的新策略:調節細胞代謝和氧化還原能力)一文;系統地闡釋了中醫藥通過調節細胞代謝和氧化還原能力治療癌症和自身免疫性疾病共同的分子機理和科學基礎,促進了中醫藥的國際傳播和推廣應用。該期刊是藥理學和臨床治療學領域的世界著名期刊,2017年影響因子為10.376。在該期刊所發表的學術論文,均由該期刊編輯部特邀相關研究領域的國際知名學者著文,這說明澳科大在該研究領域已達國際先進水準。
75第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 BIM在建築工程全生命週期管理的應用價值研究陳燕升1,2*,林志軍1(1. 澳門科技大學商學院,澳門;2. 廣東輕工職業技術學院,廣州)摘要: 本文透過參考文獻引用頻率擇選2002年至2017年時間區間內的主題研究文獻,依據研究成熟度歸納出29個參考資訊源,提出評估BIM應用價值的關鍵評價指標,並以此為觀察變數進行雪球抽樣;進而採用模糊綜合評價法與因數分析法建立因數分析模型,實證關鍵評價指標的適用性。研究表明:本文提出的關鍵評價指標,適用評估建築工程項目效益、效率和品質三要素,可以實現建築工程項目持續改進;將指標作為BIM在建築工程全生命週期管理的應用價值評價要素,能受到業界普遍認同和廣泛使用;公共因數建構因數模型與工程項目全生命週期管理中的BIM關鍵評價指標的基本結構一致,結構效度呈現出更為明顯的特性。文章可為政府部門或建築工程項目管理參與方評估與應用BIM 技術提供一定參考,以使BIM的應用更有效益。關鍵詞: BIM;建築工程管理;全生命週期;關鍵評價指標Application Value of BIM in Whole Life Cycle Management of Construction Project Yansheng CHEN1,2*, Zhijun LIN1( 1.Macau University of Science and Technology, School of Business, Macau, China ) ( 2. Guangdong Industry Polytechnic, Guangzhou, China )Abstract: In this paper, we generalize 29 reference information sources based on research maturity of the thematic studies literature with high citation frequency from 2002 to 2017, propose the key evaluation indicators of the application value of Building Information Modeling (BIM), conduct Snowball sampling using these key evaluation indicators as the observed variables and then verify the applicability of these key evaluation indicators through the factor analysis model established using fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method. The research shows that when the key evaluation indicators proposed in this paper are used in evaluating the three essential factors, i.e., benefit, efficiency and quality of a construction project, it can can make continuous improvement for the construction project. To use the indicators as the evaluation factors of the application value of BIM in the construction project life cycle management is highly recognized and widely adopted. The basic structure of the factor model established from the public factors is consistent with the BIM key evaluation indicators in the construction project life cycle management, and has the structural validity with more obvious characteristics. The paper provides some reference for government departments or construction project management participants to evaluate and apply the BIM technology, and make BIM application more effective.eeyords: BIM; Construction Project Management; Whole Life Cycle Management; Key Evaluation Indicators收稿日期:2018-08-10;修訂日期:2018-11-06。資金資助項目:《我國企業創新型戰略品質成本管理體系研究》,中國國家自然科學基金,項目號71472128;《基於解釋結構模型的系統化創業過程研究》,廣東省教育廳省級重點平臺科研基金,項目號2017GWTSCX001;《基於技術創新擴散的組織慣例與戰略變革之實證研究》, 廣州市社會科學界聯合基金,項目號18QNXR43;《廣州推動互聯網、大數據、人工智能和實體經濟深度融合研究》,廣州市哲學社會科學“十三五"規劃基金,項目號2018GZYB103*通訊作者:陳燕升,男,澳門科技大學商學院博士研究生,廣東輕工職業技術學院生態環境技術學院副教授,主要研究方向:商業智能與大數據分析。E-mail:yschenchina@qq.com,Tel:0086-13570402086
87陳燕升,等 BIM在建築工程全生命週期管理的應用價值研究由於 BIM 可用項目資料資訊的性質,本研究存在一定的局限性:第一,評價指標量化程度,衡量建築工程項目的指標應該包括效益、效率和品質三個要素,由於客觀原因,BIM 的應用價值僅僅從效益層面進行評估,存在無法估量投資成本和收益的結果等問題。第二,是研究選擇方法的局限性。如參考文獻的局限性矛盾,本文使用了 2002 年至 2017 年間且引用次數較高的學術性文獻,受研究內容相關性與引用次數影響的約束 ,儘量確定使用參考文獻依其公開發表時間呈正態分佈選擇; 選用的英文文獻關注研究方法與結果相關性,兼顧引用次數(即研究的成熟度)。 雖然使用文獻引用次數歸納法具有業界或學者的認同度,但仍存在如新穎性損失、中英文文獻分佈不均等問題,導致研究結論有一定的的局限性。參 考 文 獻[1] Shou, W., Wang, J., Wang, X., & Chong, H. Y. (2015). A comparative review of building information modelling implementation in building and infrastructure industries. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, 22(2), 291-308.[2] Atazadeh, B., Kalantari, M., Rajabifard, A., Ho, S., & Ngo, T. (2017). Building information modelling for high‐rise land administration. Transactions in Gis, 21(1).[3] Harris,BN and Alves, T.(2015), Building Information Modeling: A Report From the Field, “The National Institute of Building Sci-ences”, available at: www.nibs.org.[4] Luu, V., Kim, S., Huynh, T. (2008) Improving project management performance of large contractors using benchmarking approach, Inter-national Journal of Project. Management. 26 (7) 758–769.[5] Kagioglou, Michail and Cooper, Rachel and Aouad, Ghassan. (2001), Performance management in construction: a conceptual framework [J]. Construction Management & Economics, 19(1):85-95.[6] Constructing Excellence, Introduction to KPIs & Benchmarking, available on-line at http://www.constructingexcellence.org.uk/zones/kpizone/whatisbenchmarking. jsp2010(Accessed February 2013).[7] Becerikgerber B, Jazizadeh F, & Li N, (2011), Application Areas & Data Requirements for BIM-Enabled Facilities Management[J]. Journal of Construction Engineering & Management, 138 (3):431-442.[8] Tillotson, J., Espitalier-Noel, P., & Huddleston, D. (2002)New design approaches to counteract change costs & impacts on schedules. Future Fab International,13:12-19.[9] Woo J, Wilsmann J, & Kang D. (2010). Use of As-Built Building Information Modeling[C]// Construction Research Congress. https://doi.org/10.1061/41109(373)54[10] D. Bryde, M. Broquetas,J. &Volm, M. (2013).The project ben-efits of Building Information Modeling (BIM), Int.J.Proj.Manag. 3:971~980.[11] 陳豔. (2015), BIM技術開啟智慧建築時代[J]. 上海資訊化, 10:56-59.[12] Aranda‐Mena, G., Crawford, J., & Chevez, A.,(2008), Building infor-mation modelling demystified: does it make business sense to adopt BIM? [J]. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 2(3):419-434.[13] Becerik-Gerber, B., Jazizadeh, F.,Li, N. &Calis, G. (2012). Applica-tion areas & data requirements for BIM-enabled facilities manage-ment, J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 138: 431~442.[14] 劉芳.(2014). BIM技術在廣州市財富中心項目中的應用研究[D].湖南農業大學,[15] 周甯,淩錦科,王冰. (2014). BIM技術在蘇州萬潤財富中心建築全生命週期中的應用[J]. 建築知識, ,03:138-139.[16] Bakis, N., Kagioglou, M., & Aouad, G. (2006). Evaluating the busi-ness benefits of information systems. 3rd International SCRI Sym-posium, Salford Centre for Research & Innovation, University of Salford, Salford.[17] 李恒,郭紅領,黃霆,陳鏡源,陳景進. (2010), BIM在建設項目中應用模式研究[J].工程管理學報24(5):525-529.[18] 余倩,唐建偉,胡計蘭,元建民,龔培雷. (2016). 基於BIM虛擬技術工程項目精細化管理 [J]. 四川建築, 04:254-255.[19] Zuppa D, Issa R, & Suermann P. (2009). BIM's impact on the success measures of construction projects[J]. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 2009:503-512.[20] 劉晴,王建平. (2010). 基於BIM技術的建設工程生命週期管理研究[J].土木建築工程資訊技術, 03:40-45.[21] 孫悅. (2011). 基於BIM的建設項目全生命週期資訊管理研究[D].哈爾濱工業大學.[22] 鄒倩 . (2014). 基於BIM的城市更新項目物理環境評價模型研究——以重慶某城市更新項目為例[D]. 重慶大學.[23] McGraw Hill. (2010). Green BIM: how building information model-ing is contributing to green design & construction. Retrieved from: http://www.mcgraw-hillsales. com/MHC%20Green%20BIM%20SmartMarket%20Report%20(2010).pdf[24] 張洋. (2009). 基於BIM的建築工程資訊集成與管理研究[D]. 清華大學,[25] 線登洲,杜磊,劉岑,李玉潔. (2016). BIM在河北奧體中心項目中的應用[J]. 低溫建築技術, 07:145-147.[26] Eastman C M, Teicholz P, & Sacks R, (2012). BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building Information Modeling For Owners [J]. Australasian Journal of Construction Economics & Building, 12(3):101-102.[27] Suermann P C, and Issa, R R A. (2008). Case studies: evaluating building information modelling impact on United States Army. Corps of engineers construction [J]. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.1577.1204[28] 何關培. (2011),實現BIM價值的三大支柱-IFC/IDM/IFD[J].土木建築工程資訊技術. 3(1):108-116.[29] Rezgui, Yacine., Thomas Beach, & Omer Rana. (2013). A governance approach for BIM management across lifecycle & supply chains using mixed-modes of information delivery. Journal of Civil Engineering & Management .19.2: 239-258.[30] 邱鵬,段小芳. (2015), 基於BIM技術的項目全生命週期管理平臺的應用[J].山西建築, 34:257-258.[31] Alreshidi, E., Mourshed, M., & Rezgui, Y. (2017). Factors for effective BIM governance. Journal of Building Engineering, 10, 89-101.[32] 吳明隆. (2000). SPSSs統計應用實務[M]. 中國鐵道出版社,
88[33] 杜智敏. (2015). SPSS在社會調查中的應用[M]. 電子工業出版社, [34] 劉國旗. (2001). 多重共線性的產生原因及其診斷處理[J]. 合肥工業大學學報:自然科學版, 24(4):607-610.附錄1:引用次數(Times cited)較高的29個資訊源類 別 序 號 文 獻 引用量第1類1 Garrett, T., Garside, M.. Fab pilot of a multi-dimensional CAD system.Future Fab International, (2003):14. 1182Becerikgerber B, Jazizadeh F, Li N, et al. Application Areas & Data Requirements for BIM-Enabled Facilities Management[J]. Journal of Construction Engineering & Management, 2011, 138(3):431-442.1913Khanzode A, Fischer M, Reed D. Benefits & lessons learned of implementing Building Virtual Design & Construction (VDC) technologies for coordination of Mechanical, Electrical, & Plumbing (MEP) systems on a large Healthcare project[J]. Electronic Journal of Information Technology in Construction, 2008, 13:324-342.1434Kuprenas J A, Mock C S. Collaborative BIM Modeling Case Study — Process & Results[C]// International Workshop on Computing in Civil Engineering. 2009:431-441.77第2類5Tillotson, J., Espitalier-Noel, P., Huddleston, D.New design approaches to counteract change costs & impacts on schedules. Future Fab International, (2002):13.226Woo J, Wilsmann J, Kang D. Use of As-Built Building Information Modeling[C]// Construction Research Congress. 2010:538-548.237D. Bryde, M. Broquetas,J.M. Volm,The project benefits of Building Information Modeling(BIM),Int.J.Proj.Manag.31,2013:971~980.2208 陳豔. BIM技術開啟智慧建築時代[J]. 上海資訊化,2015,10:56-59. 1第3類9Aranda‐Mena G, Crawford J, Chevez A, et al. Building information modelling demystified: does it make business sense to adopt BIM?[J]. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 2008, 2(3):419-434(16).9410B. Becerik-Gerber, F.Jazizadeh, N.Li,G.Calis, Application areas & data requirements forBIM-enabled facilities management, J.Constr. Eng. Manag. 138:2012:431~442.19111 劉芳. BIM技術在廣州市財富中心專案中的應用研究[D].湖南農業大學,2014. 212 周甯,淩錦科,王冰. BIM技術在蘇州萬潤財富中心建築全生命週期中的應用[J]. 建築知識,2014,03:138-139. 1第4類13Bakis, N., Kagioglou, M., Aouad, G. (2006). Evaluating the business benefits of information systems. 3rd International SCRI Symposium, Salford Centre for Research & Innovation, University of Salford, Salford.20114 李恒,郭紅領,黃霆,陳鏡源,陳景進.BIM在建設專案中應用模式研究[J].工程管理學報.2010,24(5):525-529. 9515 余倩,唐建偉,胡計蘭,元建民,龔培雷. 基於BIM虛擬技術工程項目精細化管理[J]. 四川建築,2016,04:254-255. 1第5類16Zuppa D, Issa R, Suermann P. BIM's impact on the success measures of construction projects[J]. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 2009:503-512.2117Becerik B. Assessment of Online Project Management Technology for Construction Projects & Organizations: A Benchmarking Exercise on Added Value[C]// Technology Management for the Global Future - Picmet 2006 Conference. IEEE, 2006:1594-1603.618 劉晴,王建平.基於BIM技術的建設工程生命週期管理研究[J].土木建築工程資訊技術,2010,03:40-45. 5919 孫悅.基於BIM的建設專案全生命週期資訊管理研究[D].哈爾濱工業大學,2011. 6920 鄒倩. 基於BIM的城市更新專案物理環境評價模型研究——以重慶某城市更新項目為例[D]. 重慶大學, 2014. 5第6類21McGraw Hill. (2009). The business value of BIM: getting to the bottom line.Retrieved from: http://www.bim.construction.com/research/13122 張洋. 基於BIM的建築工程資訊集成與管理研究[D]. 清華大學, 2009. 8623 線登洲,杜磊,劉岑,李玉潔. BIM在河北奧體中心專案中的應用[J]. 低溫建築技術,2016,07:145-147. 1第7類24Eastman C M, Teicholz P, Sacks R, et al. BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building Information Modeling For Owners[J]. Australasian Journal of Construction Economics & Building, 2012, 12(3):101-102.86825Suermann P C, Issa R R A. Case studies: evaluating Building Information Modelling impact on United States Army Corps of engineers construction[J]. 2008.5226 何關培.實現BIM價值的三大支柱-IFC/IDM/IFD[J].土木建築工程資訊技術.2011,3(1):108-116. 2327Rezgui, Yacine, Thomas Beach, & Omer Rana. "A governance approach for BIM management across lifecycle & supply chains using mixed-modes of information delivery." Journal of Civil Engineering & Management 19.2 (2013): 239-258.2928 邱鵬,段小芳.基於BIM技術的專案全生命週期管理平臺的應用[J].山西建築,2015,34:257-258. 129Alreshidi, E., Mourshed, M., & Rezgui, Y.. Factors for effective BIM governance. Journal of Building Engineering, (2017);10, 89-101.3注:由於不同資料庫中查到的被引用次數的差異性,本研究提及的引用次數以 Google Scholar 查詢結果中標注的引用次數為准,並以2017 年 1 月為查詢時間為結點
89第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 包容型領導研究述評與展望朱燕妮*,洪 芳,楊潔雲(澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門)摘要: 隨著經濟全球化的迅速發展,越來越多的企業開始意識到企業的核心競爭力離不開對員工多樣性的有效管理和合理利用。在這樣的大環境背景下,包容型領導逐漸成為了倍受青睞的新型領導方式。本文首先通過對包容型領導的相關文獻進行了系統梳理,剖析了包容型領導的理論基礎、概念界定及其維度劃分。其次,結合包容型領導相關研究,總結回顧了其影響因素、影響結果和影響路徑。最後,本文對包容型領導未來研究方向進行了展望。關鍵詞: 包容;包容型領導;多樣化管理Inclusive Leadership: Review and Direction for Future Research Yanni ZHU*, Fang HONG, Chieh Yun YANG( Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstract: Along with the development of globalization, more and more enterprises are beginning to realize the added value from efficient diversity-management. Based on this background, inclusive leadership has gradually become a new type of leadership that is favored. This paper first concludes the definition of inclusive leadership on the base of literature review, and summarize the dimensions of inclusive leadership. Then this paper forms the determinants and consequences of inclusive leadership, as well as the mediating variables. Finally, this paper provides some directions for future research.eeyords: Inclusion; Inclusive leadership; Diversity management收稿日期:2018-10-08;修訂日期:2018-12-19。*通訊作者:朱燕妮,女,博士,澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院助理教授。主要研究方向:人力資源管理,旅遊管理。E-mail: ynzhu@must.edu.mo,Tel: 00853-889721510 引言隨著經濟全球化的迅速發展,企業內部員工的多樣性已成為必然的趨勢[1]。越來越多的企業開始意識到企業的核心競爭力離不開對員工多樣性的有效管理和合理利用[2~3]。在這樣的經濟發展大環境下,探索組織包容氛圍和包容文化及其相應的管理策略顯得尤為重要。而領導作為組織管理的重要環節,在多樣化管理過程中發揮著極其關鍵的作用,因此理論化探索其在這一過程中的作用機制非常重要。正是因此,包容型領導(Inclusive leadership)在領導理論研究領域逐漸成為了倍受青睞的新型領導風格[3]。本文首先通過對包容型領導的相關文獻進行了系統梳理,剖析了包容型領導的理論基礎、概念界定及其維度劃分。其次,結合包容型領導相關研究,總結回顧了其影響因素、影響結果和影響路徑。最後,本文對未來研究方向進行了展望。
94未來的研究十分有必要重新構建包容型領導的結構維度,探索現有方法的合理性,並開發更完善的劃分方法。第二,包容型領導的作用機制的開發與完善。通過對相關文獻的梳理,目前學術界對於包容型領導的作用機制的研究尚處於起步階段。具體來看,包容型領導的影響因素的探討仍然停留在理論初級階段,系統針對其影響因素的實證研究還未見到;而包容型領導的作用機制則集中在個體層面的變量[12, 14, 17~18, 34]及個別團隊層面的變量的影響結果方面[13]。很顯然,為了形成對包容型領導完整、系統的認識,對其作用機制做出深入、細緻的探討是非常有必要的[32]。未來的研究可以考慮,一方面從個體因素和環境因素兩方面考察包容型領導的影響因素,以及它們之間可能存在的交互作用;另一方面則是可以分別從個人、團隊和組織三個層次分別展開研究,探討包容型領導的結果變量以及可能產生作用的新的仲介變量。第三,對不同情境下包容型領導的共性和獨特性,尤其是在中國傳統文化背景下的包容型領導的有效性進行探討,非常有價值[32]。以中國傳統文化背景為例,發展于西方文化背景下的包容型領導這一構念,鼓勵多樣化的發展,肯定多樣化、獨特性的價值;然而,傳統的中國“儒家文化”強調集體主義,強調“和”,這使得在本質上,包容型領導風格在這樣的文化背景下是否依然適用,亦或者是否有新的作用路徑仍有待開發。因此,未來的研究可以考慮將文化差異等情境因素考慮進來,對包容型領導的理論研究和實證研究進行完善。第四,跨層次開展針對包容型領導的作用機制的研究。由於目前包容型領導的研究尚處於起步階段,其理論與實證研究基本都集中在針對個人層面的研究。然而,作為一種新型的領導風格,包容型領導除了會與個體層面的變量之間產生聯繫,同時也會與組織層面的變量產生聯繫。例如,組織包容氛圍是否會影響領導的包容性行為程度的高低?未來的研究可以考慮將包容型領導與跨層次的變量之間建立理論聯繫,探索實現路徑的合理性,從而完善理論的有效性。參 考 文 獻[1] Pelled L. H., Ledford G. E., Mohrman S. A.. Demographic dissimilarity and workplace inclusion. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1999, 36(7): 1013-1031.[2] 章璐璐, 楊付, 古銀華. 包容型領導:概念、測量及與相關變數的關係. 心理科學進展, 2016, 24(9): 1467-1477.[3] 景保峰, 周霞. 包容研究前言述評與展望, 2017, 39(12): 3-22.[4] 瞿皎姣, 趙曙明. 從“多樣性”到“包容”:多樣性管理範式的演化及展望. 外國經濟與管理, 2018, 40(5): 127-140.[5] Groysberg, B., Connolly, K.. Great leaders who make the mix work. Harvard Bussiness Review, 2013, 91: 68-76.[6] Milliken F. J., Martins L. L.. Searching for common threads: understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 1996, 21(2): 402-433.[7] Mor Barak E. M., Cherin D. A., Berkman S.. Organizational and personal dimensions in diversity climate ethnic and gender differences in employee perceptions. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1998, 34(1): 82-104.[8] Mor Barak, E. M.. Beyond affirmative action: toward a model of diversity and organizational inclusion. Administration in Social Work, 2000, 23: 47-68.[9] Mor Barak, M. E., Daya, P.. Fostering inclusion from the inside out to create an inclusive workplace: corporate and organizational efforts in the community and the global society. In Ferdman, B. M., Deane, B. R. (Eds), Diversity at work: the practice of inclusion. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA: 391-412, 2014.[10] Mor Barak E. M., Cherin D. A.. A tool to expand organizational understanding of workforce diversity: exploring a measure of inclusion-exclusion. Administration in Social Work, 1998, 22(1):47-64.[11] Lirio P., Lee M. D., Williams M. L.. The inclusion challenge with reduced-load professionals: the role of the manager. Human Resource Management, 2008, 47(3): 443-461.[12] Nembhard, I. M., Edmondson A. C.. Making it safe: the effect of leaderinclusiveness and professional status on psychological safety and improvement efforts in health care teams. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2006, 27, 941-966.[13] Nishii, L. H.. The benefits of climate for inclusion for gender-diverse groups. Academy of Management Journal, 2013, 56(6), 1754-1774.[14] Carmeli, A., Reiter-Palmon, R., Ziv, E.. Inclusive leadership and employee involvement in creative tasks in the workplace: the mediating role of psychological safety. Creativity Research Journal, 2010, 22(3), 250-260.[15] Randel A. E., Galvin B. M., Shore L. M., Ehrhart K. H., Chung B. G., Dean M. A., Kedharnath U.. Inclusive leadership: realizing positive outcomes through belongingness and being valued for uniqueness. Human Resources Management Review, 2018, 28: 190-203.[16] 朱瑜, 錢姝婷. 包容型領導研究前沿探析與未來展望. 外國經濟與管理, 2014, 36(2): 55-64.[17] Hollander E.. Inclusive leadership: the essential leader-follower relationship. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2009.
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96第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 基於隱瑪爾科夫鏈與卷積神經網路的 期貨盤口價差預測模型研究孫 勵*,周立剛(澳門科技大學商學院,澳門)摘要:本文以中國商品期貨跨期套利合約為研究對象,以合約價差盤口高頻數據為研究數據來源,提出綜合利用卷積神經網路建模方法與隱瑪爾科夫鏈建模方法,根據歷史數據對盤口價差未來的變化趨勢與範圍進行預測。本文嘗試將卷積神經網路作為時段高頻價差數據樣本的分類器,克服原始高頻數據在暫態出現的高隨機波動性,並同時完成對數據特徵的低層提取。將分類後的結果作為隱瑪爾科夫鏈建模的數據輸入基礎。利用隱瑪爾科夫模型,實現對價差變化與範圍的概率估計,並根據概率結果創建均值回歸型交易策略。實證研究中,利用中國大豆跨期價差合約三個月的樣本數據建模,在為期三個月的樣本外測中,策略取得年化盈利率32%的回報,策略對比單一卷積神經網路模型與隱瑪爾科夫模型,綜合模型的預測準確度分別提高了18.49%與26.9%。關鍵詞:跨期套利;卷積神經網路;隱瑪爾科夫鏈;高頻數據A Model Based on Hidden Markov Chain and Convolution Neural Networks for Predicting the Order Spread Prices of Futures Li SUN*, Ligang ZHOU( School of Business , Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstract: This study focuses on China’s commodity futures calendar spread arbitrage contracts and analyze the high frequency data of futures order book spread prices. We propose a new comprehensive model to predict the trend and range of spread prices based on hidden Markov chain model (HMM)and convolution neural networks(CNN) according to order book history data. We try to use convolution neural networks as a classifier to classify high frequency data and to extract data features, which overcame the instantaneous random characteristics of high frequency data. The extracted features are the input foundation of HMM which will count the probability of spread price range and create a new trading strategy. In empirical study, the trading strategy was tested for three months with 32% annual return on China’s soybean calendar spread contract. Compared with the single convolution neural network model and hidden Markov chain model, the prediction accuracy of the integrated model increased by 18.49% and 26.9%, respectively.eeyords: Calendar spread arbitrage; Convolution neural networks; Hidden Markov chain model; High frequency data收稿日期:2018-10-08;修訂日期:2018-11-15。* 通訊作者:孫勵,男,澳門科技大學商學院博士研究生,主要研究方向:金融量化投資,金融衍生品量化投資策略的開發與數據分析。 E-mail:luoshen_li@163.com Tel:00853-63877301
102在收益與風險方面均存在比較明顯的優勢。產生這種優勢的原因是複合模型過濾掉了部分高頻數據所造成的擾動。圖 6 顯示了資金曲線的變化,按照每日計算時的資金。圖 7 顯示了測試中正確交易預測的數量。圖 6 帳戶資金曲線變化圖圖 7 交易預測數量對比圖4 結論實證研究結果表明,在綜合利用卷積神經網路與隱瑪爾科夫模型的情況下,在樣本外推的 62個交易日中,對比於單純使用卷積神經網路的預測正確率提升了 18.49%,對比於單純使用隱瑪爾科夫模型提升了 26.9%,測試週期內共計取得 8%的收益,年化收益率 32%。取得這樣的成果,可以表明神經網路與隱瑪律科夫複合模型在應對期貨高頻價差數據時,可以將卷積神經網路作為價格特徵的提取器,經過特徵提取後模型再進行隱瑪律科夫鏈的分類,比單獨使用單一模型進行分類的效果有顯著提升。本文的研究並未對交易策略的資金策略進行考慮,使用了單純的固定手數的方式進行交易。後續的研究將嘗試將對策略進行完善,並且本文中僅使用了大豆期貨作為測試品種,並未利用其他非農業期貨品種進行測試。但儘管如此,本文依然提供了一種新型的可實際用於高頻盤口數據分析與預測的模型。參 考 文 獻[1] 常甯,& 徐國祥.(2004). 金融高頻數據分析的現狀與問題研究. 財經研究,30(3),31-39.[2] 陶利斌,方兆本,& 潘婉彬.(2004). 中國股市高頻數據中的週期性和長記憶性. 系統工程理論與實踐,24(6),26-32.[3] LeCun, Y., Boser, B., Denker, J. S., Henderson, D., Howard, R. E., Hubbard, W., & Jackel, L. D. (1989). Backpropagation applied to handwritten zip code recognition. Neural computation, 1(4), 541-551.[4] Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., & Hinton, G. E. (2012). ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (Vol.60, pp.1097-1105).[5] Siripurapu, A. (2014). Convolutional networks for stock trading.[6] 張貴勇.(2016). 改進的卷積神經網路在金融預測中的應用研究(Master’s thesis,鄭州大學)[7] 張瀛.(2016). 基於統計方法的神經網路預測模型研究. 數理統計與管理,35(1),89-97.[8] Weigend, A. S. (2018). Time series prediction: forecasting the future and understanding the past. Routledge.[9] Hassan, M. R., & Nath, B. (2005, September). Stock market forecasting using hidden Markov model: a new approach. In Intelligent Systems Design and Applications, 2005. ISDA’05. Proceedings. 5th International Conference on (pp. 192-196). IEEE.[10] Park, S. H., Lee, J. H., Song, J. W., & Park, T. S. (2009). Forecasting Change Directions for Financial Time Series Using Hidden Markov Model. Rough Sets and Knowledge Technology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.[11] 黃曉彬,王春峰,房振明,& 熊春連.(2012). 基於隱瑪爾科夫模型的中國股票資訊探測. 系統工程理論與實踐,32(4),713-720.[12] 陳之星.(2015). 基於隱瑪爾科夫模型的滬深300市場波動結構突變研究.(Doctoral dissertation,成都理工大學).[13] Tenyakov, A, Mamon, R., & Davison, M. (2016). Modelling high-frequency fx rate dynamics: a zero-delay multi-dimensional hmm-based approach. Knowledge-Based Systems, 101, 142-155.[14] 李 婷 . ( 2 0 1 2 ) . 動 態 貝 葉 斯 網 路 下 的 高 頻 期 貨 數 據 分析.(Doctoral dissertation,上海大學).[15] Baum, L. E., Petrie, T., Soules, G., & Weiss, N. (1970). A maximization technique occurring in the statistical analysis of probabilistic functions of markov chains. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 41(1), 164-171.. A maximization technique occurring in the statistical analysis of probabilistic functions of markov chains. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 41(1), 164
103第 12 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.12 No.22018 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2018 國外直接投資對經濟增長的影響: 基於發展中國家的實證分析湯曉雷(澳門科技大學商學院,澳門)摘要: 國外直接投資(FDI)作為國際資本流動的一種重要形式,對經濟增長到底存在怎樣的影響? 這是長期以來學者們和經濟政策制定者關注的重要問題。本文以63個發展中國家為研究對象,構建動態面板模型對這個問題進行實證分析,結果表明流入這些發展中國家的國外直接投資並沒有對其同期經濟增長產生顯著影響,而是存在一定時滯效應,對下一期的經濟增長才產生了顯著正面影響,而流出的國外直接投資對其同期經濟增長和下一期的經濟增長都沒有顯著影響。關鍵詞: 國外直接投資;經濟增長;動態面板數據模型The Impact of FDI on Economic Growth: An Empirical Analysis Based on Developing Countries Xiaolei TANG( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China )eeyords: Foreign direct investment (FDI) is an important form of international capital flow. How does FDI affect economic growth? This important issue has long attracted the attention of both researchers and economic policy makers. To investigate this issue, this paper constructs and estimates dynamic panel data models based on a sample of 63 developing countries. The empirical results show that FDI inflow does not exert significant impact on economic growth in the current period, however, FDI inflow exerts positive impact on economic growth in the following period. FDI outflow does not exert significant impact on economic growth in the current period, nor does it exert significant impact on economic growth in the following period.eeyords: FDI; Economic growth; Dynamic panel data model收稿日期:2018-10-22;修訂日期:2018-12-10。資金資助項目:《中國大陸和港澳的資本流動及其對經濟發展的影響研究》,澳門科技大學研究基金,項目號0428*通訊作者:湯曉雷,男,博士,澳門科技大學商學院助理教授。主要研究方向:匯率理論和匯率制度,貨幣政策,證券投資。E-mail:xltang@must.edu.mo,Tel:00853-88972904。0 引言國外直接投資(FDI)作為國際資本流動的一種重要形式,對經濟發展究竟會產生怎樣的影響?這是學術界和實務界都非常關注的問題,國內外學者對這個問題進行了大量探索分析,但至今並沒有得出一致的結論。國內文獻大多籠統地把 FDI稱為外商直接投資,一般指國外投資者在中國的直接投資,而實際上對一個經濟體而言,FDI 是雙向的,一是國外投資者在本國進行直接投資,這是流入的 FDI,二是本國投資者到國外進行直接投資,這是流出的 FDI。為了準確表述問題,本文有時稱流入的 FDI 為外商直接投資,而稱流出的
109湯曉雷 國外直接投資對經濟增長的影響: 基於發展中國家的實證分析估計 1 的基礎上也加入了 OFDI 分別與 CRED 和EDU 的交叉相乘項,以便考察金融發展程度和人力資本是否影響對外直接投資對經濟增長的作用,結果如表 3 中估計 2 所示,估計結果表明這兩個交叉項都不顯著,說明對外直接投資並沒有通過與金融市場發展程度和人力資本之間的交互作用間接地對經濟增長產生影響。表 3 估計 1 結果中對外直接投資沒有顯著促進投資國同期經濟增長,其背後的可能原因也有兩個:一是對外直接投資增加可能減少了國內投資,從而抵消了其對經濟增長的正面影響;二是對外直接投資對經濟增長的作用可能存在時滯,即對外直接投資可能需要經過一段時間才能發揮出促進經濟增長的作用。考慮到時滯效應,本文將滯後一期的 OFDI 代替原模型 2 中的 OFDI 重新進行估計,結果如表 3 中估計 3 所示,我們發現滯後一期的 OFDI 的係數不顯著,說明滯後的對外直接投資對投資國同期的經濟增長沒有產生顯著的正面作用。另外,TOPEN表2 模型1估計結果GDPG (dependent variable) 估計1 估計2 估計3Lagged GDPG0.215**(0.105)0.089(0.182)0.235**(0.108)IFDI-0.004(0.068)0.043(0.325)Lagged IFDI0.148**(0.066)TOPEN0.017(0.011)0.016*(0.008)0.018*(0.010)GDIV0.127*(0.071)0.162**(0.080)0.117*(0.066)CPI -0.021(0.059)-0.018(0.061)-0.025(0.059)LAB32.851(26.361)36.81(24.39)37.43(27.67)EDU-0.001(0.021)-0.002(0.019)-0.007(0.021)CRED-0.060(0.046)-0.061(0.041)-0.054(0.034)IFDI×CRED-0.001(0.004)IFDI×EDU-0.000(0.003)Number of observations 699 699 699Number of groups 63 63 63Number of instruments 45 46 45Arellano-Bond testfor AR(1) in first differencesz=-4.18Pr>z=0.000z=-3.03Pr>z= 0.002z=-4.08Pr>z= 0.000for AR(2) in first differencesz=1.11 Pr>z=0.266z = 0.30Pr>z=0.762z = 1.11Pr>z=0.268Hansen test of over-identifying restrictionschi2(49)=42.21Prob>chi2=0.743chi2(23)=23.52Prob>chi2=0.431chi2(24)=17.42Prob>chi2=0.830注 : 1.*,** 和 *** 分別表示在 10%,5% 和 1% 水平上顯著 2. 小括弧中數值為穩健標準誤差 3. 估計模型時對小樣本問題進行了修正 4. Lagged GDPG 和 Lagged IFDI 分別表示滯後一期的 GDPG 和滯後一期的 IFDI 5. 為省空間時間啞變量的估計結果從略表3 模型2估計結果GDPG (dependent variable) 估計1 估計2 估計3Lagged GDPG0.214**(0.102)0.081(0.139)0.220**(0.110)OFDI0.010(0.165)1.670(1.217)Lagged OFDI0.090(0.098)TOPEN0.023**(0.011)0.011(0.010)0.019*(0.010)GDIV0.127*(0.068)0.162**(0.069)0.126*(0.064)CPI -0.024(0.059)-0.014(0.061)-0.025(0.059)LAB31.84(29.31)33.54(26.84)38.38(27.90)EDU-0.003(0.019)-0.002(0.018)-0.004(0.020)CRED-0.034(0.055)-0.060(0.037)-0.053(0.035)OFDI×CRED-0.005(0.006)OFDI×EDU-0.014(0.009)Number of observations 676 676 673Number of groups 63 63 63Number of instruments 45 46 45Arellano-Bond testfor AR(1) in first differencesz=-4.02 Pr>z=0.000z=-2.90Pr>z= 0.004z=-4.23Pr>z= 0.000for AR(2) in first differencesz=1.12 Pr>z=0.261z = 0.52Pr>z=0.607z = 0.99Pr>z=0.320Hansen test of over-identifying restrictionschi2(49)=42.68Prob>chi2=0.726chi2(23)=24.96Prob>chi2=0.353chi2(24)=17.73Prob>chi2=0.816注 : 1.*,** 和 *** 分別表示在 10%,5% 和 1% 水平上顯著 2. 小括弧中數值為穩健標準誤差 3. 估計模型時對小樣本問題進行了修正 4. Lagged GDPG 和 Lagged IFDI 分別表示滯後一期的 GDPG 和滯後一期的 IFDI 5. 為省空間時間啞變量的估計結果從略
110和 GDI 這兩個變量的係數在 10%顯著性水平上顯著,說明這兩個變量對經濟增長具有一定顯著促進作用。表 3 底部也列出了對以上三個估計的診斷性檢驗結果,Arellano-Bond 檢驗結果表明模型殘差不存在自相關性,說明模型不存在誤設問題,Hansen 檢驗結果表明模型中過度識別限制都是有效的,並且估計所用工具變量都是外生的,說明這些估計結果是可靠的。以上兩個模型的估計結果都表明 LAB 對經濟增長能產生促進作用,但統計上不顯著,可能原因是這些發展中國家勞動力的整體素質還不高,而勞動力成本低的優勢沒有完全發揮出來。CPI 的估計系數為負,說明其能對經濟增長產生一定負面影響,但也不具有統計上的顯著性。模型中不顯著變量較多,另一個可能原因之一在於樣本不夠大。由於發展中國家的相關經濟數據記錄不齊全,無法收集足夠的數據構建一個大面板數據,這是本文的一個局限。4 結論本文以 63 個發展中國家為研究對象,運用動態面板模型分析了這些國家流入和流出的國外直接投資對其經濟增長的影響。實證結果表明,貿易依存度和國內投資是影響這些國家經濟增長的重要因素,流入這些發展中國家的國外直接投資並沒有對其同期經濟增長產生顯著影響,而是存在一定時滯效應,對下一期的經濟增長才產生了顯著正面影響,而流出的國外直接投資對其同期經濟增長和下一期的經濟增長都沒有顯著影響。另外,金融市場發展程度和人力資本等因素並沒有對經濟增長產生顯著促進作用,也沒有與國外直接投資產生交叉影響從而進一步影響經濟增長。這些實證結果說明目前發展中國家的經濟模式主要還是依賴國際貿易、國內投資和外商直接投資的驅動。本文實證結果的政策含義是,為了更好地發展經濟,除了加大國內投資力度,同時可以有效地利用外商直接投資,儘量縮短國外直接投資發揮促進作用的時滯。除此之外,由於發展中國家資本緊缺並且科學技術水平比較落後,一般進行對外直接投資的能力比較弱,從而無法很好地利用國際市場來促進國內經濟的發展,因此發展中國家應該努力提高科學技術水平,提高企業的實力,鼓勵有實力的國內企業走出國門進行直接投資。樣本不夠大是本文的一個局限,因此待將來發展中國家經濟數據可得性得到改善後,後續研究可以構建更具代表性的大面板數據進行實證分析。參 考 文 獻[1] Durham, J. B. (2004). Absorptive capacity and the effects of foreign direct investment and equity foreign portfolio investment on economic growth. European Economic Review, 48(2), 285-306.[2] Li, X., & Liu, X. (2005). Foreign direct investment and economic growth: an increasingly endogenous re la t ionship. World Development, 33(3), 393-407.[3] Baharumshah, A. Z., & Thanoon, A. M. (2006). Foreign capital flows and economic growth in east asian countries. China Economic Review, 17(1), 70-83.[4] Agbloyor, E. K., Abor, J. Y., Adjasi, C., & Yawson, A. (2014). Private capital flows and economic growth in africa: the role of domestic financial markets. Journal of International Financial Markets Institutions & Money, 30(1), 137–152.[5] Lee, C. C., & Chang, C. P. (2009). Fdi, financial development, and economic growth: international evidence. Journal of Applied Economics, XII(November), 249-271.[6] Tekin, R. B. (2012). Economic growth, exports and foreign direct investment in least developed countries: a panel granger causality analysis. Economic Modelling, 29(29), 868-878.[7] Omri, A., & Kahouli, B. (2014). The nexus among foreign investment, domestic capital and economic growth: empirical evidence from the mena region. Research in Economics, 68(3), 257-263.[8] Iamsiraroj, S., & Ulubaolu, M. A. (2010). Foreign direct investment and economic growth: a real relationship or wishful thinking? Economic Modelling, 51, 200-213.[9] Iwasaki, I., & Tokunaga, M. (2014). Macroeconomic impacts of fdi in transition economies: a meta-analysis. World Development, 61, 53-69.[10] Iamsiraroj, S. (2016). The foreign direct investment-economic growth nexus. International Review of Economics & Finance. 42,116-133[11] Herzer,D.,(2008). The long run relationship between outward FDI and domestic output: evidence from panel data. Economic Letters 100, 146–149.[12] Lee, C.G., (2010). Outward foreign direct investment and economic growth: evidence from Japan. Global Economic Review 39, 317–326.[13] Albulescu, C. T. (2015). Do foreign direct and portfolio investments affect long-term economic growth in central and eastern europe? Procedia Economics & Finance, 23, 507-512.[14] Aitken , B.J.and Harrison , A.1999. Do domestic firms benefit from direct foreign investment ? Evidence from Venezuela, The American Economic Review , 89 , 605~618.
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