半年刊 2007年6月創刊第十一卷 第一、二期 2017年12月出版JOURNAL OF MACAU UNIVERSITYOF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYSemiannual, Started in June 2007Vol.11 No.1&2 December 2017定價: 20元澳門幣(人民幣/港幣)ISSN 1994-4926Semiannual Vol.11澳門基金會資助出版二 一七年 第十一卷 第一·二期JOURNAL OF MACAU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYVol.11 No.1&2 December 2017合刊
編輯委員會Editorial Board編委會主席：劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編 ：許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編委：劉良、許敖敖、祈務晨、余秋雨、張志慶、姜志宏、方泉、林偉基、戴龍基、黎曉平、唐澤聖、陳乃九、龐川、孫立雲、孫建榮Editorial Board Members:Liu Liang, Xu Ao Ao,Keith Robert Barclay Morrison, Yu Qiu Yu, Zhang Zhi Qing, Jiang Zhi Hong, Fang Quan, Lam Wai Kei, Dai Long Ji, Li Xiao Ping, Tang Ze Sheng, Chan Lai Kow, Pang Chuan, Sun Li Yun, Sun Jian Rong澳門科技大學學報Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology主辦單位: 澳門科技大學Organizer: Macau University of Science and Technology編委會主席: 劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編: 許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編輯: 《澳門科技大學學報》編輯部Editor: The Editorial Department, Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話： +853-8897-2173 Tel: +853-8897-2173 ● 傳真：+853-2888-0022 Fax: +853-2888-0022 ● 電郵：publication@must.edu.mo E-mail: publication@must.edu.mo ● 地址： 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau出版及總發行：澳門科技大學Publisher & Distribution: Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話：+853-8897-2166 Tel: +853-8897-2166 ● 電郵：cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo E-mail: cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo ● 地址： 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau 封面及版式設計：高鴻 王港Graphic & Layout Designers: Gao Hong, Wang Gang印刷： 450本Print Run: 450出版日期：2017年12月Issued Date: December 2017國際標準期刊號：ISSN: 1994-4926規格： 21cm×29.7cmSize: 21cm width by 29.7cm height版權所有，翻印必究All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher.
ContentsHumanities and ArtsAnalysis of Space Power by Macau Street Name …………………………… Shaoshi YAN, Xiaoyi YAN (1)In Search of Home: A Black Feminist Study of Toni Morrison's Home …………………… Leyi CAO (7)Investigating the Relationship between Feedback Approaches in Chinese Language Learners' Satisfaction Level in Oral classes …………………………………… Wanlu CHEN, Wei WEI (16)Economic Value of Spanish: Migrants Language Skills and Labour Market Outcomes in Spain …………………………………………………… Ting WANG, María A. Davia, Matías Gámez (28)Business administration and TourismThe Study on Multi-Skilled Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem Optimizations in the Financial Industry: the Case of a Local Bank’s Software Developing Project ……………………………………………………………… Shiang-Hau WU, Chuan-Chen LU (42)A Study of Sustained Participation in User Generated Content Based on the Use and Gratifications Theory ………………………………………………………………… Yuan FENG, Ling JIANG (52)Ethical Climate and Whistleblowing: The Moderating Role of Ethical Leadership ……………………………………………………………………… Dafeng PENG, Qing TIAN (61)A Justice Framework for Understanding Hospitality Employees’ Deviant Behavior ……………………………………………………… Xi LI, Ye XU, Fang HONG, Yuwen ZENG (76)The Research on Coupling Coordination of Macao Tourism, Socioeconomic Factors and Ecological Environment ………………………………………………………………… Jing LIU, Yu SONG (91)Information Technology and Space ScienceMathematics of Random Linear Network Coding in Clustering Networks …………………………………………………………… Ao ZHONG, Chak Fong CHEANG (103)An Improved Rotational Period Fitting Method Based on Baysian Generalized Lomb-Scargle Periodogram …………………………… Yan-Qiong REN, Xiao-Ping LU, Tao LUO, Bao MEI (111)LawOn the Heterosexual Investigation ……………………………………………… LiMing LIU, Yu LEI (119)The Legal Person's Reputation Rights Protection under the Macau Civil Law System …………………………………………………………………………………… Weiqiang LIN (127)MedicineA Study of the Efficacy of At-Birth Hepatitis B Vaccination in Macau Residents Hang I CHIO, Gregory CHENG, Cheuk Kuen CHENG, Shiu Hon CHUI, Christopher Wai Kei LAM (135)A Study on Smartphone Addiction and its Influencing Factors among Students in a University in Macau ………………………… Yinjing OUYANG; Man Si CHAN; Christopher Wai Kei LAM (142)Effectiveness of Type and Screen Abbreviated Crossmatch in a Hospital Blood Bank in Macau and Wastage of Expired Donor Red Blood Cells in Hospitals of Macau ………… Weng Chi LOU, Cheuk Kuen CHENG, Shiu Hon CHUI, Christopher Wai Kei LAM (149)
1第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 從街道名稱探析澳門城市空間與政治權力的互動閆少石1*，閆笑一2（1 澳門科技大學人文藝術學院，澳門；2. 澳門城市大學人文社會科學學院，澳門）摘要： 澳門城市空間中，街道的名稱特徵鮮明，歷經不同的政權，各式街道名稱的背後闡釋了空間權力的象徵意涵，本文從批判地理學的視角，將澳門街道命名融入特定的歷史脈絡，即澳葡政府殖民管治時期、主權移交前的過渡時期、回歸後的澳門特區政府高度自治時期，分析城市空間中政治權力的滲透，探析澳門城市街道名稱的文化意涵。關鍵詞： 空間政治；街道名稱；意識形態；身份認同Analysis of Space Power by Macau Street NameShaoshi YAN1 *, Xiaoyi YAN2( 1 Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )( 2. Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, City University of Macau, Macau, China )Abstractt: In the urban space of Macau, street names manifest distinctive characteristics. Having experienced different regimes, the various street names illustrate the symbolic implication of spatial power. From the perspective of critical geography, street names of Macau are integrated into specific historical contexts, which refer to the colonial governance of the Macau-Portuguese government, the transition before the transfer of sovereignty and the high-degree of autonomy of the government of the Macau Special Administrative Region after the transfer specifically. Furthermore, the penetration of political power in urban space is analyzed, and the cultural implication of street names in Macau is also analyzed and explored.eywordst: Politics of space; Street name; Ideology; Identity收稿日期：2017-05-22；修訂日期：2017-12-22。* 通訊作者：閆少石，女，澳門科技大學人文藝術學院助理教授。主要研究方向：設計傳播、時尚設計、space saving家具設計。E-mail:ssyan@must.edu.mo Tel:00853-889728350 引言街道不僅是物質空間，即人們感知、理解、塑造空間環境的方式；也是某段時間下，人與空間之間的關係。而建立關係的第一步就是為街道命名。街道名稱是人對空間賦意的結果，它的存在使得人與空間產生了特殊的鏈結[1] 。澳門的街道名稱作為探索澳門環境、歷史、文化、殖民的一項重要因素，關注街道命名中的權力關係、意識形態以及街道命名過程中的權力角逐，是研究澳門城市空間文化的重要切入點。街道名稱的一般機能主要是標識空間方向、位置，每個國家或地區都會有一套完備的街道名稱系統，其影響著公眾健康與安全、社會心理、政治經濟等各個方面。本節重點討論的並非其空間標識機能，而是期望探尋澳門街道名稱背後的政治權力、社會狀態及文化意涵，此為街道名稱的社會機能。澳門的街道名稱不僅是澳門民眾活動單向度
5閆少石，等 從街道名稱探析澳門城市空間與政治權力的互動稱簡單化處理，容易記憶，實則是反殖民主義意識形態的策略。簡化的主要是葡萄牙政治意識形態所要宣揚的英雄人物或侵略事跡等[7]，澳門華人族群以柔和的方式，抵抗了文化侵略，從而淡化了殖民色彩。而迫於澳門華人的文化抵制，澳葡政府也無奈之下，將這些“約定俗成”的街道名稱錄入官方街道名冊之中，通常將省略後的街名與原街名共同鑲嵌在馬路邊的白色瓷磚路牌上，這是澳門華人權力博弈的勝利，是華人政治權力的展現。用支配與反支配[8]來解讀澳門街道名稱政治中的複雜權力關係，澳門街道的名稱，呈現了一種華人族群與葡人族群競爭的權力文化向度。從權力的角度進行分析[9]，澳門街道名稱中支配與反支配，及其二者之間的權力互動，表現出澳門社會空間權力的複雜性與多樣性。澳門的街道名稱不僅彰顯了澳門現時靜態的社會樣貌，更具體地承載了澳門社會動態的互動發展過程。澳門街名與社會環境有著複雜而密切的交互關係，名稱中映射出的不同社會群體，即澳葡政府與居澳華人族群間的權力角力。複雜的政治權力關係在澳門街道名稱中隱含時，通常映射出澳門社會、權力的互動，展露了澳葡政府與居澳華人族群之間的角力過程。深入政治權力內部探索澳門非均質的、一致的角力互動關係，澳門街道的葡語名稱呈現了霸權者的語言，建構殖民國家認同；而與其呼應的中文名稱，卻充滿了對殖民意識形態的反抗與排斥，展示了居澳華人族群與當權者的權力抗爭。5 結論澳門眾多的街道雖處於不同的時空脈絡，卻同樣暗含了葡萄牙殖民國家政治形態，紛繁的街道名稱傳遞了統一的意識形態，澳門街道名稱與政治的高度關聯性也是其獨有的文化表徵，亦使得澳門街道名稱有著非凡的政治、社會、歷史意涵。從 1553 年開始，首批葡萄牙人入居澳門，歷經了不同的政權管治，政治權力對城市空間日常生活的塑造通過街道的名稱得以展現。澳葡政府殖民管治時期，城市空間透過線性的街道系統和堂區的概念[10] ，將居住在澳門的不同族群納入一個有形的地域之中，實現殖民管治，通過對街道的命名，支配澳門人民想像與生活的空間，形塑一個具有葡萄牙風格的城市空間系統。顯示出街道名稱命名的基本目的，在於藉由城市空間的地域化、名稱的葡萄牙化，透過澳門坊眾的日常生活，灌輸殖民主義政治意識形態，建構居澳華人族群的殖民地身份認同。主權移交前的過渡時期，在中葡兩國發表了《關於澳門問題的聯合聲明》後，確認中國將於1999 年對澳門恢復行使主權 [11]。澳葡政府將新建設的街道命名時，側重於表達中葡兩國友好態度，通過新空間的命名，重塑澳門街道的文化意涵淡化殖民主義色彩，描繪葡人族群與華人族群政治平等的文化表徵。回歸後澳門特區政府自治時期，對於新建設的街道命名側重於文化思維重建，與地景特色相關，凸顯澳門華人族群文化張力，建構澳門居民的國家身份認同與自治後的民族身份認同。同時對於已存在的街道名稱，採取包容和尊重的態度，保持名稱的歷史原貌，彰顯了特區政府高度自治的政治文化權限，以及對殖民歷史的正視和集體記憶的保護。參 考 文 獻[1] 王承旭. 城市文化的空間解讀. 規劃師, 2006,（4）: 69-71.[2] 葉 韻 翠 . 批 判 地 名 學 . J O U R N A L O F G E O G R A P H I C A L SCIENCE，2013，(68)： 69-87. [3] 林潔貞. 澳門街道名探析[D]. 廣州：暨南大學, 2002.[4] 周大鳴. 澳門的族群. 中國社會科學, 1997 (5): 141-154.[5] 陈蕴茜．日常生活中殖民主义与民族主义的冲突：以中国近代公园为中心的考察. 南京大學學報：哲學.人文科學.社會科學版，2005（5）：83-96.[6] 湯翠蘭. 從澳門地區及街道名稱看當地的縮略語言現象. 北方語言論叢, 2013: 020.[7] 彭海鈴. 澳門街道名稱與城市文化形象. 收入城市文化形象的塑造：第八屆粵臺港澳文化交流研討會論文集.澳門：澳門基金會，2007（12）:95-106.
7 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 Received 19 Dec. 2016; Revised 23 Jan. 2017*Corresponding author.Cao Leyi, Female, MA in English Language and Literature, Lecturer of University International College. Research area: English Literature. E-mail: lycao@must.edu.mo Tel: 00853-88972803In Search of Homet: A Black Feminist Study of Toni Morrison's HomeLeyi CAO*( University International College, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstractt: Toni Morrison’s tenth novel Home is short but profound in meaning. Although the main character is a Black young man, some Black female characters in the story are equally interesting and complicated. In light of theory of Black Feminism, this paper studies three important female characters – Lily, Lenore and Cee. By discussing their experiences, the paper reveals the oppression from the white and patriarchal society on the Black American women, and also explains their different approaches in search of a home. It argues that the only home that Black women can truly acquire exists within the women-centered community.eywordst: Home; Black Feminism; Oppression; Community尋家之路: 托尼•莫里森小說《家》的黑人女性主義解讀曹樂怡*（澳門科技大學國際學院，澳門）摘要： 《家》是托尼•莫里森的第十部小說，其精短但含義豐富。儘管書中主角是一黑人男性，但其中也有為數不少對黑人女性的精彩描述。本文運用黑人女性主義理論，分析其中三個重要的女性角色——莉莉， 萊諾，和茜，以及她們的遭遇和不同的尋家之路，揭示了美國黑人女性在白人至上和父權社會中所受到的種種不公對待和壓迫，同時也討論了她們在各自尋家之路上所做的抉擇，最後指出黑人女性真正的家只存在于女性社區之中。關鍵詞： 《家》；黑人女性主義；壓迫；社區0 IntroductionAs the first Black female Nobel laureate in literature, American writer Toni Morrison (1931—) and her marvelous novels of African-American life have been the love of readers around the world. From her first novel The Bluest Eye published in 1970 to her latest work God Help the Child in 2015, Morrison has never stopped showing the difficulties the Black people (especially Black women) in America encounter in the past and the present – slavery, racism, violence, cultural marginalization and loss of identity. Drawing on African myths, music, vernacular traditions, as well as western aesthetics, Morrison reveals the Black experience that has been neglected
8and even ignored by the mainstream culture. She takes it as her responsibility as a writer, as Durán points out, that “to communicate and make visible the African American absence in American culture by articulating African American identities and experiences that can set the records straight”. (221) [1]Love, race and the motif of home are the recurrent themes in her stories. (Durán 224) [1] Almost all the important characters, such as Pecola in The Bluest Eye, Sula in Sula, Sethe in Beloved and Florens in A Mercy, cannot love and be loved because of the color of their skin, and therefore are deprived of sanctuary internally and externally. So when her tenth novel Home is published, people take it as a continuation of her exploration of African American’s reconciliation with the past and quest for a home. The story is about a young African American war veteran Frank Money trying to save his younger sister Cee. During his journey, Frank suffers from his own traumatic memories and racial humiliations. Finally, he succeeds in saving his sister and taking her back to their hometown in Lotus, Georgia. Because Home is Morrison’s second novel that has a male protagonist, and Frank has a clear symptoms of PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder), the masculine experience and trauma become the focus of many critics and reviewers when they interpret the story. (Visser 148-64 [2]; Ibarrola 109-24 [3]; Pipes 1-15 [4]) However, as a writer that always concerns about Black women and their struggles in a white male dominated society, Morrison also creates some very interesting and complex female characters in this novel. She once said in an interview I didn’t like him (Frank Money). … I tend to like the little ones, you know, the minor characters. … (They) are representatives of problems. Their problems. The problems. They are very complex and they move from one area to another, from weakness to strength, from ignorance to knowledge, from A to Z. … I just want to do them justice, whatever it is. They are not like good or bad, or fun, or not. So I do really like them. … They are really very interesting. (Morrison) [5]However, the studies of these female characters in Home are neglected; or they are simply mentioned to highlight the masculine experience. This paper is going to exam the story from a feminist perspective, focusing on three female characters – Lily, Lenore, and Cee, to show Black women’s miserable and marginalized life, to discuss their different approaches towards “home” and to show Morrison’s belief in the power of Black community.1 Black Feminism Being not a white nor a man, Black woman has been forgotten in the major social movements such as feminist movement and the movement for racial equality. “Whiteness is considered the universal norm, in the same way that male behavior was regarded as the universal norm, and female behavior was considered a deviation from the norm. Women (Blacks) were not seen as different; instead, they were seen as deficient.” (Graff 254) [6] Black women have been silenced and marginalized due to the duel oppression from the white and the patriarchal society since they were shipped from Africa to the new land as slaves. They have been stereotyped either as good Mammy who is unattractive and serves faithfully to the white masters, or as the “angry black woman” who is “irate, irrational, hostile, and negative despite the circumstances” (Ashley 28) [7]. In other words, they are considered as inferior racially, sexually, intellectually and emotionally. Things started to change in 1960s when Black feminism became popular. Black feminism “describes the history of African American women, including their experience of oppression and liberation, and their neglect and misconstruction by established black and white scholars or critics.” (Goldstein 133) [8] Black feminists are striving to give a voice to African American women by discovering the convergence of race, class, and gender oppression, clearing up the negative stereotypes, and analyzing
9Leyi CAO In Search of Home: A Black Feminist Study of Toni Morrison's Hometheir characteristics as a group. More importantly, they seek a way to rebuild their self-identity that has been crushed by all kinds of oppressions. Collins in her book Black Feminist Thought provides a detailed introduction to the distinguishing features of Black Feminist Thought and some core themes such as Black women’s oppression in work and family, their controlling images and sexual politics, the importance of motherhood, etc. The book presents a Black woman’s standpoint to see the world. By analyzing Black women’s oppressive experiences, Collins argues that Black women’s empowerment can be achieved due to a collective knowledge – knowledge of slavery, of relationship with the white and Black men, and of African traditions. “When Black women value our self-definitions, participate in Black women’s domestic and transnational activist traditions, view the skills gained in schools a part of a focused education for Black community development, and invoke Black feminist epistemologies as central to our worldview, we empower ourselves.” (Collins 289) [9] Davis, on the other hand, proposes a theoretical framework “Strong Black Woman Collective” (SBWC). The study indicates the importance of community for Black women. The SBWC framework shows that Black American women have unique racial and gendered communication style, which “signifies a shared experience of the legacies of colonization, slavery, disenfranchisement, and marginalization”. (Davis 26) [10] They can reinforce each other’s virtue of strength by the use of distinct communication practices within the women-centered community, which becomes a collective “resistance against racial-gendered oppression” and “validates Black womanhood”. (Davis 20) [10] Duran uses “womanism”, a term coined by Alice Walker, when she discusses the features of Black feminism. She believes that “one of the hallmarks of womanism has been its emphasis on community.” (Duran 65) [11] It can be traced back to the time of slavery when the slave women had to stay together to fight off the evil slave masters. Womanism also relies on West African cultures and the focus on matters spiritual, which means that the Black culture plays a significant role in Black American women’s life.2 Lily’s Denial of Black IdentityLily is described in the story as a strong and independent woman striving for a “home”. She worked hard to fulfill “her yearning for her own house”. (Morrison 75) [12] After saving enough money for a down payment on a house, she went to seek a realtor. When she happily walked in a neighborhood that was “so nice”, “the stares she had gotten as she strolled the neighborhood didn’t trouble her, since she knew how neatly dressed she was and how perfect her straightened hair.” (73) [12] Lily’s confidence evaporated when the realtor refused to sell her any house in this neighborhood because there were restrictions:No part of said property hereby conveyed shall ever be used or occupied by any Hebrew or by any person of the Ethiopian, Malay or Asiatic race excepting only employees in domestic service. (73) [12]The story happened in the 50s, a time that is usually considered as a golden age in America because everyone had a job and lived happily (Wang and Wu 113) [13]. However, Lily’s experience shows us a real picture of the reality. Serious racial discrimination still existed, and African American people as well as other minority groups of people, whether they were rich or poor, were publicly taken as inferior and kept out of the white community. In the story, Morrison also mentioned a small detail that when Lily worked in the theater as a seamstress, the actresses were mean to her, calling her “girl” and getting “raged when their hair or wigs didn’t obey” (71) [12]. “Calling domestic workers ‘girls’ enable employers to treat their employees like children, as less capable human being.” (Collins 71) [9] The white (women) have placed themselves as subjects who have the right to define others and establish an absolute authority over the objects – the Black women.
10Apart from the hostile society, Lily’s relationship with Frank is problematic. She had to do all the housework and mind all the “small mechanics of life” because “none of these irritations did Frank take seriously”. (75) [12] What infuriated Lily most was that “he shared none of her enthusiasm for achieving that goal (of having their own house)”. (75) [12] It reflects the oppressed life of a Black woman who should work to financially support the family, while at the same time undertake all the household duties. Like Frank who believed that “smoke(ing) outside the apartment building” and “put(ting) more than half his pay on the dresser for her to spend any way she wanted” (20) [12] was everything he should do for his lover, Black men retreat from the responsibility they should have on the family and leave it all to the women. They also hardly care about their emotional need. Things would even go violence as another example from Home shows: a Black woman was beaten by some white men because she had tried to protect her husband who wanted to buy things in a white store. Frank was sure that the man would beat his wife “over and over again” (26)[12] when they got home to cover his shame. Black men are able to release their anger on Black women, while Black women could only endure all of it silently. They become the scapegoat, suffering due to the oppressions from both the white and the Black men. In spite of all the hardship, Lily had never once lost her goal of life. Her determination and confidence made her stand out among the other female characters created by Morrison. However, Lily chose the wrong way to achieve her goal. The house she wanted to purchase was located in a white community. Even when she was turned down due to the restriction, “she still wanted to buy that house or one like it”. (74) [12] Lily’s searching for her “home” in a white community may be interpreted as her unconditional acceptance of white culture, which is similar to Pecola’s craving for a pair of blue eyes in Morrison’s first novel The Bluest Eyes. This kind of influence is destructive because it means a denial of the Black culture – the root of Black people’s self-identity. On the other hand, Lily didn’t plan to share her dream house with another person: When Frank left, Lily accidentally found a purse full of coins on the date. “In Frank Money’s empty space real money glittered. Who could mistake a sign that clear? Not Lillian Florence Jones.” (81) [12] In fact, individualism is an important part of white culture. They believe in individual power to achieve independence and self-reliance, although individualism is probably just a modern myth and hard to be achieved. (Wang 79-80) [14] On the other hand, Black culture relies on communal bonds – sisterhood, motherhood, or even friendship. The same history, tradition, and suffering bond African American together, and only with the joint effort could they find a safe sanctuary. That’s why Black women’s self should be found “in the context of family and community”. (Collins 113) [9] Lily chose money and a house over her lover and a potential family, which indicates that she embraced the white culture and ignored her own. Though whether Lily could successfully acquire what she wanted is unknown, she did end up alone without a home in the story.3 Lenore’s Refusal of FriendsBeing crude and mean, Frank and Cee’s grandmother Lenore is described as the evil step-mother in the fairy tale of “Hansel and Gretel”. (Visser 152) [2] But she is also a victim of the racial discrimination. Her first marriage had been happy and life had been well-off until her husband was killed.…he was shot to death by someone who wanted or envied his gas station. The note left on his chest said “Get the hell out. Now.” It happened during the deepest part of the Depression and the sheriff had more important things on his mind. Searching the county for a common shooting was not one of them. He took the note and said he’d look into it. If he did, he didn’t say what he found. (86) [12]It is a proof of the serious social problems in America in the 20s or 30s. Though slavery had ended, the belief that the Black people were inferior and
11Leyi CAO In Search of Home: A Black Feminist Study of Toni Morrison's Homeunworthy still prevailed the society. So their economic success was unbearable and would lead to the white’s envy and violence. What is more frightening is that this kind of violence was so “common” that it was not taken as a crime. They were killed just like animals. As a widow and a Black woman who inherited the money from the dead husband, Lenore became a big and easy target of potential attack. So she packed everything and moved to Lotus. However, “her fear dwindled over time, but not enough to be comfortable living alone. So marrying a Lotus widower named Salem Money solved that problem for a while anyway.” (86-87) [12] Lenore’s fear may be explained as Black women’s collective experiences in a white patriarchal society: a Black woman alone is never safe. They are powerless and voiceless. Anyone can take advantage of them without facing any consequences. That’s why Lenore married Salem: not for love, but for a companion that may prevent her from the harm to a single Black woman. Lenore’s little house became the home to the new couples. Though the arrival of Frank’s family intruded Lenore’s privacy, she had a family, a house and money to ensure a comfortable life. It seems she is the happiest woman in the story. But just like Lily, Lenore is also a representative of problems. She didn’t have any empathy for other Black people. Because she was better off economically than most people in the community, she “believed herself superior to everybody else in Lotus”. (45) [12] According to Black feminist theory, empathy is one of the components of the ethic of caring that is the base of a matriarchal Black community in which Black women’s identity can be maintained whole. (Collins 262-64) [9] Only Black women can understand the suffering they go through as black and female, and only Black women can empower each other to suppress the tormenting memory and look forward to a future. But this understanding is based on empathy – understanding other Black women’s life and providing support. Lenore failed to do that. All she cared was “a fairly fat savings account, owning property, and having one, actually two, of the few automobiles in the neighborhood” (91) [12], and “the person she prized most of all – herself” (92) [12]. She kept her distance from the others due to her scorn. She later drove Jackie away, who worked for her and was her only company, by killing her favorite dog Bobby simply because it ate the pullet in her garden. Lenore didn’t understand, or didn’t want to understand other Black women. Therefore, it won’t be a surprise to find that she ended up lonely and miserable after the stroke. Morrison once said in an interview about the friendship between Sula and Nel in her another story Sula: … when you (a black woman) don’t have a woman to talk to, really talk to, whether it be an aunt or a sister or a friend, that is the real loneliness. That is devastating. Remember when Sula says to Nel that she thought that she shouldn’t have to explain, that she never had to explain anything her before? Honey, that is home. That is what women provide for each other. (Denard 16) [15]Being friends with other women is crucial to a Black woman. It is the “home” in which the Black women can hide from the hostile outside world. So being an outsider of the community, Lenore failed to acquire a home.4 Cee and A Lack of EducationCee was treated badly by her step-grandmother Lenore who “took it as a very bad sign … that she was born on the road” (44) [12] after her family was forced to leave home by Ku Klux Klan. Though her brother Frank protected her from any real danger, after he left for war, Cee suddenly became helpless and miserable. Later she easily fell for a young man, Prince, who married her for an automobile and abandoned her shortly after they went to Atlanta. However, Cee blamed education for her unhappy marriage.Cee thought it would have been better if there were more books to read – not just Aesop’s Fables and a book of Bible passages for young people – and much much better if she had been
12permitted to attend the school in Jeffrey. That, she believed, was the reason she ran off with a rat. If she hadn’t been so ignorant living in a no-count, not-even-a-town place with only chores, church-school, and nothing else to do, she would have known better. (47) [12]When Cee worked for Mr. Beau, a white doctor, she was also “in awe of the crowded bookshelves” (65) [12] in his office. “How small, how useless was her schooling, she thought, and promised herself she would find time to read about and understand ‘eugenics’”. (65) [12] Cee’s experience shows another aspect of African-American’s life: due to the racial segregation, most Black people in America didn’t have the opportunity to receive education. “… the legalization of racial segregation in … education … erected rigid boundaries between African-Americans and White Americans.” (Collins 53) [9] Since many schools didn’t admit Black students, Black churches took up the responsibility to teach the children. However, their teaching was not systematic and the teaching material was very limited. Without proper education, Black people remained ignorant and voiceless. As for Black woman, education means more than the teaching from school. The mother-daughter relation is also vital – it is from the mother or the grandmother that the girls learn how to face the oppression. Mothers plays “crucial roles as an active agents in the lives of their daughters and the way daughters construct their understanding of race, of color and last but not least of themselves.” (Rahmani 62) [16] African-American mothers are the shield protecting their daughters from dangers in the society full of racial and sexual discrimination by teaching them the ancestral wisdom and experience. Apart from the bloodmothers, grandmothers may act as “othermothers” to take up the responsibility of educating the younger generation, (Collins 178) [9] just like what Baby Suggs did in Morrison’s another novel Beloved. However, Cee’s mother was always absent because she had to work two jobs day and night, and the grandmother was cruel and selfish. The real “mother” of Cee was another child – her brother Frank. Without a parent to teach her how to face the oppression in life, Cee was completely lost when her brother left for war. So she easily fell for the first man she met and believed every lie he said. She was also ignorant to the potential dangers she might have when she worked in a white family and trusted the doctor who later used her for medical experiments which almost took her life. Because of the white doctor, Cee was deprived of the right of being a mother herself, which is destructive to a Black woman because “motherhood can serve as a site where Black women express and learn the power of self-definition, the importance of valuing and respecting ourselves, the necessity of self-reliance and independence, and a belief in Black women’s empowerment.” (Collins 176) [9] Without formal education from school, without parental guidance from her mother and grandmother, without a chance to be a mother and learn the meaning of being a Black woman, Cee was so powerless and ignorant that she was fooled and almost killed by the doctor, just like the melon Sarah cut in two.Cee lifted the third one (melons), then stroked its lime-yellow peel, tucking her forefinger into the tiny indentation at the stem break. “Female,” she laughed. “This one’s a female.”“Well, hallelujah.” Sarah joined Cee’s laughter with a low chuckle. “Always the sweetest.” “Always the juiciest,” echoed Cee. “Can’t beat the girl for flavor.” “Can’t beat her for sugar.”Sarah slid a long, sharp knife from a drawer and, with intense anticipation of the pleasure to come, cut the girl in two. (66) [12]5 Collective Power from the CommunityFortunately, Frank arrived in time and rescued
13Leyi CAO In Search of Home: A Black Feminist Study of Toni Morrison's HomeCee. But the people who really saved her from her physical illness and gave her a hope for the future were the Black women in the community. The sisterhood in a Black community is extremely important to a Black woman because only a Black woman can understand what it means to be a Black and a woman. A Black woman can only remain her wholeness when she is within a supportive community.One of the funct ions of a Black women community is that they support each other during times of distress. However, when the Black women treated Cee, they seemed unfriendly. They didn’t waste their time or the patient’s with sympathy and they met the tears of the suffering with resigned contempt.First the bleeding: “Spread your knees. This is going to hurt. Hush up. Hush, I said.”Next the infection: “Drink this. You puke, you got to drink more, so don’t.”Then the repair: “Stop that. The burning is the healing. Be quiet.” (121) [12]Studies of the characteristics of Black women communities show that compared with White women, Black American women placed much lower value on comforting their conversational partners. (Davis 31)[10] Although their disinterest in improving the other’s emotional state, it does not mean a lack of collective support within a Black community. In fact, it shows that the community “is more concerned with restring self-esteem, self-identity, and generally strengthening the woman’s sense of self” (Davis 31) [10] They want to focus efforts on attending to the problem, finding a solution, and reaffirming the other’s strength. Comforting one’s feeling is useless and a waste of time because of that. So their impoliteness is actually the proof of support they give to the women who needed them.Another function of a Black women community is that they share with the younger generations knowledge of survival in a hostile society. When Cee almost recovered from her illness, Miss Ethel, one of the women from the community said: “Don’t tell me you going to let Lenore decide again who you are? If you thinking about it, let me tell you something first. Remember that story about the goose and the golden eggs? How the farmer took the eggs and how greed made him stupid enough to kill the goose? I always thought a dead goose could make at least one good meal. But gold? Shoot. That was always the only thing on Lenore’s mind. She had it, loved it, and thought it put her above everybody else. Just like the farmer. Why didn’t he plow his land, seed it, and grow something to eat?”…“See what I mean? Look to yourself. You free. Nothing and nobody is obliged to save you but you. Seed your own land. You young and a woman and there’s serious limitation in both, but you a person too. Don’t let Lenore or some trifling boyfriend and certainly no devil doctor decide who you are. That’s slavery. Somewhere inside you is that free person I’m talking about. Locate her and let her do some good in the world.” (125-26) [12]Replacing the mother and grandmother, the community took up the educational responsibility in teaching the girl how to be a Black woman. Miss Ethel showed Cee the limitation of being a Black woman, warned her the danger of being money-oriented like Lily, being arrogant and selfish like Lenore, and being naïve and ignorant to the oppression from Black man and the white, and the importance of being independent and self-defined. In fact, “Miss Ethel becomes the mother that Cee no longer has.” (Montgomery 22) [17] Though it was their medical treatment that saved her life, this sharing of life experience and affirmation of her identity buffered the devastating effect of oppression on her. The women from the community had all suffered in different ways. “Cee remembered that one of Ethel Fordham’s sons had been murdered up North in Detroit. Maylene Stone had one working eye, the other having been
14pierced at the sawmill by a wood chip. No doctor was available or summoned. Both Hanna Rayburn and Clover Reid, lame from polio, had joined their brothers and husbands hauling lumber to their storm-damaged church.” (123-24) [12] Similar experience became a bond connecting them together and enabled them to understand the hardship upon a Black woman. “Older Black women recognize the hardships life brings and instill in their young female kin the notion that manifested strength will help them avoid being taken advantage of by outside forces, persevere through the challenges, and survive without help or assistance from anyone.” (Davis 28) [10] So women-centered Black community is essential to a Black woman’ s survival. A Black women community also functions as a way to pass down the ancestral wisdom. When Cee got better, the women “brought their embroidery and crocheting, and finally they used Ethel Fordham’s house as their quilting center”. (122) [12] Quilting is one of the traditional art forms of African American women, symbolizing their creativity and spirituality. (Guerin 231) [18] It is also considered as a representative of sisterhood. (Zhou and Luo 155) [19] By quilting beside Cee, the women unintentionally taught the girl to recognize their racial identity, and handed down the precious ancestral heritage that enabled her to make a living: later Cee planned to make quilts and sell them to visitors in Jeffrey. She not only physically recovered from her illness, but also was economically independent. Apart from quilting, the women’s attitude towards gardening and self-reliance also stems from their tradition. After telling Cee that she could never give birth to a baby, Miss Ethel started to work in her garden. “An aggressive gardener, Miss Ethel blocked or destroyed enemies and nurtured plants. … Her garden was not Eden; it was so much more than that. For her the whole predatory world threatened her garden, competing with its nourishment, its beauty, its benefits, and its demands. And she loved it.” (130) [12] Miss Ethel’s gardening is significant in helping Cee achieve independence. Traditionally, Black people are close to land and nature. They believed that land is held in common and is only used for household need, which is in contrast to profit-maximising private ownership in the western culture. (Metz 22) [20] Black people also believe that development is circular instead of linear. (Cheng 110) [21] Miss Ethel’s gardening illustrates these ancestral beliefs. By planting, Miss Ethel and other Black women were able to have a continuous food supply for the family and even for sharing with the neighbors. They understand the nature, respect the nature, and obtain food from the nature that is no more than what they need. This kind of self-sufficiency empowers the Black women so that they can find the value of life and be spiritually independent. On the other hand, gardening is symbolically a resistance to the outside oppressions. The “whole predatory world threatened her garden”, which is just like the hostile society threatens Black women’s safety and dignity. However, the Black women, as a collective force, can work out a way to resist the threat and retreat to the sanctuary formed by their community. Following their example, Cee started to lead a self-sufficient life. Moreover, she was finally independent, accepting who she really was: “Meantime her brother was there with her, … but she didn’t need him as she had before. He had literally saved her life, but she neither missed nor wanted his fingers at the nape of her neck telling her not to cry, that everything would be all right.” (131) [12]6 ConclusionLily, Lenore and Cee have to face different racial and sexual problems, and use different approaches to find a sanctuary in this hostile society. Lily failed to acquire a home because she not only denied her black identity but also refused to accept a companion in her life. Lenore failed to acquire a home because she isolated herself from other Black women as well as the whole Black community. The only woman who successfully achieved internal and external independence and finally found a home is Cee. Unlike the other two women, Cee got power from a group of Black women. These women from the community saved her and changed her thoroughly. They became
15Leyi CAO In Search of Home: A Black Feminist Study of Toni Morrison's Homethe teachers warning her the danger from the white patriarchal society, and showing her the way to understand herself within the Black culture. Because of their assistance and guidance, Cee found out what it meant to be a Black woman. The end of the story is remarkably positive. Cee and her brother re-rented their parents’ old house and started to have a place to call “home”. Their childhood traumatic experience was also integrated after they discovered the truth about the house where they witnessed the burial of a Black man when they were little, and then re-buried him by the river. Both of the brother and sister got over the haunting past and had a future to look forward to. However, none of these would have come true if there had not been the support from the women-centered community. To Black women, “home” means a sense of belonging within the community of Black American women. By telling the story of Black women searching for a home, Morrison seeks to disturb the complacent certainties of a white patriarchal culture, to assert a belief in Black collective power, and to make black women’s voice heard.References [1] Durán, Mar Gallego. “Justine Baillie. 2013. Toni Morrison and Literary Tradition: The Invention of an Aesthetic”. Journal of the Spanish Association of Anglo-American Studies. 2015, 37(1): 221-226.[2] Visser, Irene. “Fairly Tale and Trauma in Toni Morrison’s Home”. MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of the U.S.. 2016, 41(1): 148-164.[3] Ibarrola, Aitor. “The Challenges of Recovering from Individual and Cultural Trauma in Toni Morrison’s Home”. International Journal of English Studies. 2014, 14(1): 109-124.[4] Pipes, Candice L. “The Impossibility of Home”. War, Literature & the Arts: An International Journal of the Humanities. 2014, 26: 1-15.[5] Morrison, Toni. Interview with Torrence Boone. March 4. 2013. Retrieved September 8, 2016 .[6] Graff, Gilda. “Post Civil War African American History: Brief Periods of Triumph, and Then Despair. The Journal of Psychohistory. 2016, 43(4): 247-261.[7] Ashley, Wendy. “The Angry Black Woman: The Impact of Pejorative Stereotypes on Psychotherapy with Black Women”. Social Work in Public Health. 2014, 29(27-34): 27-34.[8] Goldstein, Philip. “Black Feminism and The Canon: Faulkner’s Absalom, Absalom! and Morrison’s Beloved as Gothic Romances.” The Faulkner Journal. 2004, 20(1-2): 133-147.[9] Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought. New York: Routledge, 2000.[10] Davis, Shardé M. “The ‘Strong Black Woman Collective’: A Development Theoretical Framework for Understanding Collective Communication Practices of Black Women”. Women’s Studies in Communication. 2015, 38(20-35): 20-35.[11] Duran, Jane. “Women of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Feminism and Social Progress”. Philosophia Africana. 2015/2016, 17(2): 65-73.[12] Morrison, Toni. Home. New York: Vintage Books, 2012.[13] 王守仁，吳新雲：“國家·社區·房子 – 莫里森小說《家》對美國黑人生存空間的想像”， 《當代外國文學》，2013年第1期，第111-119頁。[14] 王玉括：“反思非裔美國文化，質疑美國文學經典的批評家莫里森”， 《當代外國文學》， 2013年第2期，第5-12頁。[15] Denard, Carolyn C. eds. Toni Morrison: Conversations. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2008.[16] Rahmani, Ayda. “Black Feminism: What Women of Color Went Through in Toni Morrison’s Selected Novels”. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature. 2015, 4(3): 61-65.[17] Montgomery, Maxine. “Bearing Witness to Forgotten Wounds: Toni Morrison’s Home and the Spectral Presence”. The South Carolina Review. 2015, 47(2): 14-24.[18] Guerin, Wilfred L., et al., eds. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2004.[19] 鄒惠芳，羅曉燕：“莫里森和沃克創作中的黑人女性意識對比”，《世界文學評論》，2007年第2期，第 154-156頁。[20] Metz, Thaddeus. “African Conceptions of Human Dignity: Vitality and Community as the Ground of Human Rights”. Human Rights Review. 2012, 13(1): 19-37.[21] 程錫麟：“黑人美學”，《外國文學》，2014年第2期，第106-117頁。
16 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 反饋方法的效度與漢語學習者口語滿意度相關性研究陳婉露，韋 衛*（澳門科技大學國際學院，澳門）摘要： 二語習得中對學習者學習的不斷反饋是學習者得以不斷進步的基礎，而課上反饋並非是一個直觀清晰的過程，多樣的反饋方法以及不同的反饋時間和反饋重點都對學習者有具體的影響。本次研究討論了漢語學習者的口語滿意度與老師的反饋方法、反饋質量數量之間的關係。問卷調研國內四所大學及英國三所大學（華東師範大學、南京大學、中國青年政治學院、南開大學、利茲大學，中央蘭開夏大學和謝菲爾德大學）285名漢語學習者以及採訪8位2016年“漢語橋＂歐洲組的獲勝選手，分析相關數據，檢驗結果顯示：大學層面的漢語教學中（1）最令漢語學習者滿意的反饋方法包括（依次排列）：清晰糾錯（Explicit correction）、重複錯誤（Repetition）和示範（Modeling）；而最令漢語學習者滿意的反饋特點是（依次排列）：反饋數量多，反饋及時，反饋簡單易懂、客觀清晰。（2）對漢語學習者的口語水平幫助最大的反饋方法包括（依次排列）：示範、清晰糾錯和重複錯誤；從反饋特點來看：反饋越多、越簡單易懂清晰客觀越有利於學習者口語水平的提高。 由此討論可見在漢語教學中最令學習者滿意的反饋方法，並不一定是最有利於漢語學習者口語進步的反饋方法。關鍵詞： 口語滿意度；反饋方法；漢語作為第二語言教學Investigating the Relationship between Feedback Approaches in Chinese Language Learners' Satisfaction Level in Oral classesWanlu CHEN, Wei WEI*( University International College, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstractt: This study investigated the relationship between four variables: Chinese tutors' choices of feedback approaches, perceived features in those feedbacks offered by tutors, students' progress in their oral performances and their satisfaction level. 285 questionnaires were collected from Chinese language learners in seven different universities (Nanjing University, Nankai University, East China Normal University, China Youth University of Political Studies, University of Leeds, University of Central Lancashire and University of Sheffield). Eight Chinese language learners who participated in 15th “Chinese Bridge” Chinese Proficiency Competition for foreign college students have participated in post-survey interviews. The study revealed that: 1) the most popular approaches include explicit correction, repetition and Modeling in their speaking class, and the best reported features in tutor feedback include large quantity and quick of responses 收稿日期：2017-06-16；修訂日期：2017-07-06。* 通訊作者：韋衛，男，博士，國際學院助理教授，主要研究方向：測試與評估，語言教學法。Email: wewei@must.edu.mo, Tel: 00853-88972013
17陳婉露，等 反饋方法的效度與漢語學習者口語滿意度相關性研究0 引言語言的學習是一個社會性的過程，學習不可能獨立於互動而存在[1]，這個過程中反饋是必不可少的[2]。反饋被認為是對語言學習者錯誤的及時反應，而錯誤被認為是一件自然發生的事情，意味著學生正在向著目標語言而努力[3]。如何處理語言學習者的錯誤在二語教學中是一個非常重要的問題，長久以來一直吸引著二語教學的老師和學者們不斷地探究。此外，理解學生對於反饋的反應也是非常重要的[4]。其次研究表明實際的課堂教學中，老師的反饋以及對於錯誤的糾正利於提高語言學習者學習的準確度（Nassaji, 2016），因為相比較於其他的反饋對象而言，學習者樂於且願意內化老師反饋（Tutor feedback）的內容 [5]，而老師的職業專業性以及經驗程度會讓老師反饋比同行評議（Peer feedback）以及自我評價 (Self feedback)顯得更加得具體客觀[6]，信度（Reliability）更高 [7]，因此本次研究將以漢語學習者為研究對象，以問卷調研為手段，研究國內外七所大學的漢語學習者的學習現況，並做定量分析。而且以“一對一”訪談為補充論證，採訪了 8 名 2016 年“漢語橋”歐洲組的獲勝選手，分析在課堂教學中，漢語老師不同的反饋方法的效度對於漢語學習者口語滿意度的影響。1 文獻綜述本次研究致力於老師反饋方法和漢語學習者口語滿意度的相關性，討論老師反饋的不同方法以及反饋的質量與數量對於漢語學習者口語的滿意度的影響，因此文獻綜述會從以下兩個方面進行討論，第一方面主要討論利於學習者語言知識習得的反饋特點，第二個方面具體分析不同反饋方法的問題與不足。1.1 利於學習者習得語言知識的反饋模式長久以來，眾多學者對於什麼樣的反饋模式對學習者語言習得有所幫助進行了大量的研究，而通過對先前研究的討論得知，先前的學者們從反饋方法和反饋的質量以及數量上對有利於語言學習者語言習得的反饋模式進行了探討。從反饋方法上來看，利於學習者有效習得的反饋方法主要有以下幾種：（1）示範：Jones et al.（2012）以英國生物科學專業的本科生為研究對象，通過調研學生對於接受到老師反饋后的最初反映發現 , 學生認為收到自己的分數，並且與老師交流后，老師給出的示範答案（Model answer）的反饋非常有用。（2）重複錯誤和元語言反饋： Gitsaki 與Althobaiti （2010）通過實驗對比分析澳大利亞一所私立英文學校的兩位英語老師，在他們英語課堂上的教學表現，定性研究檢驗分析得出重複學生錯誤和元語言反饋都會導致學生成功的攝取知識，而重複學生的錯誤可以致使學生有更高的吸收率（Uptake），從而促使學生的口語水平的提高。（3）清晰糾錯、反復確認和改寫：Gitsaki 與Althobaiti（2010）在澳大利亞英文學校的調研也揭示出對於中級水平的英語學習者而言最頻繁的互動式反饋是清晰糾錯、反復確認和改寫，而對於初級英語學習者而言，最頻繁的互動式反饋是反復確認和改寫。（4）引導：Hawe 與 Dixon[8] 的實驗，通過對三組老師在學生寫作課的教學情況進行研究，發現老師通過及時的引導可以幫助學生的語言習得，使得學生成為主動吸收知識的人。而且引導可以有效的引發學生的積極思考，並且有技巧的詢問，可以激發學生自我內化所學的內容，從而自我修正言語表達中的錯誤。從反饋的,understandable and objective content; 2) Modeling, explicit correction and repetition significantly contribute to the progress of students' Chinese speaking proficiency. The findings also revealed that the most satisfied feedback approach is not the most effective one. Those findings may have some guidance to Chinese teachers and faculties in teaching Chinese as a foreign language. eywordst: Key words: Feedback approaches; Second language acquisition; Oral performance
21陳婉露，等 反饋方法的效度與漢語學習者口語滿意度相關性研究其次是多次運用重複學生錯誤的反饋方法的老師，最後是示範，並且這三種反饋方法合起來用的次數越多的老師，對於漢語學習者對老師反饋的滿意度的解釋越強，漢語學習者對其反饋的滿意度越高。即是學生最希望老師在做課堂反饋時多次給學生提供正確的口語表達形式，清晰的解釋學生口語表達中所犯的錯誤以及原因，可能的情況下多次重讀或是重複漢語學習者口語表達中錯誤或是有問題的部分，提醒學習者注意自己的口頭表達，並且盡可能地多給學生相應的實際情景和正確的例子，帶領學習者反復操練，以到達學會運用的目的。而其次表 5 的數據反映了漢語學習者對其老師反饋表現的滿意度與反饋質量和數量之間的關係，漢語學習者對於老師的滿意度與老師反饋的質量和數量也有很大的關聯。由下表內容可以看出：學習者滿意的漢語老師總是會在上課的時候給出大量有用的反饋（β=0.732，P<0.001，解釋了53.6% 的變量），並且及時的給出反饋（β=0.251，P<0.001，解釋了 3% 的變量）以及給出有助於學習者了解自己口語分數指標的反饋（β=0.111，P<0.005，解釋了 0.6% 的變量）也是有學習者滿意漢語老師的原因，並且這三項合計解釋了 57.2%的變量，這表明學生最滿意的漢語老師，一般是最頻繁給出學生反饋的漢語老師。此外及時的給處學生反饋與給出客觀易懂的反饋，也會影響學生對於漢語老師的滿意度。由以上定量分析結果見，漢語學習者滿意的漢語老師，在課堂教學中，多針對語言學習者的錯誤進行清晰的講解，並且習慣重複其錯誤，激發其思考與自我修復錯誤的能力，而且擅長用示範來為學習者創造正確運用語言的交際情境。此外，漢語學習者滿意的漢語老師非常重視反饋的作用，及時有效地給出簡單易懂，真實客觀，讓表4 反饋方法與漢語學習者對漢語老師的滿意度之線性迴歸滿意度B SE B β B SE B β B SE B βExplain 0.574*** 0.062 0.514*** 0.385*** 0.072 0.345*** 0.320*** 0.075 0.287***Repetition 0.272*** 0.059 0.300*** 0.191** 0.064 0.211**Modeling 0.211** 0.068 0.200**R2 0.264 0.326 0.349Adj R2 0.261 0.320 0.341F 84.773*** 56.830*** 41.794***df (1,236) (2,235) (3,234)註：Explain: 清晰糾錯（Explicit correction）；Repetition: 重複錯誤；Modeling: 示範 N = 285 *p <0.05 ** p <0. 01 *** p < 0.001表5 漢語學習者口語滿意度與反饋的質量和數量之線性迴歸反饋的質量與數量B SE B β B SE B β B SE B βPlentyF 0.715*** 0.040 0.732*** 0.537*** 0.057 0.550*** 0.521*** 0.057 0.534***Fquick 0.237*** 0.055 0.251*** 0.202*** 0.056 0.215***rFuM 0.116** 0.046 0.111**R2 0.536 0.566 0.572Adj R2 0.535 0.563 0.572F 312.309*** 175.726*** 121.517***Df (1,270) (2,269) （3,268）註：PlentyF： On this course I get plenty of feedback on how I am doing; rFuM： Once I have read the feedback I understand why I got the mark I did; Fquick： The feedback comes back very quickly. N = 285 *p <0.05 ** p <0. 01 *** p < 0.001
22學習者可以通過老師的反饋，明白自己的分數並及時的糾正自己的語言錯誤。而實際訪談中，所有的受訪者也強調自己日常的漢語學習中，老師清晰簡單的解釋，對自己的語言學習有很大的幫助；其中 4 位被訪者明確表示，老師只判斷對錯，而不做明確的解釋，對他們的語言習得沒有很大的幫助。且相比較機械的無意義的練習，受訪者表示更願意聽到老師清晰合理的分析，這樣才能明確自己的問題所在，從而可以更好的進行語言學習。下面一段話來自德國的被訪者“it's more about we repeat, but we still do not know, but if the teacher can say your tone is good, but pronunciation is not good, we can practice our pronounce and we can repeat and practice it, but sometime we do not know where it is good, pronunciation or tone.”受訪者認為老師花時間用不同的例句來解釋并糾正學習者語言錯誤是很好的方式，但是學習者同時也認為需要有反復練習的時間，找到合適自己的例句，從而可以使得自己真正的內化所學的知識，學會使用語言。在實際訪談中受訪者對重複錯誤這一反饋方法也提出了自己的看法，但是定量數據證明最令學生滿意的漢語老師，最常使用的反饋方法是清晰糾錯，其次是重複學生錯誤。在訪談中 5 位受訪者表示重複錯誤這一反饋方法，可以讓學生自我認識到自己語言表達中的錯誤與不足，通過不同的音量、語氣重複學生的錯誤，會給學生一定思考正確語言表達的時間，受訪者也表示經過自己思考，自我修正過的言語表達，更令自己印象深刻。下面一段自于法國男生話代表了大部份被採訪者的意見。“…對！因為這樣真的很容易記住。如果他只是…沒有說我錯了，可能他自己調整，然後我沒有注意到他真的弄錯，他只是…後來說，可是沒有說我真的是錯的，可能我不太會注意到…＂最後受訪者也明確的表示經常通過示範的方法給出合理反饋的老師也是很好的，尤其在對老師而言清晰解釋並不是很方便的時候。 “…他會自己直接模範，領我模範…領我…他是自己示範，然後領我模仿。解釋，一般是不用的，…因為他…這個老師是中國老師，他…法語不太好，對他來說解釋不是最直接最方便的方法，所以…他一般通過別的方式糾正我們的錯誤。＂由訪談內容可見，受訪者在採訪中表示在日常的漢語課堂中，自己滿意的漢語老師的反饋方法是清晰糾錯、重複錯誤和示範，呼應了定量分析的結果。此外，受訪者也提出了有些漢語老師令人不太滿意的原因：1. 給反饋非常的少 （5 位被採訪者）；2. 反饋給的很不及時（5 位被採訪者）；3. 反饋與事實的分數不符合，反饋不明確不具體（3 位被採訪者）。特別需要指出的是被採訪者對不具體的不明確的表揚，讚美，肯定等等形式的反饋似乎不是很滿意。下面一段對話來自于一位俄羅斯的女生 , Z 代表採訪者，N 代表被採訪者。Z： 總體來說你對於你的漢語老師的反饋滿意嗎？N： … 我 覺 得 他 們 的 feedback, presentation 之後太少了，一般只是你說的很好，基本上沒有錯誤或者對對！他，這個評價一般是比如說你這個報告有點兒偏題。…我們上課的時間不夠，在這一段時間內，他不會給我們很準確很好的反饋。老師真的說你的漢語非常棒，我不太信任他，對！我知道，我知道還有很多地方可以進步…我很喜歡老師糾正我自己的錯誤，我很喜歡中國人或者別人糾正我自己的錯誤，我很喜歡他們讓我意識到我自己的錯誤。我不太喜歡有人誇人，有人說我中文非常棒什麼的，因為這樣有什麼進步的空間呢？ 所以對我來說，老師最善良的行為就是批評他的學生，就是讓他們意識到他們的錯誤是什麼，我覺得中文老師應該適應他學生的情況。由此可以看出令學生滿意的老師的反饋模式是：1. 反饋頻繁，數量多；2. 反饋及時不滯後；3. 反饋與事實相符合，不誇大，學生聽完老師給出的
23陳婉露，等 反饋方法的效度與漢語學習者口語滿意度相關性研究反饋，可以明白自己的分數。因此本文的第一個主要是發現是，老師的不同反饋方法會影響漢語學習者對老師的滿意度。學生最滿意的反饋方法分別是清晰糾錯、重複錯誤和示範，而學生最滿意的反饋特點是反饋越多越滿意、反饋越及時越好；反饋越客觀真實、清晰易懂越好。3.2 有助於漢語學習者口語水平進步的反饋為了回答第二個研究問題，有助於漢語學習者口語水平提高的反饋，本次研究還針對漢語學習者口語進步程度與老師的反饋模式進行了定量分析。一方面討論漢語學習者口語進步的程度與老師的反饋方法之間的線性關係，另一方面討論漢語學習者口語進步程度與反饋的質量和數量之間的線性關係。此外，結合定性的訪談數據對兩部分定量分析的結果進行補充論證，揭示出什麼樣的反饋方法以及什麼樣的反饋模式最有利於漢語學習者的口語學習。首先，為了證實漢語學習者口語進步程度與老師反饋方法之間的關係，本次研究的 SPSS 逐步回歸分析結果如表 6 所示。結果表明 β 值均小 於 0.497，P 值 均 小 於 0.01。 數 據 顯 示 在 口 語課堂中，漢語學習者認為對自己的口語學習最有幫 助 的 反 饋 方 法 是 示 範（β=0.497,P<0.001），並且成功解釋了 24.7% 的變量；其次最有效的反饋方法是清晰糾錯（β=0.294,P<0.001）, 解釋了 6.2% 的變量，而且與前一項一起合計解釋了30.9% 的變量；最後最有效的反饋方法是重複錯誤（β=0.217,P<0.01）, 解釋了 2.5% 的變量，且與前兩項合計解釋了 33.4% 的變量。從數據結果可以看出，這三種反饋方法最有利於漢語學習者的口語水平的進步。其中示範最為有效，通過大量的例句，跟著老師不斷重複練習，最有助於漢語學習者的口語進步。其次老師明確告訴學生在口語表達中的問題和錯誤，並且清晰解釋原因，因為從根本處理解錯誤的根源在日常的口語教學中也是相當重要的。而老師在課堂反饋中重複學生的錯誤，強調學生的表達問題可以激發學生更好的避免表達失誤，對漢語學習者口語進步也非常的有效。其次探究漢語學習者口語進步程度與反饋質量和數量之間的關係，本次研究的 SPSS 逐步回歸分析結果可見表 7。其中最影響漢語學習者口語進步程度的是反饋的數量，收到越多反饋的學習者，口語水平進步越大（β=0.522,P<0.001），此項合理解釋了 27.2% 的變量；其次影響漢語學習者口語進步程度的是反饋的質量，越理解反饋所指向的內容的學習者，漢語口語進步得越快（β=0.278，P<0.001，解釋了 6.6% 的變量，而且此兩項合計解釋了 33.8% 的變量）。從表 7 的數據可以看出在漢語口語課堂上，老師給出的反饋越多越有助於學習者主動的吸收反饋的內容，從而糾正自己口語表達中的錯誤，此外老師給出的反饋越可以讓學習者理解自己的分數指標的，越有利於漢語學習者的口語水平的提高。這意味著老師在給出反饋的時候不僅要按照學習者的實際表現，與學習者的分數相契合，而且要讓學習者可以理解其反饋的內容，只有這樣才會有助於學習者的口語學習。由此可見對於學生有幫助的反饋不僅需要數量上可觀，更需要與學生所獲得的卷面分數相契合。因此由以上數據可以看出漢語學習者的口語水平與反饋方法有關，示範、清晰糾錯和重複錯誤有利於漢語學習者口語水平的進步，而且反饋越多，越客觀，越簡單易懂，越有助於學習者口語水平的提高。而訪談的定性數據也對此做出了呼應與補充。下面一段對話來自于被採訪的土耳其女生。“…so it wasn't just en en en or very serious or each thing, but they would give us funny examples and made us laugh and make us feel relax, so I found that very helpful for me…”儘管是參加漢語橋的高水平漢語學習者，在課堂上仍然表示喜歡老師用例子來講解，認為生動的例子對自己的漢語學習有幫助。另一個例子來自于丹麥的漢語橋選手。他也表示老師在實際
24課堂中會給出真實的情境，通過對話以及單個提問的方式，讓學生運用新的句型和語法，反復練習，以到達會運用的目的。 Z 代表採訪者，N 代表丹麥男生。N: Yeah, whenever we have a new piece of grammar or a new vocabulary word we have to go, we take turns to make sentences with the new vocabulary and we take turn making sentences using particular new forms of grammar we learned. Yes, yes, they give us something we have to use and have something make senses with our correct mistakes.Z: So the teacher will give you a situation, will the teacher ask one of your classmates to do a demo for u? Just the teacher does the demonstration by him or herself?N: Well, there are several ways that usually happens, they ask individually to make a sentence, they can also have a dialogue have us go back and forth or have us read the dialogue and then ask…we take turns to ask each other questions based on the dialogue. En…..the teacher also asks us questions with the new grammar and we have to answer it, ah…. En…. This is the major ones. 總結訪談信息，漢語學習者在學習時，認為老師適時的給出合適的例句，利於他們的學習，會讓他們的學習變得有趣，而且給出恰當的真實情景，讓學生反復練習，是他們在平時的日常口語課堂中主要的反饋方法。受訪者也認為大量的例句與模仿練習，可以加深他們對於語言知識的印象，從而主動習得。下面的採訪來自法國的被採訪者，他的解釋進一步驗證了問卷定量分析的結果。“…我记得老师让我每天都模仿一个一段…他给我录音一段话，然后让我每天早上或者每天一次模仿，这个对我来说很有帮助，因为会越来越习惯那些声音。＂ “…我…什麼方法沒有用…可能，如果表6 反饋方法與漢語學習者的口語進度程度之線性迴歸漢學習者口語進步程度B SE B β B SE B β B SE B βModelling 0.475*** 0.054 0.497*** 0.323*** 0.062 0.338*** 0.234*** 0.067 0.245***Explain 0.320*** 0.070 0.294*** 0.243*** 0.074 0.223***Repetition 0.191** 0.063 0.217**R2 0.247 0.309 0.334Adj R2 0.244 0.303 0.326F 77.576*** 52.431*** 39.200***df (1,236) (2,235) (3,234)註：Modelling： 示範；Explain： 清晰糾錯（Explicit correction）；Repetition： 重複錯誤 N = 285; *p <0.05 ** p <0. 01 *** p < 0.001表7 漢語學習者口語進步程度與反饋的質量和數量之線性迴歸反饋的質量與數量B SE B β B SE B βPlentyF 0.051*** 0.050 0.522*** 0.400*** 0.052 0.416***rFuM 0.277*** 0.054 0.278***R2 0.272 0.338Adj R2 0.269 0.333F 98.644*** 67.085***Df (1,264) (2,263)註：PlentyF：On this course I get plenty of feedback on how I am doing; rFuM：Once I have read the feedback I understand why I got the mark I did; N = 285; *p <0.05 ** p <0. 01 *** p < 0.001
25陳婉露，等 反饋方法的效度與漢語學習者口語滿意度相關性研究一位老師告訴我，這個不是錯的，比如說這個是四聲，不是一聲，然後他不給我聽，就可能對我來說比較難發出正確的發音。＂ 然而訪談的數據結果並不完全與定量分析的結果相呼應，在以下的訪談內容中，兩位受訪者並不認為反饋的數量與口語水平有關。受訪者認為糾正性反饋並不是越多越頻繁越好，而是明確具體、切入要點，可以讓學習者明白的反饋才是對學習者最有幫助的。下面一段話來自于捷克的女生。“少也可以，但的有幫助，得有影響Feedback needs to be to the point, and at the same Time give you a method how to improve it。＂上段內容中，受訪者明確表示讓學習者明白如何提高語言水平的反饋才對學習者的語言學習真正起到作用，並不越多越好的，而是需要建構性的反饋。這表明讓學習者理解反饋的內容十分重要，就可以在一定程度上提高漢語學習者的口語水平。因此在日常教學中反饋的內容需要簡單易懂，清晰明了才有助於學習者的理解與思考，從而可以主動的吸收反饋的有效內容。而在訪談中來自瑞典的受訪者也表示清晰客觀，理解力強的反饋有助於幫助自己的口語學習。“…我覺得老師給的具體評價和具體反饋最重要！…明确的反饋更有用。＂參與研究者認為對漢語學習者而言最有幫助的反饋方法應該是具體的明確的，老師越明確的告訴學生，學生的錯誤以及問題所在，並且盡可能的給出學生解決的方案，越有可能幫助學生的漢語口語水平更好的進步。綜上所述，經過定量數據與定性數據的分析，本文的第二個發現是漢語學習者的口語進步程度與反饋的方法以及反饋的質量和數量有關，從反饋方法的角度看，最利於學習者口語進步的反饋方法是示範，其次是清晰糾錯，最後是重複錯誤，以供學生自我意識，自我修正；而從反饋的質量和數量角度看，適當的反饋數量利於漢語學習者口語水平的提高，而明確清晰，簡單易懂，客觀真實的反饋可以更好的幫助學習者漢語口語水平的進步。4 討論根據上一章對研究結果的分析與論述，揭示對於大學階段的漢語學習者而言，清晰糾錯的反饋方法最令漢語學習者滿意，但是示範的反饋方法卻是最能夠幫助漢語學習者口語進步的。而從反饋的模式來看，多反饋，及時反饋以及客觀的反饋最令漢語學習者滿意，但是相比較於另外兩種反饋模式，及時反饋有時候並不一定有利於漢語學習者口語水平進步。由此可見對於大學階段的漢語學習者而言，他們最滿意的反饋方法，在他們的口語學習者並不一定是最有效的反饋方法。下一段將從兩個方面對此進行討論。4.1 反馈的方法和效度与满意度学生最满意的反馈方法是清晰纠错。Weaver[20]的研究通過調研 44 位商學院以及藝術設計學院的學生並且進行定量與定性分析，調研結果揭示學生對於老師反饋的滿意度與否是很重要的，從學生的角度認為老師給出的負面的反饋與評價應該要更加的具體細緻，太過於模糊的評價的負面評價對於學生的語言學習是沒有幫助的。這說明學生滿意的，認為對自己的語言學習有幫助的老師反饋行為，應該需要解釋得越具體越好，這樣可以讓學生更加清楚的明白自己錯誤的原因，並且做出正確的修復。但是從調研結果來看，最有利於學生漢語水準的回饋方法是示範。因為本人的研究物件是成人學生，先前的文獻綜述中有明確提到從語音習得的角度對於成人學習者而言，很難主動的調整自 己 的 發 音（Gitaski &Althobaiti，2010）， 因 此在實際的教學中，老師的示範會顯得至關重要，因為成人學習者有能力可以通過不斷地有目的的模仿，掌握漢語的規律、發音特點或是語言表達的習慣，從而可以更好的促進其口語習得的進步。而且 Luoma[21] 也提出口語的本質的一種以社交和
26情境為基礎的互動活動，通過漢語老師有效的示範，在課堂中創設語言溝通和協商的真實情境，從而可以促進漢語學習者對語言知識的吸收與內化（Nassaji，2016）, 因此相比較清晰糾錯，在社會性以及文化性的教學內容中，老師的良好示範可以更好的促進二語習得者語言水平的提高[21], 而這種示範尤其體現在口語課堂教學中，語言的交際性決定了大量的例句與示範或是社會化與認知化為核心的課堂展示活動，更有利於學習者的語言水平的提高[22]。因此這解釋了為什么本次研究結果中最令漢語學習者滿意的反饋方法是清晰糾錯，而對漢語學習者口語進步最有幫助的反饋方法是示範。4.2 反馈的有效性本次研究發現漢語學習者認為最令其滿意的老師反饋（按序排列）應該是越多越好，越及時越好，以及越簡單易懂清晰客觀越好。而最有助於學習者口語水平的老師反饋（按序排列）應該是越多越好，越簡單易懂清晰客觀越好。但是通過訪談內容的分析，高水平的“漢語橋”選手也多次強調由於時間的關係等因素常常導致老師的反饋很不及時，對自己的口語進步造成影響。由此可見，對於大學階段的漢語學習者而言，及時有效的反饋能夠令學習者對漢語老師滿意，但是對於學習者的口語學習並不一定有幫助。Duncan[24] 的研究觀察到那些從語法或是結構等方面給學生提供深奧難懂的反饋的老師，對於學生的語言學習無益，只有讓學生加入了與老師的對話的反饋，才是真正對學生有幫助的。（Rust et al.,2005）。因此對漢語學習者口語學習有幫助的反饋，一定是學生喜歡的有建構性的反饋，老師需要從“技術層面”給學生一些指導，並非是讓學生不斷的自我反思[22]。而通過 Higgins et al. (2002) 的研究也可以看出從學生的角度，學習者在語言學習中不單是在意他們的分數，更多的是在意一些真實可靠的技能的發展。由此可見，真正對漢語學習者有幫助的反饋一定是內容上有建構性的反饋模式，與反饋的及不及時並沒有太大的關聯，這也就解釋了在研究漢語學習者的口語進步程度與反饋方法的定量分析的結果中，並沒有顯示反饋的及時性這一項。但是從學生角度而言，最直觀感受到的角度就是老師能否給出及時的反饋。因為大部分學生都會受到反饋的驅動，變得有動力（Jones et al., 2012），所以學生會滿意那些反饋及時的漢語教師。5 結論經過對研究結果的討論與分析，本文對於漢語學習者口語滿意度與老師不同的反饋方法效度相關性的定量定性研究，獲得如下結論：第一、漢語學習者學習滿意度與老師的反饋方法有（按序排列）：清晰糾錯、重複學生錯誤和示範這三種反饋方法，漢語老師越常使用這三種反饋方法，學生對漢語老師越滿意。另一方面，反饋的質量與數量也影響學習者對漢語老師的滿意度，定量的結果顯示學生對反饋給的越多的老師越滿意，反饋給的越及時的老師越滿意，而且反饋給的越客觀明確，與學生的卷面分數相匹配並且可以讓學生清楚明白的老師越滿意。第二、漢語學習者的的口語進步程度與反饋方法有關，本次研究的結果揭示有助於漢語學習者口語水平進步的反饋方法有以下的特點：首先，（按序排列）示範、清晰糾錯和重複錯誤這三種反饋方法最有利於漢語學習者的口語水平的提高，其中示範的反饋方法最為有效。其次，結合定量與定性的分析結果得知對於漢語學習者口語進步的反饋，並非是越多越好，而是要適度，而且比起課堂中當下立即的反饋，有建構性，客觀真實，明確易懂的反饋，才可以更好的幫助漢語學習者的口語提升。以上研究結果對國際漢語老師今後的教學至少有以下啟示：學生認為最滿意的反饋方式，並非是對學生最有幫助的反饋方式。漢語老師，特別是新手老師，在日常的教學中需要多多利用示範、清晰糾錯和重複錯誤等反饋方法，給學習者適度的反饋，並且反饋雖然需要及時即刻，但是
27陳婉露，等 反饋方法的效度與漢語學習者口語滿意度相關性研究明確具體，清晰易懂，與學習者的實際情況以及卷面分數盡可能的相吻合，以供學習者明白與了解老師的反饋意圖的建構性反饋對漢語學習者的口語水平的提高更有幫助。最後，本次研究也存在著一些不足。第一點是有關本次研究的數據選擇的問題。本次研究問卷與訪談數據樣本因為資源與實踐的限制，樣本數量還是比較少。另外因為本次研究著重關注了海外漢語學習者的看法， 特別是局限在歐洲的水平相對還不錯的漢語學習者，而對於其他國別或是其他水平階段的漢語學習者並沒有做太多的關注與研究。今後的研究方向包括更加擴大樣本，並且深入漢語學習者的訪談，針對多國別多水平的漢語學習者進行。以後的研究口語從數據來源方面更加深入的探索這個問題：比如直接搜集學生如何使用老師反饋提高口語水平的錄音或者演講範本。其次，因為不同的教學反饋模式對於不同進階的漢語學習者應有所差別，漢語學習者本身的漢語水平也是影響對外漢語教師選擇反饋方法的重要因素之一。本次研究的採訪對象主要針對是優秀的漢語學習者，後續研究可以嘗試比較不同反饋方法對不同層次漢語學習者的效果。參 考 文 獻[1] Ellis, R. (2009). Corrective feedback and and teacher development. L2 Journal, 1, 3–18.[2] Nassaji, H. (2016). Anniversary article interactional feedback in second language teaching and learning: A synthesis and analysis of current research. Teaching Research, 20(4), 535 –562. [3] Gitsaki, C., & Althobaiti, N. (2010). ESL teachers' use of corrective feedback and its effect on learners' uptake. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 7(1), 197-219.[4] Jones, H., Hoppitt, L., James, H., Prendergast, H., Rutherford, S., Yeoman, K. et al. (2012). Exploring students' initial reactions to the feedback they receive on coursework. Bioscience Education, 20(1), 3-21.[5] Diab, N.M. (2016). A comparison of peer, teacher and self-feedback on the reduction of language errors in students' essays. System, 57(2016), 55-65. [6] Hamer, J., Purchase, H., Luxton-Reilly, A., & Denny, P. (2015). A comparison of peer and tutor feedback. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 40(1), 151-164. [7] Liu, X.Y., & Li, L. (2014). Assessment training effects on student assessment skills and task performance in a technology-facilitated peer assessment, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 39(3), 275-292.[8] Hawe,E.M.,&Dixon,H.R.(2013). Building students' evaluative and productive expertise in the writing classroom. Assessing Writing. 12(2014),66-79.[9] Higgins, R., Hartley, P., & Skelton, A. (2002). The conscientious consumer: Reconsidering the role of assessment feedback in student learning. Studies in Higher Education, 27 (1), 52–64.[10] Rust, C., O'Donovan, B., & Price, M. (2005). A social constructivist assessment process model: How the research literature shows us this could be best practice. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 30, 231–240.[11] Price, M., Handley, K., Millar, J., & O'Donovan, B. (2010). Feedback: All that effort, but what is the effect?. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 35 (3), 277–289. [12] Orsmond, P., & Merry, S. (2011). Feedback alignment: Effective and ineffective links between tutors' and students' understanding of coursework feedback. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 35, 1 –12.[13] Chaudron, C. (1977). A descriptive model of discourse in the corrective treatment of learners' errors. Language Learning, 27, 29–46.[14] Oliver, R. (2000). Age differences in negotiation and feedback in classroom and pairwork. Language Learning, 50, 119–151.[15] Braidi, S.M. (2002). Reexamining the role of recasts in native-speaker/nonnative-speaker interactions. Language Learning, 52, 1–42.[16] Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 37-66.[17] Devellis, R.F. (1991). Scale development. Newbury Park, NJ: Sage publications.[18] Fanselow, J. (1977). The treatment of error in oral work. Foreign Language Annals, 10,583-593. [19] Gibbs, G., & Simpson C. (2003). Measuring the Response of Students to Assessment: The ssessment Experience Questionnaire. 11th Improving Student Learning Symposium, Hinkley. [20] Weaver, M.R. (2006). Do students value feedback? Student perceptions of tutors' written responses. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 31 (3), 379–394.[21] Luoma, S. (2004). Assessing Speaking. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University press. [22] Miao, Y., Badger, R., & Zhen, Y. (2006). A comparative study of peer and teacher feedback in a Chinese EFL writing class. Journal of Second Language Writing, 15,179–200.[23] Hyland, K. (2007). Genre pedagogy: Language, literacy and L2 writing instruction. Journal of Second Language Writing, 16, 148–164.[24] Duncan, N. (2007) ‘Feed-forward': Improving students' use of tutors' comments. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(3), 271–283.[25] Scott, J., Shields, C., Gardner, J., Hancock, A., & Nutt, A. (2011). Student Engagement with Feedback. Bioscience Education, 18, 1-9.
28 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 Received 30 Nov. 2017; Revised 24 Jan. 2018*Corresponding Author: Ting Wang, Assistant Professor of University International College . Research area: Economics of the Language. Email: twang@must.edu.mo Tel: 00853-88971976Economic Value of Spanisht: Migrants Language Skills and Labour Market Outcomes in SpainTing WANG1 *, María A. Davia2, Matías Gámez3( 1. University International College, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China ) ( 2. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. 3. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. )Abstractt: The aim of this paper is to contrast some of the main hypotheses of Chiswick’s Economics of the Language. Language skills amongst immigrants in Spain will be studied as determinants of diverse labour outcomes: being employed at the moment of the interview, occupational status and monthly earnings. We explore the National Immigrant Survey in 2007 and pay particular attention to the plausible endogeneity between language skills and labour market outcomes by means of a set of bivariate probit models. The most relevant results show that language skills of Non Spanish-speaking immigrants are negatively correlated with linguistic distance from their mother tongues to Spanish and have a positive (and mutual) impact on labour market outcomes. eywordst: Non Spanish-speaking immigrants; Economics of the Language; Linguistic distance; Labour market achievements/outcomes西班牙語的經濟价值：西班牙移民的語言技能與勞務收益王 婷1*，María A. Davia2, Matías Gámez3（1. 澳門科技大學國際學院，澳門; 2.卡斯蒂利亞拉曼卻大學, 西班牙 ） （ 3. 卡斯蒂利亞拉曼卻大學, 西班牙）摘要： 本篇文章旨在與Chiswick 提出的語言經濟學理論中一些主要假設進行比較，研究西班牙移民的西班牙語語言技能作為勞務收益的決定因素，對其有何影響。這些勞務收益包括：被訪談時是否在職，職業地位及月收入狀況。作者利用2007年西班牙全國移民調查資料，通過bivariate probit模型對語言技能和勞務收益之間可能存在的內生性給予特別關注。主要研究結果表明非西語為母語的西班牙移民其語言技能與其母語和西班牙語間的語際距離負相關；而西班牙語則對勞務收益有著正面（雙向）影響。關鍵詞： 非西語為母語的移民；語言經濟學；語際距離；勞務收益
29Ting WANG, et al Economic Value of Spanish: Migrants Language Skills and Labour Market Outcomes in Spain0 IntroductionThis paper analyses the impact of skills in Spanish language on labour market outcomes amongst Non-Spanish speaking immigrants in Spain. It contributes to the strand of literature contrasting The Economics of the Language in Spain and other host countries. Its specific purpose is to quantify the impact of fluency in Spanish in non-Spanish speaking immigrants in Spain on their employment prospects, occupational status and monthly earnings. Economic and social development of Spain since the 80s of the last century transformed it from an emigrant-sending country into one of the most relevant immigration countries in the world. The economic growth in the early years of this century generated, along with the increasing labour force participation of native workers, a high demand for foreign labour. According to the Spanish Census, the population of foreign-born residents reached 5,249,993 by 2007 – the year when the data-set deployed here was launched - which represented 11.61% of the total resident population in Spain (Fernández Páez, 2012)[1]. After a severe depression, which has meant a reversion in migration flows, with plenty of migrants returning to their home countries or searching for alternative destinations, the Spanish economy is growing and creating jobs creation again, since 2014. In this context, the severe ageing of the population calls for a long-term strategy to integrate immigrants and learning from the past experiences, so that the Spanish economy is able to attract human capital from abroad to enhance productivity and sustainability in the Social Security system. Understanding the determinants of immigrants’ labour market outcomes in Spain in that pre-recession period is quite relevant, even at these days, as it may help labour policy makers to better design insertion and employment measures targeted at a sustainable insertion of migrants in the long run.The literature on migrants’ labour market in Spain has been expanded thanks to the availability of National Immigration Survey 2007 (NIS 2007) as it adds information on immigrants’ language skills and their determinants. We have enriched the relevant information about proficiency in Spanish with a vector of linguistic distance between the native languages of non-Spanish speaking immigrants and Spanish, estimated in Brown et al (2008)[2] with the so-called Similarity Automatic Judgement Program (ASJP). It will prove to be a good predictor of migrants’ (self-assessed) level of Spanish because, by reducing efficiency in learning, it hinders immigrants’ language skills. And via its influence on fluency in Spanish language, the linguistic distance also affects migrants’ labour market outcomes. Language skills respond to a series of factors and are as well good predictors of labour market outcomes amongst non-Spanish speaking migrants. At the same time, they are as well explained by labour market outcomes themselves, as the workplace is also one of the main learning environments for migrants. The attention to the endogenous relationship between proficiency in Spanish and labour market achievements of these immigrants is our main contribution to the literature on the Spanish case. It is for the first time endogeneity issues are emphasized in the case of Spanish immigrants, while previously Budría & Swedberg (2015)[3] studied the difference of the impact of Spanish dominance across different education levels on earnings of immigrants: the higher the education level immigrants possesses, the larger the difference in earnings are found. For this purpose, for the first time we use a bivariate probits approach calculating at the same time the Spanish fluency and different labour market achievements. The contents of the paper go as follows: in the following section the theoretical framework is briefly described and a selection of empirical evidence about the influence of mastery of the language of the host country on immigrants’ employment-related or economic achievements is collected. In the third section the linguistic and occupational profile of non-Spanish speaking immigrants from Spain in 2007 is described. In the fourth section we present the results of the multivariate analysis on the mutual impact between the level of knowledge/fluency in
30Spanish and some significant employment related achievements (employment, occupational status and monthly income) through a series of bivariate probits models. Finally, we collect the main conclusions of the analysis in this paper.1 Employment achievements and linguistic competence 1.1 The Economics of the Languaget: the three E’sLinguis t ic competence , ie , the leve l of understanding, speaking, reading and writing in a language, is as a particularly important type of human capital for migrant workers. This idea was originated in the eighties by Barry R. Chiswick in the context of large and increasing migration flows of non-English speaking immigrants to the US. In a similar way to as formal education and further training, gaining language skills need investing both time and material resources in order to improve labour market and social insertion prospects, which will be the main returns to language skills. The study of language skills acquisition by migrants has been developed the Economics of the Language field of research, which focuses on three aspects (Chiswick & Miller , 2014)[4]: first, the influence of linguistic profile on their decision to migrate and the selection of the destination country; second, the determinants of competence in the language of the host country (Chiswick’s three E’s); and the third one, which has received most attention in the literature, are the returns to competence on the language of destination, often materialized in earnings. The latter two are the focus aspects of this paper and will be here simultaneously addressed. The specification of our predictive model of the degree of mastery in Spanish by non-Spanish speaking immigrants feeds from features identified in the NIS 2007 which document these three groups of determinants (inspired by the three E’s), while the labour achievements respond to a human capital approach: all aspects that contribute to employability, language skills included, will incur in better labour market outcomes. 1.2 Empirical evidence1.2.1 Fluency in the host country languageThe degree of immigrants’ mastery in the host country’s language depends on several factors, clustered in the so-called three E’s (Chiswick, 2009)[5]: Exposure to the language of the destination country, Efficiency on learning and Economic incentives of immigrants to acquire the knowledge of the local language. They have been widely documented in the international literature. This section shows how different authors have measured them. The first E refers to the degree of Exposure to the language of the destination. In Beenstock, Chiswick & Repetto (2001) [6], Chiswick & Miller (2001) [7], Chiswick, Lee, & Miller (2004) [8] and Kulkarni & Hu (2014) [9], the cumulative duration of stay at the destination is used to measure exposure. It is found to have a positive and highly significant - though non-linear - impact on linguistic competence in the destination language: the level of competence increases rapidly in the early years of residence but it evolves more slowly later on. Alternatively, exposure to the language has been proxied through the composition of the immigrants’ households, namely, marital status and co-residence with own parents and children (Chiswick & Miller (2005[10], 2007a[11], 2007b[12], 2014[4]), among others). Marriage upon arrival to the destination country, especially to a native spouse, contributes to language skills. Children can be also “teachers at home” and have positive effects on their parents’ language skills, but the net effect is usually negative since immigrants often use their children as translators (Chiswick 1998[13]; Chiswick & Miller , 2007a[11], 2007b[12]).As regards Efficiency in learning the local language, Chiswick & Miller (1995[14], 2007a[11], 2007b[12]), Isphording & Otten (2011) [15], Chiswick, Lee, & Miller (2004) [8] and Kulkarni and Hu (2014)[9] show that it declines with age at migration and it is positively correlated with immigrants’ educational attainment. Moreover, as mentioned before, language distance makes learning more difficult, reducing efficiency in language skills acquisition: regardless
31Ting WANG, et al Economic Value of Spanish: Migrants Language Skills and Labour Market Outcomes in Spainthe exposure to a language, the distance between the immigrant’s mother tongue and the host country’s one will hinder the learning process.Concerning Economic incentives (the third E), one of the most common ways to measure it has been through self-declared intention to remain in the destination country (also in Chiswick & Miller (1995[14], 2007a[11], 2007b[12]), Chiswick, Lee, & Miller (2004) [8] and Isphording & Otten (2011) [15]): the longer the immigrants intend to stay, the greater their incentives to improve their language skills, as they expect to have more time to obtain the returns to the investment on learning the host country language. 1.2.2 Returns to competencies in the destination country’s languageIn the international empirical literature, especially for major migration receiving countries1, there is a wide research on returns to immigrants’ competences in the language of the destination country, particularly through higher earnings. Chiswick & Miller (1995) [14] find that proficiency in the language of the destination country reduces job-search costs and improves job and wage prospects. Similarly, it is associated with cost-reduction in some consumption activities, which in turn increase the economic incentives for language learning. There is also spare evidence on non-monetary returns to language skills, such as higher job satisfaction and a lower risk of over-qualification (see Bloemen (2013) [16] for an analysis of such types of returns to skills in Dutch).The analysis of determinants of language proficiency and its returns among immigrants in Spain has been developed thanks to the availability of the National Immigrant Survey 2007. It is of great interest as Spanish is widely spoken around the world (Chiswick & Miller, 2014) [4]. Evidence 1. See examples of this type of analyses for the United States (Chiswick & Miller, 2001[7]), Canada (Chiswick & Miller, 1988[20], 2003[21]), Australia (Chiswick, Lee & Miller, 2005[22]), United Kingdom (Shields and Wheatley Price, 2002[23]; Dustmann and Fabbri, 2003[24]; Miranda and Zhu, 2013[25]), Germany (Dustmann, 1994[26]; Dustmann & van Soest, 2001[27]; 2002[28]), the Netherlands (Bloemen, 2013[16]) and Israel (Chiswick & Repetto, 2001[29]; Berman, Lang & Siniver, 2003[30]).on the determinants of fluency in Spanish amongst immigrants in Spain, based on different measures of exposure, efficiency and incentives in the above described Chiswick’s three E’s model corroborates the existing one for other migrants receiving countries: namely, it has been shown to depend on age upon arrival in Spain, marital status, presence of children at home and their level of Spanish, geographical origin, educational attainment, elapsed duration of stay, plans to remain in Spain and, amongst those in employment, occupation and economic sector of the employer at the moment of the interview (Gutierrez, Mato & Miyar, 2010[17]; Swedberg, 2010[18]; Ipshording, 2013b[19]; Budría & Swedberg, 2015[3]).Migrants’ dominance of Spanish, being a type of human capital, has a positive influence on success both in the labour market, especially on employability and job quality, and in social integration, although its effect on the latter is weaker (Gutierrez, Mato & Miyar, 2010)[17]. Similarly, in Swedberg (2010) [18] and Ipshording (2013b) [19] mastery of Spanish is shown to have a significant and positive effect on access to employment, but not on income. The latter, puzzling result is explained by the inclusion of Hispanic immigrants in the analysis. When they are excluded from the sample, a significant and positive return to linguistic efficiency in Spanish (between 23.3% and 27%) on monthly income arises (Swedberg (2010)[18]). Similar results are found in Budría & Swedberg (2015)[3]: the return to Spanish language is about 20% in average and varies across educational attainments, ranging from nearly null for low-educated immigrants to around 50 % for the highly educated. All the above-mentioned studies of the Spanish case exploit micro-data from the same data-set exploited here, the NIS 2007. 2 The Spanish National Immigrant Survey (NIS 2007) and the selected sampleThe Spanish National Immigrant Survey (NIS) was carried out by the Spanish National Statistics Institute in 2007. Sampling was based on the Census, covering the whole national territory with a total of
3215,465 interviews being conducted to adult (aged 16 or older) foreign-born individuals who either had lived in Spain for at least one year or intended to stay in Spain for at least one year. The survey provides for the first time a complete and comprehensive perspective of the migration experience, proficiency in Spanish, employment status, monthly earnings, occupation and past occupational mobility (Reher et al, 2008) [31]. Table 1 displays the characteristics that will be used to describe and predict language skills (measured as share of migrants who report speaking a good or very good Spanish) in non-Spanish speakers and the distribution of language skills according to those variables. Spanish-speaking immigrants are excluded from the sample since they have full language skills that do not respond to a prior and conscious investment and therefore the Economics of the Language hypotheses do not apply to them. This means our overall sample is made by 5,839 observations, 42.39% of which correspond to females. We distinguish sociodemographic variables and those describing exposure to Spanish, efficiency in Spanish learning and economic incentives to learn / improve Spanish. Language skills are proxied by the share of immigrants self-declaring a good or very good level of Spanish, namely, they report speaking Spanish very well (as 34.73% of the overall sample does). One fourth of the sample refers to migrants from the EU-15 and other high income countries. Another fourth correspond to migrants from Rumania and Bulgaria while one in every five observations refer to Moroccans and other North African countries. The rest of observations are spread amongst diverse origins. The best command of Spanish is observed in non-Spanish speaking migrants from Latin American countries (48.93%) by EU-15 immigrants and other high-income countries (46.03%). The latter had higher educational attainment (higher efficiency in learning), with more chances of studying foreign languages in origin (more exposure). As for proxies for exposure to Spanish, at the moment of the interview around 31% of migrants had been living in Spain ten years or more, while 40% had between five and nine years of residence. Concerning their household composition, 37% of non-Spanish-speaking immigrants did not live with a partner and 55% did not co-reside with children. Still, every two in three partners were either Spanish-born or long-term Spanish residents. Also, the great majority of migrants’ children spoke Spanish well or very well. Living with a partner, especially if she was born in Spain (or if she has lived in Spain for over ten years), contributes to better results in linguistic assimilation. However, the presence of children in the household only contributes to a good level of Spanish amongst migrants if they speak very good Spanish. Arriving at an early age and educational attainment are expected enhance language learning. And 75.67% of them were younger than 34 upon arrival. More than half of non-Spanish speaking migrants had completed secondary education and about 20% of them held a higher education degree. Education attainment is very much related with linguistic competence: 19.16% of immigrants in the lowest educational category claim to have very good level of Spanish compared to 50.48% of those who completed higher education.As for eeconomic incentives to learn Spanish, labour market outcomes are, at the same time, both returns to language skills and incentives to learn it: about two thirds (64.83%) were employed at the moment of the interview ; Finally, about 80% of the sample members intended to remain in Spain during the next five years, therefore most of them had strong incentives to improve their language skills. Students are the most efficient in learning Spanish (53.56% declared speaking Spanish well or very well), followed by those working at the moment of the interview (36.22%). Pensioners are the least efficient in learning Spanish, because of their advanced age and/or because of lack of incentives to learn the language. Interestingly, those who reported their intention to move to another country over the next five years had a better command of Spanish (43.86%) than the rest, followed by those who intended to remain stay in Spain during the next five years (35.91%).
33Ting WANG, et al Economic Value of Spanish: Migrants Language Skills and Labour Market Outcomes in SpainTable 1 Composition of the sample and incidence of good language skills in SpanishTotalTotal Speaking Spanish very well (%)100 34.73Socio-demographic variablesRegion of originEU-15 and other high-income countries 26.49 46.03Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia 25.21 28.87Rest of the EU 3.41 35.35Rest of Europe 6.00 21.04Latin-American countries 4.75 48.93Morocco and French-speaking North Africa 19.81 30.69Rest of Africa 7.22 30.63Asia and Oceania 7.11 32.11SexMen 57.61 32.01Women 42.39 38.42Variables related to exposure to the Spanish languageElapsed time of residence in Spain10 years or more 30.9 52.04Between 5 and 9 years 39.14 29.15Less than 5 years 29.96 22.92The interviewee’s partnerWas born in Spain 11.36 65.98Has been in Spain for 10 years or more 11.05 42.06Has been 5-9 years in Spain 21.64 28.18Has been less than 5 years in Spain 19.06 21.41The interviewee lives with no partner 36.89 32.57The interviewee’s co-residing children Speak Spanish very well 27.30 49.1Speak Spanish well 12.50 17.74Speak Spanish with a sufficient level 3.10 16.52Need to improve Spanish level 2.88 15.82Do not speak Spanish 0.96 8.55The interviewee lives with no children 55.52 31.78Variables related to efficiency in learning Spanish Age upon arrival in Spain15 and less years old 8.11 57.4816/19 years old 9.87 41.7320/34 years old 57.69 33.7335/44 years old 13.80 27.6245/64 years old 9.78 23.2365 and more years old 0.75 17.38Education attainmentUnknown 10.61 19.54Illiterate or incomplete primary 2.8 19.16Primary education 13.15 23.19Secondary education 52.95 30.57Higher education 20.49 50.48Variables related to efficiency in learning Spanish Employment status at the moment of the interviewWorking 64.83 36.22Studying 3.22 53.56Retired 6.41 27.76Other situations 25.55 30.34Plans for the next 5 years Does not know 12.57 29.96Returning to the country of origin 5.55 25.96Staying in Spain 80.43 35.91Moving to another country 1.46 43.86Number of observations 5,839 5,839Source: NIS-2007, Spanish National Statistical Institute.
343 The vector of linguistic distancesInformation on immigrants’ language proficiency is collected in the NIS 2007 through self-assessment questions where the level of linguistic competence appears ranked with a Likert scale, potentially causing a misclassification problem/bias. There are different strategies to correct it and, at the same time, to capture efficiency in learning (the second E in Chiswick, 2009)[5]. One of them is controlling for the linguistic distance between each migrant’s mother tongue and the one in the destination country. In our case we take the one stemming from the Automatic Similarity Judgement Program (ASJP) developed in a research project from the German Max Plank Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, described in Brown et al (2008)[2]. The program automatically assesses the phonetic similarity across more than 6,000 languages and dialects in the world, creating a large square matrix that includes the phonetic linguistic distances (measured with a continuous variable computing the number of steps needed to convert one word in one language to the same word in another language) between all the registered languages and dialects. This powerful matrix of linguistic distances has been recently used by several authors as Isphording (2013a[32], 2013b[19]) and Isphording & Otten (2011[15], 2014[33]) in the case of Spain, Germany and the United States, Bloemen (2013) [16] for the Netherlands and Adsera and Pytliková (2015) [34], Adsera and Ferrer (2015) [35] for different OECD destination countries and Canada. Analyzing returns to language skills in Spain, Isphording (2013b)[19] takes linguistic distance as an instrumental variable and confirms the negative effect of the linguistic distance between the mother tongue and Spanish and other foreign languages which are also very valuable in the Spanish labour market (English, French, and German). The author did not detect a positive correlation between efficiency in Spanish and income, but between the foreign languages mentioned above and income. Budría & Swedberg (2015) [3] found a positive impact of 20% salary increase by the level of Spanish using the linguistic distance as one of the Instrumental Variables and all immigrants are studied as a whole. We have drawn from the matrix the vector capturing the distance between Spanish and all mother tongues of NIS 2007 respondents, 240 different native languages, although 90% of observations correspond to speakers of the 19 most common ones2. The most widely spoken languages were Arabic and Romanian, followed by English, French and German - although the relevant observations seldom correspond to economic migrants. We expect this indicator to be negatively related to language skills (see Figure 1).F igu re 1 shows a nega t ive , non - l i nea r relationship between the ASJP linguistic distance with Spanish and the percentage of immigrants who declare speaking Spanish well or very well. The shape of the regression line would point at significant and increasing difficulties to learn Spanish for those who do not speak Roman languages.4 Multivariate analysist: linguistic and labour market outcomes in non-Spanish speaking immigrantsAny estimation of income or labour market achievements f rom migrants’ human capi ta l endowments – including language skills – suffers from a methodological defect: since labour market achievements and language skills are interdependent, there is an endogeneity problem in the estimation of labour market outcomes a returns to language skills (Chiswick & Miller , 2014) [4]. To address this endogeneity problem our multivariate strategy consists of a set of bivariate probit models, simultaneously estimating language skills and three labour market outcomes analyzed here: being employed at the moment of the interview, being engaged in mid-high qualification occupations3 and monthly earnings 2. Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, French, Urdu, Ukrainian, Polish, Dutch, Swedish, Hindi, English, Bulgarian, German, Russian, Filipino, Berber, Chinese, Arabic and Wolof.3. The occupation is classified according to the qualifications required in each job. Here it has been aggregated into five categories: management, technical and professional, administrative and service workers, skilled manual workers and unskilled workers. The first four categories are classified as mid and high qualified occupations.
35Ting WANG, et al Economic Value of Spanish: Migrants Language Skills and Labour Market Outcomes in Spainabove 12004 euros.This empirical strategy allows the correlation between the error terms of two equations of binary dependent variables to be solved simultaneously by maximum likelihood (Greene, 2003) [36], under the assumption that the error terms are Normally distributed. The general model specification is as follows: (1)otherwise (2) otherwise, (3) (4) (5)where y1* and y2* are two unobservable random 4. This threshold represents the 75th percentile of the distribution of income from paid employment in non-Spanish-speaking immigrants. We prefer it to the modal value (about 1000 €) because the latter is very much related to the construction sector, where the wage pattern was relatively distorted in 2007 and did not respond to formal qualifications and other determinants of productivity. As a result, in tests with thresholds around 1000 €, the results of the multivariate models are unintuitive and difficult to interpret.variables representing the latent probability functions of speaking Spanish well or very well (y1*) and each given labour market outcome - being employed at the moment of the interview, having a job that requires a medium or high qualification and earning at least 1200 € per month - (y2*). The bivariate probit allows simultaneous estimation of both probabilities, which is particularly relevant when the error terms are correlated, ρ ≠ 0 because both outcomes share common determinants. For example, language skills are correlated with other skills or abilities, which also affect employability and productivity. A positive sign in the correlation across errors may be interpreted as mutual and positive interdependence between both types of outcomes.Meanwhile, x1 and x2 are matrices that contain all the explanatory variables in equations (1) and (2), respectively. The first set of variables, x1 coincide with the ones reported in Table 1: socio-demographic features - region of origin and gender - and several indicators capturing “Exposure” to Spanish (elapsed time of residence in Spain, the presence of children at home and their level of Spanish, partner’s nationality Italian Portuguese Romanian French Urdu Ukrainian Polish Dutch Swedish Hindi English Bulgarian German Russian Philippine Hereber Chinese Arab Wolof y = -198.96x2 + 255.55x R² = 0.353 01020304050607080900.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05% who declare speaking Spanish well or very well Linguistic distance with Spanish Source: NIS-2007, Spanish National Statistical Institute. Figure 1t: Share of immigrants who declare speaking Spanish well or very well, by linguistic distance between their mother tongues and Spanish
36and residence time in Spain), “Efficiency” (age upon arrival in Spain, educational level and linguistic distance between the mother tongue and Spanish) and “Economic incentives” (the intention of residence over a five year period). The vector of variables x2 includes a set of characteristics related to both employability (education attainment, region of origin, gender) and social ties with Spanish society which may also contribute to labour market outcomes (elapsed time of residence time in Spain, age upon arrival, co-residence with children and their level of Spanish, holding Spanish nationality and intention of remaining in the country during the next five years). Additionally, when the dependent variables in equation (2) are having a mid/high qualified job or earning at least 1200 euros per month, the x2 vector also includes some explanatory variables related to the respondent’s work history - the employment status at the time of departure, time needed to find her first job in Spain - and some features of the current job : sector of employer and type of contract.5 Results of the multivariate analysis5.1 Fluency in Spanish languageTable 2 displays the results for the three bivariate models. In all of them one dependent variable is self-assessed level of Spanish (columns 1, 3 and 5) while the second dependent variable (labour market outcomes) varies across models: column 2 reports coefficients for the employment status at the moment of the interview; column 4 captures coefficients describing the likelihood of having a mid- or high-qualified job and column 6 reports the ones for the probability of monthly earnings beyond 1200 euro per month. The results of the models for Spanish language skills (Table 2) confirm the distances in linguistic skills already described in Table 1. The hypotheses about variables concerning Exposure, Efficiency and Economic incentives in Chiswick’s theoretical approach are also confirmed: ● As regards Exposure, the elapsed time of residence is positively related to the level of Spanish, while the opposite holds true with age of arrival of the immigrants in Spain. This result is consistent with, among many others, Beenstock, Chiswick and Repetto (2001)[6] when analyzing Israel. Co-residing with children is a positive factor for the learning process, particularly when they speak well Spanish. This corroborates with Chiswick (1998)[13]; Chiswick & Miller, (2007a[11], 2007b[12]) in the US. ● Concerning Efficiency, educational attainment is strongly and positively correlated with the level of Spanish while the linguistic distance is negatively correlated with the dominance of Spanish amongst immigrants, as it hinders the learning process. This is especially illustrated in Swedberg (2010) [18] and Budría & Swedberg (2015) [3] in their analysis for Spanish case. ● In terms of Economic incentives, planning to remain for at least five years in Spain is also related to fluency in Spanish although. Still, those who intend to move to another country at some point during the next five years are more likely to report a good or very good command of Spanish language, suggesting a high level of qualification or initiative, which makes them more prone to continuously explore for better opportunities.5.2 Immigrants’ labour market outcomes 5.2.1 Employment status at the moment of the interviewIn line with their better command of Spanish language, extra EU-15 immigrants are also more likely to be employed than those from the EU-15 (column 2 in Table 2), a large part of which were retired at the moment of the interview. Men have better access to employment than women. The elapsed time of residence of both the immigrants and their partners are positively related with the likelihood of employment. Consistently, age upon arrival in Spain is negatively correlated with the probability of being
37Ting WANG, et al Economic Value of Spanish: Migrants Language Skills and Labour Market Outcomes in SpainTable 2 – Linguistic and labour market outcomest: results from bivariate probit modelModel IModel II Model III Good SpanishIn employmentGood SpanishMid-/high- skilled occupationGood SpanishEarnings > 1200€/mBS E BS E BS E BS E BS E BS E Socio-demographic featuresCountry of birth (ref: EU- 15)Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia0.205***0.0040.532***0.0030.201***0.005-1.443***0.0050.207***0.005-0.069***0.005Rest of the EU except Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia 0.140***0.0060.305***0.0060.162***0.008-1.166***0.0090.149***0.0080.034***0.008Rest of Europe-0.108***0.0050.372***0.005-0.160***0.006-1.284***0.007-0.162***0.006-0.145***0.007Latin-American countries 0.203***0.0060.303***0.0050.137***0.007-0.809***0.0070.139***0.007-0.356***0.007 Morocco and French-speaking North Africa0.188***0.004-0.008**0.0030.282***0.006-1.158***0.0060.276***0.006-0.230***0.005 Rest of Africa0.058***0.0050.459***0.0050.023***0.006-0.321***0.0070.023***0.006-0.442***0.006Asia and Oceania 0.108***0.0050.076***0.0040.189***0.006-1.056***0.0070.178***0.006-0.435***0.007Gender (ref: females)Males-0.000***0.0000.002***0.000-0.000***0.000-0.001***0.000-0.000***0.0000.002***0.000Variables related to exposure to Spanish languageElapsed time of residence in Spain0.059***0.0000.004***0.0000.072***0.0010.008***0.0010.071***0.0010.007***0.001Elapsed time of residence in Spain - squared-0.001***0.000-0.001***0.000-0.001***0.000-0.0000.000-0.001***0.000-0.000***0.000Interviewee’s partner elapsed time of residence (ref: less than 5 years)Spanish-born partner0.571***0.0050.019***0.0040.426***0.0070.463***0.007The partner has resided in Spain for 10 years or more 0.276***0.005-0.100***0.0040.183***0.0060.193***0.006 The partner has resided in Spain between 5 and 9 years0.155***0.003-0.139***0.0030.191***0.0040.188***0.004 The interviewee has no partner 0.240***0.0030.139***0.0030.109***0.0040.127***0.004Co-resident children (ref: co-residing with children whose Spanish is poor) Children whose Spanish is very good0.627***0.0070.262***0.0070.773***0.0090.811***0.009Children whose Spanish is good0.427***0.0070.328***0.0070.536***0.0090.576***0.009Children with sufficient Spanish0.127***0.0090.330***0.0090.380***0.0110.432***0.011No children at home-0.266***0.003-0.106***0.003-0.148***0.004-0.149***0.004Nationality (ref: foreign)Spanish nationality acquired via residence-0.207***0.004-0.097***0.007-0.0020.006Spanish nationality from birth0.245***0.0090.458***0.015-0.102***0.011Variables related to efficiency in learning SpanishAge upon arrival in Spain-0.020***0.000-0.025***0.000-0.022***0.0000.001***0.000-0.022***0.000-0.007***0.000Educational attainment (ref: less than primary education)Primary education0.087***0.007-0.031***0.006-0.131***0.009-0.351***0.013-0.132***0.0090.164***0.010Secondary education0.239***0.0060.124***0.0060.070***0.0080.159***0.0120.066***0.0080.174***0.009Higher education0.645***0.0070.302***0.0060.537***0.0090.922***0.0130.524***0.0090.317***0.010Don´t know or don´t answer-0.215***0.0070.019***0.007-0.438***0.009-0.119***0.013-0.439***0.0090.0070.010Linguistic distance from Spanish to migrants’ native languages-1.580***0.013-1.508***0.016-1.471***0.016Variables related to economic incentives to learn SpanishIntention to stay (ref: remaining in Spain)Returning to country of origin-0.191***0.004-0.134***0.004-0.185***0.006-0.163***0.007-0.180***0.0060.0080.006Moving to another country0.0060.009-0.084***0.008-0.066***0.0110.273***0.014-0.057***0.011-0.027**0.011Does not know-0.204***0.003-0.219***0.003-0.216***0.0040.052***0.005-0.216***0.004-0.161***0.004
38Model IModel II Model III Good SpanishIn employmentGood SpanishMid-/high- skilled occupationGood SpanishEarnings > 1200€/mBS E BS E BS E BS E BS E BS E Immigration history Employment status at the moment of departure (ref: working)Studying 0.408***0.004-0.159***0.004Retired-0.350***0.0240.0310.022Other situations-0.024***0.004-0.194***0.004Type of contact in Spain before migration (ref: no contact)Family -0.142***0.005-0.084***0.004Friends-0.191***0.0050.192***0.004Other types of contact0.190***0.006-0.0070.006No information on the type of contact-0.069***0.0090.0030.008Time spent in searching for the first job in Spain (ref: no job search needed)The interviewee had a preliminary contract0.163***0.0050.052***0.004From 1 to 3 months-0.147***0.005-0.266***0.0044 months or more0.024***0.004-0.315***0.004Job characteristicsEmployment sector at the moment of the interview- (ref: agriculture & mining)Manufacturing and energy 0.925***0.013Construction0.440***0.013Trade, hotel industry and domestic service2.187***0.012Other service activities1.964***0.012Professional status and type of contract (ref: employee with permanent contract)Employee with a temporary contract-0.212***0.004-0.172***0.003Self-employed or entrepreneurs0.232***0.005-0.192***0.004Other situations-0.128***0.006-0.484***0.007Occupation (ref: unskilled manual)Managers0.582***0.007Technicians and professionals0.648***0.006Administrative and service workers0.115***0.005Skilled manual 0.681***0.004Constant1.050***0.0150.661***0.011.122***0.019-1.277***0.0191.053***0.019-0.772***0.012Rho 0.125***0.157***0.121***Rho S.E.(-0.001)(-0.002)(-0.002)Observations5,70513,54822,7633Chi2450.208504.787270.335p-value for Chi-2(0.000 )(0.000 )(0.000 )-2 Log Likelihood-2.028e+06 -1.00e+06-1.16e+061. Because of missing cases in the independent variables, we lost 134 individuals from the sample. 2. The total sample of working non-Spanish speaking immigrants is of 3785 individuals, based on which this model is calculated, and 237 are missing cases. 3. 785 more cases are missed than the previous model as this variable is more private to reply.
39Ting WANG, et al Economic Value of Spanish: Migrants Language Skills and Labour Market Outcomes in Spainemployed. Co-residing with offspring is positively related with employment, especially when they have a good level of Spanish. As expected, the educational level is positively related with access to employment. Interestingly, holding Spanish nationality does not seem to have a clear impact on the probability of having a job in 2007. However, immigrants intending to stay in Spain for the next five years seem to have better job prospects. We acknowledge, though, that the latter result is in turn susceptible to endogeneity if employed immigrants are socially and economically more integrated and, as a result, more willing to remain in the host country.5.2.2 Determinants of occupational status and earnings One third of the employed migrants subsample worked in an occupation requiring mid- or high- qualifications, and 31.33% earn more than one 1200 euros per month. The results of the multivariate analysis predicting those outcomes show that, unlike what was observed in the probability of being in employment, workers in the EU-15 and other high-income countries do have better access to mid- and high- qualified jobs than the rest and also report the highest earnings from paid work. Women are less likely to earn more than 1200 euros per month than men despite their higher occupational attainment. Both the interviewee and her partner’s elapsed time of residence contribute to increasing the odds of reporting mid/high qualified job and higher earnings. Still, the age upon arrival in Spain is positively correlated with immigrants’ occupational status while negatively correlated with earnings, consequently with its positive correlation with education attainment while negative correlation with labour market experience. These results are in line with Gutierrez, Mato & Miyar (2010) [17] also for the Spanish case, obtained with a slightly different estimation strategy. Also in Swedberg (2010) [18] and Budría & Swedberg (2015)[3] the positive impact of education on occupational status is emphasized. Neither holding Spanish nationality nor the five-year plan to remain in Spain seem to have a clear relation with either labour market outcome (occupational status or earnings).Concerning migration history, those who, at the time of departure, were students have better access to skilled jobs upon arrival in Spain than the rest, including those who were employed at that moment, who instead report higher income levels. In addition, immigrants who had a pre-contract upon their arrival in Spain were more likely to have a qualified job and to report monthly earnings over 1200 euros at the moment of the interview. In addition, those who had relatives or friends in Spain before arriving reported a lower occupational attainment than those with no contact at all. And the monthly earnings at the moment of the interview are positively related with having friends as contacts, while negatively related with having relatives before the arrival. Job features are inter-related: the economic sector where immigrants work greatly influences their occupational status: jobs in manufacturing, energy, trade, hotels or other services are more likely to be mid/high qualified. Compared to employees holding permanent contracts, those temporarily hired are less likely to have mid- or high- qualified jobs and to report income over 1200 euros per month. Finally, the occupational status is necessarily related to the monthly earnings: those having mid- or high- qualified jobs or greater levels of responsibility report higher income. 5.2.3 Dealing with endogeneity between linguistic and labour market outcomesThe indicators rho (ρ)5 in the three bivariate pro-bit models represent the correlation between the error terms. All of them are significantly different from zero at 95% confidence level. Their values range between 0.12 and 0.16, showing a significant and positive cor-relation between unobservable aspects that influence the level of Spanish and labour market outcomes. The connection between language skills and working in an occupation with medium/high qualification require-ments is more pronounced than with the rest of labour 5. Actually, in Table 2 athrho, the approximate ρ displayed in the output of Stata, is reported.
40market outcomes as they are more directly linked to human capital and communication skills, which are paramount to workers in mid/high ranked occupations. The significance of the correlation coefficient between the error terms proves the adequacy of the simultaneous estimation of both types of outcomes. Moreover, their positive sign suggests that there are unobserved factors influencing both types of achievements in the immigrant population in the same direction. Examples of these factors could be intelligence and other forms of innate ability and personality traits as initiative and sociability.6 Conclusions In this paper we have contrasted a number of basic assumptions of the Economics of the Language, through an exploitation of micro-data from the National Immigrants Survey 2007. We have identified determinants of and returns (improving employability, occupational status and earnings) to language performance amongst non- Spanish speaking immigrants in Spain. To that aim, we take into account the endogeneity between immigrants’ language skills and labour market outcomes (employability, occupational status and earnings), via a simultaneous estimation approach. This is a contribution to the literature on the case of Spain. Additionally, exclusively non-Spanish speaking immigrants have been studied, which is an interesting nuance in relation to previous results. The main results of our analysis corroborates the key hypotheses in the Economics of the Language, particularly the ones concerning the three E’s (Exposure, Efficiency and Economic incentives) developed in Chiswick (2009) [5]. They are in line with those obtained in international empirical studies as well as those addressing the case of Spain. Moreover, the bivariate probit models confirm endogeneity among linguistic and labour market achievements. In this way, our study provides an important nuance: rather than a mere element of human capital that immigrants can acquire previously to their arrival to Spain, language skills also respond positively to their effective integration in the Spanish labour market.From these results, important implications for employment and social integration policies for immigrants arise. They must necessarily go hand in hand: the reinforcement in language proficiency in the country of destination for those who are seeking employment and support in achieving a job as a mechanism to ensure the effective social integration that will inevitably linked to language. References [1] Fernández Páez, P. E. Influencia de los flujos migratorios contemporáneos en España, tesis doctoral. Universidad de Santiago de Compostela (2012). [2] Brown, C., Holmann, E., Wichmann, S. & Velupillai, V., “Automated Classification of the World´s languages: a description of the method and preliminary results,” STUF - Language Typology and Universals, 61(4), (2008): 285-308. [3] Budría, S. & P. Swedberg, “The impact of language proficiency on immigrants’ earnings.” Revista de Economía Aplicada 23 (67) (2015): 63-91.[4] Chiswick, B. R. & Miller, P. W., “International Migration and the Economics of Language,” Handbook of the Economics of Immigration, (2014): 211-269. [5] Chiswick, B.R., “The Economics of Language for Immigrants: An Introduction and Overview,” in Wiley, T.G., Sook Lee, J. & R.W. Rumberger (eds.) The education of language minority immigrants in the United States, (2009), Multilingual Matters, Bristol, pp. 72-91.[6] Beenstock M., Chiswick B. R. & Repetto, G. L., “The Effect of Linguistic Distance and Country of Origin on Immigrant Language Skills: Application to Israel,” International Migration 39(3) (2001): 33-60.[7] Chiswick B. R. & Miller P. W., “Immigrant earnings: Language skills, linguistic concentrations and the business cycle,” Journal of Population Economics, 15(1) (2001): 31-57.[8] Chiswick, B. R., Lee, Y. L. & Miller, P. W., “Immigrants’ language skills: The Australian experience in a longitudinal survey.” International Migration Review, 38(2) (2004): 611-654.[9] Kulkarni, V. S. & Hu, X., “English language proficiency among the foreign born in the United States, 1980–2007: Duration, age, cohort effects.” International Migration Review, 48(3) (2014): 762-800.[10] Chiswick B. R., y Miller, P.W., “Do enclaves matter in immigrant adjustment?” City & Community 4(1) (2005):5-35.[11] Chiswick, B.R., & Miller, P.W. The economics of language: International Analyses. Routledge, New York, (2007a).[12] Chiswick, B.R., & Miller, P.W. Immigration: Trends, Consequences and Prospects for the United States, Research in Labor Economics, Volume 27, (2007b).[13] Chiswick, B. R. (1998): “Hebrew language usage: Determinants and effects on earnings among immigrants in Israel”, Journal of Population Economics, 11(2): 253-271.[14] Chiswick, B. R. & Miller, P. W., “The Endogeneity between Language and Earnings: International Analyses,” Journal of Labor Economics 13(2) (1995): 246-288.[15] Isphording, I. & Otten S., “Linguistic Distance and the Language
41Ting WANG, et al Economic Value of Spanish: Migrants Language Skills and Labour Market Outcomes in SpainFluency of Immigrants,” Ruhr Economic Papers No. 274 (2011).[16] Bloemen, H., “Language Proficiency of Migrants: The relation with Job satisfaction and Matching,” IZA Discussion Paper No. 7366 (2013). [17] Gutiérrez R., Mato, F.J. & Miyar M., “Lengua e inmigración: conocimiento del español e integración de los inmigrantes,” Revista del Ministerio de Trabajo e Inmigración ,85 (2010): 47-64.[18] Swedberg, P., “The impact of education and host language skills on the labour market outcomes of immigrants in Spain.” Investigaciones de Economía de la Educación, vol. 5 (2010): 798-824.[19] Ishpording, I., “Returns to Local and Foreign Language Skills – Causal Evidence from Spain,” Ruhr Economic Papers No. 398 (2013b).[20] Chiswick, B.R. & Miller, P.W., “Earnings in Canada: The Roles of Immigrant Generation, Frenche Ethnicity and Language,” Paul Schultz (ed) Research in Population Economics, 6 (1988): 183-228. JAI Press. [21] Chiswick, B. R. & Miller, P. W., “The complementarity of language and other human capital: Immigrant earnings in Canada.” Economics of Education review, 22(5) (2003): 469-480.[22] Chiswick, B. R., & Lee, Y. & Miller, P., “A Longitudinal Analysis of Immigrant Occupational Mobility: A Test of the Immigrant Assimilation Hypothesis”, International Migration Review, 39(2) (2005): 332-353. [23] Shields, M. A. & Wheatley Price, S., “The English Language Fluency and Occupational Success of Ethnic Minority Immigrant Men Living in English Metropolitan Areas,” Journal of Population Economics, 15(1) (2002):137-160[24] Dustmann, C. & Fabbri., “Language Proficiency and Labour Market Performance of Immigrants in the UK,” The Economic Journal, 489 (F 2003): 695-717.[25] Miranda, A. & Zhu, Y., “English Deficiency and the Native-Immigrant Wage Gap,” Economics Letters, 118(1) (2013): 38-41.[26] Dustmann, C., “Speaking Fluency, Writing Fluency and Earnings of Migrants,” Journal of Population Economics, 7(2) (1994): 133-156. [27] Dustmann, C. & Van Soest, A., “Language Fluency and Earnings: Estimation with Misclassified Language Indicators,” The Review of Economics and Statistics, 83(4) (2001): 663-674.[28] Dustmann, C. & Van Soest, A., “Language and the Earnings of Immigrants,” Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 55(3) (2002): 473-492.[29] Chiswick, B. R, & Repetto, G., “Immigrant Adjustment in Israel: The Determinants of Literacy and Fluency in Hebrew and their Effects on Earnings,” in S. Djajic (ed) International Migration: Trends, Policies, and Economic Impact, London: Routledge. (2001): 204-228. [30] B e r m a n , E . , L a n g , K . & S i n i v e r, E . , “ L a n g u a g e - S k i l l Complementarity: Returns to Immigrant Language Acquisition,” Labour Economics, 10(3) (2003):265-290.[31] Reher, D., Alcalá, L., González, F., Requena, M., Sánchez, M., Sanz, A. & Stanek, M.,: Informe Encuesta Nacional de Inmigrantes (ENI – 2007), Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Documentos de trabajo, 2/08 (2008). [32] Ishpording, I., “Disadvantage of Linguistic Origin: Evidence from Immigrant Literacy Scores,” Economics Letters, 123(2) (2013a): 236-239. [33] Isphording, I. & Otten, S., “Linguistic Barriers in the Destination Language Acquisition of Immigrants,” IZA Discussion Paper No. 8090 (2014). [34] Adsera, A. & Pytlikova, M., “The role of language in shaping international migration,” The Economic Journal, 125(586) (2015): F49-F81. [35] Adsera, A. & Ferrer, A. M., “The effect of linguistic proximity on the occupational assimilation of immigrant men in Canada,” IZA Discussion Paper No.9499 (2015). [36] Greene, W. H. Econometric Analysis, Fifth edition. Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River – New Jersey (2003).學生活動澳科大勇奪第三屆中國“互聯網＋”大學生創新創業大賽十奬項 第三屆中國“互聯網＋”大學生創新創業大賽總決賽9月於西安落幕，澳門科技大學共獲一銀七銅、參賽鼓勵獎及先進集體奬，共十個奬項，獲獎數目為港澳臺賽區之首。本屆大賽以“搏擊互聯網+新時代，壯大創新創業生力軍”為主題，共分為創意組、初創組、成長組、就業創業組等四個組別。大賽共吸引2241所高校、37萬支團隊報名參與，參賽學生人數高達150萬人，為歷屆之最。在歷時半年激烈的校級及省級角逐後，共有119支國內、8支港澳臺地區的優秀團隊脫穎而出，進入全國總決賽。澳門賽區由澳門青年聯合會及澳門科技大學聯合承辦，吸引了4所高校共123名學生參賽，總項目數為34個，涉及現代農業、製造業、信息技術服務、商務服務、公共服務及文化創意服務等行業。参赛学生表示，這次能代表大學參加中國最高規格的創新創業大賽感到特別榮幸，感謝大學創業就業發展中心的老師在比賽中給予的幫助。特別是習近平總書記給大賽“青年紅色築夢之旅”學生回信，將創新創業教育和大賽推向了新高度；學生代表还獲國務院劉延東副總理接見。
42 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 金融業多技能資源限制專案排程問題優化研究： 以某本地銀行軟件開發專案為例伍向豪，盧泉成*（澳門科技大學商學院，澳門）摘要： 根據美國軟體開發專案的歷史數據顯示，超過70%軟體開發專案以失敗收場，以傳統的資源限制專案排程問題（RCPSP）來處理軟體開發專案，未涵蓋到問題的根源——開發人員技能水平與熟練度差異。多技能的資源限制專案排程問題（MSRCPSP）是傳統RCPSP的重要延伸研究之一，將資源的異質性納入考量，使專案資源分配更優化、排程更為準確。本文根據果蠅優化算法之運算優勢，結合軟體開發之技能異質性概念，並賦予時間與成本權重計算，提出多技能權重果蠅算法（Weighted Multi-Skilled FOA），實驗設計以本地某銀行軟體開發專案為例，顯示WMSFOA優化排程貼近專案實際結果，並比較WMSFOA與遺傳算法運算能力，證明WMSFOA運算能力相對優越。關鍵詞： 專案管理；多技能；資源限制專案排程；果蠅優化算法；遺傳算法The Study on Multi-Skilled Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem Optimizations in the Financial Industryt: the Case of a Local Bank’s Software Developing ProjectShiang-Hau WU, Chuan-Chen LU*( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstractt: According to statistics of US, there is more than 70% failure rate in software developing project. When applying classical RCPSP to solve software developing project, a critical part was not taken into consideration – the skill level and familiarity difference between developers. MSRCPSP is one of a significant extension of RCPSP. In order to optimize the usage of resource and make the schedule more accurate, MSRCPSP deals with both resources constrain and heterogeneity. This paper proposed the Weighted Multi-Skilled FOA by leveraging advantages of classical FOA and the skill heterogeneity concept in software developing. We used a practical software developing case from a local bank to prove the result calculated by the proposed algorithm is closer to practical project result. Furthermore, a comparison was made to compare the calculation capacity between WMSFOA and Genetic Algorithm.eywordst: Project Management; Multi-Skill; Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem; Fruit Fly Optimization Algorithm; Genetic Algorithm收稿日期：2016-10-28；修訂日期：2017-01-03。* 通訊作者：盧泉成，男，澳門科技大學博士研究生，主要研究方向：銀行與金融。E-mail: maximlu@gmail.com ，Tel:00853 63091597
50圖8 兩算法平均適應度比較將每一疊代平均之適應度繪製成平均適應度圖可以比較算法收斂的速度與穩定性。根據WMSFOA 與雲遺傳兩算法的平均適應度圖所示（圖 8），在收斂速度比較方面，WMSFOA 在第5 疊代之後平均適應度趨於穩定，且達到最佳適應度（Fitness=1），雲遺傳算法則到了第 30 疊代之後平均適應度趨於穩定；在算法穩定性方面，WMSFOA 在找到最優解前呈現次代優於前一代，因此呈現出向上的曲線，雲遺傳在算法收斂前，各疊代間有大幅度的波動，次代不一定優於前一代，穩定性不如 WMSFOA，根據上述比較，無論運算時間、尋優能力、算法收斂速度與穩定性，WMSFOA 明顯具有優勢。5 結論根 據 Standish Group 2015 年 的 調 查，19% 的IT 專案以失敗收場，半數以上超過時程或預算；研究指出 70% 以上的失敗專案是因為管理方法與工具的缺失[32]，本文之目的與貢獻在於解決實務上面臨的問題。經典的 RCPSP 僅考慮可更新資源的限制，在處理軟體專案開發的排程問題上，未將資源的異質性納入考慮，因此本文除了延續既有 MSRCPCP的基礎，並考慮專案經理需要對時程與成本的彈性處理，採用權重方式進行優化排程，讓排程結果貼近實際專案情況。此外，在工具選擇方面，綜合考慮各種智能演算法的優缺點，在作者蒐集的文獻資料中，僅一篇文獻採用 FOA 來解決 MSRCPCP 問題，本文基於文獻基礎，加上權重彈性，並透過熵權法找出時間與成本的最適權重，以實際專案案例與雲遺傳算法進行實驗比較，結果證明 FOA 在尋優與運算能力有相對的優勢。對於後續研究方向，建議如下： ● 專案管理除了時間、成本，還需要考慮品質，多目標優化更能符合實際排程結果；已有文獻提出三者最適權重分配，後續研究可將 MSRCPSP 研究延伸到包含品質的多目標優化，並應用實際案例對最適權重加以探討。 ● 對於開發人員技能與熟悉度異質性，本文採取專案經理主觀判斷，建議後續研究可探討客觀評斷標準，如資料包絡分析（Data Envelopment Analysis, DEA），賦予異質性更嚴謹定義與計算基礎，避免主觀判之數據輸入影響優化排程結果。參 考 文 獻[1] DEMEULEMEESTER E L, HERROELEN W S. Project Scheduling: A Research Handbook [M]. New York: Springer, 2002.[2] INSTITUTE P M. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge [M]. 5th ed. US: Project Management Institute, 2013.[3] HERROELEN W, LEUS R. Project scheduling under uncertainty: Survey and research potentials [J]. Eur J Oper Res, 2005, 165(2): 289-306.[4] WEGLARZ J, JOZEFOWSKA J, MIKA M, et al. Project scheduling
51伍向豪，等 金融業多技能資源限制專案排程問題優化研究： 以某本地銀行軟件開發專案為例with finite or infinite number of activity processing modes - A survey [J]. Eur J Oper Res, 2011, 208(3): 177-205.[5] HARTMANN S. Project Scheduling under Limited Resources: Models, Methods, and Applications [M]. Berlin: Springer, 1999.[6] N RON E. Lower Bounds for the Multi-Skill Project Scheduling Problem; proceedings of the The Eighth International Workshop on Project Management and Scheduling, Spain, F, 2002 [C].[7] CORREIA I, SALDANHA-DA-GAMA F. A Modeling Framework for Project Staffing and Scheduling Problems [M]//SCHWINDT C, ZIMMERMANN J. Handbook on Project Management and Scheduling. Cham; Springer International Publishing. 2015: 547-64.[8] WU M C, SUN S H. A project scheduling and staff assignment model considering learning effect [J]. Int J Adv Manuf Tech, 2006, 28(11-12): 1190-5.[9] LI H, WOMER K. Scheduling projects with multi-skilled personnel by a hybrid MILP/CP benders decomposition algorithm [J]. Journal of Scheduling, 2008, 12(3): 281-98.[10] HEIMERL C, KOLISCH R. Scheduling and staffing multiple projects with a multi-skilled workforce [J]. Or Spectrum, 2010, 32(2): 343-68.[11] AL-ANZI F S, AL-ZAME K, ALLAHVERDI A. Weighted Multi-Skill Resources Project Scheduling [J]. Journal of Software Engineering and Applications, 2010, 03(12): 1125-30.[12] CORREIA I, LOURENCO L L, SALDANHA-DA-GAMA F. Project scheduling with flexible resources: formulation and inequalities [J]. Or Spectrum, 2012, 34(3): 635-63.[13] TABRIZI B H, TAVAKKOLI-MOGHADDAM R, GHADERI S F. A two-phase method for a multi-skilled project scheduling problem with discounted cash flows [J]. Scientia Iranica, 2014, 21(3): 1083-95.[14] ZHENG X, WANG L, ZHENG H. A knowledge-based fruit fly optimization algorithm for multi-skill resource-constrained project scheduling problem; proceedings of the Control Conference (CCC), 2015 34th Chinese, Hangzhou, China, F 28-30 July 2015, 2015 [C].[15] ALMEIDA B F, CORREIA I, SALDANHA-DA-GAMA F. Priority-based heuristics for the multi-skill resource constrained project scheduling problem [J]. Expert Systems with Applications, 2016, 57(91-103.[16] BLAZEWICZ J, LENSTRA J K, KAN A H G R. Scheduling subject to resource constraints: classification and complexity [J]. Discrete Applied Mathematics, 1983, 5(1): 11-24.[17] M HRING R H, SCHULZ A S, STORK F, et al. Solving Project Scheduling Problems by Minimum Cut Computations [J]. Management Science, 2003, 49(3): 20.[18] 方晨，王凌 . 資源約束項目調度研究綜述 [J]. 控制與決策，2010， 25(5)：641-50.[19] ZHU L, LI X P, IEEE. An Effective Evolutionary Algorithm for Pre-emptive Resource-constrained Project Scheduling Problems [M]. IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics. New York; Ieee. 2010.[20] HARTMANN S. A competitive genetic algorithm for resource-constrained project scheduling [J]. NAVAL RESEARCH LOGISTICS, 1997, 45(733-50.[21] DAS P P, ACHARYYA S. Simulated annealing variants for solving resource Constrained Project Scheduling Problem: A comparative study; proceedings of the Computer and Information Technology (ICCIT), 2011 14th International Conference on, F 22-24 Dec. 2011, 2011 [C].[22] ATLI O. Tabu Search and an Exact Algorithm for the Solutions of Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problems [J]. Int J Comput Intell Syst, 2011, 4(2): 255-67.[23] POPPENBORG J, KNUST S. A flow-based tabu search algorithm for the RCPSP with transfer times [J]. Or Spectrum, 2016, 38(2): 305-34.[24] ZHANG K, ZHAO G, JIANG J. Particle swarm optimization method for resource-constrained project scheduling problem; proceedings of the Electronic Measurement & Instruments, 2009 ICEMI ‘09 9th International Conference on, F 16-19 Aug. 2009, 2009 [C].[25] NOURI N, KRICHEN S, LADHARI T. A discrete artificial bee colony algorithm for resource-constrained project scheduling problem; proceedings of the Modeling, Simulation and Applied Optimization (ICMSAO), 2013 5th International Conference on, F 28-30 April 2013, 2013 [C].[26] MYSZKOWSKI P B, SKOWRONSKI M E, OLECH L P, et al. Hybrid ant colony optimization in solving multi-skill resource-constrained project scheduling problem [J]. Soft Computing, 2015, 19(12): 3599-619.[27] 吳小文，李擎. 果蠅算法和5種群智能算法的尋優性能研究 [J]. 火力與指揮控制，2013，38(4)：5.[28] 潘文超. 果蠅最佳化演算法：最新演化式計算技術 [M]. 台北: 滄海書局，2011.[29] 高世剛. 基于云遺傳算法的軟件項目資源調度研究 [D]；武漢科技大學, 2010.[30] PAN W-T. Mixed modified fruit fly optimization algorithm with general regression neural network to build oil and gold prices forecasting model [J]. Kybernetes, 2014, 43(7): 1053-63.[31] MONGHASEMI S, NIKOO M R, FASAEE M A K, et al. A novel multi criteria decision making model for optimizing time-cost-quality trade-off problems in construction projects [J]. Expert Systems with Applications, 2015, 42(6): 3089-104.[32] GORLA N, LIN S-C. Determinants of software quality: A survey of information systems project managers [J]. Information and Software Technology, 2010, 52(6): 602-10.
52 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 基於使用與滿足理論的用戶生成內容持續參與研究馮 源，姜 凌*（澳門科技大學商學院，澳門）摘要： 用戶的持續參與行為是用戶生成內容（User-generated Content)網站成功的關鍵因素。本研究借鑒了使用與滿足理論，實證分析用戶感知價值在不同的參與階段對用戶參與度的影響。研究表明，個人整合價值、社會整合價值和享樂價值對提升用戶參與度有顯著正向影響；其中，社會整合價值在初始和持續階段的差異對內容生成網站用戶參與度的提升有顯著正向影響。研究發現，加強社會整合價值對內容生成網站用戶的持續參與尤為重要。關鍵詞： 用戶生成內容；在線社群；使用和滿足模型；持續參與A Study of Sustained Participation in User Generated Content Based on the Use and Gratifications TheoryYuan FENG, Ling JIANG*( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstractt: User’s ustained participation behavior is the key factors for the success of user generated content website. This study draws on the Uses and Gratifications theory, empirical analysis of the relationship between independent variables, which are used-perceived benefits and the participant stage, and the dependent variable which is the level of participation. Research shows that personal integration, social integration and heroic benefits have a significant influence on the degree of participation; among them, the differences of social integration benefits in the introductory stage and continuing stages have a significant impact on user participation content sharing website construction. The study found that the value of strengthening social integration is particularly important to continue to participate in the content of into website users.eywordst: User-Generated Content; Online Communities; Uses and Gratifications; Sustained Participation收稿日期：2016-11-09；修訂日期：2017-01-11。*通訊作者：姜凌，女，博士，澳門科技大學商學院副教授，主要研究方向：電子行銷、服務行銷。E-mail: lijiang@must.edu.mo，Tel : 00853-889729050 引言2016 年上半年使用過社交應用的用戶中，對QQ 空間、新浪微博為代表的綜合社交應用的使用率為 84.5%、43.5%，圖片視頻社交、社區社交的使用率分別為 45.4%、32.2%[1]。在這其中，用戶生成內容（user-generated content，UGC）網站就是一種綜合社交的重要形式，它指由用戶貢獻生成的互聯網社區網站或者是任何開放性媒介的內容。本 研 究 基 於 使 用 與 滿 足 理 論（Uses and Gratifications）為基礎，從實證研究的角度，探求用戶在內容生成網站持續參與的影響因素，揭示用戶感知價值對用戶參與度的影響。本研究在用戶使用與滿足模型基礎上把用戶獲得的滿足和參與度之間的關係相聯繫，對用戶參與模式進行分析。並進一步加入用戶參與階段
59馮源，等 基於使用與滿足理論的用戶生成內容持續參與研究研究認為，儘管在用戶參與過程中感知價值會隨著參與階段的深入而增加，但對用戶認知價值、個人整合價值和享樂或情感價值的持續影響並不顯著。用戶固有的對於該網站社區的感知價值，特別是認知價值、個人整合價值和享樂或情感價值在持續使用中不會得到強化，僅社會整合價值會因為與社區成員交往互動中能得到加強。可見，用戶自發的參與，僅僅追求用戶自我滿足，是不足以成為支撐社區網站持續發展的。在幫助用戶回顧使用過程中，用戶很容易就會對網站社區產生歸屬感，並感覺自己是該社區的一份子。這種不斷強調用戶貢獻的互聯網商業策略是與本研究的觀點不謀而合。在本研究中，強調了社會整合價值對內容生成網站持續參與的影響作用。參 考 文 獻[1] 中國互聯網路資訊中心（CNNIC）.（2016）. 2015年中國社交應用用戶行為研究報告. China. [2] Katz, E., & Blumler, J. G. (1974). The uses of mass communications: current perspectives on gratifications research. Sage Publications.[3] Rothaermel, F. T., & Sugiyama, S. (2001). Virtual internet communities and commercial success: individual and community-level theory grounded in the atypical case of TimeZone.com. Journal of Management, 27(3), 297–312. [4] Wasko, M. M., & Faraj, S. (2000). “It is what one does”: why people participate and help others in electronic communities of practice. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 9(2–3), 155–173. [5] Nambisan, S. (2002). 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60[31] Peterson, R. A. (1994). A Meta-analysis of Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(2), 381–391. [32] Anderson, D. R., Sweeney, D. J., & Williams, T. A. (2010). Statistics for Business and Economics (11 edition). Australia ; Mason, Ohio: South-Western College Pub.[33] Bhattacherjee, A., & Lin, C. P. (2015). A unified model of IT continuance: three complementary perspectives and crossover effects. European Journal of Information Systems, 24(4), 364-373.[34] Sun, Y., Fang, Y., & Lim, K. H. (2012). Understanding sustained participation in transactional virtual communities. Decision Support Systems, 53(1), 12-22.[35] Liao, J., Huang, M., & Xiao, B. (2017). Promoting continual member participation in firm-hosted online brand communities: An organizational socialization approach. Journal of Business Research, 71, 92-101.[36] Kaewkitipong, L., Chen, C. C., & Ractham, P. (2016). Using social media to enrich information systems field trip experiences: Students’ satisfaction and continuance intentions. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 256-263. 科研進展澳科大太空所發現月球新地貌 由澳門科技大學主導，聯合美國布朗大學、俄羅斯科學院、英國蘭卡斯特大學和北京大學等多家單位共同發現月球上一種新的火山地貌類型，並於9月13日在國際頂尖地學期刊《Geophysical Research Letters》上首次發表，這是澳科大近年來在月球與行星研究領域又一重大科學發現。該研究成果對研究和瞭解月球低重力環境下月球的熱演化、月球內部揮發分和動力學，以及後期火山活動有重要的科學意義和參考價值。該研究在月球上暗色的火山平原區發現了一種低矮的（數米至十幾米高）圓形土堆形構造且被環形負地形所環繞，因此將其命名為“負地形環繞型穹隆構造”（Ring-moat dome structure, RMDS）。這些直徑在幾十米至數百米的小型穹隆狀構造就像人類皮膚上的水泡或圓形凸起，以群聚或離散的形式分佈于火山平原上（填充到大型撞擊盆地內部的火山熔岩）。雖然七十年代美國阿波羅探月計劃實現了六次載人登陸月球表面，此後國際上一系列探月計劃也獲得了大量月球影像資料，但是一直沒有探測到這些神秘的負地形環繞型穹隆構造。研究人員憑著高解析度、低太陽高度角的遙感影像才觀察到這些構造的清晰輪廓。研究人員認為在熔岩流動過程中，熔岩表面逐漸冷卻形成冷凝殼，冷凝殼對下面熔岩起到保溫和隔熱的作用，內部熔融岩漿因富含揮發分氣體而膨脹增壓，最後衝破上覆岩殼而溢流到外表面並堆積形成熔岩丘。隨著熔岩體量的增加和後期演化，其周圍逐漸形成了環形負地形區。澳科大太空科學研究所的科研人員已經掌握了獲取和優化數位元高程模型的方法，這些資料對分析此類型穹隆構造的三維結構至關重要。科研人員將利用更多優質觀測資料深入分析這些構造的細部特徵，以深化對它們的認識，並進一步提升人類對月球和行星科學的認識。糖組學研究取得重大突破 澳科大發現診斷類風濕關節炎的新標誌物澳科大中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室研究團隊成功設計全球首塊TiO2-PGC芯片，其極靈敏的分析技術能夠在複雜的糖鏈組成中檢測到糖蛋白的痕量糖鏈的細微變化。該研究成果是在糖組學和類風濕性關節炎診斷領域的一個重要突破，為深入研究糖組學和篩選免疫調節功能的中藥成分提供了良好技術平臺。糖組學和類風濕關節炎診斷的研究論文“鑒定免疫球蛋白IgG上痕量磺酸化N-糖鏈作為類風濕性關節炎生物標誌物的方法” (A method to identify trace sulfated IgG N-glycans as biomarkers for rheumatoid arthritis) 於9月20日在世界著名的“自然出版集團”旗下綜合性期刊《自然通訊》（Nature Communications）上刊登。《自然通訊》專門發表生物學、物理學和化學等領域的高質量研究論文，2017年公佈的影響因數為12.12。這是首篇以澳門科研機構為第一作者單位和通訊單位的《自然通訊》研究論文，充分展示了澳科大在組學研究領域的綜合實力。
61 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 Received 2 Jun. 2017; Revised 17 Jul. 2017*Corresponding Author: Dafeng Peng, male, a Phd student of School of Business of Macao University of Science and Technology. Research Area: Organizational Behavior, Human Resource Management.Email: pdf138@126.com, Tel: 00853-65703747Ethical Climate and Whistleblowingt: the Moderating Role of Ethical LeadershipDafeng PENG*, Qing TIAN( School of Business, Macao University of Science and Technology, Macao, China )Abstractt: This research investigates the relationships between perceived ethical climate, whistleblowing, and ethical leadership. The "supervisor - subordinate" questionnaires were randomly distributed to 21 companies in Guangdong Province, among which 40 valid supervisor-questionnaires and 331 valid subordinate-questionnaires (73.56% response rate) were received. The statistical results supported the hypotheses that (1) perceived other-focused climate and perceived self-focused climate were positively related to internal whistleblowing and non-action respectively, and (2) ethical leadership moderated the relationship between perceived other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing, but does not moderated the relationship between perceived self-focused climate and non-action. For the former case, the influence of perceived other-focused climate on internal whistleblowing was stronger when ethical leadership was stronger. The major findings, theoretical contributions, practical implications, and the limitations were discussed.eywordst: Perceived other-focused climate; Perceived self-focused climate; Internal whistleblowing; Non-action; Ethical leadership倫理氛圍和揭發行為：倫理領導的調節作用彭達楓*，田 青（澳門科技大學商學院，澳門）摘要： 本研究探索了感知倫理氛圍、揭發行為和倫理領導之間的關係。調查問卷通過“主管-員工＂配對的方式隨機派發，問卷覆蓋了廣東省21個企業，其中有效主管問卷40份，有效員工問卷331份（有效回收率為73.56%）。統計資料支持假設：（1）員工感知利他氛圍和員工感知自利氛圍分別對內部揭發行為和沉默行為產生積極影響；（2）倫理領導可以調節員工感知利他氛圍對內部揭發行為的影響，員工感知利他氛圍對內部揭發行為的影響會隨著倫理領導的增強而提高。但是不支持假設（3），即倫理領導可以調節員工感知自利氛圍對沉默行為的影響。本研究主要的發現和理論貢獻，實踐貢獻，局限性，未來研究發展都在文後有所闡述。關鍵詞： 感知利他氛圍；感知自利氛圍；內部揭發；沉默；倫理領導
620 Introduction For over two decades, researchers have been studying about how ethical climate influences employee ethical behaviors (Deshpande, 1996; Wimbush, Shepard & Markham, 1997; Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009; Mayer, Kuenzi & Greenbaum, 2010; Arnaud & Schminke, 2012; Shacklock, Manning, & Hort, 2013; Treviño, Den & Kish-Gephart, 2014) [1~7]. Perceived ethical climate reflects the shared perceptions employees hold regarding the policies, practices, and procedures that an organization rewards, supports, and expects with regard to ethics (Arnaud & Schminke, 2012) [5]. Ethical climate has been classified as two dimensions i.e. other-focused climate and self-focused climate (Kohlberg, 1984)[8]. Other-focused climate is defined as consideration of other people without reference to organizational membership (e.g., friendship, reciprocity), the consideration of organizational collective (e.g., esprit de corps, team play), and the consideration of other constituencies outside the organization (e.g., social responsibility) (Victor et al., 1988) [9], while self-focused climate is defined as a pro-conventional climate, in which individuals focus on personal benefit rather than caring for everyone’s interest in organization (Kohlberg, et al., 1984) [8]. As wrongdoing is increasing in organizations, whistleblowing turns out to be more valuable and highly concerned by the organizations (Callahan and Dworkin 2000) [10] and is regarded as a kind of ethical behaviors that exceed moral minimums (Treviño, Weaver, and Reynolds, 2006) [11]. Researches have shown that employees’ behavior is influenced by circumstance, especially in certain climate, like ethical climate (Miceli & Near, 1985, Kaptein, 2011, Huang, Lo &Wu, 2013; Ahmad &Yunos, 2014) [12~15]. A major factor that has been shown to directly impact whistleblowing is the nature of the organization’s climate (Miceli et al., 1985) [12]. A healthy ethical culture generally results in a greater willingness to report wrongdoing (Kaptein, 2011) [13]. Under positive ethical climate, members would have higher intentions of whistle-blowing (Huang et al., 2013) [14]. Despite much effort was given to establish the relationship between general ethical climate and whistleblowing, ( Miceli & Near, 1985, Kaptein, 2011, Huang, Lo &Wu, 2013; Syahrul Ahmar Ahmada, 2014 )[12~15]. No previous studies have examined how different dimensions of ethical climate, i.e. other-focused climate and self-focused climate, respectively influences employee report behavior and their non-action regarding unethical behavior within our limited knowledge.Some studies have focused on the mediators of the ethical climate and whistleblowing (e.g., Kaptein Muel, 2011; Huang et al., 2013) [13~14]. However, studies are necessary to consider the moderating variables in explaining the effects of different types of ethical climate on employee behavior. Identifying moderator is important not only because it can help explain the conditions under which ethical climate is more or less likely to be associated with whistle-blowing, but also because it helps illuminate the processes underlying the relationship between ethical climate and employee reporting wrongdoings in the workplace. Although other moderators are also likely to be important, in this study, we focus on the moderating role of ethical leadership, because managers are more capable of understanding ‘‘how to diagnose and manage both ethical climates and ethical behavior’’ (Wimbush, Shepard & Markham, 1997, p. 1705) [2]. Researches have shown that ethical leadership is highly influential in shaping employee ethical behaviors, like organizational citizenship behavior (Piccolo, Greenbaum, Den Hartog, & Folger, 2010; Kacmar, Bachrach, Harris & Zivnuska, 2011; Shin, 2012; Lu, 2014) [16~19], whistle-blowing (Bhal & Dadhich, 2011; Tasdoven & Kaya, 2014)[20~21], and ethical behaviors (Zhu, May & Avolio, 2004; Walumbwa et al., 2009; Avey, Palanski & Walumbwa, 2011; Shin, 2012; Jordan, Brown, Treviño & Finkelstein, 2013; Demirtas & Akdogan, 2014)[3,18,22~25]. Further, ethical leadership also has significant impact on ethical climate (Wimbush et al., 1997; Mayer, Kuenzi & Greenbaum, 2010; Arnaud,
63Dafeng PENG, et al Ethical Climate and Whistleblowing: the Moderating Role of Ethical Leadershipet al., 2012; Shin, 2012; Demirtas et al., 2014; Lu & Lin, 2014; Choi, Ullah & Kwak, 2015) [2,4~5,18~19,25~26]. However, research on the role of ethical leadership in employee report behavior remains largely unexplored. In an attempt to explore this question, we’ll examine the moderating role of ethical leadership on the relationship between perceived ethical climate, i.e. perceived other-focused climate and perceived self-focused climate and whistleblowing, i.e. internal whistleblowing and non-action. There are a number of intended contributions of this research. First, previous studies have explored the antecedents of report behavior, which mainly focused on values, attitudes, and subjective norm of whistleblowers (Miceli & Near 1988; Barnett, Bass & Brown, 1996; Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005; Park & Blenkinsopp 2009; Nayir & Herzig, 2012; Gökçe, 2013; MacGregor & Stuebs, 2014; Liu, Liao & Wei, 2015) [27~34]. Our research is one of the first that we know of to examine the different types of ethical climate, i.e. other-focused and self-focused climate. Second, given that examining the boundary conditions of perceived ethical climate and whistleblowing requires being explored, we’ll examine the moderating effect of ethical leadership on their relationships. This will shed light on the role of ethical leaders in strengthening or weakening the relationship between ethical climate (perceived other-focused climate, perceived self-focused climate) and employees’ whistleblowing (internal whistleblowing, non-action) in a more specific domain. Third, beside internal whistleblowing, we also specifically examine the antecedent of non-action regarding wrongdoings. To know the antecedent of non-action enables a better understanding of the causes of whistleblowing.1 Theoretical background and hypothesesAs whistleblowing is driven by intrinsic motives rather by extrinsic rewards or pressure (Courtemanche, 1988) [35], we posit in this study that employee whistleblowing will be encouraged by positive workplace ethical climate, i.e. other-focused climate, but demotivated by perceived negative ethical climate, i.e. self-focused climate. Ethical climate is generally rooted in the moral reasoning processes (Arnaud et al., 2012) [5]. Individuals utilize such moral reasoning when making moral judgments and decisions (e.g., Babin, Boles, & Robin, 2000; Cullen, Victor & Bronson et al., 1993) [36~37]. When different types of ethical climate coexist in the organization, they would have different degrees of impact on employees’ attitudes (Luthar, DiBattista & Gautschi, 1997; Treviño, Butterfield & McCabe, 1998; Ambrose, Arnaud & Schminke, 2008; DeConinck, 2010; Tseng & Fan, 2011) [38~42]. Emploees’ perceived ethical climate can have significant impact on their judgement about what is an appropriate and desired behavior (Wyld & Jones, 1997; Fritzsche, 2000; Zohar & Luria, 2005; Mayer, Kuenzi, & Greenbaum, 2010; Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010; Shin, 2012; Kuntz, Kuntz, Elenkov, & Nabirukhina, 2013) [4,18,43~47].Although increasing studies have focused on these two aspects, research in this area is still lacking for organizations with Chinese cultural background. Researchers have subscribed to the myth that Chinese people do not approve of external disclosure (e.g., Zhang, 2009) [48], despite encouragement from the government (Gong, 2000) [49]. In fact, ‘‘telling’’ can be considered unacceptable and unethical behavior by any Chinese employee for this act is considered as a break of trust between employees and employers and is disloyal and ungrateful (see Greene and Latting, 2004) [50]. In terms of ethical climate, business environment in China is heavily influenced by the government and its various bureaucratic agencies (Deshpande, Joseph, & Shu, 2011) [51]. Rampant corruption, lack of shareholder rights, contradictory planning, and stock market manipulation are some of the problems that multinational firms face in China (Chandler, 2004) [52]. In the recent past, the ‘‘Made in China’’ label has taken a severe beating. Recent revelations of defective products from China like melamine-contaminated foods, and toys contaminated with lead paint have raised concerns about business ethics in China (Gallagher, 2009) [53]. As Chinese work culture is collective, centralized, and risk-avoiding
64(Fan & Zigang, 2004) [54], Chinese employees rely on institutions and groups to tell them how to do things and accept decisions handed down by superiors. However, the growing whistleblowing events appear in China (Hwang, Chen, Staley, Tsai, & Chu 2014) led us to expect that perceived ethical climate may play a stronger role in whistleblowing behaviors [55]. Therefore, research on the Chinese perception toward whistleblowing can provide valuable information for government and enterprise’ managers, and help them to employ, predict, and manage internal whistleblowing more effectively. 1.1 Other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing A formal definition of whistleblowing is offered by Near and Miceli (1985, p. 4): the disclosure by organization members (former or current) of illegal, immoral, or illegitimate practices under the control of their employers, to persons or organizations that may be able to effect action[56]. Whistleblowing is regarded as a kind of organizational citizenship behavior which includes internal whistleblowing, external whistleblowing, and non-action (Rothschild & Miethe, 1999) [57]. These can be the most representative behaviors that employees take while confronting with wrongdoings or unethical issues. Internal whistleblowing refers to “an act of reporting wrongdoing to someone at an upper level within the organization, which is an ethical outcome for achieving ethical goal for ethical leaders” (Dworkin & Callahan, 1991) [58]. Internal reporting tends to rather provide a chance for “preventing negative publicity, investigations, and administrative and legal actions”(Dworkin & Near, 1987) [59] and also for combating corruption practices. In this study, we mainly focus on internal whistleblowing. Previous research has found that whistleblowers used external channels had usually used internal channels first (Baker, 1983; Miceli & Near, 1984) [60~61]. It is also seen as an optimal method for organizations to perceive internal problems, so as to maintain a perfect working system, procedure, atmosphere etc. by internal whistleblowing rather than taking no-report. Thus, internal channels would be the primary choice for whistle-blowers in an organization, which should attract managers or superiors’ attention in the operation and management in firms. In this research, perceived other-focused climate represents the perception of benevolent part of non-egoistic climate (Victor et al., 1988; Arnaud et al., 2012) [5,9]. Hence, perceived other-focused climate is defined as consideration of other people without reference to organizational membership (e.g., friendship, reciprocity), the consideration of organizational collective (e.g., esprit de corps, team play), and the consideration of other constituencies outside the organization (e.g., social responsibility) (Victor et al., 1988) [9]. Moreover, perceived other-focused climate belongs to conventional level of collective moral reasoning (Kohlberg, 1984) [8] and plays a foundation for ethical climate and influences employee behavior through its impact on ethical decision making (Wyld et al., 1997; Victor et al., 1998; Fritzsche, 2000; Mayer et al., 2010; Kish-Gephart et al., 2010; Shin, 2012; Kuntz et al., 2013) [4,9,18,43~44,46~47]. For example, perceived other-focused climate is positively related to ethical outcomes (Deshpande, 1996; Wimbush et al., 1997; Walumbwa et al., 2009; Mayer et al., 2010; Arnaud et al., 2012; Shacklock et al., 2013; Treviño et al., 2014) [1~7]. Perceived other-focused climate can contribute to the contributive atmosphere in organizations by advocating individuals should put group interest first. In the meanwhile, employees would focus on collective gain and loss rather than personal goal. Perceived other-focused climate is the benevolent aspect of ethical climate. In such climate, organization would consider the best interest for everyone and individuals would be responsible for the society (Arnaud et al., 2012) [5]. For example, if someone is absent for illness, his/her colleague would be conscientious to shoulder responsibility to share the work of sick coworker. Previous studies showed that perceived ethical climate influences decision making by reflecting prevailing norms of ethical reasoning in the organization and that these emergent ethical norms are distinct from both individual ethical
65Dafeng PENG, et al Ethical Climate and Whistleblowing: the Moderating Role of Ethical Leadershippropensities and individuals’ affective judgments about the work climate (Victor et al., 1988; Mayer et al., 2010; Treviño et al., 2014) [4,7,9]. Perceived other-focused climate would influence individual behavior by shaping their perception of ethical procedures, processes etc. Also, empirical evidence demonstrates a causal linkage between perceived ethical climate and ethical outcomes, among which perceived other-focused climates are positively related to ethical outcomes (Shacklock, Manning, & Hort, 2011; Arnaud et al., 2012; Khan, 2012; Shacklock et al., 2013)[5~6,62~63]. Based on the characteristics of other-focsed climate, we hypothesize thatHypothesis 1: Perceived other-focused climate is positively related to internal whistleblowing. 1.2 Self-focused climate and internal whistleblowingNon-reporting was discussed by Gorta and Forll (1995) linking social definitions of corruption and willingness to take action, and the “choosing to remain silent”employed in their study is grouped into a “non-action” response, concerning the wrongdoing [64] . Non-action is one of the most representatives of the behaviors that employees usually take after witnessing wrongdoing (King, 2000) [4]. In this research, non-action refers to non-reporting, which means employees choose to remain silence in response to concerning the wrongdoing (Heungsik, Michael, Rehg & Donggi, 2005) [66]. Many studies on whistleblowing behavior studies would take non-action into consideration (Gary, Rothwell & Norman, 2007; Teo & Caspersz, 2011; Cassematis & Wortley, 2013) [67~69].Opposite to perceived other-focused climate, perceived self-focused climate is a pro-conventional climate (Kohlberg, et al., 1984) [8], in which, individuals focus on personal benefit rather than caring for everyone’s interest in organization. In such work environment, employees tend to be selfish in dealing with public affairs. They would pull-off responsibility to others and exert moral disengagement, as well as maximizing personal benefit. In self-focused climate, subordinates would focus on their own interests without caring for others. Evidences show that self-focused climate would be negatively related to ethical outcomes (Arnaud et al., 2012; Simha & Cullen, 2012; Omoush, Yaseen, & Dajani, 2014) [5,70~71]. Individuals’ egoism would influence their non-report behaviors (Nitsch, Baetz, & Hughes, 2005) [72]. Self-interest can be a key role in causing employees to remain silent while facing unethical actitities (Knoll & van Dick, 2013) [73]. In organization with self-focused climate, employees are more likely to turn a blind eye to wrongdoings and abandon reporting to supervisors, because disclosure cannot bring personal benefit from it, on the contrary, it may receive reprimand and hatred of others. Thus, an organization with perceived self-focused climate, wrongdoing-observers are more likely to keep silence rather than disclose scandals while viewing unethical issues. Based on the above, we propose:Hypothesis 2: Perceived self-focused climate is positively related to non-action.1.3 The moderating role of ethical leadershipLeaders are critical in developing an ethical climate (Dickson, Smith, Grojean & Ehrhart, 2001) [74] and serve as interpretive filters of organizational processes and policies for group members (Kozlowski & Doherty, 1989) [75]. Empirical researches show that ethical leadership is positively related to individuals’ perceptions of ethical climate (Neubert, Carlso, Kacmar & Roberts, 2009; Mayer, Kuenzi, Greenbaum, Bardes & Salvador, 2009) [76~77]. In this study, we posit that ethical leadership will moderate the relationship between perceived ethical climate and whistleblowing. Despite perceived ethical climate, ethical leadership can be a vital factor in impacting employees’ report behavior (Hassan, Wright, & Yukl, 2014) [78]. Ethical leadership goes beyond fair treatment to include principled decision-making (Avolio, Bass & Jung, 1999) [79], sets ethical expectations for subordinates (Treviño, Brown & Pincus-Hartman, 2003) [80], and uses rewards and punishments to hold employees accountable for ethical conduct themselves (Gini, 1998; Treviño et al., 2003) [80~81]. E t h i c a l l e a d e r s h i p i s d e f i n e d a s " t h e demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct th rough persona l ac t ions and in te rpersona l
66relationships (Brown, Michael, Linda, Treviño and David, 2005, p. 120)"[82]. To be specific, ethical leadership has two major aspects which include moral person component (like, concern for others, trustworthiness) and moral manager component (like, rewarding, punishing, role modeling ethical behavior). As moral persons, ethical leaders live their personal lives in a moral manner, demonstrate ethical behaviors, and advocate ethical values and behaviors in the workplace. Ethical leaders have attributes such as honesty, integrity, and fair treatment of employees. As moral managers, ethical leaders act ively communicate ethical standards with subordinates and reinforce subordinates’ appropriate conduct through punishment, rewards, and performance appraisal (Brown et al., 2005) [82]. In other words, ethical leaders expect followers to behave ethically and hold their actions against moral standards. In sum, ethical leaders process integrity, show concern for others, and behave ethically (e.g., Trevin˜o et al. 2000; Mayer et al. 2009; Toor & Ofori 2009) [77,84~85]. While ethical climate reflect the collective moral reasoning of organization members (Victor et al., 1988) [9], it provide employees a foundation for reasoning effectively about the right thing to do, translating that reasoning into action depends on the moderating effect of two additional contextual factors: collective moral emotion (the form of collective empathy) and collective ethical efficacy (Arnaud et al., 2012) [5]. The moral reasoning reflected in ethical climate is more likely to translate into ethical behavior when work unit members (a) care about those affected by their actions (empathy) and (b) believe in their ability to successfully follow through on their decision (efficacy). That is, collective moral reasoning (ethical climate) will relate more strongly to ethical behavior when the collective reasoning is activated via collective moral emotion and the group is enabled by collective ethical efficacy to act in accordance with that reasoning. The ethicality of top management establishes an ethical model of normative behavior that determines what kind of perception employees hold in the organization (Neubert et al., 2009) [76]. Extant research also found ethical leadership is positively related to perceived other-focused climate (Mayer et al., 2010; Lu & Lin, 2014) [4,19], while leaders׳ egocentrism (self-focused climate) is considered to be an element of unethical leadership (Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014) [83]. By role modeling appropriate behavior, ethical leaders help create a climate in which doing the right thing is valued. In an organization with high-level ethical leadership, employees’ perception of ethical policies, practices, and procedures would be stronger (Neubert et al., 2009) [76]. Under such leadership, employees in other-focused climate would be more likely to care for others, independent, as well as obey ethical rules and codes. However, it would go to the opposite when employees focus more on self-interest due to lack of ethical role model when low level of leadership exist. Draw on social learning theory (Bandura, 1977, 1986) [86~87], individuals learn appropriate ways to act through a role-modeling process by observing the behaviors of others. Also, social learning theory suggests that individuals are likely to emulate behaviors from credible and attractive role models. Employees would pay more attention to and imitate ethical behavior, through which leaders’ behaviors release a signal that doing the right thing is expected, encouraged, and valued. It also satisfies every criterion of organizational citizen behavior directed at an organization in that whistleblowing is voluntary and thought to contribute to the organizational wellbeing (Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006) [88]. Followers’ perception of ethical leadership has been connected to their organizational citizenship behavior (Piccolo et al., 2010). Studies also indicate that ethical leadership can predict whistleblowing (Bhal et al., 2011) [20]. In an organization of high ethical leadership, ethical leaders, as role models of ethical behavior, would care about the interest of employees and pay more attention to integrity, justice and fair treatment. With these characteristics, ethical leaders tend to be willing to give ear to employees’ whistleblowing. Moreover, ethical leaders would rely on organizational
67Dafeng PENG, et al Ethical Climate and Whistleblowing: the Moderating Role of Ethical Leadershipclimate to influence employees’ mind and decision in term of ethics. To be specific, ethical leaders emphasize public interest, fairness and justice. Employees who perceive altruism (other-focused) climate would be brave to internal disclosure ethical problems to ethical leaders, as they believe such internal whistleblowing behaviors are corresponding to leaders’ ethical norms and standard and would be appreciated by ethical leader. In this view, employees are more likely to exert internal whistleblowing when faced with wrongdoing or ethical issues, as employees would imitate what their leaders do (Brown et al., 2005)[82]. When employees perceive selfishness (self-focused) climate in organization, employees would pay no attention to ethical issues. In such situation, non-action would instead of whistleblowing. However, ethical leaders would set the ethical tone for an organization by enacting practices, policies, and procedures that help cultivate the display of employees’ ethical behavior. To some extent, leaders’ ethical in-role performance would influence employees’ ethic minds. Only focusing on self-interest without any whistleblowing ethical problems is not valued by ethical leader. In other words, ethical leader do not condone employees’ silence behavior while confronting ethical problems. In such condition, ethical leaders would contribute to improve employees’ non-action behavior.To sum up, whistleblowing is more likely to happen when employees perceive support from their supervisors and organization (Near & Miceli, 1996)[89]. Given that ethical leader is proposed to have an impact on employees’ whistleblowing and perceived ethical climate, we therefore hypothesized that:Hypothesis 3: Ethical leadership moderates the relationship between perceived other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing such that the relationship between perceived other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing will be stronger when ethical leadership is high.Hypothesis 4: Ethical leadership moderates the relationship between perceived self-focused climate and non-action such that the relationship between perceived self-focused climate and non-action will be weaken when ethical leadership is high. Figure 1. Proposed theoretical model2 Method2.1 Sample and ProcedureBetween 20th Nov. 2014 and 10th Jan. 2015, 450 questionnaires were distributed to twenty-one companies from nine industries in Guangdong Province. 331 useful questionnaires were received with a valid response rate of 73.56%. We adopted both convenience sampling and stratified sampling (the scale rate is approximately 30%) to distribute the questionnaires for the purpose of being accessible, convenient as well as being representative. In case of common method bias, we adopt “supervisor-subordinate” questionnaires to collect our data, the whistleblowing-questionnaire for supervisors, and ethical leadership and perceived ethical climate questionnaires for the subordinates.Surveys comple ted by supe rv i so r s and subordinates included corresponding items and measures of their demographic. In the supervisor questionnaires, 51.1% of the respondents were male, while 48.9% were female. Over half of the respondents were between 31 and 40 years old, occupied for 57.1%. Many of them had at least education of bachelor degree, among which bachelor degree occupied 52.6% while mater degree or above took 41.1%. And 44.7% of the respondents had less than 10 years of working experience. In the subordinate questionnaires, 57.1% of the respondents were male, while 42.9% were female. Most respondents were between 18 and 30 years old, accounting for 48.9%. A majority of them had at least education of junior college, among which bachelor degree and junior
68degree took 43.5% and 31.1% respectively. 63.4% of the respondents had less than 5 years working experiences in the current organization.2.2 MeasuresThough the questionnaires were in Chinese, the item scales were originally written in English. For the sake of accurate translation, we used conventional method of back translation (Brislin, 1980) [90] to translate the item scales into Chinese and then back into English. Then, a pilot test of the Chinese version of the questionnaires using 30 employees was conducted to assess their usability. All items were measured on a scale ranging from 1 ‘strongly agree’ to 5 ‘strongly disagree’ by Likert-five-point Scale.2.2.1 Perceived Ethical climate We measured perceived ethical climate using the 10-item Perceived Ethical Climate Scale (ECS) developed by Arnaud et al. (2012) [5]. Perceived other-focused climate contained 5 items. Representative item are “In my department people’s primary concern is their personal benefit”, “People in my department are very concerned about what is best for them personally” etc. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.84. The other dimension is perceived self-focused climate, which included 5 items. Representative items are “What is best for everyone in the department is the major consideration.”, “In my department it is expected that you will always do what is right for society” etc. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.89.2.2.2 Whistleblowing We measured employee’s whistleblowing using the 6-item Whistleblowing Scale developed by Heungsik et al. (2005) [67]. Four items were used for measuring internal whistleblowing, example items were “I would report it to my immediate supervisor”, “I would report it to an upper level of management in the organization”. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.81. Other two items were used to measure non-action. Example items were “I would remain silent about the wrongdoing”, “I would pretend not to see it” etc. From the item content, it can be know that internal whistleblowing is not the opposition of non-action. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.87.2.2.3 Ethical leadership We adopted the 10-item ethical leadership scale which was originally developed by Brown et al. (2005) [82] and modified by Tian et al.’s (2015) [91], The example items included “Is open to criticism and different opinion”, “My supervisor does not use Guanxi (personal relationships) or back-door practices to obtain illicit personal gains”. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.86.2.3 Control variablest: Consistent with prior investigations of ethical behavior, we controlled for age, education, gender, and tenure Kohlberg (1984) [8] indicated that individual’s age has been related to their ethical decision-making. In regards to education, highly skilled or educated employees are more likely to rely on internal reporting channels (Dworkin & Baucus 1998; Miceli & Janet 1992). However, research has failed to explain gender differences in terms of ethics (see Ambrose & Schminke, 1999). In this research, we predicted that both female and male employees can have similar perceptions of ethical leadership and organizational climate. Ages shared perceptions of contextual factors are changing over time (Schneider & Reichers, 1983), it requires us to control over employee’s average tenure in the work unit. 3 Data AnalysesTo test our hypotheses, we used ordinary least squares path analysis as implemented by PROCESS macros for SPSS (Hayes, 2012) [92]. To avoid problems related to violating assumptions of normality of the sample distribution, asymmetric bootstrapping confidence intervals generated by PROCESS was used to make statistical inferences about the direct and moderated effects (Hayes, 2012) [92].3.1 ResultsDescriptive data and inter-correlations for all study variables appear in Table 1. Other-focused climate was positively associated with internal whistleblowing and ethical leadership (r = 0.13, p <0.05; r = 0.21, p <0.01, respectively). Self-
69Dafeng PENG, et al Ethical Climate and Whistleblowing: the Moderating Role of Ethical Leadershipfocused climate was not associated with internal whistleblowing and ethical leadership (r =-0.07, p = n.s.; r = -0.01, p= n.s.). Other-focused climate and ethical climate were not related to Non-action (r =-0.07, p = n.s.; r = 0.04, p = n.s.). Self-focused climate was positively associated with Non-action (r =0.21, p <0.01) (See Table 1).3.2 Hypotheses Testing Hypotheses 1–2 suggested that perceived other-focused climate is positively related to internal whistleblowing while perceived self-focused climate is positively related to non-action. Hypothesis 3 suggested ethical leadership would strengthen the relationship between perceived other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing, hypothesis 4 suggested that ethical leadership would weaken the relationship between perceived self-focused ethical climate and non-action.We tested our proposed structural model by SPSS 21.0. In support of Hypothesis 1, the standardized coefficient (β=0.14, p<0.05) was positive and significant, and R2 is 0.05 (p<0.001), F is 3.07 (P<0.05), indicating there is positively relationship between perceived other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing. We also found support for hypothesis 2 (β=0.17, p<0.01), among which R2 is 0.08 (p<0.001), F is 6.37 (P<0.001) (See Table 2). Table 2 the regression analysis on internal whistleblowing (N=331)IVDVModel 1: Internal whistleblowing Model 2:Non-actionβ β β βGender -0.02 -0.02 0.07 0.06Age -0.11 -0.12 -0.05 -0.04Education 0.11* 0.13* -0.15** -0.13*Tenure -0.00 0.03 0.18* 0.16*POFC 0.14* -0.10PSFC 0.10 0.17**R2 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.08F 3.07* 2.39* 4.007** 5.49***Note.* p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001POFC=perceived other-focused climate; PSFC=perceived self-focused climateWe tested the interaction and the conditional effects of perceived other-focused and perceived self-focused climate on internal whistleblowing and non-action at different values of ethical leadership using Hayes’ (2013) PROCESS macros [93]. The interaction effect of ethical leadership on the relationship between perceived other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing was 0.19, p <0.01, 95% CI= [0.04, 0.35]. This supported an interaction effect, and therefore, Hypothesis 3 was supported.Probing this interaction revealed that there is Table 1. means, standard deviations, and correlations Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 81. Age 38 0.892. Edu 14.31 0.92 -0.183. Gender 0.43 0.5 -0.15 0.024. Tenure 5.4 1.42 0.71** -0.16** -0.14**5. OFC 3.39 0.78 0.07 -0.00 -0.02 0.17** (0.84)6. SFC 2.81 0.94 0.06 -0.13* 0.02 0.06 -0.11** (0.89)7. EL 3.21 0.77 -0.15** 0.12* -0.02 -0.07 0.21** 0.01 (0.87)8. IW 2.58 0.92 -0.11* 0.13* 0.00 -0.07 0.13* 0.07 0.08 (0.81)9. NA 3.16 1.08 0.09 -0.17** 0.05 0.15** -0.07 0.20** 0.04 0.06 (0.86)Note. Figures in parentheses are Cronbach’s alphas. * p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001OFC=Other-focused climate; SEF=Self-focused climate; EL=Ethical Leadership; IW=Internal whistleblowing; NA=Non-action
70not moderating effect on the relationship between perceived other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing at low level of ethical leadership (-1SD Low: β = -0.01, p >0.05, se= 0.09, 95% CI= [-0.19, 0.18]). This effect, however, is present for ethical leaders who are moderate (Mean: β =0.14, se=0.07, p <0.01, 95% CI= [0.01, 0.27]) and high level of ethics (+1SD High: β = 0.39, se= 0.09, p <0.00, 95% CI= [0.12, 0.46]). However, the interaction effect of ethical leadership on the relationship between perceived self-focused climate and internal whistleblowing was not significant (β= 0.07, p >0.05, 95% CI= [-0.04, 0.18]). Similarly, we tested the interaction effect of ethical leadership on the relationship between perceived self-focused climate and non-action. The interaction effect (β=-0.10, p >0.05, 95% CI= [-0.23, 0.03]) was not significant. Thus, hypothesis 4 was not supported. (See Table 3 and Table 4)Plot of the conditional effects of perceived ethical climate on whistleblowing at different levels of ethical leadership are presented in Figure 2. The graphs illustrate that high ethical leadership shows high level of interaction with perceived other-focused climate on internal whistleblowing, while low level of ethical leadership does not appears to indicate high level of interaction with internal whistleblowing.Table 3 The conditional effect of perceived other-focused climate on whistleblowing at different values of ethical leadership (n=331) β -1SD Mean +1SDGender -0.03 Age -0.1Education 0.11Tenure 0POFC 0.14*EL -0.01POFC X EL 0.19*Conditional effect -0.01 0.14* 0.29***SE 0.09 0.07 0.09CI [0.04, 0.35] [-0.19, 0.18] [0.01, 0.27] [0.12, 0.46]R² 0.06F 3.11* * p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001POFC=perceived other-focused climate: PSFC=perceived self-focused climateTable 4 The conditional effect of perceived other-focused climate on non-action at different values of ethical leadership (n=331) β -1SD Mean +1SDGender 0.15 Age -0.03Education 0.16**Tenure 0.11EL 0.05PSEF 0.21**PSEF X EL -0.1Conditional effect 0.28*** 0.21***SE 0.08 0.06 0.08CI [-0.23, 0.03] [0.12,0.45] [0.08, 0.33] [-02,0.28]R² 0.08F 4.40** * p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001POFC=perceived other-focused climate; PSFC=perceived self-focused climateFigure 2 the interactive effects of perceived other-focused climate and ethical leadership on Internal whistleblowing (n = 331)4 DiscussionPrevious studies of organizational climate have mainly focused on the beneficial influence of perceived ethical climate on employees’ ethical behaviors (e.g., Kaptein, 2011, Arnaud et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2013) [5,13~14]. This is because perceived ethical climate provide valuable guidance to employees by reinforcing the normative systems that guide ethical decision making and behavior (Victor et al., 1988; Vidaver-Cohen, 1998) [9,94]. Our research
71Dafeng PENG, et al Ethical Climate and Whistleblowing: the Moderating Role of Ethical Leadershipfindings supported that other-focused climate is positively related to internal whistleblowing and self-focused climate is positively related to non-action respectively.Prior researches indicated that ethical leadership can encourage ethical behaviors (e.g., Piccolo et al., 2010; Shin, 2012) [16,18] but help reduce unethical behaviors (e.g., Mayer et al., 2010; Miao, Newman, Yu, & Xu, 2013) [4,95]. Our findings showed that ethical leadership explained conditional role in ethical behaviors, because ethical leaders make decisions with ethics in mind, consider ‘‘what is the right thing to do’’ in terms of ethics, regularly communicate with subordinates regarding ethics, and reward and punish employees in accordance with ethical principles (Mayer et al., 2010) [4]. In correspondence with our hypothesis, this research finding suggests that ethical leadership can strengthen the positive relationship between perceived other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing at high level of ethics. It suggests that ethical leadership has high level of interaction with employees’ perceived other-focused climate on internal whistleblowing, and employees would be more likely to exert internal whistleblowing when leaders speak high of ethic. However, our research is not supported the hypothesis that ethical leadership can weaken the positive relationship between perceived self-focused climate and non-action. This may suggest that living in a self-focused climate, employees would choose to keep silence no matter what leader behave or lead in terms of ethics.4.1 Theoretical implicationThe contribution of this study lies in that we fill the gap between whistleblowing theory and leadership theory. Ethical leaders’ value and behavior could be a motivator for employee whistleblowing behaviors. This study is one of the first to explore the moderating effect of ethical leadership on the relationship between perceived ethical climate and employees’ report of wrongdoings behaviors. This study also extended the previous studies by considering perceived other-focused climate as motive of reporting wrongdoings and perceived self-focused climate as cause of non-actions toward wrongdoings. We examined the relationships between perceived ethical climate (perceived other-focused climate & perceived self-focused climate) and whistleblowing (approaching true hero for himself or herself) respectively, which have not been empirically tested in previous studies. As ethical leadership moderates the relationship between positive ethical climate and whistleblowing, but doesn’t moderate the relationship between negative ethical climate and non-action toward whistleblowing, this result implies that having a healthy workplace climate which focuses on others and benevolence is the key factor enhances employee ethical behavior rather than ethical leadership alone. Last but not least, organization should focus on building the climate of “independent” (perceived other-focused cl imate) to faci l i ta te internal whistleblowing as this climate is the key to strengthen internal whistleblowing intentions (Huang et al., 2013)[14]. This study suggests ethical leadership as a solution to meet this requirement by proving that ethical leaders can build perceived other-focused climate and activate internalized ethical belief for whistleblowers to reveal wrongdoing. 4.2 Managerial implicationAs wrongdoing phenomenon is prevalent in the workplace'a proper way to cultivate this reporting culture and encouraging reporting environment is to establish an other-focused climate. The establishment of organizational ethical climate can be contributive to the enhance employee whistleblowing intention. A firm dominated by an ethical climate of the quest for personal interest could only lead to a sense of untrustworthiness among members, which in turn would hamper the mutual assistance of team coordination. Managers should be aware of such climate that generates employees’ non-action when others faced with ethical dilemma.If a leader can act as a model for the whole corporate and treat corporate misconduct impartiality, subordinates will learn from the leader, in turn it will help inhibit pursuing personal interest in the workplace and create the positive environment of benevolence
72and purs ing common goal of organizat ions . Simultaneously, ethical leaders can exhibit moral behavior to the subordinates and reinforce their mutual caring among members. If leaders focus on the well-being of subordinates and care about the interest of all stakeholders, it will in turn drive subordinates to make responsible decisions when confronting with wrongdoings against organization’ s interests or other stakeholders’ interests. Thus, a leader must set a moral example to subordinates with high level of benevolent and principled leadership, which would help build a positive ethical work environment and the keep the development of negative and self-interest oriented environment from spreading. 4.3 Limitation and Future Research DirectionsDespite the aforementioned contributions, this study has some limitations. First, our data sample is restricted in second-tier city (Zhuhai & Zhaoqing) and the valid sample is only 331 and it still cannot provide a strong test of causal relationship among perceived ethical climate, whistleblowing and ethical leadership. A more representative scope of samples in terms of sample size, industry, and city is suggested to investigate. Second, compared with finance industry and retailing industry, our research focus more on government office (including social group, public institute) and travelling industry, which had occupied over 50% among all the industries. Thus, exerting the same investigation in a more wide industry is suggested. Third, all the data were collected by questionnaire method for one-time, which may cause some filling bias in the evaluation. Thereby, we recommend future studies can conduct the questionnaire survey among the same respondents for twice, exerting in the next few weeks or next month after the first survey, to know the stability of respondents’ filling score. Forth, collective moral emotion and ethical efficacy can moderate the relationship between perceived ethical climate and ethical behavior (Arnaud et al., 2012) [5]. We suggest future study to use these two moderators to investigate the relationship between more specific climate dimensions (egoism, benevolent, and principle) and whistleblowing behavior. Last but not least, some internal elements like moral courage, psychological safety etc. are suggested to be moderators between the relationship of ethical climate and whistleblowing5 ConclusionThe statistical analysis supports our above hypotheses. By recognizing perceived ethical climate would impact on ethical outcomes, we established theoretical frameworks among perceived other-focused climate, perceived self-focused climate, internal whistleblowing and non-action to wrongdoings. Also, ethical leadership, as a moderator, is proposed and explored. Results found that high level of ethical leadership can strengthen the relationship between perceived other-focused climate and internal whistleblowing, while high level of ethical leadership can weaken the relationship between perceived self-focused climate and non-action.References [1] Deshpande, S. P. (1996). Ethical climate and the link between success and ethical behavior: An empirical investigation of a non-profit organization.Journal of Business Ethics, 15(3), 315-320.[2] Wimbush, J. C., J. M. Shepard and S. E. Markham: 1997, An Empirical Examination of the Relationship Between Ethical Climate and Ethical Behavior from Multiple Levels of Analysis, Journal of Business Ethics 16, 465–472.[3] Walumbwa, F. O., & Schaubroeck, J. (2009). Leader personality traits and employee voice behavior: mediating roles of ethical leadership and work group psychological safety. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(5), 1275.[4] Mayer D M, Kuenzi M, Greenbaum R L. Examining the link between ethical leadership and employee misconduct: The mediating role of ethical climate[J]. Journal of Business Ethics, 2010, 95(1): 7-16.[5] Arnaud, A., & Schminke, M. (2012). The ethical climate and context of organizations: A comprehensive model. Organization Science, 23(6), 1767-1780.[6] Shacklock, A., Manning, M., & Hort, L. (2013). Self-efficacy as an intervening variable between ethical work climate and decision making. e-Journal of Social & Behavioural Research in Business, 4(2), 1.[7] Treviño, L. K., den Nieuwenboer, N. A., & Kish-Gephart, J. J. (2014). (Un) ethical behavior in organizations. Annual review of psychology, 65, 635-660.[8] Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral development: Essays on moral development. San Francisco: Harper and Row.[9] Victor, B., & Cullen, J. B. (1988). The organizational bases of ethical work climates. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33(1), 101–125.[10] Callahan, E. S., & Dworkin, T. M. (2000). The state of state whistleblower protection. American Business Law Journal, 38(1), 99–175.
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76 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 Received 2 Sep. 2016; Revised 26 Apr. 2017*Correspondence to: Ye Xu, female, PhD, Assistant Professor of Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management. Research Area: Sustainable Tourism Development. E-mail: yxu@must.edu.mo, Tel:00853-88972232.A Justice Framework for Understanding Hospitality Employees’ Deviant BehaviorXi LI, Ye XU *, Fang HONG, Yuwen ZENG( Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstractt: Currently, the prevalence of hotel employees’ deviant behavior in the workplace not only becomes more serious than general presumption but also becomes a harmful factor to the organizations’ growth and profitability. This study explores the effects of organizational justice (specifically, distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice) on employee deviance, analyzes why hotel employees engage in deviant behaviors, and provides solutions for hospitality organizations. Moreover, organizational commitment has been viewed as a mediating role between organizational justice and deviant behavior. A questionnaire survey research design was used to collect data, and a 375 dyad was sampled from hotel employees in Macau. A SEM analysis indicated that distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice were negatively related to deviant behavior. Organizational commitment had a partial mediating effect in the relationship. In addition, implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.eywordst: Distributive justice; Procedural justice; Interactional justice; Deviant behavior; Organizational commitment酒店業員工的偏差行為研究：公平的視角李 熙，徐 曄*，洪 芳，曾鈺文（澳門科技大學酒店與旅游管理學院，澳門）摘要： 現今在工作場所中所遭遇到酒店員工的偏差行為，不僅比一般推測的狀況更為嚴重，而且有損於企業的成長和盈利能力。本研究通過探討組織公平（具體分為分配公平、程序公平和互動公平）對酒店員工偏差行為的影響，從而找出酒店員工發生偏差行為的原因和酒店業組織對此的解決方案。同時，本研究將檢驗組織承諾在組織公平和偏差行為因果關系中的中介作用。本研究采用問卷調查的方法收集數據，有效回收375對澳門酒店員工和主管的配對問卷。結構方程模型分析結果顯示，分配公平、程序公平和互動公平對酒店員工的偏差行為有顯著的負向影響，組織承諾發揮部分中介作用。另外，本研究還闡述了結論的實踐意義和未來研究的建議。關鍵詞： 分配公平；程序公平；互動公平；偏差行為；組織承諾
77Xi LI, et al A Justice Framework for Understanding Hospitality Employees’ Deviant Behavior0 IntroductionAs a result of increasing globalization and international development, increasing organizational competitiveness is important because of the intense competition of service industry and is vital for the success of the hospitality industry (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010)[1]. This environment encourages managers to gain a competitive advantage by applying a more effective, productive and standardized organizational management strategy. A primary challenge for hotel managers is to manage human resources more effectively by creating fairer working context that will align with management strategies. Hospitality labor force especially the front-line staff should have a high perception of organizational justice to maintain such level of motivation and work effectively and efficiently. Otherwise, employees will not exhibit higher service quality, even may indicate deviant behavior. It was predicted that organizational justice would be a major influence in employer-employee relationships within the hospitality industry in the 21st century (Fulford, 2005)[2].Robinson and Bennett (1995)[3] defined deviant behavior as “voluntary behavior of organizational members that violates significant organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization and/or its members” (p. 556). The aim of this article is to feed theoretical reflexion on the use of the injustice at work as a contextual variable explaining hospitality employees’ deviant behavior. Such a research seems innovative insofar as it challenges the presumption of the primacy of the discussion of positive and proactive behavior at work. In fact, academy and practice cannot neglect deviance. For example, Robinson & Greenberg (1998)[4] mentioned that the effects of employees’ deviant behavior resulted in estimated annual costs to organizations that ranged from $4.2 to $400 billion. Generally, deviant behavior is assumed to be so harmful that organizations must determine how to prevent or reduce its negative effect (Robinson & O’Leary-Kelly, 1998)[5]. For this reason, some scholars have focused on identifying antecedents of organizational deviance (Appelbaum et al., 2007[6]; Peterson, 2002[7]). We also take an interest in thinking about what can trigger and cause deviant behavior. Through literature review, we found that several empirical studies had indicated that employees’ positive perceptions of organizational justice resulted in less organizational deviance in the workplace (Berry et al., 2007[8]; Chiu & Peng, 2008[9]). However, few studies have explored the relationship between organizational justice and employee deviant behavior in the hospitality industry. Every individual, including hospitality staff, is worried about knowing if he/she is treated fair (Morris & Leung, 2000)[10]. Due to the unique boundary-spanning nature of this industry, many frontline employees in hospitality, such as receptionists, cashers, food and beverage servers, and casino dealers, spend considerable time providing services to customers. This further indicates that employees not only may engage in deviant behaviors directed at their organization or members within that organization but that they may show deviance targeted at external guests (Jelinek & Ahearne, 2006)[11]. If hospitality organizations succeed in identifying and understanding the reasons pushing employees to develop deviant behavior, it will be able to gain lots of benefits. Moreover, the organization world and in particular the social relationships that are created based on justice values (Zribi & Souaï, 2013)[12]. These values, whether implicit or explicit, will define the rules of individual’s action. Organizational justice is a multi-dimension construct, and each dimension can be viewed as independent variable. Because of different academy research purpose and design, some scholars regard organizational justice as a whole (Demir, 2011[13]; Pablo et al., 2013[14]; Zhang et al., 2014[15]), the others differentiate the types of organizational justice into distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001[16]; Nadiri & Tanova, 2010[1]; Ali & Jan, 2012[17]). Our knowledge of the study that explains how justice influences deviance according to hospitality employees
78has not been examined respectively. Specially, we think it make sense to know which type of justice should be paid more attention in this labor-intensive industry. Distributive justice means the perceived fairness of outcomes in terms of whether rewards are proportional to efforts, expectations or by comparison with colleagues (Leventhal[18], 1976). Procedural justice describes the perceived fairness of processes used to determine outcomes in terms of whether they are consistent, unbiased, accurate, correctable, and ethical (Leventhal, 1980)[19]. Interactional justice summarizes the perceived fairness by considering whether they are treated with sincerity and respect (interpersonal justice), and whether they are provided with honest explanations during encounters with authorities (informational justice; Colquitt, 2001[20]).Despite the consensus that seems to be built around the importance of explaining the deviance in hospitality industry using the organizational injustice, the research devoted to it remains for explaining the mechanisms and processes articulating this relationship. In any organization, the attitudes of employees are of interest because those influence intentions to behave in certain ways, and in turn, influence actual behavior. The attitudes of service employees are especially critical given the high degree of personal contact with guests and the behaviors necessary in order to provide exceptional service to them (Fulford, 2005)[2]. As a extraordinarily important personal attitude, organizational commitment was deemed to be a psychological link between an employee and his or her organization (Allen & Meyer, 1996)[21]. Thus, maybe we could view it as a mediator to indicate the mechanism about the effects of organizational justice on hospitality employees’ deviant behavior. The depicted conceptual model is presented in Figure 1. Three types of organizational justice are assumed to be positively related to organizational commitment and reduce hotel employees’ deviant behavior. Interestingly, organizational justice may have an indirect negative effect on deviant behavior mediated by organizational commitment. In addition, managerial implications of the results will be discussed from the evidence of Macau hotels. Procedural justiceOrganizational commitmentDistributive justiceInteractional justiceDeviant behaviorFigure 1 Hypothesized model1 Literature review and hypotheses1.1 Organizational justice and deviant behaviorRecently, deviant behavior has become an emerging and expensive problem for organizations. Studies have sought to explore employee deviance in the workplace because it appears to produce large-scale organizational losses (Cameina & Ribeiro, 2014[22]; Christian & Ellis, 2011[23]; Gill et al., 2011[24]). Accordingly, Kaplan et al. (1986)[25] identified that employee deviance was a voluntary act of an employee who either lacked motivation to comply with the social norm or actively violated those expectations. Deviance should be defined in accordance with the standards of a specified social group such as organizational norms or formal and informal organization rules, policies, and procedures instead of a system of absolute moral standards. Scholars classified deviant behavior into four categories: property deviance (sabotaging equipment, accepting kickbacks, lying about hours worked, and stealing from company), production deviance (leaving early, taking excessive breaks, intentionally working slow, and wasting resources), political deviance (showing favoritism, gossiping about co-workers, blaming co-workers, and competing obstructively), and personal aggression (sexual harassment, verbal abuse, stealing from co-workers, and endangering co-workers).Numerous studies have regarded organizational
79Xi LI, et al A Justice Framework for Understanding Hospitality Employees’ Deviant Behaviorfairness as an important factor; the employee perception of justice affects various organizational outcomes, such as job performance (Zhang et al., 2014)[15], job satisfaction (Totawar & Nambudiri, 2014)[26], organizational trust (Caldwell, 2014)[27], organizational citizenship behavior (Gupta & Singh, 2013)[28], and turnover intentions (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010)[1]. Moreover, researchers have provided empirical evidence that perceived injustice in the workplace leads to deviant employee behaviors (Colquitt & Greenberg, 2003[29]; Demir, 2011[13]). Organizational justice refers to employee perceptions of fairness in organizations, including methods of allocating rewards and sanctions such as dismissals, training, promotions, trips, transfers, and money. Individuals who perceive that their employers have been fair, for example, receiving what they deserve (distributive justice), considering the allocation rules or process reasonable (procedural justice), and perceiving they are treated respectfully (interactional justice), are more likely to preserve the well-being of their organization and refrain from any actions or decisions that could potentially harm it. Thus, organizational leaders have a responsibility to utilize rewards and sanctions when necessary. When violations within the organization are sanctioned, others will receive a powerful signal regarding the values and norms of the organization. If leaders respond to violations of employees with neglect or indulgence, others may become disappointed with organizational justice (Appelbaum et al., 2007)[6]. However, little research has focused on organizational justice in hospitality settings, particularly in regards to frontline employees of the hotel sector. Due to the unique boundary-spanning nature of this industry, many frontline employees in hospitality, such as receptionists, cashers, food and beverage servers, and casino dealers, spend considerable time providing services to customers. This further indicates that employees not only may engage in deviant behaviors directed at their organization or members within that organization but that they may show deviance targeted at external guests (Jelinek & Ahearne, 2006)[11]. Deviant behavior may be viewed as a response to inequitable treatment in the workplace. According to the equity theory (Huseman et al., 1987)[30], hotel employees compare their ration of outcomes (e.g., pay, raises, and promotions) to inputs (e.g., skill, training, education, and efforts). When hotel employees receive similar outcomes for similar inputs as perceived by comparison with co-workers, they will assume the presence of fairness. On the contrary, when employees perceive a discrepancy between how they and their peers are treated, they assume the presence of inequity. To restore their sense of inequity, employees may engage in deviant behavior (Appelbaum et al., 2007)[6]. As a result, hospitality organizations may lose financial benefits and a competitive advantage. Based on the analysis above, we propose the following three hypotheses: ● H1a: Distributive justice is negatively related to deviant behavior. ● H1b: Procedural justice is negatively related to deviant behavior. ● H1c: Interactional justice is negatively related to deviant behavior.1.2 Organizational justice and organizational commitmentOrganizat ional just ice, as an evaluat ion process, has been the focus of studies and has been frequently researched by scholars and researchers in the realm of human resource management and industrial-organizational psychology (Fatt et al., 2010)[31]. “Organizational justice” refers to employee perceptions of workplace fairness and how these perceptions are associated with managerial behaviors (Greenberg, 1990[32]; James, 1993[33]). In extant studies, organizational justice encompasses three dimensions that consist of distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001[16]; Searle & Ball, 2004[34]). Distributive justice is related to fairness in the primary study of justice (DeConinck, 2010)[35]. This type of justice focuses on the outcomes of decisions (Searle & Ball, 2004) [34] or incentives received for achievement (Demir, 2011)[13]. On the basis of equity theory,
80distributive justice is defined as ‘‘the degree to which rewards and punishments are related to performance inputs’’ (Price & Mueller, 1986, p. 122)[36]. This definition implies that employees are concerned not only with their own gains but also with expectations and rewards received by the other colleagues. Procedural justice refers to the degree to which those influenced by allocation decisions perceive them to have been made in accordance with fair methods and guidelines (Leventhal, 1980)[19]. Employees judge the fairness of processes used to determine outcomes in terms of whether they are consistent, unbiased, accurate, correctable, and ethical (Zhang et al., 2014)[15]. Interactional justice describes the interpersonal transaction or the degree that employees perceived fairness of treatment and communication in the organization (Bies & Moag, 1986)[37]. Currently, interactional justice is regarded as a combination of two specific types of treatment. Interpersonal justice reflects the respectfulness and propriety of communications and informational justice reflects the truthfulness and adequacy of explanations (Greenberg, 1993)[38]. Moreover, interactional justice has more recently been considered to be a social aspect of procedural justice (Brockner & Wiesenfeld, 1996)[39]. Empirically, numerous studies regarding organizational justice have demonstrated that organizational justice focuses on the role of fairness in the workplace and that the perceptions of organizat ional just ice s t rongly affect the attitude of employees, such as organizational commitment and workplace behavior (Colquitt et al., 2001)[20]. Organizational commitment was defined as “the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization” (Mowday et al., 1982, p. 27)[40] and “a psychological link between an employee and his or her organization that made it less likely that the employee would voluntarily leave the organization” (Allen & Meyer, 1996, p. 252)[21]. According to Allen and Meyer (1990)[41], three dimensions of organizational commitment have been identified: affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. Demir (2011)[13] argued that “...organizational justice is highly and positively correlated with continuous commitment, normative commitment, and moderately and positively correlated with affective commitment...”(p. 216). Regardless of its various definitions and forms, organizational commitment includes three components: (1) a strong desire to remain a member of a particular organization, (2) the desire to strive for organizational goals, and (3) certain beliefs and acceptance of the value and purpose of the organization (Achmad, 2013)[42].Social exchange theory (Blau, 1964)[43] may be used to explain the relationship between organizational justice and employee commitment. When individuals perceive fairness (e.g., fair rewards, reasonable procedures, and equitable treatments) in the workplace particularly from authorities, they will be stimulated to become more loyal. In essence, perceptions and the prospect of obtaining benefits increases the degree to which employees are willing to reciprocate with acts that contribute, either directly or indirectly, to the goals of the organization (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005[44]; Lavelle et al., 2007[45]). Indeed, scholars have demonstrated that perceptions of organizational justice are positively associated with organizational commitment in different work settings. Organizational jus t ice posi t ively inf luenced organizat ional commitment of hospital nursing staff (Chen et al., 2015)[46], manufacturing employees (Cheng, 2014)[47], and software development team members (Ganesh & Gupta, 2015)[48]. Schwepker and Charles (2016)[49] demonstrated the positive effects of distributive justice on the commitment of salespersons. Ali and Jan (2012)[17] found that both distributive justice and procedural justice were positively related to the organizational commitment of medical representatives. Furthermore, studies of the hospitality industry have demonstrated that perceptions of organizational justice by hotel employees have greatly influenced their commitment (Fulford, 2005)[2]. Organizational justice is crucial and hotel managers must be sensitive to their employees’ perceptions of the decisions they make and the methods they use (Nadiri, & Tanova,
81Xi LI, et al A Justice Framework for Understanding Hospitality Employees’ Deviant Behavior2010)[1]. Batool (2013)[50] confirms that the justice perception factor may be considered as an antecedent to organizational commitment. Thus, we propose the following three hypotheses: ● H2a: Distributive justice is positively related to organizational commitment. ● H2b: Procedural justice is positively related to organizational commitment. ● H2c: Interactional justice is positively related to organizational commitment.1.3 Organizational commitment as a mediatorOrganizational commitment is an important element in analyzing employee work-related behavior. Mulki et al. (2006)[51] define organizational commitment as “an enduring attitude that explains an individual’s willingness to remain loyal to a firm” (p. 1225). This definition indicates that a psychological link between an employee and their employing organization decreases the likelihood that the employee will voluntarily leave the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1996)[21]. Therefore, benefits arise when employees are more committed to the organization. Employees may feel loyalty and passion towards their employing organization while conducting their work. In addition, commitment is considered to be an antecedent to organizational citizenship behavior and is negatively correlated with absenteeism and tardiness. Therefore, when employees are committed to their organizations, they are less likely to possess turnover intention; meanwhile, they will most likely not engage in deviant behavior. Organizational commitment is negatively correlated with both interpersonal and organizational deviant behavior (Appelbaum et al. 2007)[6]. Empirically, prior studies demonstrated that positive perceptions of justice by employees in their workplace result in less employee deviant behavior (Berry et al., 2007[8]; Ronbinson & Bennett, 1995[3]).Organizational justice refers to the perceived fairness of rewards and punishments, consistency and accuracy of procedures, and interpersonal treatment by organizational authorities. These aspects reflect a cognitive evaluation regarding the justice atmosphere of the organizations. Employees with relatively higher perceptions of fairness are likely to have more identification and involvement in coping with job demands; this may prevent them from engaging in behavior that may harm the organization, co-workers, or external guests. In contrast, employees who perceive less justice in the workplace may experience negative emotions such as anger and hostility (Rupp & Spencer, 2006)[52], which reduce loyalty and commitment and may result in the likelihood that they may sabotage property, waste resources, gossip about co-workers or supervisors, and engage in verbal abuse. In addition, empirical results of Demir (2011)[13] revealed that organizational justice significantly impacts deviant behavior, and the employee’s commitment to the organization. Thus, organizational commitment can be viewed as mediating the relationship of organizational justice and organizational deviant behavior. As aforementioned, we propose the following three hypotheses: ● H3a: Organizational commitment mediates the effects of distributive justice on deviant behavior ● H3b: Organizational commitment mediates the effects of procedural justice on deviant behavior ● H3c: Organizational commitment mediates the effects of interactional justice on deviant behavior.2 Method2.1 ProcedureWe obtained access to participating hotels through personal contacts and the managers of eight hotels in Macau. Survey questionnaires were administered during normal working hours to employees of various departments. Using the employee lists of the different departments, we randomly selected 500 subordinates and direct supervisors to participate in the study. At the beginning of the subordinate survey, we explained that the purpose of the survey was to explore the effects of organizational justice on hospitality employees’ deviant behavior and its inner mechanism.
82At the beginning of the supervisor questionnaire, we indicated that to strengthen investigative precision, data regarding employee deviant behavior were necessary for the study. Furthermore, we informed respondents that the survey was voluntary, and assured them of the confidentiality of their responses. Each employee was assigned a unique identification number that was included at the top of each survey the supervisor completed to ensure proper matching of the employee’s survey with the supervisor responses. Both supervisors and employees were informed of the day of the survey was to be offered and were instructed to be prepared to take the necessary time to complete the survey on-site on that same day. Completed questionnaires were collected by the coordinator.2.2 SampleThe data were collected in the second half of 2014 using survey questionnaires. To reduce self-report bias, deviant behavior was assessed by immediate supervisors. The questionnaire was developed in 1:1 dyads (scale for employees and scale for supervisors) to avoid the effect of Common-method Bias. Respondents were employees and their immediate supervisors who were employed by the Venetian Macao-Resort-Hotel, Wynn Resort Macau, Banyan Tree Macau, MGM Macau, The Grand Coloane Resort, Holiday Inn Macau, Rio Hotel, and the Metropark Hotel Macau. Of the 500 dyad questionnaires that were completed in the survey, 406 dyads responded, resulting in an 81.2% response rate. Only 375 of the 406 dyads that responded to the survey were retained for analysis. The cases removed from the study were incomplete and lacked a significant number of responses across multiple variables. A total of 183 (48.8%) males and 192 (51.2%) females comprised the sample with ages ranging from 20 to 52 years (M = 32.79; SD = 8.01), and years of education ranged from nine to 20 years (M = 14.00; SD = 3.50). The marital status of the sample included single (n = 271), and married (n = 104). Working hours per week ranged from 30 to 60 hours (M = 45.48; SD= 10.30).2.3 MeasuresThe questionnaires were originally constructed in English but were administered in Chinese. We used a standard translation and back-translation procedure to ensure the equivalence of the measures in the Chinese and English language versions of the questionnaire (Brislin, 1980)[53].2.3.1 Organizational justiceOrganizational justice was measured using the 20-item (three-dimensional) scale of Niehoff and Moorman (1993)[54]. The three dimensions of distributive justice, procedural justice and interactional justice were each measured and scored on a five-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree); respondents selected the degree to which each of the 20 descriptions was typical. 2.3.2 Distributive justiceDistributive justice was assessed with five items evaluating the fairness of different work outcomes utilizing Niehoff and Moorman’s (1993)[54] scale, and included work schedule, pay level, work load and job responsibilities. Examples are “My work schedule is fair” and “I think that my level of pay is fair”. The scores of each of the five items were combined into a composite score (Cronbach’s alpha=0.85).2.3.3 Procedural justiceWe measured procedural justice with six items that also utilized the scale of Niehoff and Moorman (1993)[54], which included mechanisms that insured the gathering of accurate and unbiased information, employee voice, and an appeals process. Examples are “My general manager makes sure that all employee concerns are heard before job decisions are made” and “My general manager clarifies decisions and provides additional information when requested by employees”. We averaged responses to the six items to create the procedural justice measure (Cronbach’s alpha=0.83).2.3.4 Interactional justiceInteractional Justice was measured by nine items designed to identify how employees felt their needs and explanations were considered in regards to job decisions (Niehoff & Moorman, 1993)[54]. Example items are “When decisions are made about my job, the general manager treats me with respect and
83Xi LI, et al A Justice Framework for Understanding Hospitality Employees’ Deviant Behaviordignity”, and “Concerning decisions made about my job, the general manager discusses the implications of the decisions with me”. The scores of each of the nine items were combined into a composite score (Cronbach’s alpha=0.81). 2.3.5 Organizational commitmentOrganizational commitment was measured using the nine item version of the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ, ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree) that was proposed by Bozeman and Perrewe (2001)[55]. These scholars removed turnover-related items because of six items in the full 15-item version of OCQ may be confounded with turnover intentions. In this study, we follow the nine-item scale by avoiding redundancy in the measurement. Sample items are “I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help this organization be successful” and “I find that my values and the organization’s values are very similar”. The nine-item scale was averaged for an overall score (Cronbach’s alpha=0.82).2.3.6 Deviant behaviorSupervisors rated their subordinates’ deviant behavior with a 19-item scale developed by Bennett and Robinson (2000)[56]. The scale of deviance includes a two-dimensional structure which reflects interpersonal deviance and organizationally directed deviance. Response options ranged from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly agree”; employee supervisors rated the extent to which each of the 19 descriptions were characteristic of the employee being rated. Sample items are “Made an ethnic, religious, or racial remark at work” and “Taken an additional or longer break than is acceptable at workplace”. The overall score was averaged by these items (Cronbach’s alpha=0.90).3 Results3.1 Descriptive statistics3.1.1 Employee attribute dataResults of the employee data indicate that the gender ratio was close to 1:1, with a total of 48.8% males and 51.2% females. Respondent ages ranged from 20 to 52 years, and 96.2% of respondents were young and middle-aged, ranging from 20 to 49 years. Respondent education was divided into five sections and indicated that 81.3% of respondents attended senior high school, junior college, or university. The gender, age distribution, and educational status conformed to the conditions of investigated hotels and generally met the expectations of the hospitality industry. Marital status was a relatively complex variable, specifically including single, married, divorced, and widowed. In this study, we only investigated if the respondent had a spouse. Divorced and widowed were classified as single. The results indicated that a total of 72.3% respondents were single, and 27.7% were married. There were eight categories of employee departments that included 14.7% housekeeping, 11.5% concierge, 14.9% front office cashier, 13.1% reception, 11.7% business center, 11.5% F&B, 9.8% transship service, and 12.8% hotel operator. The tenure of employees was divided into six categories; tenure ranging from one to four years (74.4%) made up the largest number of the sample. Most of the employees had only worked with their present supervisor for one year (57.6%), and others reported two years (26.9%). According to the Macau decree no.24/89/M, employees may not work more than 48 hours per week. The results of this study indicated that the majority of employees worked between 40 and 49 hours, while the total sample averaged 45.48 hours per week.3.1.2 Supervisor attribute dataA total of 44% (165) males and 56% (211) females comprised the sample with ages ranging from 25 to 50 years (Mean=38.28; SD=6.61), and 86% of the sample were aged 31 to 45 years. The education years ranged from 9 to 20 years (M=14.04; SD=3.04), and the education of the supervisor was primarily junior college (36%, n=135) and university (28.5%, n=107). The marital status of supervisors included single (26.4%) and married (73.6%). The length of time that the supervisor had worked at
84the present hotel ranged from 2 to 8 years, and the results indicated that most of the supervisors had worked at the present hotel from 5 to 7 years (58.7%). According to the results, the number of employees directly supervised by a manager ranged between five and 60 persons. The number was centered on two intervals with 11 to 20 persons and 31 to 40 persons. In accordance with the sample, the positions of supervisor included front line supervisor, middle manager, senior manager, and front line supervisor; middle manager was the primary group of the sample and comprised 87.6% of the supervisors surveyed.3.2 Correlation analysisZero-order correlations, and scale reliabilities for the variables in the study are presented in Table 1 and Table 2. All variables had acceptable reliabilities, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients higher than 0.70. As shown, distributive justice was positively correlated with organizational commitment (r=0.72, p<0.001) but negatively correlated with deviant behavior (r=-0.66, p<0.001). Procedural justice was positively related to organizational commitment (r=0.65, p<0.001) but negatively related to deviant behavior (r=-0.51, p<0.001). Interactional justice was positively correlated with organizational commitment (r=0.51, p<0.001) but negatively correlated with deviant behavior (r=-0.44, p<0.001). Furthermore, organizational commitment was negatively related to deviant behavior (r=-0.45, p<0.001).In addition, employee education was negatively correlated with organizational commitment (r=-0.12, p<0.01) and negatively correlated with deviant behavior (r=-0.15, p<0.01). Employee tenure was positively correlated with deviant behavior (r=0.12, p<0.01). Employee weekly working hours were negatively correlated with organizational commitment (r=-0.11, p<0.01) and deviant behavior (r=-0.18, p<0.001). Supervisor‘s education was negatively correlated with organizational commitment (r=-0.21, p<0.01) and deviant behavior (r=-0.16, p<0.01). Supervisor’s marital status was negatively correlated with deviant behavior (r=-0.09, p<0.05). Length of supervisor employment at present hotel was positively correlated with organizational commitment (r=0.19, p<0.01) and negatively correlated with deviant behavior (r=-0.39, p<0.001). Number of employees supervised was positively correlated with organizational commitment (r=0.31, p<0.001) and negatively correlated with deviant behavior (r=-0.26, p<0.001) Supervisor’s position was positively Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Zero-order Correlations (Employee Attribute Data)Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10EAG 32.79 8.01 ---EED 14.00 3.50 -0.04 ---EWA 15.50 8.69 0.56 -0.04 ---EWY 8.10 6.69 0.99*** -0.02 0.55*** ---EWH 45.48 10.30 -0.02 0.03 0.04 -0.02 ---DJ 2.80 0.61 0.02 -0.06 0.07 0.02 0.14** (0.85)PJ 2.69 0.62 0.05 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.16** 0.74*** (0.83)IJ 2.70 0.55 0.06 -0.07 0.10* 0.07 0.18*** 0.67*** 0.43*** (0.81)OC 3.76 0.66 0.05 -0.12** 0.09 0.08 -0.11** 0.72*** 0.65*** 0.51*** (0.82)DB 2.80 0.37 0.03 -0.15** 0.12** -0.03 -0.18*** -0.66*** -0.51*** -0.44*** -0.45*** (0.90)N=375, EAG=Employees’ age, EED=Employees’ education, EWA=Employees’ working age, EWY=Length of employees’ work with present supervisor, EWH=Employees’ weekly working hours, DJ=Distributive justice, PJ=Procedural justice, IJ=Interactional justice, OC=Organizational justice, DB=Deviant behaviorInternal consistency reliabilities are in parentheses. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001
85Xi LI, et al A Justice Framework for Understanding Hospitality Employees’ Deviant Behaviorcorrelated with organizational commitment (r=0.20, p<0.01) and negatively correlated with deviant behavior (r=-0.17, p<0.01). These eight descriptive variables were used as control variables in the regression analysis.3.3 Model fit analysisBefore testing our hypotheses, we adopted Anderson & Gerbing’s (1988)[57] comprehensive, two-step analytical strategy to test the hypothesized model depicted in Figure 1. Five variables were employed in our study: distributive justice, procedural justice, interactional justice, organizational commitment, and deviant behavior. According to this strategy, the measurement model was first confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and then we performed SEM based on the measurement model to estimate fit of the hypothesized model to obtained data. To gauge the model fit, chi-square (c2) values are reported as the index of absolute fit, which assess the magnitude of discrepancy between the sample and fitted covariance matrices (Hu & Bentler, 1999)[58]. Additionally, we also report the comparative fix index (CFI; Bentler, 1990[59]), normed fit index (NFI; Bentler & Bonnet, 1980[60]), incremental fit index (IFI; Bollen, 1989[61]) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1990[62]). These indexes indicate the extent to which a research model provides an improved overall fit relative to a null model or independence model in which the correlations among observed variables are assumed to be zero. The CFI has been considered the best approximation of the population value for a single model, with values greater than or equal to 0.90 considered indicative of good fit (Medsker et al., 1994)[63]. The NFI is the very first measure of fit proposed in the literature (Bentler & Bonnet, 1980)[60] and it is an incremental measure of fit. A value between 0.90 and 0.95 is now considered marginal, above 0.95 is good, and below 0.90 is considered to be a poor fitting model. Similarly, the IFI value that exceeds 0.90 is regarded as acceptable, although this index can exceed 1 (Bollen, 1989)[61]. The RMSEA is a measure of the average standardized residual per degree of freedom; a favorable value is less than or equal to 0.08, and values less than or equal to 0.10 are considered “fair” (Browne & Cudeck, 1989)[64].The measurement model results indicated a good fit to the data (c2 [132] =514.68, p<0.001; CFI=0.93, NFI=0.91, IFI=0.93, RMSEA=0.084). They provided evidence that further examination of the structural model was justified. Although the chi-square test was statistically significant, this statistic is well known to be sensitive to sample size and may be significant even when the differences between observed and model-implied covariances are relatively small (Kline, 1998)[65]. Thus, we report multiple indexes in assessing Table 2 Descriptive Statistics and Zero-order Correlations (Supervisor Attribute Data)Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9SAG 38.28 6.61 ---SED 14.04 3.04 0.03 ---SWY 16.84 10.40 0.50*** -0.23** ---SMP 25.87 12.87 -0.02 -0.15** 0.23*** ---DJ 2.80 0.71 -0.02 -0.07* 0.21*** 0.09 (0.85)PJ 2.72 0.55 0.01 -0.15** 0.23*** 0.11 0.74*** (0.83)IJ 2.78 0.50 0.03 -0.13* 0.34*** 0.24 0.67*** 0.43*** (0.81)OC 3.66 0.71 -0.09* -0.21** 0.19** 0.31*** 0.72*** 0.65*** 0.51*** (0.82)DB 2.82 0.35 0.06 -0.16** -0.39*** -0.26*** -0.66*** -0.51*** -0.44*** -0.45*** (0.90)N=375, SAG=Supervisor’s age, SED=Supervisor’s education, SWY=Length of supervisor’s work with present manager, SMP=Number of employees in charge by the supervisor, DJ=Distributive justice, PJ=Procedural justice, IJ=Interactional justice, OC=Organizational justice, DB=Deviant behaviorInternal consistency reliabilities are in parentheses. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001
86model fit, as generally suggested by SEM scholars (e.g., Bollen, 1989[61]). Structural modeling results suggested that the hypothesized model fit the data well (c2 [124] =405.03, p<0.001; CFI=0.95, NFI=0.93, IFI=0.95, RMSEA=0.075). Table 3 summarizes all the model fit indexes.3.4 Structural Equation Modeling AnalysisStructural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the hypothesized model. The advantage of SEM is that it offers a simultaneous test of an entire system of variables in a hypothesized model and thus enables assessment of the extent to which the model is consistent with the data (Byrne, 1994)[66].Figure 2 presents the path coefficients of the standardized regression model. Hypothesis 1 stated that distributive justice, procedural justice and interactional justice were all negatively related to deviant behavior. The testing results supported H1a (=-0.21, p<0.001), H1b (=-0.29, p<0.001)and H1c (=-0.48, p<0.001). Hypothesis 2, which said that distributive justice, procedural justice and interactional justice were all positively related to organizational commitment, was supported (H2a: =0.21, p<0.001; H2b: =0.32, p<0.001; H2c: =0.43, p<0.001). Additionally, the path coefficients in Figure 2 also supported organizational commitment as mediators (H3).DistributivejusticeProceduraljusticeInteractionaljusticeOrganizationalcommitmentDeviantbehavior-0.41***0.21***0.32***0.43***Figure 2 The Path Coefficients of the Standardized Regression ModelTo help elucidate the relationships among the various mediating variables in the hypothesized model, we conducted an effects decomposition to further understand the direct and indirect effects (Brown, 1997)[67]. Specific indirect effects represent the portion of the total effect that works through a single intervening variable (Fox, 1980)[68]. Our effects decomposition (see Table 4) yielded a coefficient () of -0.09 (p<0.001) for the indirect effect of distributive justice on deviant behavior through organizational commitment. The coefficient for the indirect effect of procedural justice on deviant behavior through organizational commitment was -0.13 (p<0.001). At last, the coefficient for the indirect effect of interactional justice on deviant behavior through organizational commitment was -0.18 (p<0.001).Table 3 Results of CFA for the Measures of Variables StudiedaModel χ2 df CFI NFI IFI RMSEAIndependence model 5631.31 190Measurement model 514.68 132 0.93 0.91 0.93 0.084Hypothesized model 405.03 124 0.95 0.93 0.95 0.075Alternative model 1: Direct path from distributive justice to deviant behavior 422.25 124 0.95 0.93 0.95 0.077Alternative model 2: Direct path from procedural justice to deviant behaviorAlternative model 3: Direct path from interactional justice to deviant behaviorAlternative model 4: Combine distributive justice and procedural justice440.29434.58453.571241241280.940.950.940.920.940.920.940.950.940.0790.0770.079Alternative model 5: Combine distributive justice and interactional justice 573.41 128 0.92 0.90 0.92 0.093Alternative model 6: Combine procedural justice and interactional justice 564.99 128 0.92 0.90 0.92 0.091Alternative model 7: Combine distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice 595.75 129 0.94 0.92 0.94 0.079Alternative model 8: Combine distributive justice, procedural justice, interactional justice, and organizational commitment 791.51 132 0.88 0.86 0.88 0.111a χ2-values for the measurement and structural models are significant at p<0.001.
87Xi LI, et al A Justice Framework for Understanding Hospitality Employees’ Deviant BehaviorTable 4 Standardized Indirect Effects of Different Forms of Organizational Justice on Deviant BehaviorDistributive justiceProcedural justiceInteractional justiceDeviant behavior -0.21 -0.29 -0.48(Through organizational commitment)-0.09 -0.13 -0.184 Conclusion and implicationsA limited number of studies in the hospitality industry examine why the antecedents are related to organizational deviance; many studies have been conducted in different industries (Demir, 2011)[13]. As supported by other empirical studies (Berry et al., 2007[8]; Chiu & Peng, 2008[9]; Robinson & Bennett, 1995)[3], this study demonstrated that hotel employee perceptions of distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice in the workplace were negatively related to deviant behavior. Furthermore, the negative effects of interactional justice were stronger on hotel employee deviance than the two other types of justice. Based on the social exchange theory and equality theory, our explanation for the relationships between organizational justice and deviant behavior implies that hotel employees are generally loyal and committed to organizations.The implication drawn from this study is that hotel managers should focus on increasing the positive influence of organizational justice. Hospitality organizations should concentrate on creating a fair work environment that prevents negative behavior by providing employees with socio-cultural supports and access to information (Ali & Jan, 2012)[17]. In a workplace with fair procedures, equitable outcome distributions, and respectful treatment of employees, employees will experience increased perceptions of justice (Aquino et al., 2004)[69]. Therefore, hotels should consider the effects that distributive, procedural, and interactional justice have on employees. In the current organizational environment, it is vital to reinforce positive behavior with rewards and control violations with sanctions. Organizational leaders have a responsibility to utilize rewards and sanctions when necessary. Unfairness and excessive scrutiny perceived by employees will result in aversion. Thus, employees are more likely to take part in aggressive behavior towards their organizations, supervisors, co-workers, and customers, particularly for frontline staff in the service sector. In addition, perceived fairness would result in more loyal and committed employees. Hotel managers must consider the extent to which their decisions and methods of making decisions influence the commitment of their staff and, in turn, impacts deviant behavior. When employees are committed to the organization, their behaviors are important in playing a key role in outcomes such as higher job satisfaction, decreased turnover intention, and subsequent decreased organizational deviance (Demir, 2011)[13]. As a result, organizational policies must emphasize how employees manage their emotions during an interaction with colleagues and managers. It is vital for hospitality organizations seeking long-term success to discourage negative deviant behavior within the workplace, and encourage positive workplace behaviors that contribute to organizational goals. Reevaluating or remodeling an organization’s norms, attitudes, and social values are necessary for the survival of organizations in the face of deviant employees (Appelbaum et. al., 2007)[6].5 Limitations and future researchAs with any study, there are limitations. First, the selection of organizations participating in the study is a limitation. The selection for this study included only five-star and four-star hotels and did not represent all of the hotels operating in Macau. This may have resulted in not including other strong characteristics of hotels in the same industry. Thus, future research may consider choosing additional classifications of hotels for research. Second, respondents’ desire to complete the questionnaire may influence the authenticity of questionnaire answers and may represent another limitation. Certain variables in the questions may not have been clearly understood by respondents. That is,
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91 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 澳門旅遊與社會經濟要素及生態環境的耦合協調發展研究劉 靜，宋 宇*（澳門科技大學商學院，澳門）摘要： 飛速成長的旅遊業在近10年中給澳門帶來諸多變化，可生態環境污染也愈發嚴重。為更準確深入的瞭解旅遊與社會經濟要素及生態環境的發展狀態並促進三者間發展達到最優，本文選擇澳門旅遊業發展較為突出的2個時間段，細化旅遊與社會經濟要素及生態環境至旅遊、經濟、生態環境、社會、交通及通訊這五方面，通過建立耦合協調模型並對現況分析得出：不論是2004年～2008年還是2009年～2015年模型耦合度都表現出上升態勢並最終達到高水平耦合，同時生態環境惡化成為向高水平耦合協調進化的最大障礙。最後，本文提出健全環境污染監測、執法體系、發展多元化的旅遊業、調整產業結構、打造智慧城市、建立健全完善的法律法規，共計五點有助於澳門旅遊、社會經濟要素和生態環境和諧發展的建議。關鍵詞： 澳門； 旅遊；經濟；生態環境； 社會；交通及通訊；耦合模型The Research on Coupling Coordination of Macao Tourism, Socioeconomic Factors and Ecological EnvironmentJing LIU, Yu SONG*( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstractt: In recent 10 years, great changes happened because of the rapid development of Macao tourism. In order to know more about the state of tourism, the development of socioeconomic factors, ecological environment and promote them to optimal position, this paper choose two Macau tourism’s glaring development period and the result is worked out by establishing the coupling coordination model and analysis the facts, which made by these five different systems: tourism, economy, environment, society, transportation and communication. No matter in 2004-2008 or 2009-2015, coupling degree is always rising and finally achieve the high levels of coupling, also the deterioration of ecological environment hinders the coordination level of coupling. At last, this article shows five Suggestions. First, make a perfect environment monitoring and executive system. Second, develop diversified tourism. Third, adjust the industrial structure. Forth, build smart cities. Fifth, perfect the laws and regulations.eywordst: Macao; Tourism; Economy; Ecological environment; Social; Transportation and communication; Coupling model 收稿日期：2017-07-08；修訂日期：2017-12-08。* 通訊作者：宋宇，男，博士，澳门科技大学商学院副教授，主要研究方向：房地产经济学。E-mail: ysong@must.edu.mo，Tel: 00853-889723500 引言2002 年“賭權開放”和 2003 年大陸港澳自由行以及 CEPA 政策實行後，澳門博彩業的興起促進了旅遊業發展，帶動了經濟快速增長，使政府財政實力大大增強。通過一系列公共政策的實施和改進，澳門城市輔助建設和社會福利保障體系
99劉靜，等 澳門旅遊與社會經濟要素及生態環境的耦合協調發展研究研究分析。結論如下：（1）通過各年度資料比較，可直觀地看出，只有當子系統均處於正向發展且良性互動時，即使系統耦合度較低，耦合協調度則呈現出更好的狀態。由此也說明了各子系統均正向發展且相互和諧發展的重要性。（2）從兩個研究時間段中，生態環境綜合評價值都呈下降態勢。據統計局數據統計，2015 年澳門已有大大小小 100 多家酒店，由於自身土地面積過小，澳門一直在填海造陸以便建設更多的酒店和住宅，但這一行為卻給環境帶來土地鹽鹼化、海水倒灌、地表沉降和破壞海洋生態等不良影響。同時，建築污染、旅遊垃圾污染、噪音污染和能源消耗等諸多問題使生態環境品質日益下降。正如李陽[41]在研究中表明：旅遊業的發展對澳門生態環境產生較大負面影響。4.2 政策建議結合上章節分析結果可知，真正的高水準耦合協調發展需要各子系統真正達到相互正向影響。針對澳門現況，本文對研究中旅遊、經濟、交通及通訊、社會發展與生態環境這五個子系統，綜合考慮環境保護和發展，分別提出如下幾點政策建議：（1）儘快完成相關檢測設施建設和標準設定，加大環境治理執法力度，健全環境污染監測、執法體系。（2）從清潔生產和迴圈經濟的角度著手，調整產業結構。（3）利用葡國文化、中醫、購物、會議展覽等旅遊資源，發展多元化的旅遊業。（4）通過建立智慧的交通系統和實現全島無線網路全覆蓋，打造智慧城市。（5）不斷完善和新制定更貼切澳門社會發展需的規章制度，建立健全完善的法律法規。通過以上建議，將一定程度使子系統在各自正向發展的同時，相互也可真正達到正向影響，使澳門進入真正的高水準耦合協調發展。4.3 未來展望針對本文的研究局限性及對本研究的進一步思考，未來相關方面的研究可從以下三方面拓展：（1）收集更多更全面的子系統數據，更精確的衡量子系統綜合評價值。（2）本論文僅研究了澳門一個地區，較為單一，未來可增加研究目標，進行對比研究。（3）通過加入、減少子系統個數或更換更加詳細目標子系統，再次進行更具體和更有針對性的研究。參 考 文 獻[1] Balaguer,J,Cantavella-Jorda,M.2002 Tourism as a long-run economic growth factor: The spanish case. Applied Economics, 34（7):877-884.[2] Cavlek, N. 2002. Tour operators and destination safety. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2):478-496.[3] DA, Gillmor. 1996. Evolving air-charter tourism patterns: Change in outbound traffic from the republic of ireland.. Tourism Management, 17(1), 9-16.[4] Hunter, C. 2002.Sustainable tourism and the touristic ecological footprint. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 4(1):7.[5] Kathrada, M., Burger, C. J. S. C., Dohnal, M.1999.Holistic tourism-crime modelling, Tourism Management, 20(1):115-122[6] Khan, H., Phang, S.,Toh, R. S.1995.The multiplier effect: Singapore's hospitality industry. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 36(1):64-69.[7] Miliman, A, Pizam, A.1988.Social impacts of tourism on central florida. Annals of Tourism Research, 15(2):191-204.[8] Oh,Chi-Ok.2005. The contribution of tourism development to economic growth in the korean economy. Tourism Management, 26(1):39-44.[9] Wall G, Wright C.1977.The environment impact of outdoor recreation [D]. University of Waterloo.[10] Warnock-Smith,D., & Morrell, P.2008.Air transport liberalisation and traffic growth in tourism-dependent economies: A case-history of some US-caribbean markets. Journal of Air Transport Management, 14(2): 82-91.[11] 王冠孝.梁留科.程金龍.等.2016.山西省旅遊經濟與第三產業、國民經濟的關係研究[J].未來與發展,40（1）:103-107. [12] 王雷震.張帆.李春光.2006.旅遊對區域經濟發展貢獻度定量測度方法及其應用[J].系統工程理論與實踐, 26（5）:54-62. [13] 朱穎 .童紀新 .2015.基於灰色關聯分析的旅遊產業研究——以江蘇省常州市為例[J] .重慶理工大學學報（自然科學版） ,29（7）:124-128. [14] 李日曼.甘永萍.吳娟.2015.廣州市旅遊經濟效益分析[J].資源開發與市場,31（5）:638-640. [15] 何光暐.1997.旅遊業,國民經濟新的增長點.中國行政管理,（6）:4-5. [16] 何瑛.2012.基於灰色關聯分析的新疆旅遊經濟影響因素研究[J].生態經濟,（1）:160-170.
103 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 隨機線性網絡編碼在分簇網絡中的數學方法鍾 奧*，鄭澤峰（澳門科技大學資訊科技學院，澳門）摘要： 網絡編碼技術是一項可以實現組播網絡中最大傳輸速率的新興技術，為了在分布式網絡中能夠運用網絡編碼，提出了隨機線性網絡編碼。該編碼方法是從有限域中隨機選擇編碼係數，並分配給節點作線性運算。隨機線性網絡編碼的成功解碼概率會隨有限域容量的增大而增加。然而，在大規模網絡中，其全局傳輸矩陣的計算非常複雜，難以在實際場景中使用。在本文中，我們提出了一種基於分簇的隨機線性網絡編碼方法。其思想是將整個組播網絡劃分成多個較小的簇，每個簇都有各自的傳輸矩陣，這些局部的傳輸矩陣可以通過一定的數學運算，獲得原有網絡的全局傳輸矩陣。由於每個簇的規模較小，計算複雜度將大大降低。關鍵詞： 隨機線性網絡編碼；簇；解碼概率﹔計算複雜度Mathematics of Random Linear Network Coding in Clustering NetworksAo ZHONG*, Chak Fong CHEANG( Faculty of Information Technology, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstractt: Network coding is an emerging technology in recent years that can achieve the maximum transmission rate in multicast networks. The random linear coding then was proposed to solve the problem in applying the network coding on a distrusted network. Its idea is to randomly select the coefficients from a finite field, and assign them to the nodes as the encoding kernels used in the linear operation. It was proved that the probability of successfully decoding the random linear coding is increased as the size of the finite field increases. However, the global transmission matrix could be too complicated to be determined if it is used in a large-scale network. In this paper, we propose an improved method in applying the random linear network coding using clustering technology. Our idea is to divide the entire multicast network into multiple smaller clusters, and each cluster has its own local transfer matrix. These local transfer matrixes can be combined into the global transfer matrix through a few steps of mathematical operations. Therefore, the computational complexity in determining the transfer matrix will be greatly reduced because the size of each cluster is much smaller than that of the entire network.eywordst: Random linear network coding; Cluster; Decoding probability; Computational complexity收稿日期：2017-11-22；修訂日期：2017-12-27。資金資助項目：大規模無線自組織網絡：性能分析及性能提高研究，澳門科技發展基金項目（096-2013-A3）。*通訊作者：鍾奧，男，澳門科技大學資訊科技學院碩士研究生，主要研究方向：網絡編碼。E-mail: zatjzj@163.com，Tel: 00853-88973328。0 引言網絡編碼的概念約在 2000 年提出，相比傳統路由存儲和轉發的傳輸方式，網絡編碼預先對網絡中的信息流按照一定的規律進行合併後發送，研究[1~2]從理論上證明了網絡編碼在多播網絡中可以達到最大流最小切定理規定的最大傳輸效率。
104然而傳統路由在多播網絡中傳輸是需要構建多播樹來解決這個問題，多播樹的建立又是一個 NP 困難問題，所以從理論上說網絡編碼在多播網絡中的最大傳輸速率要遠遠優於傳統路由。除了最大的傳輸速率外，網絡編碼在均衡負載和網絡魯棒性方面均優於傳統路由網絡。1 文獻綜述在網絡編碼模型中，節點對分別來自不同邊上的信息進行合併後再轉發給下一節點。這裡關於合併的方式主要有兩種，一種是採用線性合併，就是線性網絡編碼[3]，另一種是非線性網絡編碼[4]，例如卷積網絡編碼等。本文主要討論線性網絡編碼。1.1 線性網絡編碼及代數模型線性網絡編碼中，任意彙聚節點，把不同輸入邊的信息進行線性合併，然後再轉發給下一個節點。每一個節點把合併信息所需的係數從有限域中選取，稱為編碼核。按照編碼核的選取方式可以分為確定性線性網絡編碼[5]和隨機線性網絡編碼[6]，確定性網絡編碼的所有編碼核都是通過預先計算得到，所以計算複雜度非常大。隨機線性網絡編碼的所有編碼核則是從有限域中隨機選取。線性網絡編碼的代數模型[7]是使具有最大容量區域的線性碼構造為多個高階方程組。它的主要貢獻是把網絡的所有特徵轉化為一個轉移矩陣，同時把多播網絡模型擴展到任何拓撲結構的網絡。圖1 線性網絡編碼的代數模型假設在一個無延遲的網絡，我們定義 G（V, E）來表示此網路中的節點和邊，其中 V 是一個有限非空集合，稱為網路中頂點集合，E 是由 V 中的點組成的無序對構成的一個有限集合，稱為網路中邊的集合。其代數模型可以表述如下：對於任意邊 e 的合併公式滿足（1）（1）對於任意的信宿節點 u，滿足公式（2） （2）1.2 隨機線性網絡編碼現實中網路的拓撲多樣，針對不同的拓撲來設計不同的編碼核明顯不利於在大規模網路中應用。此外，網絡的不穩定性，如鏈路出現錯誤，就相當於拓撲發生改變，如果使用確定性線性網絡編碼，就需要重新設計編碼方案。即使是在穩定的網絡中，為某些大規模網絡設計固定的編碼核也不是一件容易的事，因為需要用大量的存儲空間和計算時間來存儲包含網絡拓撲信息的轉移矩陣和計算其逆矩陣。隨機線性網絡編碼主要創新之處在於網絡中節點不需要預先知道拓撲結構，不用預編碼，只需要將編碼係數放在包頭，隨著信息一起發送。因此不受拓撲的限制，可以應用在任意網絡中，這正是它快速發展和被廣泛研究的重要特點。隨機線性網絡編碼需要遍歷所有從信源節點到信宿節點的路徑。在信源節點處，從有限域中隨機選擇係數來對不同的輸入信息進行合併。在信息傳輸的路徑中，每通過一個節點，就從有限域中隨機為每條輸入邊分配一個係數，通過分配的係數對任意一個節點的不同輸入邊進行合併處理，然後直接傳輸到信宿節點，最終在信宿節點上可以通過 Edmond 矩陣來判定轉移矩陣是否可逆矩陣，如果是可逆矩陣，便可以在信宿節點成功解碼。1.3 隨機線性網絡編碼的問題目前，網絡編碼在大規模網絡中的應用問題主要是基於對拓撲的預處理來解決的[8~9]。它通過遍歷整個網絡拓撲中從信源節點到信宿節點不重疊的邊，來減少需要編碼的邊數，從而減少了編碼核的數量，使得有限域的容量不大（例如 256）
106點而來。然而，在信息流的角度來看，虛擬節點的引入並沒有改變整個網絡的拓撲結構。图3 引入虛擬節點的拓撲然後，我們用隨機線性網絡編碼的代數模型來分析基於串聯簇的網絡編碼。在被分為簇後，信源節點 V1 對輸入信息合併的矩陣 A 和信宿節點 V8 在解碼時對不同鏈路上信息合併的矩陣 B 都沒有改變。所以從有限域中隨機分配係數來對輸入信號和輸出信號進行合併，分別得到輸入矩陣 A 和輸出矩陣 B：但是，在不同的簇內則各產生一個鏈路間的轉移矩陣。通過遍歷整個拓撲，可得到兩個簇的轉移矩陣， 是從信源節點到虛擬節點的轉移矩陣。 是從虛擬節點到信宿節點的轉移矩陣。最後，我們希望得到的整個拓撲的轉移矩陣。所以為了方便討論，我們定義一個鏈路轉移公式。（3）其中，f 和 L 屬於 V，f 定義為一段路徑的起始節點，L 是一段路徑的終點，c 表示這一段路徑形成的切集。如果從 f 點到 L 點存在不止一條路徑的話，我們定義： （4）變數 k 代表著從 f 點到 L 點存在 k 條路徑。在原來的代數模型中，路徑轉移矩陣是從信源節點開始一直到信宿節點結束。但在分簇後，則在每個簇內都有一個局部的轉移矩陣。在引入虛擬節點後，讓我們可以在兩個串聯的簇中，用 乘以 來獲得和原有拓撲相同的路徑轉移矩陣。這樣的結果，保證了在串聯拓撲情況下轉移矩陣的正確性。2.2 三個蔟的串聯和并聯拓撲图4 串聯和并聯的拓撲圖 4 為一個具有串聯和并聯拓撲的網絡。通過對該拓撲代數模型分析，得到它的轉移矩陣 G：如果把上圖的拓撲劃分為三個蔟，如圖 5 所
110個單一容量的有限域，導致所有的信宿節點的解碼概率都會相同，我們的方法通過調整不同簇的有限域容量來對整個拓撲在不同的信宿節點上可以有不同的解碼概率。 其二，綜合計算複雜度和成功解碼概率來分析基於簇的隨機線性網絡編碼的性能，如果按簇的規模從小到大來配置有限域的容量，我們的方法可以保證在最終節點的成功解碼概率不低於原有模型的情況下，獲得更高的解碼計算效率。由此可見，基於簇的隨機線性網絡編碼的優勢就非常明顯了。因篇幅有限，關於怎麼劃分簇得到最佳的效果需要根據具體的情況討論，並不是本文重點討論的範圍。參 考 文 獻[1] R.Ahlswede,N.Cai,S.Y.Li,and R.Yeung Network information flow. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 2000, vol.46(4): 1204-1216.[2] Ford L R, Fulkerson D R. Maximal flow through a network. Canadian Journal of Mathematics, 1956, vol.8: 399-404.[3] S.Y.Li, R.Yeung.W, N.Cai. Linear network coding. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 2003, vol.49 (2): 371-381.[4] Li L X, K.Fan, D Y.Long Nonlinear network coding: a case study [C]. The IAENG International Conference on Communication Systems and Applications (IMECS 2008). 2008, 1105-1108.[5] Jaggi S, Sander P, Chou P, et al. Polynomial time algorithms of network code construction. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 2005, vol.51(6): 1973-1982.[6] Ho, R.Koetter, M.Medard M, et al. A random linear network coding approach to multicast. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 2006, vol.52 (10): 4413-4430.[7] R.Koetter, M.Medard. An algebraic approach to network coding. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2003, vol.11(5): 782-795.[8] Li, Fang. “Exact decoding probability of random linear network coding for combinatorial networks.”, Wuhan University Journal of Natural Sciences 20.5 (2015): 391-396.[9] Li F, Guo W. An efficient polynomial time algorithm for robust multicast network code construction[J]. IEEE Communications Letters, 2015, 19(2): 143-146.[10] Langberg M, Sprints on A, Bruck J. The encoding complexity of network coding[J]. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking (TON), 2006, 14(SI): 2386-2397.[11] P A Chou, YN Wu, K.Jain Practical network coding.In:Proc. of the 41st Annual Allerton Conf. on Communication Control and Computing. 2003.[12] Bao-Xing P U, Yang L M, Wang W P. A Deterministic Data Transmission Approach with Network Coding Under Unknown Network Topology[J]. Acta Electronica Sinica, 2009, 37(10): 2119-2118.[13] Shojania H, Li B, Wang X. Nuclei: GPU-Accelerated Many-Core Network Coding[C]// INFOCOM. IEEE, 2009: 459-467.[14] Connelly J, Zeger K. Linear Network Coding over Rings-Part I: Scalar Codes and Commutative Alphabets[J]. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 2017.[15] Kwon M, Park H. The Impact of Network Coding Cluster Size on Approximate Decoding Performance[J]. KSII Transactions on Internet and Information Systems (TIIS), 2016, 10(3): 1144-1158.科研進展澳科大研究項目首次獲國家自然科學基金資助 澳門科技大學於珠海市設立的珠海澳科大科技研究院成功獲科技部國家自然科學基金委員會（NSFC）2017年度研究項目基金資助，5個研究項目共獲得人民幣159萬研究經費資助。這是澳科大首次申請該基金，在14個申請項目中有5個項目獲資助，包括1個面上項目、4個青年科學基金項目。太空科學研究所的“小行星表面元素探測用伽瑪射線譜儀關鍵技術及能譜解析方法研究”獲面上項目資助。青年科學基金項目旨在支持青年科學技術人員，培養他們獨立主持科研項目、進行創新研究的能力，並激勵青年科研人員的創新思維，培育基礎研究的後繼人才。4個項目分別是：資訊科技學院的“信號的解繞Fourier展開的理論研究以及應用”、“自守L函數矩的估計問題”、“磁疇壁運動中釘紮效應的數值研究”，以及太空科學研究所的“月表靜電作用對月球塵埃外逸層的貢獻”。
111 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 Received 10 May. 2017; Revised 13 Jun. 2017*Corresponding Author: XiaoPing LU, PhD, Assistant Professor of Faculty of Information Technology. Research Area: Shape determination for asteroids. E-mail: xplu@must.edu.mo Tel: 00853- 88972837An Improved Rotational Period Fitting Method Based on Baysian Generalized Lomb-Scargle PeriodogramYan-Qiong REN, Xiao-Ping LU*, Tao LUO, Bao MEI( Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstractt: Estimating the rotational period is generally the first step in analyzing astronomical observation data. Based on Bayesian probability theory, Mortier et al. (2015) proposed a method, called Baysian generalized Lomb-Scargle periodogram (BGLS), to describe the distribution of probability and present a full sine function with the specific frequency in the data. Compared with non-Bayesian method, BGLS can better recover the frequencies. However, BGLS method is not stable for searching rotational periods, especially in the case of the unevenly observation time interval. In this article we apply the polynomial series to fit the points folded with the possible solutions by BGLS. Subsequently, a new defined merit function is also presented for estimating the derived periods and refining the best-fit result. Finally, the whole process to search the rotational period from the time series data is introduced. Furthermore, its application to the Palomar Transient Factory Survey (PTF) observation data confirms that the new method extended from BGLS can perform more stably and accurately.eywordst: Frequency; Rotation period; Polynomial fitting; Least squares method一種基於BGLS改進的週期擬合法任彥瓊，盧曉平*，駱 韜，梅 苞（澳門科技大學，澳門）摘要： 在分析天文觀測數據時，通常預測自轉週期是其重要的一步。Mortier 等人在2015年，提出一種稱為Baysian generalised Lomb-Scargle periodogram（BGLS）的方法，該方法利用貝葉斯概率理論，來描述數據中具有特定頻率的完整正弦函數的概率分佈。相對于非貝葉斯方法，BGLS可以更好地還原頻率。然而，BGLS方法在搜索自轉週期時是不穩定的，特別是在不均勻觀測時間間隔的情況下。本文中，我們首先利用BGLS來尋找可能的預期解，並用所得到的解對觀測數據點進行折疊，然後用多項式序列來擬合折疊後的點。接著，我們定義了一個價值函數，此函數用於評估預期週期和細化擬合結果直到擬合效果最佳。最後，我們介紹了從時間序列數據中搜索自轉週期的整個過程。將從BGLS拓展而來的新方法用於PTF觀測數據，所得結果證實，該方法在穩定性和準確率上均表現得更勝一籌。關鍵詞： 頻率；自轉週期；多項式擬合；最小二乘法
1120 IntroductionSearching rotational periods of celestial bodies from light curves is an indispensable step in the research of celestial bodies. For instance, it is necessary to know the rotational periods of objects before studying the shape models, albedo and the orientations of their spin axes. The Lomb-Scargle (LS) periodogram (Lomb 1976; Scargle 1982) [1~2] is a diffusely used tool which can make use of light curves to search periods and analyze frequencies of time series. As some observed data are collected from the ground-based telescopes which are affected by the atmosphere and accuracy of telescopes. There are two crucial drawbacks in LS that it does not include the weight of the data points nor consider a constant offset in the data. Some literatures [3~5] put forward available views in order to figure out these shortcomings and generalised LS periodogram (GLS) [5] is derived. In 2015, Mortier et al. [6] proposed a Bayesian formalism for the generalised Lomb-Scargle periodogram (BGLS) which combines GLS and Bayesian LS periodogram[7] to make the result intuitive and unique.Overall, it is more effective to search the rotational periods of celestial bodies using BGLS, but it is not stable during the processing. In this work, we have presented the improved BGLS method by taking advantage of the polynomial fitting and least squares method. In Section 1, BGLS method and related techniques are briefly introduced. In Section 2, we illustrate the efficient algorithm process and show the numerical experiments to examine the performance of our method. We summarize the results we have obtained and indicate directions for future research at the end of this article. 1 BGLS Periodogram and Related Technology1.1 BGLS PeriodogramIn general, Eq. (1) is used to describe the periodic signal in time series data and it is defined as (1)where is the data point taken at time , A and B are the amplitudes, represents the signal frequency, is the data offset, is the noise at subjecting to the normal distribution[8~9] ( is the standard deviation), is an arbitrary phase offset defined by Eq. (2), (2)Here is the weight and can be written as .Taking into account the given data D and prior knowledge , by marginalisation, the posterior probability of frequency can be written as Eq. (3). (3)By applying the Bayes theorem[10], the probability can be represented by: (4)As the noise follows a normal distribution with a probability density function, it can be represented by: (5)Combining Eq. (3), Eq. (4), and Eq. (5), the probability can be expressed as following (6)For a specific frequency, the probability can be expressed as (7)Here, (8) (9) (10)
113Yan-Qiong REN, et al An Improved Rotational Period Fitting Method Based on Baysian Generalized Lomb-Scargle Periodogramhere we use the same definitions as in BGLS [6]:1.2 Polynomial Fitting For statistical data, curve fitting [11~12] methods are often used to describe the relationship between different variables because of i ts smoothing characteristic. In our work, we choose polynomial fitting to fit light curves. Polynomial fitting is to identify the coefficients of the corresponding function based on the known datasets. Formally, it can be expressed as , (11)where is the degree of polynomials, is the coefficient corresponding to the jth degree, and is equal to 12 taken the empirical value. After the polynomial fitting, we define and as (12) (13)where is used to quantify the accuracy of the fitting result. Eq. (13) is a merit function[13] for estimating the derived periods and refining the best-fit result.1.3 Newton’s Method Newton’s method [14~16] (also called the Newton-Raphson method) is a method of seeking better approximations to the roots. For example, Eq. (14) is the definition of derivation formula for Eq. (13). Newton’s method can be used to solve Eq. (15). (14) (15)Suppose is the root of , and is selected as the initial approximation of . The tangent line of the curve can be easily plotted through the point and expressed as Eq. (16) (16)The abscissa of intersection, which depends on and x-axis, can be expressed as Eq. (17) and called the simple approximation of . is the intersection of the x-axis and the tangent of the curve of at . is called the quadratic approximation of . (17) (18)The process is iterated as Eq. (19), until a sufficiently accurate value is attained. The whole process as shown as Fig. 1 . (19)
114Fig. 1 Newton’s method2 Algorithm and Experiment2.1 Algorithm Algorithmt: Improved BGLSinputt: Input time points , absolute magnitudes and errors outputt: rotational period 1 Divide into ten parts from 0 to 10 hour, one hour per part2 Search periods using BGLS in every part3 Polynomial fitting and , obtain 4 Find , derive and search the time point of ( multiply the maximum by 2 for asteroids ) and denote 5 , update via (3) with taking place of 6 return corresponding to We propose an algorithm to solve Eq. (13). Algorithm takes the time points , absolute magnitudes and errors (i.e., uncertainty in apparent magnitude) as the inputs; it outputs an optimal rotational period . The details are illustrated as following. First of all, it sets ten possible ranges from 0 to 10 hours, and searches ten rough rotational periods in every part by BGLS. Then, it applies the polynomial series to fit the points folded with the possible solutions and returns . The fourth step, it calculates the value of corresponding to minimum ; after that, another critical work is to seek extreme value by Newton’s method [14~16]. At last, it utilizes Eq. (12) and Eq. (13) to refine the best-fit solution. The major steps are listed as below. 2.2 Simulated ExampleIn order to confirm the feasibility of the algorithm, we provide an example of simulated data sets that shows the difference between BGLS and our method.Here, we randomly generated 200 data points in three hours and the errors are no more than 0.01. Besides, let the rotational period be 0.5 hours. Hence, the simulated lightcurves is shown as Fig. 2. Applying both BGLS method and improved BGLS method to the simulated lightcurves, the result obtained by previous method is 0.170129 hours, however, the result searched by latter method is 0.499964 hours. The results are shown below.Fig. 2 Simulated lightcurves Fig. 3 Rotatioal periods searched by BGLS for simulated lightcurves.
115Yan-Qiong REN, et al An Improved Rotational Period Fitting Method Based on Baysian Generalized Lomb-Scargle PeriodogramFig. 4 Rotatioal periods searched by improved BGLS for simulated lightcurves.2.3 Application for Asteroid 57303We apply our algorithm to the lightcurves observations of asteroid 57303 from the Palomar Transient Factory Survey. Fig. 5 shows the light curve of asteroid 57303, from which we can find that the observation points are unevenly spaced.Fig.5 Lightcurves of asteroid 57303 observed in different time periodsAfter searching periods using BGLS for ten parts, we show the all folded lightcurves in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. Intuitively, it can be seen that most of folded lightcurves are irregular, only one shows obvious period; the results are different for different intervals. Therefore, we think BGLS is not stable. In the first line of Fig. 6, the left figure shows the expected result of 0 to 1 hours, the second figure shows the expected result of 1 to 2 hours and so on, each of the subsequent figures shows an expected result. In the Fig. 7, the orders of the figures are same as Fig. 6. Their clear figures are shown in Fig. 8.Fig. 6 Rotatioal periods searched by BGLS for asteroid 57303. From the upper-left to the lower-right panels are points folded with searched periods separated in 0-1 hours, 1-2 hours, 2-3 hours, 3-4 hours and 4-5 hours. The x-axis is time and the y-axis is brightness.Fig. 7 Rotational periods searched by BGLS for asteroid 57303. From the upper-left to the lower-right panels are points folded with searched periods separated in 5-6 hours, 6-7 hours, 7-8 hours, 8-9 hours and 9-10 hours. The x-axis is time and the y-axis is brightness.As mentioned in the algorithm, we perform polynomial fitting on the folded lightcurves and calculate the value of . When the search range is from 0 to 1 hours, the possible period is 0.6209 hours; search range is from 1 to 2 hours, the possible period is 1.7718 hours. All possible periods and related are listed in Table 1, from which we found that is the smallest when searched result is about 1.5853 hours corresponding to the middle of the low panel
116Fig. 8 Ten figures correspond to ten subfigures in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7
117Yan-Qiong REN, et al An Improved Rotational Period Fitting Method Based on Baysian Generalized Lomb-Scargle Periodogramin the Fig. 6. Both LS and BGLS describe periodic signal in time series data by full sine function, so it is considered to be the correct result when the searched result contains a complete sinusoidal period. For comets or other stars, this result may be close to the correct period. But asteroids are not the case. It is now recognized that the shape model of asteroids is Cellinoid [17~18] which is indicated as Fig.9. Due to the special shape of the Cellinoid model, the rotation periods of asteroids should contain two complete sinusoidal periods. In other words, there are two maximum values or two minimum values in a period of asteroids. Therefore, we are required to proceed with further processing on the result obtained by BGLS.We use the Newton [19~20] method to achieve the fourth step of the algorithm. The relationship between periods and is shown as Fig. 10, and the result is shown as Fig. 11. The predict period of asteroid 57303 equals to 3.170566 hours. After refining the predict result by Eq.(13) and step 5 in the algorithm, the best period equals to 3.543409 hours and this result is more accurate. We make a comparison among LCDB method [21], Fourier series [22~23]method, BGLS method and our method, the results are listed in table 2. The experimental results indicate that our improved method is more effective than the other three. In order to intuitively display the results, the lightcurves fitting folding the data with the best rotation period is shown as Fig. 11. Fig. 9 Cellinoid shape modelFig. 10 The relationship of periods and χ2Fig. 11 The best period folded lightcurves of asteroid 57303, the blue points are original data and the red points are fitting points.Table 1 Possible periods and corresponding χ2 by BGLSRange/hours Period0-1 0.6209 724.771-2 1.7718 85.3562-3 2.0783 491.573-4 3.4709 670.224-5 4.0586 686.825-6 5.9089 699.896-7 6.1432 654.637-8 7.1248 565.638-9 8.3500 578.169-10 9.8058 608.37Table 2 Periods and corresponding χ2 searched by four kinds of methodsLCDB Fourier BGLS Improved BGLSPeriods 3.5405 3.5398 1.7699 3.5434106.117 119.600 138.050 63.502
1183 ConclusionsA new method extended from BGLS is introduced in this article. This method utilizes the polynomial series to fit the points folded with the possible solutions by BGLS and defines a merit function for estimating the derived periods and refining the best-fit result. After stating the whole process to search the rotational period from the time series data, this method is applied to PTF observation data and confirmed its performance is more stable and accurate than BGLS. In the future, we will concentrate on the “spin barrier” of asteroids by our method. Besides, we plan to apply it to search rotational periods of comets and stars.AcknowledgementsThis work is funded under the Grant no.095/2013/A3 from the Science and Technology Development Fund, MSAR.References [1] Lomb, N. R., Least-squares frequency analysis of unequally spaced data, Astrophysics and Space Science, vol. 39, 1976, 447-462.[2] Scargle, J. D., Studies in astronomical time series analysis. II. Statistical aspects of spectral analysis of unevenly spaced data, Astrophysical Journal, 263, 1982, 835-853.[3] Ferraz-Mello S. Estimation of periods from unequally spaced observations. The Astronomical Journal, 86,1981, 619-624.[4] Cumming A, Marcy G W, Butler R P. The Lick planet search: detectability and mass thresholds. The Astrophysical Journal, 526, 1999, 890-915.[5] Zechmeister M, Kürster M. The generalised Lomb-Scargle periodogram-a new formalism for the floating-mean and Keplerian periodograms. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 496, 2009, 577-584.[6] Mortier A, Faria J P, Correia C M, et al. BGLS: A Bayesian formalism for the generalized Lomb-Scargle periodogram. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 573, 2015, A101.[7] Fry R L. Bayesian Inference and maximum entropy methods in science and engineering//Bayesian Inference and Maximum Entropy Methods in Science and Engineering. 617, 2002.[8] J. L. Folks and R. S. Chhikara, The inverse Gaussian distribution and its statistical application--A review, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 40, 1978, 263-289[9] Forbes, C., Evans, M., Hastings, N. and Peacock, B. Normal (Gaussian) distribution, in Statistical Distributions, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA. ,2010[10] Bayes T, Price R, Canton J. An essay towards solving a problem in the doctrine of chances[M]. C. Davis, Printer to the Royal Society of London, 53, 1763, 370-418.[11] Arlinghaus S. Practical handbook of curve fitting[M]. CRC press, 1994. [12] Kolb W M. Curve Fitting for Programmable Calculators’ Syntec Inc. Bowie, USA, 1984.[13] Serebriakov A, Bociort F, Braat J. Finding new local minima by switching merit functions in optical system optimization. Optical Engineering, 44, 2005, 100501-100501-3.[14] Marquardt D W. An algorithm for least-squares estimation of nonlinear parameters[J]. Journal of the society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 11, 1963, 431-441.[15] Broyden C G. A class of methods for solving nonlinear simultaneous equations. Mathematics of computation, 19, 1965, 577-593.[16] Kelley C T. Solving nonlinear equations with Newton’s method. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2003.[17] Cellino A, Hestroffer D, Tanga P, et al. Genetic inversion of sparse disk-integrated photometric data of asteroids: application to Hipparcos data. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 506, 2009, 935-954.[18] Lu X, Zhao H, You Z. Cellinoid shape model for asteroids. Earth, Moon, and Planets, 112, 2014, 73-87.[19] Marquardt D W. An algorithm for least-squares estimation of nonlinear parameters. Journal of the society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 11, 1963, 431-441.[20] Kelley C T. Solving nonlinear equations with Newton’s method[M]. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2003.[21] Warner, B. D., Harris, A. W., Pravec, P. The asteroid lightcurve database, Icarus, 202, 2009, 134-146.[22] Chang C K, Ip W H, Lin H W, et al. 313 new asteroid rotation periods from Palomar Transient Factory observations. The Astrophysical Journal, 788, 2014.[23] Waszczak A, Chang C K, Ofek E O, et al. Asteroid light curves from the Palomar Transient Factory Survey: Rotation Periods and Phase Functions from Sparse Photometry. The Astronomical Journal, 150,2015.科研進展“天機1號”機械人澳科大學生宿舍值勤 由澳門科技大學科研團隊研發的澳門機械人“天機1號”，首批在校內學生宿舍使用，正式執行考勤工作。“天機1號”機械人造型具科技感，融合逆向二次身份識別、人臉識別以及語音對話功能。“天機1號”投入使用後，能提高宿舍管理效能，並為宿生提供更高的安全保障。
119 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 論異性偵查劉黎明*，雷 宇（四川警察學院偵查系，瀘州）摘要： 隱匿身份開展偵查活動，人類早已有之，我國於2012年將其寫入了刑事訴訟法。異性偵查是隱匿身份偵查中的一種特殊形式，因其具有取證的高效性而被世界各國廣泛地運用。由於異性偵查涉及具有典型欺騙性的性誘惑手段，必須經過嚴格的道德審查才能謹慎運用，以使這種高效而充斥著道德淪喪的特殊偵查措施既要合乎人類倫理道德容許度，又能更好地服務於控制犯罪之需要，使法治行為具有正當性。關鍵詞： 異性偵查；美人計；高效性；性道德；道德審查On the Heterosexual InvestigationLiMing LIU*, Yu LEI ( Criminal Investigate Department,Sichuan Police College , Luzhou, China )Abstractt: Concealing one’s identity to carry out investigation activities is common to human. China had concluded it into the Law of Criminal Procedure in 2012. Heterosexual investigation is a special form used in aforesaid investigation for its high efficiency in evidence collection, and is widely used around the world. Since cheating means such as sexual temptation are inevitably involved, the investigation must undergo strict ethical review before it was used prudently, making this efficient yet anomic measure tolerable to ethics while serving the needs of crime control. Only in this way can such behavior becomes legitimate.eywordst: Heterosexual Investigation; Honey Trap; High Efficiency; Sexual Morality; Ethical Review收稿日期：2016-06-27；修訂日期：2017-01-09。* 通訊作者：劉黎明，男，四川警察學院偵查系教授及澳門科技大學訪問教授，專業技術二級警監，主要研究方向：刑事訴訟法學、偵查學。Email：13549165@qq.com ，Tel：086-08303113556。0 引言2012 年 3 月 14 日中華人民共和國第十一屆全國人民代表大會第五次會議通過了《關於修改〈中華人民共和國刑事訴訟法〉的決定》，新修正的《中華人民共和國刑事訴訟法》於 2013 年 1月 1 日正式實施（本文簡稱《修正案》）。《修正案》第一百五十一條第一款明確規定：為了查明案情，在必要的時候，經公安機關負責人決定，可以由有關人員隱匿其身份實施偵查。隱匿身份偵查是在隱匿偵查目的情況下進行的秘密偵查活動。有學者認為，這種以人力為載體的、以欺騙為主要表現特徵的各種秘密偵查方法，包括線人偵查、臥底偵查、誘惑偵查等。[1]筆者認為，隱匿身份偵查包含著一種特殊偵查形式——異性偵查，它具有濃郁的誘惑偵查屬性，是指利用異性之間“性的吸引”進行的偵查，俗稱“美人計”。[2]（筆者是基於“同性相斥，異性相吸”的潛在邏輯，排除“同性戀”這一本身煩雜的倫理問題而討論異性偵查。）“性的吸引”可以使偵查對象
127 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 《澳門民法典》名譽權條款修正之檢討林位強*（澳門科技大學法學院，澳門）摘要： 1966年制定延伸適用於澳門的《葡萄牙民法典》曾規定，散佈能對自然人及法人的信用或名聲造成損害的事實，應對所產生的損害負責。但移植自該法典的《澳門民法典》僅規定自然人的名譽權受保護，而沒有法人的相關條款。本文針對這一重大修正之原因及意義，通過對名譽權條款修正時學術背景的探討，以及對澳門現行民法體系的結構分析，再與大陸法系國家的立法例作比較，最後考察澳門民法的歷史淵源，認為《澳門民法典》不設法人名譽權保護的條款，立法者既有現實之考量，亦有法律上之原因。關鍵詞： 名譽權；非財產損害；精神損害；自然人；法人；損害賠償The Legal Person's Reputation Rights Protection under the Macau Civil Law SystemWeiqiang LIN*( Faculty of Law, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )Abstractt: , which was established in 1966 and extended in Macau, has formulated, any person, who caused the loss of credit and reputation of the natural person and the legal person, shall be responsible for the damages. However, , which is transplanted from this code, only stipulates the protection of natural person’ s reputation right, and doesn’t have any relevant provisions of the protection of legal person. What is the reason? Based on the theoretic exploration of non-property damage compensation for legal person and the structural analysis of the current civil law system of Macau, then compared with the legislation of the countries of the continental law system, investigated the historical origin of Macau civil law, the paper considers that there are not only realistic considerations, but also legal reasons for not set the legislation of the protection of legal person’s reputation right in .eywordst: The right of reputation ;Non-property damage ; Spiritual damage; Natural person ; Legal person; Compensation for damages收稿日期：2016-08-19；修訂日期：2016-11-23。* 通訊作者：林位強，男，博士，澳門科技大學法學院助理教授，主要研究方向：侵權法、醫事法、公司法、親屬法與繼承法。E-mail:wqlin@must.edu.mo,Tel:00853-889723120 前言澳門大學范劍虹教授在《德國法研究導論》中稱：“澳門各大法典從內容與立法技術均是對葡國法典的繼受。雖然可稱它為澳門法典，但是它的內容與立法的概念與體系技術的淵源（至少在民法典方面）在葡國，尤其是在德國、法國等國，最終可追溯到被德國法全盤接受的羅馬法中。因而在研究法典內容的繼受上離不開以上的淵源，離不開對研究這些淵源極為重要的原文與翻譯資料。”[1]
132（4）確認生父之訴有理由（第 318 條）。第三，瑞士債務法還規定致人死亡或傷害，法院得斟酌情事許給受害人和死者家屬相當金額之賠償。同時瑞士法院認為對幹擾他人婚姻造成損害者亦可請求賠償金。綜上，瑞士民法典對人格權的保護，尤其是對精神損害賠償制度的立法都較完備與典型。其體現在精神損害賠償不僅嚴格限制在自然人，而且在立法技術上有所創新，提出了一些新的法律概念，如称精神損害賠償金為撫慰金等，這都是沒有先例的。同時，瑞士民法还拓寬了非財產損害賠償的適用範圍。如前述許給受害人和死者家屬相當金額之賠償以及在實務上對干擾他人婚姻造成損害者亦可請求賠償金等。这些都是沒有先例的。把非財產損害上的金錢賠償嚴格限定在自然人方面，將它與人身權的特別保護直接聯繫在一起。這是大陸法系絕大多數國家和地區關於非財產損害賠償制度的主要特點。澳門地區民法屬於大陸法系。因而，其有關非財產損害賠償的主體範圍似不可能有異數。2.3 從法源上論證《澳門民法典》是調整澳門地區一定的財產關係和人身非財產關係的法律規範的總和。由於歷史的原因，澳門地區民法就其整體而言，基本上是葡萄牙民法在澳門地區的延伸適用。它是以1966 年制定的《葡萄牙民法典》為基本法律淵源和制度基礎，澳門本地區立法機關的民事立法為補充的。而延伸適用於澳門地區的 1966 年制定的《葡萄牙民法典》在立法精神上主要受《法國民法典》、《瑞士民法典》的影響。由於該法典是目前歐洲大陸國家中最新頒佈的民法典，同時也吸取了歐洲大陸法國、瑞士等國家民法典的許多長處，體現了對人和人格權的重視。這都直接影響到現行《澳門民法典》，使之在人格權一節中規定了對人格權的一般保護 ；人格權之自願保護；具體人格權的保護。其具體人格權包括生命權、自由權、名譽權、隱私權、身心完整權、私人書函資料秘密保密權、肖像權、言論權、姓名權、身份權、死人的人格權等。其對人格權的保護面相當廣泛。且在第 489 條中對非財產損害賠償作了具體而明確的規定。葡萄牙民法學者 Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto 在論葡國民法時寫道：“葡萄牙民法規定在確定損害賠償時 , 考慮到因損害之嚴重程度而產生之非財產損害 , 該等損害必須受法律保護 ( 第 496 條第 1 款 )。造成非財產損害 , 傳統上稱為‘精神損害’的原因是受害人遭受非財產性質的傷害 ( 如受害人的身體完整性、健康、安寧、身心幸福、自由、名譽、聲譽受損 ) 。因權利（主要是人格權）受損而造成身心痛苦、失去社會尊重、心理障礙或錯亂或侮辱時，視為遭受非財產損害。由於非財產損害不能用金錢衡量 , 因此給予一筆相應金額的理由 , 並非基於賠償或恢復 , 而是基於補償。”[24] Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto 在這裡非常明確地揭示了葡萄牙民法中的非財產損害概念。它就是傳統上所稱的“精神損害”。它的主體是自然人，客體主要是侵害人格權的行為；它的賠償形式是金錢補償。其觀點與上述王澤鑒先生的觀點相同。Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto 又寫道：“導致非財產損害的受害利益是不能以他物代替的，亦不能以等值金錢恢復。但是，在一定程度上可以籍金錢所產生的滿足來平衡損害，補償損害。這裡不是指給受害人一個“痛苦的代價”或者一個“鮮血的代價”，而是給受害人一種滿足，一種能籍著金錢而促使很多利益實現的滿足，其中亦包括精神利益在內。”[25] Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto，在這裡進一步揭示了非財產損害賠償的性質與功能，即不是給受害人“痛苦的代價”，而是給受害人一種滿足，一種能籍著金錢而促使很多利益實現的滿足，其中亦包括精神利益在內。這就是王澤鑒先生所說的“旨在填補被害人所受之損害及慰撫其痛苦”。[26]現行《澳門民法典》 第 489 條（非財產之損害）第 1 款規定：“在定出損害賠償時，應考慮非財產之損害，只要基於其嚴重性而應受法律保
133林位強 《澳門民法典》名譽權條款修正之檢討護者。”移植自《葡萄牙民法典》第 496 條第 1 款。其“非財產損害”，即上述 Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto 所說的學理上所稱的“精神損害”（如受害人的身體完整性、健康安寧、身心幸福、自由、名譽、聲譽受損等）。因權利（主要是人格權）受損而造成身心痛苦、失去社會尊重、心理障礙或錯亂或侮辱等精神上的損害，其當然指的是自然人。由於《葡萄牙民法典》是《澳門民法典》的直接淵源，因此，《澳門民法典》與上述大陸法系國家，特別是德國在法律淵源上有著一脈相承的聯繫。其結構編排也借鑒了上述國家的長處；其法律體系與立法旨意也均源自於上述國家。既然上述國家的非財產損害賠償的主體範圍僅限於自然人。那麼，現行《澳門民法典》中的非財產損害賠償的主體範圍亦如是。這是顯而易見的。至此，在澳门地區现行民法上法人不能请求非财产损害赔偿，似不再有疑义。3 結論1966 年制定延伸適用於澳門地區的《葡萄牙民法典》曾規定，“對於包括自然人和法人在內的任何人的信用和名聲造成損害的，應對所產生的損害負責。”但移植自該法典的現行《澳門民法典》僅規定自然人的名譽權受保護，而沒有了法人的相關條款。產生這種變化的原因，筆者推測有三種可能：一是為了順應當前法律思潮以突出自然人的人權價值；二是為了消除實務界法律適用上的疑義；三是為了順應世界上大多數國家有關非財產損害賠償的立法趨勢，對法人不得請求非財產損害上的撫慰金賠償，民法典中多不設規定。本文首先從以下兩方面展開探討：一是《澳門民法典》名譽權條款修正受當時學術論爭背景的影響。法人是否存在精神上的損害？可否請求精神上的損害賠償？當時法學界兩種對立的觀點僵持不下。且，持肯定說的攻勢甚為淩厲。為了實定法的穩定，不至於朝令夕改。在條件未成熟的情況下，法人名譽權受到損害是否可以請求非財產損害賠償不宜匆促作出規定。如果是這樣，筆者認為立法者的考慮是明智而周全的。二是論證了名譽權條款修正後，《澳門民法典》第 489 條的適用範圍。首先從民法解釋學上分析，可以看出現行《澳門民法典》第 489 條中的（非財產之損害）指的就是一般觀念上所稱的“精神損害”。該條所規定的非財產損害賠償，其主體範圍嚴格限於自然人，而把法人與不具有法人資格的其他組織排除。其次，從比較法上考察，大陸法系國家和地區大都把非財產損害上的撫慰金賠償嚴格限定在自然人方面。澳門地區民法屬於大陸法系，因此其非財產損害賠償的主體範圍似不可能有例外。最後從法源上論證。由於葡萄牙民法是澳門地區民法的直接淵源。1966 年延伸適用澳門地區的《葡萄牙民法典》在立法技術上主要受《德國民法典》的影響；在立法精神上則受《法國民法典》、《瑞士民法典》的影響。這都間接影響《澳門民法典》的價值取向。《澳門民法典》將非財產損害賠償嚴格限定於自然人，似與此有一脈相承的聯繫。 綜上，筆者認為現行《澳門民法典》不設法人名譽權保護的條款，立法者既有現實之考量，亦有法律上之原因。參 考 文 獻[1] 范劍虹，李翀. 德國法研究導論. 中國法制出版社，2013：42.[2] 1966年延伸適用於澳門的《葡萄牙民法典》原文如下：Artigo 484º（Ofensa do creditoou do bomnome）Quemafirfmaroudifundir um facto capaz de prejudicar O creditoou O bomnome de qualquerpessoa,singular oucolectiva,respondepelosdanoscausados. [3] 《澳門民法典》第73條（名譽權）規定：“一、任何人均有權受保護，以免被他人以指出某種事實或作出某種判斷，使其名譽、別人對其之觀感、名聲、聲譽、個人信用及體面受侵犯。……四、名譽權不得放棄或轉讓，對名譽權之自願限制不得涉及權利人本身之人性尊嚴、職業尊嚴或經濟尊嚴。”本條文放在第一章（自然人）第二節（人格權）中，而在第二章（法人）中則無相關條文。[4] 澳門民法典·序. 北京：中國政法大學出版社，1999.1.[5] 楊立新(編). 疑難民事案件糾紛司法對策. 吉林：吉林人民出版社，1998：55[6] 同上.
134[7] 關今華. 法人人格權及其損害賠償. 法學研究，1991.6.[8] 曾世雄. 損害賠償法原理. 北京：中國政法大學出版社，2001：335-337.[9] 日本民集第18卷第1號，第136頁。轉引自龔賽紅.醫療損害賠償立法研究. 北京：法律出版社，2001：151.[10] 日本有學者認為，將精神損害解釋為感情上的痛苦的確過於狹窄，不利於法人的非財產損害賠償，但是，“無形損害”的提法也未必妥當，因為無形損害的範圍也很廣，其中有些部分按傳統的兩分法，實際上被包含在財產的損害中，只是由於其舉證比較困難而常常得不到賠償。參見：龔賽紅.醫療損害賠償立法研究.北京：法律出版社. 2001.151.[11] Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto.民法總論.林炳輝等譯.澳門：澳門法律翻譯辦公室、澳門大學法學院，1999：172.[12] 權民.論我國精神損害賠償制度的缺陷及完善. 人民司法，2000:7.[13] 王澤鑒.民法學說與判例研究(2).北京：中國政法大學出版社，1998：242-243.[14] 王澤鑒.民法學說與判例研究(2).北京：中國政法大學出版社，1998：282.[15] 梁慧星. 民法解釋學. 北京：中國政法大學出版社，2000:253.[16] 梁慧星. 民法解釋學. 北京：中國政法大學出版社，2000:256.[17] 王澤鑒. 民法學說與判例研究(2). 北京：中國政法大學出版社，1998：244.[18] 梁慧星. 民法解釋學. 北京：中國政法大學出版社，2000：213.[19] Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto.《民法總論》. 林炳輝等譯.澳門：澳門翻譯公司、澳門法律翻譯辦公室，澳門大學法學院，1999：41.[20] 權民. 論我國精神損害賠償制度的缺陷及完善. 人民司法，2000.[21] 唐德華(編).最高人民法院《關於確定民事侵權精神損害賠償責任若干問題的解釋》的理解與適用.北京：人民法院出版社，2001：22.[22] 王澤鑒 .民法學說與判例研究(2).北京：中國政法大學出版，1998：242.[23] 德國民法典. 杜景林等譯. 北京：中國政法大學出版社，1999：58.[24] Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto.民法總論. 林炳輝等譯. 澳門：澳門法律翻譯辦公室、澳門大學法學院. 1999：56.[25] Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto.民法總論. 林炳輝等譯.澳門：澳門法律翻譯辦公室、澳門大學法學院. 1999：57.[26] 王澤鑒.民法學說與判例研究(2). 北京：中國政法大學出版社，1998：244.科研進展國際標準化組織中醫藥技術委員會 第一工作組第十次會議在澳科大舉行 國際標準化組織中醫藥技術委員會第一工作組（ISO/TC249/WG1）於11月27日在澳門科技大學召開第十次會議。來自中國、澳大利亞、日本、韓國、中國香港及中國澳門共六個國家和地區的近30位中醫藥及國際標準專家出席了本次會議。國際標準化組織（International Organization for Standardization，ISO）是制定全世界工商業國際標準的國際機構，現有163個成員國，中醫藥ISO國際標準的制定和頒佈將會大力促進中藥材及其製成品的國際貿易。參會專家依次對天麻藥材標準、當歸藥材標準和黃芪藥材標準等多個項目的工作草案進行了詳細的介紹和說明，與會人士對草案的技術內容進行了深入的討論，並給出了修改意見。本次會議由兩岸四地中醫藥科技合作中心主辦，中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室（澳門科技大學）、澳門科技大學中醫藥學院承辦，獲澳門基金會資助。ISO於2009年正式設立中醫藥技術委員會（TC249），下設五個工作組分別負責制定中藥原材料質量與安全、成藥製作、針灸及用具、名詞術語及醫療服務等領域的國際標準，對中醫藥的標準化和國際化具有重大意義。本次召開會議的WG1負責中藥原材料和傳統炮製工藝相關的質量與安全標準制定工作，澳門科技大學為WG1的秘書處單位。經TC249制定並已經發布的ISO標準至今已有22項，其中包括來自WG1的人參種子種苗標準，這也是全世界首個中藥材國際標準。WG1已經成功推動六項ISO標準發布，也獲國家中醫藥管理局列為“十二五”期間中醫藥海外發展所取得的重大成就之一。WG1目前有在研項目13項，爲TC249最活躍、也是產出最高的工作組之一。澳門科技大學於2013年正式成立了澳門中藥國際標準研究中心，並獲國家中醫藥管理局中醫藥標準化辦公室認定爲TC249/WG1技術依托單位。
135 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 澳門居民出生時接種乙型肝炎疫苗的有效度研究趙幸怡1*，鄭彥銘2，鄭卓權1，崔紹漢3，林偉基1，4* （1. 澳門科大醫院臨床化驗診斷中心，澳門；2. 澳門科大醫院內科及血液科，澳門） （3. 澳門藥物及健康應用研究院，澳門；4. 澳門科技大學健康科學學院，澳門）摘要： 背景及目的：乙型肝炎是一個嚴重的全球公共衛生問題，大概有百分之五至十的成年人和百分之七十至九十的嬰兒受感染後，未能完全清除病毒而成為長期帶病毒者，患者死於肝硬化和肝癌的風險很高。澳門衛生局自1989年已開始引入乙型肝炎疫苗為新生兒提供免費接種。本研究透過篩查乙型肝炎疫苗接種人群（接種組）的血清乙型肝炎表面抗原（HBsAg）的帶原率，評估乙型肝炎疫苗對預防及減低乙型肝炎的有效度。透過研究反映社區人群組（社區組）的乙型肝炎的帶原率，從而發現較高風險的族群。 方法：研究對象是選取澳門某醫院2014年1月至2015年12月間，有進行血清乙型肝炎表面抗原測試的門診體檢人群，分為接種組及社區組，從測試結果評估出生時接種乙型肝炎疫苗的有效度，比較接種組與社區組、不同性別及不同年齡層的陽性率，是否可大大減低乙型肝炎帶原率及衞生當局未來的醫療負擔。 結果：研究對象合3666人，年齡由17至93歲，男性佔44.4%，女性佔55.6%。接種組（共758人）的乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原陽性率為1.1%，顯著低於社區組（2908人）的陽性率（5.8%，卡方檢定 P < 0.001）。接種組的男性與女性的抗原陽性率沒有顯著差異，社區組的男性的陽性率高於女性（P < 0.05）。 討論：本次研究的結果顯示，衞生局為新生兒免費接種乙型肝炎疫苗的政策執行有效，在接種群體達到有效減低乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原的陽性率及乙型肝炎的感染率，大大減低衞生當局未來因乙型肝炎併發症所帶來的醫療費用及負擔。本研究結果可以作為衞生當局訂定衞生政策及健康促進策略上的考量，亦可在未來分配醫療資源及訂定醫療預算上的參考。關鍵詞： 乙型肝炎；乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原；乙型肝炎疫苗接種A Study of the Efficacy of At-Birth Hepatitis B Vaccination in Macau ResidentsHang I CHIO1*, Gregory CHENG2, Cheuk Kuen CHENG1, Shiu Hon CHUI3, Christopher Wai Kei LAM1,4*(1. Clinical Laboratory Diagnostic Centre, University Hospital, Macau,China)(2. Departments of Internal Medicine and Hematology, University Hospital, Macau,China)(3. Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau,China)(4. Faculty of Health Sciences, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China) Abstractt: Background and Objectivet: Hepatitis B is a serious global public health problem. About 5-10 % infected adults and 70-90 % infected infants become long-term carriers. Hepatitis B infected patients sustain a very high risk of 收稿日期：2017-03-22；修訂日期：2017-05-24。* 通訊作者：趙幸怡，澳門科技大學健康科學學院碩士畢業生，澳門科大醫院臨床化驗診斷中心助理經理，主要研究方向：公共衛生學及檢驗醫學。 E-mail：hichio@must.edu.mo， Tel：00853-88972758。林偉基，澳門科技大學健康科學學院講座教授，科大醫院病理科及臨床化驗診斷中心總監，主要研究方向：公共衛生學及檢驗醫學。E-mail：wklam@must.edu.mo，Tel：00853-88972636。
1360 乙型肝炎及乙型肝炎疫苗的全球及澳門狀況乙 型 肝 炎 是 由 乙 型 肝 炎 病 毒（hepatitis B Virus，HBV）造成的可能威脅生命的肝臟感染。是一個嚴重的全球公共衛生問題。大概有百分之五至十的成年人和百分之七十至九十的嬰兒受感染後成為長期帶病毒者，患者死於肝硬化和肝癌的風險很高[1]。據 2015 年世界衞生組織實況報導的估計，全球有 2.4 億人慢性感染乙型肝炎，每年有超過 78 萬人死於乙型肝炎併發症，包括肝硬化和肝癌，佔慢性肝炎患者死因的百分之十五至二十[1]。自 1982 年乙型肝炎疫苗問世以來，乙型肝炎可通過接種現有的安全有效的乙型肝炎疫苗加以預防。世界衛生組織建議嬰兒出生後首日施打第一劑，接著需定期完成第二劑或第三劑甚至更多的接種，方能獲得最佳的疫苗保護力。乙型肝炎疫苗對預防感染乙型肝炎及乙型肝炎導致的慢性疾病和肝癌發展的效果達到百分之九十五[2]。 澳門衛生局自 1989 年已開始引入乙型肝炎疫苗為所有新生兒提供免費接種[3]。由於乙型肝炎的傳播容易，在全球尤其是亞洲盛行率相當高，檢測血清乙型肝炎表現抗原（hepatitis B surface antigen，HBsAg）的帶原率，及接種乙型肝炎疫苗的有效度的研究，在國內外早已開展[4 ～ 9]，澳門衛生局自 1989 年已開始引入乙型肝炎疫苗，為所有新生兒提供免費接種。但至目前為止並沒有任何有關澳門居民出生時接種乙型肝炎疫苗的有效度的研究，本研究應是澳門第一個透過篩查乙型肝炎疫苗接種人群的 HBsAg帶原率，評估乙型肝炎疫苗對預防及減低乙型肝炎的有效度的研究。1 乙型肝炎1.1 乙型肝炎病毒的特性HBV 在 1960 年被發現，可經由血液或體液傳播而造成急性或慢性乙型肝炎，具有嗜肝性，主要感染肝臟細胞。它在人類及其他靈長目動物的肝細胞中複製，但不能在人工細胞培養物中生長[2]。HBV 屬於嗜肝 DNA 病毒科（Hepadnaviridae），是一種雙股去氧核糖核酸（DNA）、有包膜的病毒，為直徑約 42 nm 的球狀顆粒，又稱 Dane 顆粒，內部為直徑約 27 nm 的核衣殼，含有 HBV 基因組及 DNA 聚合酶。HBsAg 是病毒包膜上的一種脂蛋白，直徑為 22 nm，分別為呈小圓球狀和管狀的顆粒。該兩種顆粒在 HBV 感染者體內的數目遠遠death from cirrhosis and liver cancer. The Macao Health Bureau has since 1989 provided free hepatitis B vaccination to newborns. In this study, the efficacy of hepatitis B vaccination in the prevention of hepatitis B infection was assessed through testing vaccinated subjects (Vaccination Group) for their serum HBsAg (hepatitis B surface antigen) carrier state. By studying HBsAg positive rate of subjects in the community (Community Group), high risk populations can be identified. Methodst: Study subjects were selected from attendees of health check-up in a Macau hospital from January 2014 to December 2015, who had their serum HBsAg tested. HBsAg positive rates were compared between subjects in the Vaccination Group and Community Group, men and women in each group, and among subjects of different age intervals. Resultst: Our study population of 3666 subjects comprised 44.4% men and 55.6% women aged 17-93 years. Serum HBsAg positive rate of the 758 subjects in the Vaccination Group (1.1%) was significantly lower than that of the 2908 subjects in the Community Group (5.8%, chi-square test P<0.001). There was no sex difference in HBsAg positive rate in the Vaccination Group, while men in the Community Group showed a higher positive rate than women (P<0.05). Discussiont: Results of this study confirmed that the policy of providing free hepatitis B vaccination for Macao newborns had been efficacious in reducing hepatitis B infection in our community, thereby alleviating medical and financial burdens caused by the infection and its complications These local data should also facilitate establishment of health promotion and resource allocation strategies by the government authority. eywordst: Hepatitis B; Hepatitis B surface antigen; Hepatitis B vaccination
142 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 澳門某大學學生智能手機成癮行為及影響因素分析歐陽吟靖1*，陳文詩2，林偉基1*（1. 澳門科技大學健康科學學院，澳門） （2. 南方醫科大學公共衛生學院流行病系，廣州）摘要： 目的 瞭解澳門某大學學生的智能手機成癮行為現況及影響因素，並提出预防建議。方法 研究使用橫斷面描述性研究法，問卷根據精簡版智能手機成癮量表與研究群體的智能手機成癮行為突顯信念編制，通過按比例分層整群隨機抽樣方法收集數據。分別在SPSS 23.0與R 3.3.0中應用非參數檢驗與分位數回歸方法進行分析。結果 研究共派發527份問卷，其中有效問卷448份（85.0%）。智能手機成癮行為得分中位數為36.0分（範圍10～60）。智能手機成癮行為之態度得分中位數為52.6分（範圍6～150）；主觀規範為48.0分（範圍6～150）；知覺行為控制為75.0分（範圍7～175）。其中性别（男）、每天使用時間、以瞭解咨詢及社交平臺互動為主要輔助功能將顯著促進智能手機成癮行為傾向（均 p < 0.05），以手機遊戲/輔助學習為主要輔助功能、知覺行為控制得分越高以及就讀其他專業類別，有助於抑制智能手機成癮行為傾向（均 p < 0.05）。結論 學校、家庭以及健康促進部門應幫助學生正確認識智能手機成癮行為及其危害，可根據專業類別、年級以及性別的不同，有針對性地引導學生減少不必要的社交平臺互動，通過多樣化渠道瞭解資訊，同時加強學生的自我管理能力、加固學生穩固的人際關係。關鍵詞： 澳門；大學生；智能手機成癮；計劃行為理論；分位數回歸分析A Study on Smartphone Addiction and its Influencing Factors among Students in a University in MacauYinjing OUYANG 1*; Man Si CHAN 2; Christopher Wai Kei LAM1* ( 1. Faculty of Health Sciences, Macau University of Sciences and Technology, Macau,China )( 2. Department of Epidemiology, Public Health , Southern Medical University, Guangzhou,China )Abstractt: Objectives To investigate the prevalence and influencing factors of smartphone addiction among university students in Macau and to provide a theoretical basis for its prevention. Methods This was a cross-sectional study using stratified cluster random sampling. Research data were collected by a self-administered questionnaire surveying students of a university in Macau. They were analysed with non-parametric statistics and quantile regression using SPSS 23.0 and R 3.3.0 software. Results There were 448 effective samples from the 527 distributed questionnaires with an effective recovery rate of 85.0%. The median score of smartphone addiction was 36.0 (range 10 to 60). Median scores of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control were respectively 52.6 (range 6 to 150), 48.0 (range 6 to 150), and 75.0 (range 7 to 175). The factors of gender (male), smartphone use time and mainly using smartphone for information/socialnetwork significantly increased the behavior of smartphone addiction (all p < 0.05), while major in others, mainly 收稿日期：2017-06-22；修訂日期：2017-11-13。* 通訊作者：歐陽吟靖，女，澳門科技大學健康科學學院碩士畢業生，主要研究方向：公共衛生學。E-mail: suninuniversity@126.com，Tel: 00853-63724052。林偉基，男，澳門科技大學健康科學學院講座教授，科大醫院病理及檢驗科室總監，主要研究方向：公共衛生學。E-mail: wklam@must.edu.mo，Tel: 00853-88972636。
143歐陽吟靖，等 澳門某大學學生智能手機成癮行為及影響因素分析0 引言智能手機誕生廿多年來，全球各地的智能手機普及率不斷上升。澳門手機用戶近 5 年以平均每年 2.3% 幅度增長，截至 2016 年已達 108.7%[1]。智能手機改變人們通訊習慣的同時，也對人們的身心健康產生了負面影響，其中引起廣泛關注的是學生智能手機成癮行為，可定義其為因過度使用手機而產生的依賴，並伴隨強烈的心理體驗以及某些行為的不適，如感覺時刻不能離開手機[2]。近年，大中華地區針對大學生智能手機成癮行為的研究呈上升趨勢，性別、年級、專業、自控力、社會支持、性格特質等被考慮為學生群體手機成癮行為的影響因素[3 ～ 16]，更有研究者採用行為理論模型對該行為進行探究[17]。不同省份或地區大學生智能手機成癮行為盛行率最低為7.0%[3]，最高達 87.8 %[4]，大多集中於 10% 至 40%之間[5 ～ 11]，可見大學生中普遍存在智能手機成癮問題。澳門尚缺乏相關研究，因此，本研究在澳門選擇了一所綜合性大學，調查學生的智能手機成癮行為現況及其影響因素，以鑒別高危人群、提供預防大學生智能手機成癮行為的科學依據與建議。1 研究方法1.1 研究對象及樣本本研究以澳門某大學 2015/2016 年註冊學生為母群體，母群約為 9800 人。通過按比例分層整群隨機抽樣法，先按專業類別、年級分層，再按比例以班級為單位隨機整群抽樣或在隨機抽取的班級中隨機抽取學生，共派發 527 份問卷，收回 458份，剔除漏答率超過 10% 的問卷後，有效問卷為448 份，有效回收率為 85.0%。樣本與母群之間，各專業類別人數構成比（χ2 = 10.100，p > 0.05）與不同學歷人數構成比（χ2 = 2.221，p > 0.05）均無統計學差異，樣本具有代表性。1.2 研究工具本研究採用自編的封閉式結構問卷，共 60題，分五部分。第一部分為人口特徵資料；第二部分為 Min Kwon 等編制的智能手機成癮量表（精簡版）（the Smart Phone Addiction Scale–Short Version，SAS-SV），該量表總試題內容效度指數為 0.94，總內部一致性 α 值為 0.91，判定智能手機成癮行為的最佳分界值分別為男生≥ 31 分（靈敏度 0.87，特異度 0.89），女生≥ 33 分（靈敏度0.88，特異度 0.89）[18]；第三至第五部分量表根據計劃行為理論（the Theory of Planned Behavior），從研究母群中選取 98 人進行突顯信念（Salient Belief）調查，獲得有關智能手機成癮行為的 526條態度信念、383 條主觀規範（Subjective Norm）信念與 476 條知覺行為控制（Perceived Behavior Control）信念，最終分類整理為三組量表分別測量對應變項[19 ～ 20]。正式問卷的效度評估有 7 位專家參與，所得 I-CVI 值見表 1。表1 專家效度評估問卷部分試題內容效度指數 I-CVI*1. 人口特徵資料 1.00（84/84）2. 智能手機成癮量表 1.00（70/70）3. 智能手機成癮行為之態度 1.00（84/84）4. 智能手機成癮行為之主觀規範 0.93（78/84）5. 智能手機成癮行為之知覺行為控制 0.98（96/98） 總效度值 0.98*（適合題數 + 修改後適合題數）/ 總題數正式問卷的信度分析（預測試），在與研究對象相似的 52 名大學生群體中進行，所得 α 值見表 2。using smartphone for games or studying and scoring higher in perceived behavior control significantly decreased the behavior of smartphone addiction (all p < 0.05). Conclusion Universities, families and health promotion institutions should help students to be aware of the harmful consequences of smartphone addiction. According to different major, year of study and sex, students should try different ways to decrease unnecessary communication via smartphone, be encouraged to get information via multiple medias, learn to reinforce their self-management and enhance the bonding social capital.eywordst: Macau; University students; Smartphone addiction; the theory of planned behavior; Quantile regression
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149 第 11 卷 第 1、2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.11 No.1&2 2017 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2017 澳門某醫院血庫實施簡易配血檢驗對捐血者紅細胞逾期報廢數量的分析研究盧詠芝1*，鄭卓權1，崔紹漢2，林偉基1,3*（1. 澳門科大醫院臨床化驗診斷中心，澳門；2. 澳門藥物及健康應用研究院，澳門） （3. 澳門科技大學健康科學學院，澳門）摘要： 目的﹕現今醫學界中，血液紅細胞暫時仍然是無法找到完全的替代品，全球每年有數百萬人是依靠輸血治療來延續生命。而且隨著臨床需求、人口老化和血液儲存的期限等原因，血液的需求量不斷增加。本研究目的是通過比較分析本澳醫院血庫實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗、改變血液紅細胞庫存作業方式和分析相關數據，從而了解這措施對血液紅細胞庫存管理運用的改善效用，冀望能為病人提供更快速及有效的臨床輸血治療。方法﹕本研究採用調查法的方式進行，取得澳門某醫院血庫從2011年5月至2014年4月期間實施完整交叉試驗與2014年5月至2015年12月期間實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗的作業數據，計算某醫院血庫浪費血液紅細胞與發出血液紅細胞的百分比 (Wastage as a Percentage of Issues, WAPI )及交叉試驗與血液紅細胞輸注的比值 (Cross-match to Transfusion Ratio, C/T ratio) ，再作數據分析。並分別比較本澳各醫院與澳門某醫院之配血及臨床輸血數據。結果﹕2011年5月至2014年4月澳門某醫院血液紅細胞的C/T ratio按年分別為1.90、1.67、1.81及2.19；每月的平均WAPI，從2011年至2014年4月的5%改善至2015年的0.9%；每月平均過期血液紅細胞的總數從2011年至2014年4月的5個單位減少至2015年的2個單位。 結論﹕澳門某醫院實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗的政策有顯著成效，新配血流程加強血液紅細胞庫存的管理，庫存血液紅細胞得以更靈活使用，及改善完整交叉試驗系統不足之處，最終減低血液紅細胞逾期報廢，更完善輸血管理。關鍵詞： 血型與輸血前試驗；不規則抗體篩檢；完整交叉試驗；簡易交叉試驗；改善庫存血液過期浪費Effectiveness of Type and Screen Abbreviated Crossmatch in a Hospital Blood Bank in Macau and Wastage of Expired Donor Red Blood Cells in Hospitals of Macau Weng Chi LOU1*, Cheuk Kuen CHENG1, Shiu Hon CHUI2, Christopher Wai Kei LAM1,3*( 1. Clinical Laboratory Diagnostic Centre, University Hospital, Macau, China) ( 2. Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau, China) ( 3. Faculty of Health Sciences, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau China )Abstractt: Objectivet: In modern clinical medicine, red blood cells have remained not replaceable by any other substances 收稿日期：2017-09-13；修訂日期：2017-11-16。﹡通訊作者：盧詠芝，女，澳門科技大學健康科學學院碩士畢業生，主要研究方向：公共衛生學及檢驗醫學。 E-mail:elva8944@hotmail.com，Tel:00853-66307532。林偉基，男，澳門科技大學健康科學學院講座教授，科大醫院病理科及臨床化驗診斷中心總監，主要研究方向：公共衛生學及檢驗醫學。E-mail:wklam@must.edu.mo，Tel:00853-88972636。
1500 研究動機與重要性根 據 美 國 血 庫 協 會 (American Association of Blood Banks, AABB)1984 年 的血庫和輸血服務標準之輸血前試驗，建議紅細胞抗體篩檢為陰性的病人，傳統完整交叉試驗 (Full Crossmatch) 可被簡易交叉試驗 (Abbreviated Crossmatch) 取代 [1]。這項政策可讓血液紅細胞的使用變得更靈活及安全。1980 年代後期，香港的醫院亦續漸嘗試實施此政策，結果顯示血液紅細胞的浪費有顯著減少[2]。 現今醫學界中，血液紅細胞暫時仍然是無法找到完全的替代品，全球每年有數百萬人是依靠輸血治療來延續生命。而且隨著臨床需求、人口老化和血液儲存的期限等問題，血液的需求量不斷增加。近年來澳門醫療用血的使用量逐年增加，而在中國大陸、香港、台灣及世界各地也經常出現當地捐血中心的血液存量不足，呼籲市民捐血的情況[3-6]。所以有效利用庫存血液，是目前各地血庫的重要目標，血庫管理主要著重於血液的使用，務求適當有效地使用血液，減少血液的浪費。傳統採用完整交叉試驗和預留血液紅細胞政策，血液紅細胞的浪費率是非常高，人力資源的耗費亦不菲。本研究嘗試實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗方法，來改善血液紅細胞預留政策的不足。1 輸血的目的血液約佔人體體重的十三分之一，一個體重65 公斤的人身內約有 5 公升的血液，而當失血超過三分一以上就有死亡的可能性[7]。所以當人體出現外傷性失血、手術、上消化道大出血或血液疾病時，皆可能造成失血情況。其中手術是造成嚴重失血的重要原因之一；手術部位不同、切割組織大小、手術時間長短，皆會影響手術失血量。因此，輸血是現代醫療過程中不可或缺的一部分，是一種支持性與代償性的療法，是一項救急但具危險性的醫療措施，可快速而有效地矯正病人缺血情況，主要用途包括外科手術備血，以預防術中失血過多、血液疾病、上消化道大出血和嚴重貧血等。但是在輸血過程中，病人可能因內外因素，引起嚴重的輸血反應，危及生命安全，甚至死亡[8]。2 輸血前檢測輸血前檢測的目的，是為病人提供合適的血液成份，以防止病人在輸血時輸注不相容的紅細胞，而可能導致溶血性輸血反應[1]。輸血前檢測for transfusion. Every year millions of people worldwide rely on blood transfusion therapy to continue their lives. There is an increasing demand for blood transfusion due to clinical needs, aging population and limited shelf life of blood products. The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of implementation of Type and Screen Abbreviated Crossmatch and modification of blood inventory management in a hospital blood bank in Macau, for improving on blood wastage and better treatment for the patients. Methodst: This study adopted a survey method to obtain data of a hospital blood bank in Macau from May 2011 to April 2014 and from May 2014 to December 2015 (respectively before and after implementation of Type and Screen Abbreviated Crossmatch), then calculate the hospital’s total red cell wastage as a percentage of their red cell issues from the blood transfusion center (Wastage as a Percentage of Issues, WAPI) and Crossmatch to Transfusion Ratio (C/T ratio) for data analysis. Further comparisons of crossmatching and usage of blood among local hospitals and the studied hospital in Macau were made. Resultst: In the studied hospital, yearly C/T ratios were 1.90, 1.67, 1.81 and 2.19 from May 2011 to April 2014. Monthly average of WAPI decreased from 5% in 2011-2014/04 to 0.9% in 2015. The monthly average of expired packed red blood cells were reduced from 5 units in 2011-2014/04 to 2 units in 2015. Conclusiont: The implementation of Type and Screen Abbreviated Crossmatch in the studied hospital in Macau was remarkably effective. Implementation of this pre-transfusion test can improve blood inventory management, thereby alleviating many deficiencies of full crossmatch. Meanwhile, the improved flexibility of blood inventory can reduce blood wastage due to expiration, and lead to a better management of blood transfusion.eywordst: Blood group and pre-transfusion test; Antibody screening; Full crossmatch; Abbreviated crossmatch; Improve blood storage and minimize wastage due to expiry
154澳門某醫院的 WAPI 分別為 38%、21% 和 18%。這些數據顯示，實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗的政策，對改善血液紅細胞，因屢次病人取消輸血預約，積壓貯存至逾期報廢有十分顯著的成效。儘管嘗試向澳門捐血中心查詢澳門仁伯爵綜合醫院及澳門鏡湖醫院 2012 年至 2015 年血庫的數據資料，但是兩間醫院不曾提供血庫的數據資料，所以本研究目前只有 2011 年三間醫院血庫浪費血液紅細胞的數據，作為本澳醫院血庫數據的分析比較。7.3 實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗方法的好處7.3.1 臨床受血病人受惠實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗，提供安全和相容的血液紅細胞供臨床輸血令需要大量輸血的病人及新生兒能夠實際受惠，因為減少抽取血液樣本的頻次，同時更快速選配相容的血液紅細胞供病人輸注。7.3.2 簡化輸血前檢測程序實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗，抗體篩檢的結果陰性，不需要為病人預留血液紅細胞單位，當病人有輸血需要時，通過簡易交叉試驗，立刻可以發出相容血液紅細胞，在指定日期三天病人若需要重複輸血，也不用再抽取新血液樣本。此外，簡易交叉試驗只需要五至十分鐘完成，與傳统配血方法所需要的時間約一小時比較，效率顯著提升，大大縮短病人等候輸注的時間，快速得到治療。7.3.3 提升輸血服務的質量 在血庫實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗方法，免卻交叉試驗和預留血液紅細胞的繁複工作，血庫能有效地精簡架構，善用人力資源，為病人提供更貼身快速的輸血服務，同時為醫院提升經濟效益。7.4 電子交叉配血——血庫未來的發展電子交叉配血的發展，建基於血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗的原則，用電腦高效儲存系统確認病人檔案，同時快速找尋相容血型的血液紅細胞分發給病人。電子交叉配血保留病人血清抗体篩檢，省卻了簡易交叉試驗。電子交叉配血代替簡易交叉試驗明顯更節省時間，電腦儲存和分析數據的能量巨大，全自動化快速處理不同病人的配血申請，減少員工處理樣本引發感染的機會；同時可以節省人手，減少員工的工作壓力，及降低血清學交叉試驗使用的基本耗材和試劑的經費，更有效合理使用血液資源。8 總結本研究的結果顯示，某醫院實施血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗後，因逾期浪費供血者血液紅細胞情況有明顯改善，對優化血液紅細胞庫存的管理有顯著的成效。 本研究證實澳門的醫療機構引入血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗方法，是合適臨床輸血應用及具備各項優點，希望未來發展，某醫院能夠增加病床及病人的數目，令血液紅細胞流通量低的問題得以改善，再進階提升輸血服務的質量和效率。預期未來澳門醫療機構電子聯網開通，血庫能進一步使用電子交叉配血將取代簡易交叉試驗，使病人能更快速取得血液治療。我們同時希望藉著這次研究結論和工作經驗，與澳門其他醫院分享，希望他們也考慮採納血型與篩檢及簡易交叉試驗配血政策，計劃本澳臨床輸血檢測的未來發展和迎合世界趨勢。在 2016 年年底，澳門公私營醫療機構為實現資源共享，為居民提供更適切的醫療服務，衛生局推出了“電子健康紀錄互通系統”先導計劃，日後透過構建醫療資訊互通平台，病人的病歷資料互通[22]，希望透過此計劃，澳門醫院的血庫在未來，亦受惠本澳地區醫療網絡建立，輸血病人的病歷資料互聯互通，可以進一步善用電子交叉配血，更進一步提升本澳輸血服務的水平、效率和質素。參 考 文 獻[1] American Association of Blood Banks (2014). Standards for Blood
155盧詠芝，等 澳門某醫院血庫實施簡易配血檢驗對捐血者紅細胞逾期報廢數量的分析研究Banks and Transfusion Services, 29th Edition, Pretransfusion Testing of Patient Blood.[2] Feng CS, Ng AKM (1991). An analysis of donor blood wastage due to outdating in a large teaching hospital. Pathology, 23, p. 195-7.[3] 香港紅十字會輸血服務中心(2016年12月) . 血庫存量嚴重短缺：緊急呼籲市民立即捐血. 擷取自http://www5.ha.org.hk/rcbts/hkarticlelistview.asp?nid=227&bid=8&sid=0&MenuID=2[4] 華西都市報 (2015年1月). 用血緊張：華西醫院延期上百台手術. 擷取自 http://wccdaily.scol.com.cn/shtml/hxdsb/20150122/269267.shtml[5] 新聞公報(2015年1月). 血庫存量持續偏低，請市民立即捐血‧ 擷取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201501/08/P201501080656.htm[6] 溫 嘉 楷 . 冬 季 鬧 血 慌 花 蓮 血 庫 不 到 四 天 用 量 推 薦 . ( 公 視新聞網 , 2015年1月) 擷取自 h t tp: / /news.pts .org. tw/detai l .php?NEENO=288340[7] 謝 佩 翰 ( 2 0 11 ) . 台 灣 醫 療 用 血 資 源 耗 用 分 析 之 研 究 ( 碩 士論文). 擷取自臺中科技大學: http://ir.lib.ctust.edu.tw:8080/handle/310992000Q/2299[8] 蔡文展、張瑞根、許瑞烽、潘純媚、陳柏志等 (2010).輸血作業指引. 高雄市立大同醫院.[9] Roxby D (2011). Current concepts in pre-transfusion serological compatibility testing. ISBT Science Series, 6, p. 265-9[10] Evanovitch, D (2012). A primer in pretransfusion testing. Transfusion and Apheresis Science, 46, p. 281-6.[11] Wallis J P (2000). Is it time to give up the crossmatch? Journal of Clinical Pathology, 53, p. 673-5.[12] Isbister J, Benson S, Flower R, Gounder D, Hogan C et al. (2007). Guidelines for pretransfusion laboratory practice. Australian & New Zealand Society of Blood Transfusion, 5th Edition, p. 8.[13] Milkins C, Berryman J, Cantwell C, Elliott C, Haggas R et al. (2012). ABO and D Grouping. Guideline for pre-transfusion compatibility procedures in blood transfusion laboratorie, pp.17-8. British Blood Transfusion Society.[14] Oberman HA, Barnes BA, Steiner EA (1982). Role of the crossmatch in testing for serologic incompatibility. Transfusion, 22, p. 12-6.[15] Meyer EA, Shulman IA (1989). The sensitivity and specificity of the immediate-spin crossmatch. Transfusion, 29, p. 99-102.[16] Perera G, Hyam C, Taylor C, Chapman J F (2009). Hospital Blood Inventory Practice: the factors affecting stock level and wastage. Transfusion, 19, p. 99-104.[17] Tosi WC (2015). Effective Inventory Management-Blood Centre and Hospital Blood Bank.[18] Soomro R, Ali SA, Javed MR (2011). Arrangements and use of blood in elective surgical procedures. Blood Transfusion, 18, p. 212-4.[19] 醫院血庫的經驗分享講座 (2012). 澳門捐血中心.[20] Brecher, M E (2005). Blood Utilization Management. Technical Manual, 15th Edition, p. 92. American Association of Blood Banks.[21] Alghamdi S, Gonzalez B, Howard L, Zeichner S, LaPietra A et al. (2014). Reducing Blood Utilization by Implementation of a Type and Screen Transfusion Policy. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 141, p. 892-5.[22] 澳門日報(2016年12月). 電子病歷互通接受登記. 擷取自http://www.macaodaily.com/html/2016-12/31/content_1147372.htm科研進展澳科大躍居全國院校地球與環境科學第22位 《自然》出版集團7月發佈了2017自然指數排行榜（Nature Index 2017 Tables），按照加權分值計數法對各所高校的科研能力進行的評估，澳門科技大學在地球與環境科學分類中，躍居中國院校排行榜第22位，也是澳門地區唯一進入前50強高等學府。校長劉良講座教授表示對是次排行榜的成績感到高興和鼓舞，這是大學在澳門特區政府、澳門科學技術發展基金和社會各界的支持下，大力開拓月球與行星科學研究新領域，積極推動地球與行星科學研究的可喜結果，並且對大學科研工作的肯定和研究團隊的鼓勵。澳科大太空科學研究所緊密配合國家航天科技發展，月球和行星科學科研工作發展迅速，科研團隊國際化，國際交流合作非常活躍。據中國科學院文獻情報中心統計“太陽系探測領域”發表的論文排名，澳科大在2016年發文量及被引頻次的排名均位列第一。這反映太空科學研究所科研成果突出，已成為澳門在科技創新領域的特色和亮點。2017年自然指數的統計時間範圍為2015年12月1日至2016年12月31日，它基於各科研機構在Nature系列、Science、Cell等68種自然科學類期刊上發表的研究型論文數量進行計算和統計，並追蹤約六萬篇優質科研論文的作者單位資訊，涵蓋全球兩萬多家科研機構。它同時對化學、地球與環境科學、生命科學、物理科學等核心領域進行了分類排名。這些數據不僅對於全球各科研院校在國際高水平學術成果產出方面具有重要參考價值，並有助各院校探索促進科研環境活力的其他影響因素，例如合作、開放研究資料和成果的意願、科學傳播和合理的科學政策等。
156 2017，11（1、2） 澳 門 科 技 大 學Macau University of Science and Technology《科技大師系列講座XXIII》時間表 2017/2018學年第一學期 (日期: 2017年9月至12月) 場次 日期 時間 地點 題目 主講者第一場9月6日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳紅色火星的藍色星球夢中國科學院院士、著名天體化學與地球化學家歐陽自遠先生第二場9月13日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳黑洞探測與人工智慧-我國首顆X射綫天文衛星：慧眼中國科學院院士、著名高能天體物理學家李惕碚先生第三場9月20日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳Impacts of Climate Change on Extreme Precipitation臺灣中央研究院院士、美國地球物理學會會士、著名大氣環境學家劉紹臣先生第四場9月27日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳The Promise of Space太空的承諾臺灣中央研究院院士、國際宇航科學院院士、著名華人天文學家葉永烜先生第五場10月11日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳Our Place in the Universe 人類在宇宙中的地位著名華裔天文學家、國際天文聯合會太空生物學委員會主席郭新先生第六場10月18日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學D Hall數字空間與空間强國 中國科學院院士、著名空間物理學家魏奉思先生第七場10月25日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳進化論與數億年前的人類遠祖化石中國科學院院士、著名進化古生物學家舒德干先生第八場11月8日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳探索實戰育英才臺灣中央研究院院士、美國物理學會會士、著名物理學家伊林先生第九場11月15日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳自强不息成長路中國科學院院士、著名神經科學學家蘇國輝先生第十場11月22日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳解讀46億歲地球之迷中國科學院院士、著名前寒武紀地質與變質地質學家翟國輝先生第十一場11月29日 (星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳極地的神奇與奧秘中國科學院院士、火山地質與第四紀地質學家劉嘉麒先生第十二場12月6日(星期三)下午4:30 – 6:30澳門科技大學N101會議廳如何探測行星內部秘密美國地球物理學會會士、英國皇家天文學會會員，著名天體物理專家張可可先生大師講座
157• 信 息 短 文 •校園活動澳科大收藏最完整盧九家譜 並举辦族譜收藏與整理研討會由澳門科技大學圖書館與社會和文化研究所主辦的《盧氏族譜》（宣統版）入藏儀式暨澳門華人族譜收藏與整理學術研討會，於10月10日在澳門科技大學舉行。约60余位专家出席入藏儀式及研討會。儀式期間，廣東省立中山圖書館、江門潮蓮盧氏族人分別向澳科大贈送《盧氏族譜》（民國版）複製件及《盧氏族譜》（當代版）。澳科大圖書館入藏的《盧氏族譜》（宣統版），為近代澳門富商盧九家族的族譜，詳細記錄了盧九家族的家族譜系及相關史料，是研究盧九家族和澳門華商的重要文獻。該版族譜卷冊齊全，保存良好，品相極佳，是澳門地區近代華人族譜中規模最大、最完整的族譜。澳科大圖書館共收藏了宣統版、民國版和當代版等三個版本的《盧氏族譜》，是收藏《盧氏族譜》版本最多的圖書館。因應華人在澳門的人口比重、在經濟社會發展中的重要性，以及澳門歷史文化研究的迫切需要，澳科大圖書館今後將繼續收集和整理澳門其他華人家族的族譜，並探討在澳門建立華人族譜收集和整理研究中心的可能性。安永合伙人於商學院辦招聘活動與學生交流 “四大”國際會計師事務所之一安永（Ernst & Young，“EY”)於10月10日在澳門科技大學商學院舉行2017年～2018年度校園招聘宣傳活動，吸引逾300名學生參加。安永中國的大中華地區審計服務主管合伙人向澳科大頒發“安永中國傑出人才培養基地”獎項，以表彰大学在人才發展方面的卓越貢獻。今年商學院有九名優秀應屆畢業生，將分別入職安永北京、上海、廣州、杭州、深圳所，另12位同學也獲得安永的實習機會。安永將計劃招聘澳科大學生加入安永在澳門和大中華區的事務所。安永是全球領先的審計、稅務、財務交易和諮詢服務機構之一，在150多個國家和地區設立700多個辦公室，擁有25萬名精英。安永在大中華區分佈在26個城市， 2017年安永獲Universum評選為“全球最具吸引力僱主”三甲，並入選由Great Place to Work Institute公佈的2016年全球最佳跨國工作場所前25名。澳科大秋季實習就業展 提供近千職位選擇澳門科技大學秋季實習就業展於11月17日在大學舉辦，共吸引48家粵港澳企業參與，包括9家內地的企業，有約近千個職位空缺。現場舉辦13場就業講座，讓學生瞭解企業文化、職位要求、面試技巧等。澳科大創業就業發展中心首次與資訊科技學院、商學院、酒店與旅遊管理學院、人文藝術學院四個學院聯合舉辦秋季實習就業展。澳門科技大學協理副校長、商學院院長林志軍教授代表大學致辭時表示，澳科大一直十分重視和支持學生創業與就業，成立“創業就業發展中心”七年多。澳科大致力為畢業生拓寬就業渠道和就業選擇，與各大企業建立友好關係，不但每年舉辦就業工作坊、企業拜訪，並定時發佈各企業招聘訊息，以增強畢業生對就業市場的了解，提高競爭力和事業發展潛能，這也是澳科大人才培養的重要內容。林院長勉勵同學們要積極把握機會，參與各種就業技能培訓，提升整體競爭能力，為開拓事業、實現理想、服務社會做好充分準備。大學會繼續為同學們尋求理想的就業平臺。
彩 插 1金融業多技能資源限制專案排程問題優化研究： 以某本地銀行軟件開發專案為例An Improved Rotational Period Fitting Method Based on Baysian Generalized Lomb-Scargle Periodogram圖5 實際專案排程 圖7 WMSFOA、雲遺傳運算時間分布Fig. 1 Newton’s methodFig. 2 Simulated lightcurves Fig. 3 Rotatioal periods searched by BGLS for simulated lightcurves.Fig. 4 Rotatioal periods searched by improved BGLS for simulated lightcurves.
彩 插 2圖1 回歸係數變化圖澳門某大學學生智能手機成癮行為及影響因素分析Fig. 10 The relationship of periods and χ2 Fig. 11 The best period folded lightcurves of asteroid 57303, the blue points are original data and the red points are fitting points.
編輯委員會Editorial Board編委會主席：劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編 ：許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編委：劉良、許敖敖、祈務晨、余秋雨、張志慶、姜志宏、方泉、林偉基、戴龍基、黎曉平、唐澤聖、陳乃九、龐川、孫立雲、孫建榮Editorial Board Members:Liu Liang, Xu Ao Ao,Keith Robert Barclay Morrison, Yu Qiu Yu, Zhang Zhi Qing, Jiang Zhi Hong, Fang Quan, Lam Wai Kei, Dai Long Ji, Li Xiao Ping, Tang Ze Sheng, Chan Lai Kow, Pang Chuan, Sun Li Yun, Sun Jian Rong澳門科技大學學報Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology主辦單位: 澳門科技大學Organizer: Macau University of Science and Technology編委會主席: 劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編: 許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編輯: 《澳門科技大學學報》編輯部Editor: The Editorial Department, Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話： +853-8897-2173 Tel: +853-8897-2173 ● 傳真：+853-2888-0022 Fax: +853-2888-0022 ● 電郵：publication@must.edu.mo E-mail: publication@must.edu.mo ● 地址： 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau出版及總發行：澳門科技大學Publisher & Distribution: Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話：+853-8897-2166 Tel: +853-8897-2166 ● 電郵：cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo E-mail: cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo ● 地址： 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau 封面及版式設計：高鴻 王港Graphic & Layout Designers: Gao Hong, Wang Gang印刷： 400本Print Run: 400出版日期：2017年12月Issued Date: December 2017國際標準期刊號：ISSN: 1994-4926規格： 21cm×29.7cmSize: 21cm width by 29.7cm height版權所有，翻印必究All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher.
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