半年刊 2007年6月創刊第十卷 第一期 2016年6月出版JOURNAL OF MACAU UNIVERSITYOF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYSemiannual, Started in June 2007Vol.10 No.1 June 2016定價: 20元澳門幣(人民幣/港幣)ISSN 1994-4926半年刊Semiannual Vol.10二 一六年 第十卷 第一期JOURNAL OF MACAU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYVol.10 No.1 June 2016
編輯委員會Editorial Board編委會主席：劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編 ：許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編委：劉良、許敖敖、祈務晨、余秋雨、張志慶、姜志宏、方泉、林偉基、戴龍基、黎曉平、唐澤聖、陳乃九、龐川、孫立雲、孫建榮Editorial Board Members:Liu Liang, Xu Ao Ao,Keith Robert Barclay Morrison, Yu Qiu Yu, Zhang Zhi Qing, Jiang Zhi Hong, Fang Quan, Lam Wai Kei, Dai Long Ji, Li Xiao Ping, Tang Ze Sheng, Chan Lai Kow, Pang Chuan, Sun Li Yun, Sun Jian Rong澳門科技大學學報Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology主辦單位: 澳門科技大學Organizer: Macau University of Science and Technology編委會主席: 劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編: 許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編輯: 《澳門科技大學學報》編輯部Editor: The Editorial Department, Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話： +853-8897-2173 Tel: +853-8897-2173 ● 傳真：+853-2888-0022 Fax: +853-2888-0022 ● 電郵：publication@must.edu.mo E-mail: publication@must.edu.mo ● 地址： 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau出版及總發行：澳門科技大學Publisher & Distribution: Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話：+853-8897-2166 Tel: +853-8897-2166 ● 電郵：cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo E-mail: cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo ● 地址： 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau 封面及版式設計：高鴻 王港Graphic & Layout Designers: Gao Hong, Wang Gang印刷： 700本Print Run: 700出版日期：2016年6月Issued Date: June 2016國際標準期刊號：ISSN: 1994-4926規格： 21cm×29.7cmSize: 21cm width by 29.7cm height版權所有，翻印必究All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher.
ContentsHumanities and ArtsStudy on Cultural Identity of Mainland Students in Macau:Analysis Based on Focus Group Interview ……………………………………………………………………………… Fei WANG (1)Does Avatar Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Game Reflect Ideal Self or Actual Self? …………………………………………………………………………… Di WANG (9)The Relationship Between Social Network Site Use and Perceived Social Capital: A Mutual Influence Model …………………………………………………………………………Yu GUO (18)Analyzing the Celebrity Superwoman: Production and Reception of the Images of Dong Mingzhu ……………………………………………………………………… Weizi HUANG, Musen YE (27)An Intellectual Inquiry into Plagiarism in Chinese Culture ……………………………… Hongji YAN (36)Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into English ……………………………………………………………………………………… Jimin CHEN (45)Pedagogic ExperienceRandomized Controlled Trials in Educational Research: Learning from the “Medical Model” …………………………………………………………………………………Keith MORRISON (64)A Study on Learning Styles of University EFL Learners in Macau ………………… Xiaoyan DENG (76)Management and TourismThe Impact of Institutional Factors on Foreign Equity Portfolio Investment ………… Xiaolei TANG (88)Person-job Fit and Innovative Behavior:The Moderating Effect of Family-friendly? ……………………………………………………… Zhihua LIAN, Hua HUANG, Nana FENG (95)Regulation and Governance: Facing the Challenges of the Sharing Economy: The Uber Car Booking Platform as an Example …………………………………… Xiaoyang JIANG, Chuan JIANG (107)Information TechnologyResearch on Rotational Period of NEA:2011UW158 ………………………… Xiangjie HUANG, Xin JIN, Sinhang LAO, Manhei NG, Xiaoping LU (118)MedicineHistory Characteristics and Current Situation of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Macau Chunsong CHENG, Weiqian CHEN, Jie LIANG, Canjian WANG, Zhifeng ZHANG, Liang LIU, Hua ZHOU (127)
1第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 澳門內地學生文化身份認同研究 ——基於焦點團體訪談的分析汪 菲（澳門科技大學人文藝術學院，澳門）摘要： 在高等教育國際化發展的帶動下，大批內地學生湧入了澳門高等教育市場，已經成為除了本地學生外的第二大學生群體。本文運用焦點團體訪談法對內地學生展開調查，對他們在澳門的文化身份認同進行探索性研究，發現了三大問題：（1）“自卑＂與“自尊＂心理共同影響著內地學生的身份認同；（2）跨文化接觸中的偏見與歧視影響了內地學生的身份認同；（3）內地學生在澳門的身份認同一般會經歷“觀察—嘗試—退出＂三個階段，是一個動態變化的過程。希望通過本研究能夠幫助內地學生建立良好的心態，消除由文化身份認同產生的迷茫與困惑。摘要： 焦點團體訪談法；內地學生；文化身份認同Study on Cultural Identity of Mainland Students in Macau: Analysis Based on Focus Group InterviewFei WANG( Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: Encouraged by the globalization of higher education, large groups of mainland students flushed into the Macau higher education market. The mainland students have already become the second largest students group in Macau except the local students. And their cultural identity in Macau is to be investigated and explored in this paper, finding out 3 problems as follow: (1) the superiority and inferiority mind have a common impact on the cultural identity of mainland students; (2) their cultural identity is also influenced by the prejudice and discrimination in cross-cultural exchanges; (3) the identity usually is a dynamic process with 3 stages: observation, trial and exit. It’s expected that the paper could help mainland students establish a healthy mind and eliminate the confusions and puzzles, caused by the cultural identity.eywords: Focus group interview; Mainland students; Cultural identity收稿日期：2015-09-17；修訂日期：2015-10-13。* 通訊作者：汪菲，女，澳門科技大學人文藝術學院在读博士生，主要研究方向為跨文化傳播。E-mail:wangfayeguoer@163.com,Tel:00853-62115085.0 引言高等教育市場的國際化趨勢是在全球化浪潮下應運而生的，在這一發展趨勢的帶動下，越來越多的中國內地學生選擇了跨境求學。對於內地學生來說跨境留學包括兩個流動方向：一是國際間流動，也就是出國留學，選擇到其他國家去讀書；二是區域間流動，是指出境留學，選擇到香港和澳門地區的高等教育機構求學。[1]近幾年來，隨著澳門高校擴招政策的實施，內地與澳門之間的高等教育國際化市場已然形成，每年都吸引了
5汪菲 澳門內地學生文化身份認同研究 ——基於焦點團體訪談的分析威脅時，便將自己放在一種容易被傷害的位置上，產生一種消極結果期望值和刻板印象，並尋求外部群體的行為來與之吻合和確認。”[16]因此，在這種自卑心理影響下的內地學生往往會過分強調自己與澳門人之間的差別，陷入“分離型”文化身份。其次，那些具有“自尊”心理的內地學生，則與“自卑”心理的內地學生相反，他們認為澳門本來就是中國的，現在澳門既然回歸了祖國，就是中國的一個特區，是中國的一部分而已，澳門的經濟發展要依靠內地，內地是澳門的衣食父母。參與訪談的內地學生 C 談到：“我覺得澳門沒什麼了不起的，如果沒有內地的旅客，澳門的經濟絕對是一落千丈，所以是澳門人靠著內地人生活的。”參與訪談的內地學生 H 談到：“我覺得我們這些內地學生來澳門上學，很大程度上促進了澳門的經濟，我們每年的學費、生活費都貢獻給了澳門啊。”內地學生 J 認為：“現在中國強大了，經濟也發展的很快，內地的有錢人太多了，來到澳門消費對澳門來是件好事。他們澳門人其實很一般，有些也很窮，澳門的那些奢侈品不都是內地人來買的嗎？他們本地人哪有那麼有錢。”在上述這種“自尊”心理下，內地學生也會無法客觀地看待自己與澳門人之間的關係，覺得澳門人應該感謝內地，對內地感恩戴德，是內地保障了澳門的發展。在這種心理狀態下的內地學生，很容易引起自己與身邊澳門人的矛盾，因為在澳門人看來這些內地學生的想法很自大，讓他們反感，但在內地學生看來如果澳門人否定內地為澳門帶來利益的話就是“忘恩負義”，所以，跨文化接觸中的矛盾與衝突由此產生。不管是“自卑”還是“自尊”的心理都對內地學生的身份認同產生了負面的影響，讓他們過分強調了兩者間的文化差異，並對這種文化差異懷有狹隘的看法，無法包容和客觀地對待這些差異。需要注意的是，這種“自卑”和“自尊”心理並不是孤立存在的，它們常常共存於同一主體內，那些具有“自卑”心理的內地學生往往會有一些十分刻意的“自尊”行為表現出來，而那些具有“自尊”心理的內地學生其實在內心裡對“澳門人如何看待內地”更加的在意和敏感。3.2 跨文化接觸中的偏見與歧視影響了內地學生的身份認同偏見是指“一種文化人群對另一文化人群的錯誤態度和不正確的感覺”[17]，而歧視則是這種不正確的感覺在行為上的表現。在焦點團體訪談過程中，參與訪談的內地學生都講述了自己在澳門曾遭遇過的受到歧視的經歷。例如，內地學生I 談到：“有一次我去新八佰伴幫朋友買化妝品，一個服務員態度很壞，聽到我講普通話都不願意理我，我問她一些問題，她一句也不回答，真的很過分，我差點跟她吵起來了。”內地學生E談到：“那次我在關閘下面的公車站坐車，我知道要排隊的，但我之前沒坐過那一路車，所以不知道隊頭和隊尾在哪裡，我觀察了一下就站了進去，結果還是站錯了，我把隊頭錯當成了隊尾，結果他們就說我插隊，我趕緊道歉並解釋自己是站錯了，並不想插隊，但是裡面幾個澳門人聽到我說普通話，反而開始說些內地人素質低之類的話，這讓我很受傷也很氣憤。我只是一個無心的錯誤，而且已經道歉了，可是他們竟然認為內地人都沒素質。”內地學生 G 談到：“我承認內地在一些社會規則上，素質上確實沒有澳門人好，但是並不是所有的內地人都是這樣的啊，可是澳門人看內地人的第一反應就是內地人不講文明，素質底下，這樣很偏激很不公平。”透過這些訪談對象的話語可以看出，他們對於澳門人對內地人的這種固有的偏見和歧視顯得非常不滿和失望。而且，透過訪談對象的話語，我們還可以發現語言差異所造成的影響。語言是一個地區的人的文化身份的一種象征，人們可以通過對方所使用的語言來判斷對方是“哪里人”，并據此來判斷對方的文化身份。就像訪談對象談到的那樣，當他們一說出普通話的時候，當地人立刻就能判斷出他們是內地人，并表現出對於內地人的明顯的偏見。
6歧視和偏見產生的根源其實是一個文化群體內的成員對自己文化的過分的崇拜和忠誠所導致的，“因此一個人的文化身份的形成可以導致對非文化圈的人的敵視、憎恨和歧視”[18]，也就是說，當個體的文化身份形成後，他會對其所處的文化抱有特別的崇拜和忠誠，當他在異文化圈中遭遇到不友好的對待時，例如偏見和歧視時，就會更加加重個體對於自文化的盲目的崇拜和忠誠，這種盲目的感情便導致了個體對於異文化的敵意。因此，當內地學生遭受到偏見和歧視時，他們對於澳門和澳門人也相應地產生了一些偏見和敵視，這種情緒嚴重影響了他們在澳門的文化身份認同，他們始終以“外來者”自居，將自己隔離在澳門文化之外，也逐漸喪失了與澳門文化進行接觸和交流的熱情。3.3 內地學生在澳門的身份認同是一個動態變化的過程。文化身份本身就是動態的，一個人的文化身份意識，也就是文化歸屬感會隨社會環境和個人生活的變化而變化的。[19]內地學生來到澳門之後對於自身文化身份的探尋、定位和認同也是動態的，會隨著對澳門人、澳門社會和澳門文化的接觸和瞭解而產生變化。 參與訪談的內地學生 A 談到：“最初到澳門的時候，我覺得自己是一個‘闖入者’，我對這裡的一切都不太瞭解，所以我會先保持一段距離，看看這個社會是怎樣的，與內地有什麼不同。後來，在這裡生活了一段時間後，我對澳門的瞭解加深了，挺喜歡這裡的，適應了這裡的生活，也認識了一些朋友，我覺得自己有點像其中的一份子了……但是，當我想真正融入進去的時候，卻覺得這是一件很難的事情……你永遠也不可能真正屬於這裡，所以我現在也沒有想要再去融入這個社會。”內地學生 J 表示：“我曾經以為我會在這裡（澳門）找到歸屬感的，但是現在我已經放棄了，有很多方面的原因……讓我覺得想要獲得歸屬感是很難的，我們只不過是‘過客’，是‘外來者’而已。”內地學生 G 談到：“我覺得我的適應能力還是不錯的，當然剛開始來到澳門時，會感覺陌生，我就是這個城市裡的‘外地人’，但當我適應了這裡之後，我覺得在這裡居住學習都很舒服，我生活在這裡可以算是這座城市裡的一員了……但是，後來發現我們在他們本地人眼裡永遠都是‘外地人’，你不可能真正的參與進這個社會裡的，也許要在這裡生活個十幾年才能，反正現在我對這裡沒有了歸屬感。”除了這幾位內地學生外，其他參與焦點團體訪談的內地學生也表達了類似的看法和感受，由於篇幅限制就不再一一列舉了。從他們的言語中不難感受到一種心態的轉變，而且這種轉變所經歷的階段都大致相同，可以概括總結為以下三個階段：首先，是“觀察”期。在這一階段裡，內地學生剛來到澳門，無論他們是否能敏感地覺察到文化差異的存在，他們都會對這裡的一切產生一種好奇的心理，因為他們到了一個新的陌生的環境裡。這種好奇心理又引發了探索的欲望，他們會不自覺地去瞭解和學習新環境裡的規則。當然，為了能在新環境裡很好的生活，他們也不得不去進行瞭解和學習。他們雖然已經身處於新環境之中，但心理上卻與新環境保持著不遠不近的距離，就像“旁觀者”一樣觀察、審視和試探著周遭的一切，然後用“觀察”所得到的資訊來判斷自己是否可以接近，又該如何接近這個新環境。其次，是“嘗試”期。在經過了“觀察”期的磨合後，大部分內地學生都適應了在澳門的生活，也對新環境有了比較深的瞭解，於是他們躍躍欲試，開始嘗試完全進入這個新環境。這一階段裡他們會比較主動的，並且抱有極大的熱情和信心去和這個社會進行接觸，甚至在身份上會感覺自己是這個社會的一員，並期望得到這個社會的認可和接受。但很可惜的是，在參與訪談的內地學生口中得知，這種“嘗試”的結果往往並不令人滿意。他們會在這一階段中遇到新的問題和困難，於是就進入了下一個階段。最後，是“退出”期。由於在“嘗試”階段
82011：41.[19] 安然，等. 跨文化傳播與適應研究. 北京：中國社會科學出版社，2011：36.[20] 朱國輝，謝安邦 ，許美德 . 高校來華留學生跨文化適應問題研究.高等教育研究. 2013（9）：94.[21] 張淑華，李海瑩，劉芳 . 文化身份認同研究綜述 .心理研究.2012:5(1)：22.科研進展太空科學研究所在國際權威期刊發表亮點研究成果澳科大太空科學研究所徐曉軍助理教授（第一作者），黃漢青副教授（通訊作者）近日在地球物理學權威期刊《Journal of Geophysical Research: space physics》上發表題為《Observations of current sheets associated with reconnection exhausts passing through the near lunar wake》的研究論文，並被選為當期的亮點研究成果。太空科學研究所研究人員通過研究電流片的磁場變化，發現月球近月尾跡中的磁場確實會受缺失的那部分等離子體的影響。其總的效應相當於周圍存在一些永久磁體的磁場進入月球或者月球近月尾跡中。這些永久磁體是外面所有太陽風等離子體集體運動的結果。因此，當考慮宇宙中普遍存在的磁凍結等離子體磁場進入低電導率的環境，比如非磁化的小行星等的時候，不僅要考慮電導率的大小，還要考慮其尺度。如果某個物體尺度很大，其內部深處的磁場環境則幾乎不受外部等離子體的影響。此篇論文改變了此前普遍存在的一個錯誤看法，增加了人們對太空中不同等離子體環境之間磁場變化的認識。月球既沒有大氣也沒有全球性的內禀磁場，觀測表明月球的電導率小到幾乎可以忽略。這類天體可以被形象地看成一塊大石頭，當磁場穿過這種不導電物體的時候，磁力線是保持不變的。當月球處於地球磁層之外時，它會被來自於太陽的超聲速磁化等離子體（俗稱太陽風）包圍。由於沒有磁場的屏蔽，月球的向陽面能直接吸收太陽風粒子。目前，科學家普遍認為，在月球極低電導率假設下，雖然那部分入射的太陽風粒子被吸收，但是太陽風的磁力線能毫無阻礙地進入月球內部。放置於空氣中的永久磁鐵周圍的磁場是受磁鐵內部有序的微小電流控制的，與周圍的空氣並無關係。太陽風的磁場與此不同，它和太陽風等離子體凍結在一起，主要受當地等離子體的控制。即被月球向陽面吸收後的這部分等離子體的缺失應該會對進入月球內部的磁場產生影響。這與進入月球內部磁場幾乎不變的觀點相矛盾。然而幾乎不可能直接測量月球內部的磁場來研究磁力線的變化。所幸的是在太陽風中，月球背陽面的近月尾跡同樣是一種不導電或導電率非常低的環境，可以通過研究近月尾跡中磁場的變化來研究太陽風磁力線進入月球的變化特徵。科大囊括本年度澳門科學技術成果獎勵評選中僅有的2個一等奬兩年一度的澳門科學技術成果獎勵評選於本年6月8日下午公佈初步結果，共有18個研究項目獲獎，其中澳科大有8個項目獲獎，特別囊括了該次評獎中僅有的2個一等獎。這是澳科大發展學術研究新的里程碑。而澳門科學技術獎勵頒獎典禮擬於今年10月舉行。這次評選公佈的初步結果，自然科學獎授獎項目共 8 項，其中：一等獎 2項，二等獎 3 項，三等獎 3 項；技術發明獎授獎項目 6 項，其中：二等獎 2 項，三等獎 4 項；科技進步獎授獎項目 4項，其中：二等獎 1 項，三等獎 3 項。澳科大獲得的8個授獎項目分別為：自然科學獎一等獎2個：“嫦娥工程多波段探月資料的科學發現”和“類風濕關節炎的發病新機制和治療新途徑”；自然科學獎三等獎“基於解析相位分析的超強Heisenberg測不准原理及信號的快速正頻率分解”（與澳門大學合作）；技術發明獎二等獎“活細胞固相色譜技術體系在創新中藥研究中的應用”（與廣州醫科大學附屬第一醫院合作）；技術發明獎三等獎“基於DAA的逆向二次認證新技術及應用”（與安信通科技（澳門）有限公司合作）和“複雜製造裝備和生產系統控制與調度新技術”；科技進步獎三等獎“澳門交通噪音評價系統的開發與應用”和“中藥家居用室內空氣消毒劑的研發與應用”。
9第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 Received 11 Dec. 2015; Revised 24 Mar. 2016*Corresponding author: Di WANG, PhD, Assistant Professor of Faculty of Humanities and Arts. Research Area: New Media and Consumer Behavior. Email: dwang@must.edu.mo, Tel: 00853-88971965.Does Avatar Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Game Reflect Ideal Self or Actual Self?Di WANG( Department of Humanity and Art, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: Whether avatar behavior in the video game reflects a player’s ideal self or actual self is debated in the literature. In this study, we provide new evidence to literature by examining whether avatar behaviors in massively multiplayer online role-playing game reflect a player’s ideal self or actual self. We predicted players’ behavior in Jian Xia Qing Yuan 3 would reflect their ideal self more than actual self. Results only support our hypotheses in terms of appearance. In terms of agreeableness and extraversion, both actual self and ideal self are reflected in the players’ behavior in the game, though it was actual self, not ideal self, which played a bigger role in explaining the players’ behavior in the game.eywords: Actual self; Ideal self; MMORPG; Agreeableness; Extraversion; Appearance大型多人在線角色扮演遊戲中的角色行為反映理想自我還是真實自我？王 迪（澳門科技大學人文藝術學院，澳門）摘要： 遊戲角色行為反映遊戲者的理想自我還是真實自我在文獻中充滿爭議。本研究給這個問題提供新的證據。我們檢驗在大型多人在線角色扮演遊戲中的角色行為反映遊戲者的理想自我還是真實自我。我們預測遊戲者在劍俠情緣3中的行為反映理想自我多過真實自我。結果顯示我們的假設只在外表方面成立。在親和力和外向方面，真實自我和理想自我都反映在遊戲行為中，但是真實自我比理想自我更能解釋遊戲行為。文章討論了為什麽會出現這種結果。關鍵詞： 真實自我；理想自我；大型多人在線角色扮演遊戲；宜人性；外向性；外表0 IntroductionThe massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) is one kind of role-playing game (RPG) in which each participant assumes the role of one or more characters, completing the game by upgrading their level or by developing the plot of the story [1]. To complete the tasks in the game, players can compete or collaborate with other players. The games also offer players the opportunity for personal expression by allowing instance communication with other players in the game. In the games, players also construct their character through competition,
10cooperation, social interaction, avatar appearance enhancement and task accomplishment. Whether these characters are a reflection of one’s actual self or project one’s ideal self is debated in the literature. Some studies show that the characters are closer to their ideal-selves than to their actual selves [2] while others found the reverse finding [3]. In the current study, we focus on whether players’ characters in MMORPGs reflect one’s actual self or ideal self in one of the most popular MMORPGs, Jian Xia Qi Yuan 3. By 2016, its monthly active users have reached 6.82 million people [4].1 Self discrepancy theory The actual self and ideal self concepts were first clearly defined by the self discrepancy theory. Self discrepancy theory states that people holds three basic selves, the actual self, the ideal self and the ought self [5]. The gap between two of these self-representations is called self-discrepancy. This self-discrepancy may lead to emotional discomfort, which may motivate people to reduce the discrepancy. The actual self is defined as one’s representation of a t t r ibutes that one bel ieves one actual ly possesses, or that one believes that others believe he/she possesses. The ideal self is defined as one’s representation of attributes that one would like to possess ideally, or that others would like one to possess. The ought self is defined as one’s representation of the attributes that one believes that one should or ought to possess, or that others believe that one should or ought to possess [5]. The ideal self reflects one’s hopes and wishes, whereas the ought self reflects one’s obligation and sense of duty. As the focus of this study is the character identity in MMORPGs, the ought self is not relevant in the discussion, only actual self and ideal self are studied in this study. 2 Character identity in MMORPGsIn MMORPGs, players can choose their characters according to their own preference. They can also experience different characters by trying out different character [6]. As players gain experience in the game, their characters also grow in knowledge, skills, and resources, increasing their overall value over time. Every bit of growth involves the players’ effort and time, thus players often feel psychologically connected to their character, keeping the same character for months or years. As this connection is so intense, some players cannot even distinguish their actual self and their virtual character. Thus, the characters one constructed in the game may reflect one’s actual self. On the other hand, thanks to the anonymity of the Internet, players can make their character whatever they wish, which could be quite different from their actual self [7].Several studies supported the game character reflect ideal-self argument [2]. For example, Bessière et al. (2007)’s research on character choice in World of Warcraft showed that players create characters closer to their ideal-selves than to their actual-selves [2]. Contrary to the above findings, the game character reflects actual-self argument also received support [3]. Birk and Mandruk (2013)’s study showed that the perceived game character reflect more of one’s actual self than one’s ideal self. To resolve these discrepant findings, this study shall conduct another survey that test whether the game character reflect actual self or ideal self in terms of both the physical and psychological aspects. For the psychological aspect, we choose two dimensions of personality that is most related to game character, extraversion and agreeableness. 2.1 AgreeaAlenessThe agreeableness trait reflects one’s general concern for social harmony. Agreeable people tend to get along with others. They are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others while place self-interest above getting along with others [8].In MMORPGs, players can help apprentice players fulfill tasks, e.g. attacking-monster and upgrade. They can also help new players become familiar with the game. Players can also help strangers accomplish their tasks. Many of the friendships are
11Di WANG Does Avatar Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Game Reflect Ideal Self or Actual Self?developed through these helping activities.Huang and Chen (2002) believed that the helping behavior is different in MMORPGs than in real life[7]. In real life, people are very cautious of strangers, and thus may be reluctant to help others. In the game society, due to the anonymity of identity, players may be more willing to help others. In the virtual game society, players are also not afraid of losing any self-interest when helping others, and the helping behavior may boost one’s sense of accomplishment. On the other hand, studies found that though most video players had high moral standard, there were still a few players who did immoral, or violent things in the games, as they do not care how others view themselves due to the anonymity and virtual nature of online game [9~10]. Based on the literature, we can argue that for the majority of MMORPGs players, they will be more agreeable in the online game than in real life as there are fewer risks involved. As one’s actual self perception is based on one’s behavior in real life, we hypothesize that players’ character in the game will reflect more about their ideal self than their actual self. Thus we hypothesize:H1:The avatars in MMORPG will be more consis tent wi th one’s ideal se l f in terms of agreeableness than one’s actual self.2.2 ExtraversionExtraversion relates to the preference to seek social interaction [11]. In MMORPGs, players can interact with other player through their characters. As most MMORPGs are intensively competitive, characters often need other players’ characters for training, information, and resources, forming groups and intergroup collaborations. To do these, they need to communicate with others not only in the game but also through instant messaging, online forums, e-mail, and voice over IP networks. According to the 2014 China online game survey report, making friends is the second biggest goal of playing online game (the number one goal is entertainment).Social interactions in MMORPGs are different from social interactions in the real life. In the game, a player can communicate with others using his/her virtual character. The virtual role play can greatly reduce the psychological barrier that prevents people from social interaction in the real life [12]. The compliment from other players can increase one’s self-confidence and broaden one’s real life social interaction. Many game players become real life friends offline. Some even party together or date each other [4]. There are two competing hypotheses about the relationship between extraversion and use of computer-mediated-communication (CMC). The “rich get richer” hypothesis posits that extraverts gain more from CMC usage as they transfer offline sociability to CMC platforms [13]; in contrast the “social compensation” hypothesis posits that introverts gain more from CMC usage as they are able to compensate for their weaker social skills through use of CMC platforms [14]. A l t h o u g h t h e t w o h y p o t h e s i z e s s e e m contradictory, both received some support from the literature. Consistent with the “rich get richer” hypothesis, studies found that extraverts were more likely to use social media than introverts [15~17], have more Facebook friends [18~19] and belong to more Facebook groups [20] than introverts do.The “social compensation” hypothesis also received some support. Valkenburg and Peter (2007) found that although introverts communicated online less often than extraverts, they rated the Internet as more valuable for intimate self-disclosure than did extroverts [21].Therefore, we hypothesize that both extraverts and introverts could benefit from the MMORPGs virtual environment for social interaction. Extraverts could interact more frequently with other people due to the easiness of the platform. Introverts could also disclose more information to others in MMORPGs than in their real life.Therefore we make following hypothesis:H2:The avatars in MMORPG will be more
12consistent with one’s ideal self in terms of extraversion than one’s actual self.2.3 Physical appearanceThe love of beauty is human nature. People all want beautiful things. In MMORPG, the virtual games provide players the opportunity to construct their ideal physical appearance. Players can not only construct the character’s physical appearance, but also dress up the characters. Due to the anonymity and virtual nature of online games, one can create an avatar whose appearance and figure have nothing to do one’s real appearance or figure. In the game, a striking character appearance can also increase the chance of social interaction, thus for those who are not satisfied with their actual physical appearance, creating a character that reflect their ideal self may not only boost their self-confidence but also increase their social interaction. Dunn and Guadagno (2011)’s study on avatar selection found that men and women generally selected self-representations consistent with ideal male and female bodies[22]. Thus, we hypothesize:H3:The avatars in MMORPG will be more consistent with one’s ideal self in terms of physical appearance than one’s actual self.3 Method3.1 ParticipantsAs the focus of this study is Jian Xia Qing Yuan 3 players, an convenience sample was chosen by distributing an online questionnaire through websites related to video games (duowan.com and tieba.baidu.com), and social media sites (Webo and Wechat). A total of 322 people participated in the study (132 females, 191 males). The average age was 23.93 years old (SD = 5.01). The average game experience (online games in general) was 5.44 years (SD = 3.26). This showed that our sample was made up of experienced gamers, who were the target of our study. Of the 323 participants, 59.8% of them were office workers, 34.7% of them were students. The details were shown in Table 1.TaAle 1 Descriptive statistics.Variables N % M SDAge 323 23.93 5.01Gender 323 Female 132 40.9 Male 191 59.1Years of game experience 323 5.44 3.26Occupation 323 Student 112 34.7 Worker 193 59.8 Other 18 5.63.2 MeasuresThe variables examined in this study can be divided into three parts: ideal self and actual self; behaviors in the MMORPG, Jian Xia Qi Yuan 3; and demographic variables. Actual self is defined to participants as “attributes that you believe that you actually possesses or others believe you possess,” while ideal self id defined to participants as “attributes that you would like to possess ideally, or that others would like you to possess.”3.2.1 Actual agreeablenessParticipants were asked the extent to which the following descriptions were consistent with their actual self on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘Completely inconsistent’ to 5 = ‘Completely consistent’), “I am very responsible.” “I will take initiative in helping those who are in trouble.” I like helping others.” “I pay no attention to those who are in trouble (reverse coded).” Cronbach’s alpha reliability estimate was 0.77.3.2.2 Ideal agreeableness Participants were asked the extent to which the following descriptions were consistent with their ideal self on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘Completely inconsistent’ to 5 = ‘Completely consistent’), “I am very responsible.” “I will take initiative in helping those who are in trouble.” I like helping others.” “I pay no attention to those who are in trouble (reverse coded).” Cronbach’s alpha reliability estimate was 0.75.3.2.3 Actual extraversionParticipants were asked the extent to which the
13Di WANG Does Avatar Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Game Reflect Ideal Self or Actual Self?following descriptions were consistent with their actual self on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘Completely inconsistent’ to 5 = ‘Completely consistent’), “I am very sociable.” “I have a lot of friends.” “I am very talkative.” “I am ineloquent (reverse coded).” Cronbach’s alpha reliability estimate was 0.84.3.2.4 Ideal extraversionParticipants were asked the extent to which the following descriptions were consistent with their ideal self on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘Completely inconsistent’ to 5 = ‘Completely consistent’), “I am very sociable.” “I have a lot of friends.” “I am very talkative.” “I am ineloquent (reverse coded).” Cronbach’s alpha reliability estimate was 0.78.3.2.5 Actual appearanceParticipants were asked the extent to which the following descriptions were consistent with their actual self on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘Completely inconsistent’ to 5 = ‘Completely consistent’), “I am more attractive than most people.” “I have a good shape.” “I am very handsome/pretty.” “My appearance cannot leave a deep impression on other people (reverse coded).” Cronbach’s alpha reliability estimate was 0.82.3.2.6 Ideal appearanceParticipants were asked the extent to which the following descriptions were consistent with their ideal self on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘Completely inconsistent’ to 5 = ‘Completely consistent’), “I am more attractive than most people.” “I have a good shape.” “I am very handsome/pretty.” “My appearance cannot leave a deep impression on other people (reverse coded).” Cronbach’s alpha reliability estimate was 0.80.3.2.7 Agreeable behaviorParticipants were asked the extent to which the following descriptions were consistent with their behavior while playing the MMORPG, Jian Xia Qi Yuan 3, on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘Completely inconsistent’ to 5 = ‘Completely consistent’), “When friends in the game are in need of help, I will help them in the first place” “When the whole team was defeated, I always take my own responsibility.” “When I see the new comer who cannot beat up the monsters and upgrade, I will actively help them ” “I will ignore the help request from other players (reverse coded).” Cronbach’s alpha reliability estimate was 0.65.3.2.8 Extraversion behaviorParticipants were asked the extent to which the following descriptions were consistent with their behavior while playing the MMORPG, Jian Xia Qi Yuan 3, on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘Completely inconsistent’ to 5 = ‘Completely consistent’), “In the game, I have my group of friends who will do tasks or chat together everyday.” “I made many friends by playing video game” “I always chat with friends in the video game while doing tasks or playing in the instance zones.” “I don’t like to act in a team while playing video games (reverse coded).” Cronbach’s alpha reliability estimate was 0.69.3.2.9 Character appearanceParticipants were asked the extent to which the following descriptions were consistent with their behavior while playing the MMORPG, Jian Xia Qi Yuan 3, on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘Completely inconsistent’ to 5 = ‘Completely consistent’), “I will select avatar based on my preferred face and figure.” “I will select avatar whose physical appearance is different from my own.” “I love collecting fashionable clothes to dress up my avatar in the game.” Cronbach’s alpha reliability estimate was 0.59.3.2.10 AgeParticipants were asked to indicate their age with the following choices, “12 years old or younger,” “13~18 years old,” “19~24 years old,” “25~29 years old,” “30~40 years old,” “40 years old or older”. The results are recoded into a continuous variable, age.3.2.11 Video game experienceParticipants were asked to choose how many years they have played video games from the following choices, “less than 1 year,” “1~3 years,” “4~5 years,” “6~10 years,” and “more than 10 years.” The results are recoded into a continuous variable, years of playing video games.3.2.12 Education
14Participants were asked to indicate their education from the following choices, “primary school or lower,” “middle school to high school,” “college,” “graduate school or above,” “more than 10 years.” The results are recoded into a continuous variable, years of education.3.2.13 OccupationParticipants were asked to indicate their occupation from the following choices, “student,” “office worker,” “retired,” “unemployed,” and “other”. 4 ResultsT-tests were used to test whether there were significant differences between actual self and ideal self in terms of agreeableness, extraversion, and appearance. As can be seen in Table 2, results showed that the ideal agreeableness ( M = 3.74, SD = 0.70 ) was significantly higher than the actual agreeableness ( M = 3.46, SD = 0.67 ), t (322) = 9.89, p < 0.001. The ideal extraversion ( M = 3.73, SD = 0.75 ) was significantly higher than the actual extraversion ( M = 2.89, SD = 0.84 ), t (322) = 16.99, p < 0.001. The ideal appearance ( M = 3.75, SD = 0.76 ) was significantly higher than the actual appearance ( M = 2.71, SD = 0.77), t (322) = 19.87, p < 0.001.TaAle 2 T-test results of ideal self and actual differences of helpfulness, sociaAility, appearance, and achievement.VariablesIdeal self Actual selfdf tM SD M SDAgreeableness 3.79 0.70 3.46 0.67 322 9.89***Extraversion 3.73 0.75 2.89 0.84 322 16.99***Appearance 3.75 0.76 2.71 0.77 322 19.88****p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.Next, correlations were run between ideal agreeableness, ideal extraversion, ideal appearance, actual agreeableness, actual extraversion, actual appearance, game agreeableness, game extraversion and game appearance. Table 3 showed the mean, standard deviation of each variable. Table 4 showed the correlation between perceived actual self, ideal self, and behavior in the video game.TaAle 3 Descriptive statistics.M SDActual Agreeableness 3.46 0.67Actual Extraversion 2.89 0.84Actual Appearance 2.71 0.77Ideal Agreeableness 3.79 0.70Ideal Extraversion 3.73 0.75Ideal Appearance 3.75 0.76Game Agreeableness 3.65 0.61Game Extraversion 3.33 0.76Game Appearance 3.77 0.76TaAle 4 The correlation Aetween perceived actual self, ideal self, and Aehavior in the video gameBehaviorAgreeableness Extraversion AppearanceActual selfAgreeableness 0.52*** - -Extraversion - 0.25** -Appearance - - 0.01Ideal selfAgreeableness 0.44** - -Extraversion - 0.22** -Appearance - - 0.22***p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, n=323.The hypotheses were tested using three separate regression analyses. H1 predicted that the characters one play in MMORPG will be more consistent with one’s ideal self in terms of agreeableness than one’s actual self. Regression was run with actual agreeableness and ideal agreeableness as predictor variables and game agreeableness as criterion variable. As can be seen in Table 5, results showed that both actual agreeableness and ideal agreeableness were significantly related to related to game agreeableness. Contrary to our hypothesis, results showed that actual agreeableness was more closely related to game agreeableness ( β = 0.40, p < 0.001 ) than ideal agreeableness ( β =0.20, p < 0.001 ). H1 was rejected.TaAle 5 Regression analyses of actual agreeaAleness, ideal agreeaAleness predicting agreeaAleness in the video game.Predictor Variables β actual agreeableness 0.40*** ideal agreeableness 0.20***R2 0.30n 320*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
15Di WANG Does Avatar Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Game Reflect Ideal Self or Actual Self?H2 predicted that the characters one play in MMORPG will be more consistent with their ideal self in terms of extraversion than their actual self. Regression was run with actual extraversion and ideal extraversion as predictor variables and game extraversion as criterion variable. As can be seen in Table 6, results showed that both actual extraversion and ideal extraversion were significantly related to related to game extraversion. Contrary to our hypothesis, results showed that actual extraversion was more closely related to game extraversion ( β = 0.19, p < 0.001 ) than ideal extraversion ( β = 0.15, p < 0.01). H2 was rejected.TaAle 6 Regression analyses of actual extraversion, ideal extraversion predicting extraversion in the video game.Predictor Variables β actual extraversion 0.19*** ideal extraversion 0.15**R2 0.08n 320*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.H3 predicted that the characters one play in MMORPG will be more consistent with their ideal self in terms of appearance than their actual self. Regression was run with actual appearance and ideal appearance as predictor variables and game appearance as criterion variable. As can be seen in Table 7, results showed that ideal appearance was significantly related to game appearance ( β = 0.23, p < 0.001 ) while actual appearance was not significantly related to game appearance ( β = 0.04, p > 0.05 ). H3 was accepted.TaAle 7 Regression analyses of actual appearance, ideal appearance predicting appearance in the video game. Predictor Variables β actual appearance 0.04 ideal appearance 0.23***R2 0.05n 320*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.5 DiscussionOur data suggest that in the MMORPG game, Jia Xia Qing Yuan 3, a player’s behavior reflected both his/her actual self and ideal self in terms of agreeableness and extraversion. This finding was consistent with previous studies on online groups, which suggests that in some cases the online self is an amalgamation of their actual and ideal selves[23~ 24]. We can come to the conclusion that the virtual self is a somewhat idealized actual self in terms of agreeableness and extraversion. C o n t r a r y t o o u r h y p o t h e s e s , f o r b o t h agreeableness and extraversion, actual self explained more of one’s behavior in the game than ideal self. The reason for this may be that agreeableness and extraversion were personality factors that were not easily felt while playing MMORPG games. For some players, the sole purpose of playing MMORPG games is entertainment. Making new friends and helping others were not in their minds while playing games. Thus, they did not consider using MMORPG games as a way of making new friends or enhance one’s morality by helping others. Their behaviors in the game reflected more of their actual self in reality than their ideal self.In terms of appearance, results showed that one’s ideal self was significantly related one’s behavior in MMORPG games while one’s actual self was not significantly related to one’s behavior in the games. Appearance is easy to change in MMORPG games. One does not need much time, money or effort to change the appearance of their avatars in the game. Thus constructing an avatar whose appearance reflects one’s ideal self is common practice in the games. Due to the anonymity of the virtual world, one does not have to construct their avatars according to one’s own appearance. For instance, a thin player may choose an avatar that is more muscular than he is. A male player could choose a female avatar to explore what it feels like to be a girl. Thus, one’s actual appearance may not be related to their avatar appearances in the MMORPG games. This finding is consistent with Dunn and Guadagno (2011)’s study, which found that men and women generally selected avatars consistent with ideal male and female bodies [3].
16Several limitations of the study needs to be considered. First, our survey was limited to players of Jian Xia Qi Yuan 3, thus the results may not be generalized to other MMORPG players. Second, the survey was an online survey that is based on self-report. Participants may not accurately recall their behaviors in the game. Future research could address these problems by using the experiment method. By bringing participants in the lab and monitoring their actual playing of several games, researchers could more accurately record participants’ behavior in the games and participants may pay more attention to the survey in the lab than in other environments.Despite these limitations, this study contributes to the literature by providing new evidence to the question — whether avatar behaviors in MMORPG are more consistent with one’s ideal self or actual self. When studying avatar characters, previous studies have mostly asked respondents to self-report their avatar character to compare with their self-reported actual self and ideal self (Bessiere, Seay, & Kiesler, 2007). However, using self-report to evaluate actual self, ideal self and avatar character all together may prime respondents to compare the three variables. Thus, instead of directly ask about respondents’ avatar character, this study asked a few questions to measure avatar behaviors to compare with one’s actual self and ideal self. As avatar character is not directly asked, respondents are not forced to compare the three, and therefore the reported avatar behaviors may reflect more of the avatar character than directly asked.To sum up, the resul ts from the present study showed that in terms of agreeableness and extraversion, both one’s actual self and ideal self are reflected in the virtual self in the MMORPGs, with actual self played a more important role than ideal self. 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17Di WANG Does Avatar Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Game Reflect Ideal Self or Actual Self?and personality predictors of avatar-self discrepancy. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 97-106. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.08.015[23] Lawson, K. (2000). Beyond corporeality: the virtual self in postmodern times. Journal of Psychological Practice, 6, 35-43.[24] McKenna, K.Y.A., & Bargh, J. (2000). Plan 9 from cyberspace: the implications of the Internet for personality and social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 57-75.學術活動澳科大社會和文化研究所 辦“明確水域管理範圍及陸地界線對澳門的意義”座談會由澳門基金會贊助，澳門科技大學社會和文化研究所主辦的“明確水域管理範圍及陸地界線對澳門的意義”座談會於2016年1月11日下午在澳門科技大學A501會議室舉行。座談會出席嘉賓包括澳門科技大學協理副校長兼社會和文化研究所所長龐川教授，澳門經濟建設協進會楊道匡理事長，澳門大學澳門研究中心林廣志學術總監，澳門理工學院李略副教授，澳門科技大學法學院助理院長黃明健副教授。國務院常務會議通過新的《中華人民共和國澳門特別行政區行政區域圖（草案）》，明確澳門將擁有八十五平方公里水域管理範圍和新陸地界線，充分體現中央政府對澳門支持，為澳門的發展帶來更大的機遇。澳門科技大學社會和文化研究所組織此次座談會，與會學者暢談明確水域管理範圍及陸地界線對澳門的意義。龐川協理副校長表示，這次中央明確了水域範圍，避免以前因界限不清導致與鄰近地區的管轄範圍重疊的問題，有助於澳門政府更好地管理好水域。劃定水域管轄範圍後，有助澳門內部更暢順地協調，徹底解決鴨涌河和內港的問題。此次劃定的水域屬於近海淺水域，特區政府可以規劃發展濱海休閒旅遊的元素，並借鑒舟山群島等發展海洋經濟的經驗，開發適合本地水域的海洋經濟。龐川指出特區政府把中央此次劃定水域的政策要用好用足，在管理上積累經驗，在法律上不斷完善，發展好現有水域，促進經濟多元發展，發展更多元的海洋經濟形式。楊道匡理事長指出，對澳門特區政府來說，無論從城市建設和社會經濟發展的範疇看，明確習慣水域管理範圍最重要和最實際的作用，就是拓展澳門城市規模，為長遠以及多元發展提供更廣闊的空間。在明確澳門水域範圍之後，不僅港口、水域與海事有關的權利責任和義務將更為清晰。從城市規劃建設角度來看，一些長期擱置的舊城區開發利用問題應該也可以順勢而解，尤其可以推動內港和路環沿岸一帶地段的重建開發。澳門區域合作的積極取態應該配合國家開拓海洋經濟的發展新策略，主動聯手與粵港的合作，共同建設環珠江口灣區“藍色產業帶”。林廣志學術總監指出，落實水域管理權，再一次體現了一國兩制的制度優勢及其不斷發展的可能性；對澳門建設成為濱海城市，改善人居及旅遊環境具有戰略意義。同時，對澳門發展世界旅遊休閒中心及經濟適度多元發展提供了新空間和新場所，而海洋經濟的發展也具可能性，對建立新型粵澳合作關係提供了新的可能。李略副教授認為，明確水域管理範圍及陸地界線，顯示“單一制國家”體制下一國兩制的巨大優勢，是澳門產業適度多元的有力基礎。落實水域管理範圍，對澳門既是利好，也是責任，管好用好是關鍵。黃明健助理院長指出，澳門是經濟發達的國際化城市，海洋文化深厚，與香山文化一脈相承，使澳門創造、積累了大量的海洋文化，形成了建設海洋文化產業的基礎。用優劣分析法（SWOT）對澳門建設海洋文化產業政策進行分析，其優勢是具有優越的地理位置，豐富的海洋文化資源，雄厚的經濟實力；劣勢是海洋文化產業基礎薄弱；機遇是中央政府的大禮，明確水域管理範圍；威脅則是海洋生態環境破壞。
18第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 Received 7 Jan. 2016; Revised 18 Mar. 2016*Corresponding author.Yu GOU, PhD, Assistant professor of Faculty of Humanities and Arts. Research Area:Computer-mediated Communication and Crisis Management.E-mail: yuguo@must.edu.mo, Tel: 00853-88971927/65301158 The Relationship Between Social Network Site Use and Perceived Social Capital: A Mutual Influence ModelYu GUO( Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau Unviersity of Science and Technolgy, Macau, China )AAstract: This study tests the mutual influence between social network site (SNS) use and perceived social capital by using data collected from a sample of 998 loyal SNSs users in China. Results first confirm previous findings, suggesting SNS use for social and informational purpose increases two types of social capital while SNS use for entertainment and recreational purpose decreases bonding social capital. More importantly, this study assumes that how people perceive their social ties will cause their SNS use. Results of structural equation modeling demonstrate satisfactory fit indices, supporting the role of perceived weak ties in predicting SNS use. Findings of this study are expected to contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of SNS use.eywords: Social network site use; Perceived social capital; Mutual influence社交網站使用行為與社會資本：基於相互作用模型的實證分析郭 羽（澳門科技大學人文藝術學院，澳門）摘要： 本研究通過對中國998位忠實社交媒體用戶的實證數據分析，探析社會媒體使用行為與社會資本之間的相互作用關係。分析結果顯示，基於信息社交功能的社交網站使用行為將會增加個體的“結合型社會資本＂和“橋接型社會資本＂，而基於娛樂功能的使用行為則會降低用戶的“結合型社會資本＂。更為重要的是，本研究的結構方程模型結果也發現個體所感知的“橋接型社會資本＂會同時影響其社交網站的使用程度。關鍵詞： 社交網站使用；社會資本感知；相互影響0 IntroductionMyriad studies in the field of computer-mediated communication (CMC) have investigated the association between social network sites (SNSs) and interpersonal relationships. Most of them follow a dominant framework that emphasizes the role of SNS use in predicting individuals’ social ties [1]. However, some communication scholars argue that the focus on identifying cause and effect regarding media use will limit our understanding of the dynamic
19Yu GUO The Relationship Between Social Network Site Use and Perceived Social Capital: A Mutual Influence Modelrelationship between them [2, 3]. They stepped beyond the typical framework and provided evidence for the mutual influence between media consumption and its effects [2~3]. Considering social media research, very few studies have paid attention to how individuals’ social ties in turn strengthen media use, which highlights the need for further investigations on their relationship. Given the above, this study suggests mutual influence between individuals’ SNS use and their social ties. Specifically, besidethe effect of SNS use on perceived social capital, we assume perceived social capital will show potential power to contribute to SNS use. Insights are drawn from the social cognitive theory (SCT), which concentrates on the acquisition of behavior patterns [4]. According to SCT, people learn certain behavior through observing their environment. For most people, family members, friends, colleagues, etc. constitute their everyday environment [5]. As such, individuals’ social ties can be seen as an environmental factor to influence SNSs behaviors. Numerous studies have confirmed that SNS use is able to increase individual-level social capital [6~8]. We suggest that the relational gains could be incentives that promote people’s continuous use of SNSs. As such, SNS use may be the outcome of people’s relationship networks. Especially when more innovative applications have emerged, people tend to expect social media can facilitate greater improvements in their social lives. The social-cognitive perspective allows us to establish a structured model to explore how perceived social ties contribute to SNS use. Our results of path analysis show satisfactory model fit and demonstrate the salient role of perceived weak ties in predicting SNS use. We expect this study will provide both theoretical and methodological insights for future social media research. 1 Theoretical Basis1.1 Individual-Level Social CapitalThe concept of social capital was initially proposed by sociologists [9~10] and expanded by Putnam [11] and Lin [12]. As a multi-level concept, the definition of social capital was differentiated among social science researchers. Generally, it is known as the benefit built within group members and developed from social networks. The individual-level social capital has been widely invited to research associated with interpersonal relationships. Putnam [11] suggested to understand social capital from three aspects: a) social capital is tightly related to community members’ attitude and value of mutual trust, reciprocity, and cooperation; b) social capital is the important part of social structure which will promote civic engagement; c) social capital is generated within particular social networks. Considering different patterns of interpersonal relationships, Putnam [13] classified the individual-level social capital into two types: bridging social capital and bonding social capital. Bridging social capital refers to weak ties among individuals, which leads to actual benefits such as useful information. Bonding social capital refers to strong ties, for instance, relationships with intimate friends and family members. Its benefits can be physical succor, financial support, emotional cares, etc.1.2 Effect of Social Network Site Use on Social CapitalExtensive discussions have been focused on how engagement in cyber communities affects individuals’ real-world relations. Both positive and negative effects have been argued in relevant research. Early findings supported that social media use could increase the possibility of activating potential relationships [14], and the more people use social media the more likely they are to experience connectedness [15]. As individuals’ social media activities become more diverse and complex than before, indicators of general use such as hours [16] and frequency are considered to lack explanatory power. Research on the outcomes of Internet use showed that individuals’ social relations varied according to different purposes of use [17]. Based on previous findings, Guo et al. [8] examined the effect of SNS use on perceived social capital by analyzing data collected from international students. They found two functions of SNS use, suggesting SNS use
20for social and informational purpose (SIF function) greatly increased perceived bridging social capital, whereas SNS use for entertainment and recreational purpose (ERF function) showed no significant effect on either bridging or bonding social capital. Their findings implied that the social and informational use of SNSs would play a bigger role in interpersonal relationships, which needed to be investigated with a more representative sample.1.3 A Social-Cognitive PerspectiveSocial network site (SNS) shares a variety of technical features brought by the development of information and communications technologies (ICTs), providing a vast and vital platform for interpersonal interactions. SNSs bring many benefits to daily communication, such as letting people keep in touch with others and stay informed about the world. The advantages of SNSs have greatly enriched people’s social life. Given this, we assume that the more social relations people think they have, the more likely they are to use SNSs to facilitate their improvement of relationships. That is to say, people’s perception of social relations could also be their reason to use SNSs. Explanation could be found from the social cognitive theory (SCT), which is well known as a theory of behavior change, concentrating on the acquisition of behavior patterns [18]. The major proposition of SCT concerns the reciprocal relationships among the contextual, personal, and behavioral factors that act upon behavior change [4]. It emphasizes that people can observe and learn from the environment to evaluate their abilities, set goals, and behave. From this perspective, Chiu, Hsu and Wang [19] claim that an individual’s social network could be an important environmental factor that shapes his or her behavior, because for most people, family members, friends, colleagues, etc. constitute their everyday environment and influence their interpretation of the environment. They conducted empirical study to predict knowledge sharing in virtual communities and supported the predictive power of social ties. Following previous findings, this study attempts to further examine the effect of interpersonal relationships on online activity in a social media context. We introduce two key concepts of SCT, perceived self-efficacy and outcome expectation, which are considered to have the closest association with and strongest impact on behavior [20]. Perceived self-efficacy refers to an individual’s confidence in his or her abilities of doing a certain behavior, and outcome expectation refers to what he or she expects from the behavior. The two factors are supposed to mediate the effect of perceived social capital on SNS use, because individuals’ sense of social ties could induce more confidence and higher expectation to use SNSs for improving the relationships. 1.4 The Present StudyThis study first attempts to add empirical evidence to early findings by examining the effect of SNS functions on individual-level social capital. The following research question and hypotheses were proposed:RQ1: How SNS use influence users’ perceived social capital?H1: SNS use for social and informational purpose will increase users’ perceived social capital.H2: SNS use for entertainment and recreational purpose will make no significant contribution to users’ perceived social capital.Furthermore, we suggest individuals’ perceived social capital would in turn contribute to their SNS use. From the social-cognitive perspective, a person’s sense of environment could greatly get the person motivated to conduct a certain behavior [21]. For instance, the stronger an individual feels being connected, the more likely the person is to use SNSs, because the convenience and easy accessibility of SNSs are expected to facilitate the maintenance and improvement of relations. People could also envision various benefits of using social network services as long as they realize the advantages. In this process, his or her confidence in managing the using behavior and expectation of the outcomes serve as mediators [20]. Therefore, to explore the potential impact of social ties on SNS use, this study assumed a strengthening role of perceived social capital and proposed:
21Yu GUO The Relationship Between Social Network Site Use and Perceived Social Capital: A Mutual Influence ModelRQ2: How users’ perceived social capital contributes to their SNS use?H3: Perceived social capital will increase users’ intensity of SNS use through the mediation of perceived self-efficacy.H4: Perceived social capital will increase users’ intensity of SNS use through the mediation of outcome expectation.2 Methods2.1 Data CollectionData used in this study were collected via an online survey among Chinese SNSs users between September 10 to 13, 2013. The questionnaire was posted on a web survey platform organized by a research institute. The sample consisted of 1003 adults (over 18 years old), and it was representative of the China adult population as reported in the 2013’s data from National Bureau of Statistics of China [22]. The completion rate is 35.1%. After filtering respondents who didn’t have desire to use social media next year, 998 respondents were left and seen as loyal SNSs users. There are 490 male (49.1%) and 508 female (50.9%) respondents in the final sample set with an average age of 33.78 years old. Generally speaking, descriptive results indicated that Chinese Internet users spent an average of 28.9 hours per week online and showed a high level of Internet use frequency (M=5.79, SD=0.53, 1=less often and 6=several times a day).2.2 MeasuresScales developed by Guo et al. [8] were adapted to measure functions of SNS use in this study. Five items were used to assess the instrumental purpose of SNS use and five items were used to assess the recreational purpose of SNS use. All items were rated on 7-point scales (1=strongly disagree and 7=strongly agree). Two components were extracted by factor analysis, which were consistent with the two-factor structure of SNS functions found by previous study [8]. Therefore, the two factors obtained by this study, which explained approximately 59.4% of the variance, were also labeled social and informational function (SIF, 5 items, α=0.81) and entertainment and recreational function (ERF, 5 items, α=0.78).Intensity of SNS use was measured by a combination of 6 items adopted from previous studies[1] that describing the daily use of SNSs (see Table 1). The first item regarding the time length of SNS use per day was rated on a 5-point scale (1=10-30 minutes, 2=31-60 minutes, 3=1-2 hours, 4=2-3 hours, 5=more than 3 hours). The following 5 items regarding the habits of SNS use were rated on 7-point scales (1=strongly disagree and 7=strongly agree). The Internet Social Capital Scale (ISCS) [23] was adopted and modified to measure perceived social capital. All items were rated on 7-point scales (1=strongly disagree and 7=strongly agree). As shown in Table 2, 7 items measured perceived bridging social capital (α=0.93) and 6 items measured perceived bonding social capital (α=0.87). To introduce and examine a social-cognitive model, 6 items measuring perceived self-efficacy (α=0.86) regarding SNS use and 8 items measuring outcome expectation were adopted from previous studies [17~18]. Two components of outcome expectation were extracted through factor analysis, labeled social outcomes (4 items, α=0.83) and novel outcomes (4 items, α=0.80) respectively. All items were rated on 7-point scales (1=strongly disagree and 7=strongly agree) (see Table 3).3 ResultsWe first conducted multiple regression analysis to test the effect of SNS functions on perceived social capital. Gender, age, income, educational level, and indicators of general Internet use (hours and frequency of Internet use) were controlled. Results in Table 4 show that the more individuals use SNS for SIF function the more social capital they believe they will get (perceived bridging social capital, β=0.45, p<0.001; perceived bonding social capital, β=0.36, p<0.001). SNS use for ERF function shows no significant effect on perceived bridging social capital but significantly decreases perceived bonding social capital (β=-0.15, p<0.001). Therefore, H1 was
22supported while H2 was partially supported.To answer the second research question and test the hypotheses, we performed structural equation modeling (SEM) by using AMOS 21.0. Chi-square value is reported as an index of model adequacy, where a nonsignificant value suggests good model fit. Although the value of chi-square is sensitive to sample size [5], when the sample size exceeds 200 and other indices indicate acceptable model fit, the significance of chi-square value can be disregarded [20]. Moreover, the comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) are reported. CFI and TLI values equal to or larger than 0.90, SRMR value equal to or less than 0.05, and RMSEA value less than 0.08 indicate good fit. As presented in Figure 1, the resulting model shows satisfactory fit: X2 (3)=13.067, p-value=0.004, n=998>200, CFI=0.996, TLI=0.978, RMSEA=0.058 ( 9 5 % C I = 0 . 0 2 8 ~ . 0 9 2 ) , S R M R = 0 . 0 1 4 . T h e standardized regression estimates showed that perceived self-efficacy (β=0.14, p<0.001) and outcome expectation (β=0.49, p<0.001) directly increased intensity of SNS use; however, neither perceived bridging social capital nor perceived bonding social capital showed direct effect. As sources of individuals’ efficacy beliefs, perceived bridging social capital largely contributed to perceived self-efficacy (β=0.49, p<0.001) and outcome expectation (β=0.58, p<0.001), and perceived bonding social capital only contributed to perceived self-efficacy (β=0.12, p<0.001). Regarding the indirect effects, results showed that perceived bridging social capital positively affected intensity of SNS use through perceived self-efficacy, b=0.07, p<0.01, as well as through outcome expectation, b=0.28, p<0.01. However, perceived self-efficacy and outcome expectation didn’t show significant mediation effect on the relationship between perceived bonding social capital and intensity of SNS use. Therefore, H3 and H4 were supported in terms of the effect of perceived weak ties. TaAle 1. Questionnaire items measuring intensity of SNS useItem M SDSocial Media Intensity (SMI)In the past week, on average, approximately how many minutes per day have you spent on your most preferred SNS?2.67 1.26I find myself using SNS about the same time each day. 5.20 1.33Checking my SNS account is part of my usual routine. 5.88 1.13I would miss SNS if I could no longer go online. 5.77 1.19I would be sorry if the SNS was shut down. 5.92 1.12I feel out of touch when I haven’t logged onto SNS for a while. 5.57 1.29Social and Informational Function (SIF)I’m likely to use my most preferred SNSto get immediate knowledge of big news events around world 5.68 1.01to find a wealth of information 5.84 0.92to get peer support from others 4.99 1.27to find something to talk about 5.16 1.23to meet new people who have similar interest as me 5.50 1.07Entertainment and Recreational Function (ERF)I’m likely to use my most preferred SNSto use recreational applications or play games 4.58 1.47to hear music or watch video I like 5.00 1.27to relieve boredom 5.28 1.2to find a way to pass the time 4.67 1.46to feel less lonely 4.65 1.47TaAle 2. Questionnaire items measuring individual-level social capitalItem M SDPerceived Bridging Social Capital Interacting with people makes me interested in things that happen outside. 5.49 0.94Interacting with people makes me want to try new things. 5.57 0.91Interacting with people makes me interested in what people unlike me are thinking.5.56 0.91Talking with people makes me curious about other places in the world. 5.56 0.93Interacting with people reminds me that everyone in the world is connected.5.53 0.99I am willing to spend time to support general civic activities. 5.47 1.07Interacting with people brings me new people to talk to. 5.58 0.93Perceived Bonding Social CapitalThere are several people I trust who can help me solve problems. 5.52 0.98There is someone I can turn to for advice when making very important decisions.5.57 0.93When I feel lonely, there are several people I can talk to. 5.39 0.99If I needed an emergency loan of 1000 RMB, I know someone I can turn to. 5.54 1.13People I interact with would be good job references for me. 5.37 1.07People I interact with would help me fight an injustice. 5.08 1.16
23Yu GUO The Relationship Between Social Network Site Use and Perceived Social Capital: A Mutual Influence ModelTaAle 3. Questionnaire items measuring perceived self-efficacy and outcome expectation of SNS useItem M SDPerceived Self-efficacyI have confidence in my ability to understand the information on SNS. 5.35 0.98I have confidence in my ability to understand how to use different applications on SNS.5.26 1.26I have confidence in my ability to search information on SNS. 5.56 1.00I have confidence in my ability to generate various formats of contents on SNS.5.72 0.98I have confidence in my ability to evaluate the credibility of information from SNS.5.45 1.00I have confidence in my ability to identify rumors or unreal contents on SNS.5.27 1.07Outcome ExpectationI will get peer support by using SNS. 4.99 1.27I will find something to talk about by using SNS. 5.17 1.22I will stay in touch with people I know by using SNS. 5.67 0.98I will know new people by using SNS. 5.51 1.06I will get knowledge by using SNS. 5.68 1.01I will find a wealth of information by using SNS. 5.84 0.91I will keep a record of my life by using SNS. 5.48 1.09I will figure out what has happened around me by using SNS. 5.59 0.95Figure 1. The resulting social-cognitive model that predicts intensity of SNS use (*** p<0.001)TaAle 4. Multiple regression predicting perceived social capitalPredictorBonding Social CapitalBridging Social Capitalβ t-value β t-valueStep 1 Gender 0.04 1.13 0.13*** 4.02 Age -0.19*** -5.58 -0.14*** -4.10 Income 0.17*** 5.00 0.20*** 5.80Education 0.01 0.22 0.01 0.38 Hours 0.03 0.84 0.05 1.48Frequency 0.07* 2.33 0.02 0.64Step 2 Gender -0.02 -0.56 0.07** 2.60 Age -0.12*** -3.72 -0.06 -1.85 Income 0.05 1.40 0.06 1.83Education 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.34 Hours -0.01 -0.29 0.01 0.44Frequency 0.04 1.31 -0.02 -0.60 SMI 0.19*** 5.53 0.16*** 4.89 SIF 0.35*** 9.68 0.39*** 10.99 ERF -0.03 -0.79 0.02 0.71R2 0.25 0.29Note: * p<0.05; ** p <0.01; *** p <0.0014 DISCUSSIONOver the past decade, the fast growth of China’s social media market has coincided with Chinese people’s increasing fanaticism in using such convenient communication tools. Unlike elsewhere in the world, the ecosystem of China’s social media market has been developed from the prosperity of many homegrown digital media platforms. Due to the Internet censorship that sets boundaries between the mainland China and the outside world, a unique cyber environment has been established. Many popular worldwide social networking services, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are kept out of reach by the Great Firewall of China. However, this censorship has not hindered the progress of new media technologies in China; instead, it has created golden opportunities for local companies to develop domestic social media platforms that are cultivating their users. By the end of 2014, there were 620 millions social media users in mainland China, and three-quarters of them checked their social media accounts at least four times per week and spent approximately 30 minutes each time of checking. These numbers demonstrate
24how indispensable social media are in Chinese people’s daily lives. However, unlike findings in the western contexts that suggest a stronger influence of social media use in improving weak social relations than in improving strong ones [1], this study in the Chinese context claims that social media use could significantly contribute to both bridging (β= 0.16, p < 0.001) and bonding social capital (β= 0.19, p < 0.001). Explanations for these differences could be found in the characteristics of Chinese society and the Chinese way of socializing. Influenced by traditional Chinese culture, Chinese people normally expand their “guan xi” (social relations) through networks of family members and relatives. Thus, in the traditional Chinese social model, obtaining specific social resources involves expanding one’s strong connections through social activities. According to traditional Chinese social practices, it seems that real world interactions would be more important than online communication. And as social mobility increases, the geographic distance between people also inevitably increases, making the economical and networked communication tools essential channels for many Chinese people to stay connected. In addition, social media also provide a new avenue that allows people to present an ideal self. It has been found that self-disclosure on social media could expand individuals’ circles of friends, enhance their feelings of intimacy, and facilitate their development of romantic relations. Therefore, social media could be a good choice to supplement users’ social resources and to enlarge their existing relational networks.Theoretically, developed from previous research, this study proposed the mutual influence between SNS use and individual-level social capital. By examining data collected from a representative sample of Chinese loyal SNSs users, results first confirmed a prevalent assumption that emphasizes the predictive power of social and informational purpose of use (SIF function) on social capital. The social and informational function is seen as built on a positive attitude to communicate. Individuals’ willingness to seek for connections may easily get them engaged in social networking services that are perceived helpful for enhancing social relations. In contrast, the entertainment and recreational purpose of use (ERF function) may prolong users’ time spent online [8], which may cause isolation from the real world. These remind us that people use social media for different purposes will generate different outcomes. Therefore, analyses of varied patterns of usership are expected to improve our understanding of social media effects.More importantly, inspired by the social cognitive theory, this study presented a new way of thinking concerning the relationship between SNS use and individual-level social capital. How individuals perceive interpersonal relationships could be the source of their confidence in managing social media and their expectation of the outcomes of social media use. Previous studies suggested that the two factors have the closest association with behavioral variables and strongest predicted effect on actions [28~31]. This study also statistically supported perceived self-efficacy and outcome expectation regarding SNS use as mediators in the effect of perceived social capital on intensity of use. Results of path analysis in this study suggested different paths between perceived weak ties and strong ties in affecting SNS use. First of all, both of the two types of social capital failed to show direct effect on SNS use. However, findings highlighted that the effect of perceived weak ties on SNS use was significantly mediated by perceived self-efficacy and outcome expectation. Individuals’ sense of weak ties tends to be more likely to motivate SNS use. Because, comparing with strong ties, people are probably reluctant to contribute too much to weak ties. Therefore, they may believe the online platform that easy to access will greatly facilitate the enhancement of weak ties, and have expectations of new benefits from the convenient online interactions. Despite insightful findings, there are several limitations should be acknowledged. The first limitation of this study relates to the components of SNS functions. The two-factor structure indicated
25Yu GUO The Relationship Between Social Network Site Use and Perceived Social Capital: A Mutual Influence Modelby factor analysis may not be strong enough to comprehensively illustrate the using patterns of SNS users. As the new media environment becomes more complex, the reasons for engaging in social media activities could be multifolded. Therefore, future studies are encouraged to develop the measurement of social media functions, which would contribute to a more thorough explanation of how people use social media. In addition, although results of this study didn’t support the predicted effect of ERF, the role of recreational use of social media is worth further investigation. For instance, within the contexts of online interactive gaming, or music and video sharing, increases in the degree of engagement may lead to a higher level of demand for informational and relational gains. As such, the recreational purpose of use could also influence interpersonal relations online and/or offline. Therefore, future studies may try to specify the using contexts to achieve more detailed predictions of social capital change in the new media environment.The second limitation relates to the measurement of perceived social capital. As the netizens population has reached 648 million, China probably owns the most energetic and promising market for social media. This constitutes the significance of investigating social media use in China. Therefore, instead of the universal scales, items that better fit the cultural context should be designed. Chinese people have a distinct way of socializing. Therefore, when examining the effect of social media use in the Chinese context, specific characteristics of interpersonal relationships among Chinese should be considered. Otherwise, even though the assumptions are statistically confirmed, results may not perfectly reflect the actual situation of the given context. Accordingly, when taking social capital as an environmental factor, it is more important to have a context-friendly measurement of perceived interpersonal relationship. The third limitation of this study relates to the proposed social-cognitive model. As exploratory in nature, this study only adopted key concepts of the social cognitive theory, perceived self-efficacy and outcome expectation. The model construction is unaccomplished because of the absence of personal factors, another set of determinants of behavior pattern [4]. Future research is encouraged to include both environmental and personal factors to establish a more comprehensive model. For instance, previous studies have invited self-construal and personality traits to predict self-presentation on SNSs [6]. Furthermore, it would be necessary to conduct dynamic research on the relationship between social media use and social capital, especially considering the examination of the mutual influence. Because analysis using cross-sectional data, like in this study, can indicate potential causal relationships but is not persuasive enough to determine the causation. Therefore, longitudinal analyses are suggested for future research.References [1] Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C. and Lampe, C. 2007. The benefits of Facebook “friends”: Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 4, 1143-1168.[2] Feldman, L., Myers, T. A., Hmielowski, J. D. and Leiserowitz, A. 2014. The mutual reinforcement of media selectivity and effects: Testing the reinforcing spirals framework in the context of global warming. Journal of Communication, 64, 4, 590-611.[3] Slater, M. D. 2007. 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26[13] Putnam, R. D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. Simon and Schuster, New York, NY.[14] Johnson, C. A. 2007. Social capital and the search for information: Examining the role of social capital in information seeking behavior in Mongolia. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 58, 6, 883-894.[15] Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J. and Schouten, A. P. 2006. Friend networking sites and their relationship to adolescents’ well-being and social self-esteem. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 9, 5, 584-590.[16] Robinson, J. P. 1997. Time for Life: The Surprising Ways Americans Use Their Time. Penn State University Press, University Park, PA.[17] Weiser, E. B. 2001. The functions of Internet use and their social and psychological consequences. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 4, 6, 723-743.[18] Denler, H., Wolters, C. and Benzon, M. 2014. Social cognitive theory. Retrieved Feburary 23, 2015, from http://www.education.com/reference/article/social-cognitive-theory/.[19] Chiu, C.-M., Hsu, M.-H. and Wang, E. T. G. 2006. Understanding knowledge sharing in virtual communities: An integration of social capital and social cognitive theories. Decision Support Systems, 42, 3, 1872-1888.[20] Bandura, A. 1997. Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. Worth Publishers, New York, NY.[21] Bandura, A. 2001. Social Cognitive Theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3, 265-299.[22] NBS. 2013. Population of China. National Bureau of Statistics of China, Beijing. [23] Williams, D. 2006. On and off the’Net: Scales for social capital in an online era. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11, 2, 593-628.[24] oo, Y.-J., Bong, M. and Choi, H.-J. 2000. Self-efficacy for self-regulated learning, academic self-efficacy, and Internet self-efficacy in Web-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48, 2, 5-17.[25] LaRose, R. and Eastin, M. S. 2004. A social cognitive theory of Internet uses and gratifications: Toward a new model of media attendance. Journal of Broadcast Electronic Media, 48, 3, 358-377.[26] Bollen, K. A. 1989. Structural Equations with Latent Variables. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.[27] Moss, S. 2009. Fit indices for structural equation modeling. Retrieved January 20, 2014, from http://www.psych-it.com.au/Psychlopedia/article.asp?id=277.[28] Hsua, M.-H., Jub, T. L., Yenc, C.-H. and Chang, C.-M. 2007. Knowledge sharing behavior in virtual communities: The relationship between trust, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 65, 153-169.[29] Prati, G., Pietrantoni, L. and Zani, B. 2011. A social-cognitive model of pandemic influenza H1N1 risk perception and recommended behaviors in Italy. Risk Analysis, 31, 4, 645-656.[30] Schwarzer, R. and Fuchs, R. 1995. Changing Risk Behaviors and Adopting Health Behaviors: The Role of Self-efficacy Beliefs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.[31] Schwarzer, R. and Fuchs, R. 1995. Changing Risk Behaviors and Adopting Health Behaviors: The Role of Self-efficacy Beliefs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.科研進展澳科大澳門藥物及健康應用研究院林偉基講座教授獲《分子》雜誌 出版紀念特刊表揚其科研成就國際科研雜誌《分子》將於本年2～12月出版紀念特刊，題為《介導過敏及自身免疫炎症的分子》，以表揚澳科大澳門藥物及健康應用研究院林偉基講座教授在此領域的科研成就。《分子》是一本國際性、同行評審及開放獲取的前沿科研雜誌，由瑞士多學科數碼出版機構 [Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute，（MDPI AG)，Switzerland] 發行，專注出版有機化學、藥物化學及天然產物的原創論文及綜述。這電子雜誌刊登論文以快速見著：投稿後24天內即有收錄（或退稿）決定，隨後平均在8天後刊出論文。現時它的SCI影響因子是2.416。林教授現時任職澳門科技大學健康科學學院副院長、科大醫院病理及臨床檢驗科室總監以及澳門藥物及健康應用研究院中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室研究員。林教授自1990年代領導的基礎及臨床醫學研究，範圍包括過敏病學及臨床免疫學、腎病學、血脂學、內分泌學、毒理學及中藥臨床測試。至今共發表論文超過550篇，被引用總次數超過12500，h指數達55。其中關於過敏病（過敏性鼻炎、哮喘及異位性皮炎）及自身免疫病（系統性紅斑狼瘡（SLE）及類風濕性關節炎）的文章超過140篇。在2008年，林教授獲國際臨床化學及檢驗醫學聯盟（IFCC） 頒授首屆檢驗醫學及病人服務卓越獎。同年他的一篇發現細胞因子IL-17介導SLE炎症的論文，在2011年被美國《臨床免疫》雜誌評為2006～2010年首5名被引用次數最多的原創科研報告。為表揚林教授的科研成就，《分子》雜誌將於本年出版的紀念特刊中，接受林教授研究領域《介導過敏及自身免疫炎症的分子》的原創論文或綜述的投稿。
27第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 明星高管“女强人”：董明珠形象的生產和接受黃微子1*，葉沐森2（1. 澳門科技大學人文藝術學院，澳門；2. 南方都市報，珠海）摘要： 企業高管的明星化是當代文化中的一個重要面向。董明珠是一個知名度高、個人形象鮮明的女性國企高管。對她的媒介文本進行分析，有助於理解她通過什麽樣的媒介策略、與哪些話語進行協商而參與建構了自身形象，進而理解當代中國文化中的一些重要表徵。對受眾所做的焦點小組訪談，則有助於理解這些形象的接受。本文揭示董明珠如何主要借助傳統媒體形塑了其幹練、强硬、無私、不近人情、追求宏大“政績＂的形象，“爲中國造奮鬥＂這種富國强兵式的情懷，以及爲平衡“女强人＂的標簽而凸顯的“母性＂的光輝。文章亦進一步解析這些形象何以在受眾中得到兩極化的評價。關鍵詞： 明星高管；董明珠；形象；接受Analyzing the CeleArity Superwoman: Production and Reception of the Images of Dong MingzhuWeizi HUANG1*, Musen YE2( 1. Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China ) ( 2. Southern Metropolis Daily, Zhuhai, China )AAstract: One significant dimension of contemporary culture is the celebrification of enterprise CEOs. Dong Mingzhu, who manages a state-owned enterprise, is a well-known female CEO with unique personality. Analyzing the media texts about her would be helpful for us to understand the images constructed through specific media strategies and discourses, which were important representations in contemporary China. Focus groups were also employed to study the reception of her images. This paper finds how the images of a capable, uncompromising, disinterested, ambitious and patriotic superwoman with maternal love were shaped mainly through traditional media. It also explains why these images received polarized comments.eywords: Celebrity enterprise CEO; Dong Mingzhu; Image; Reception收稿日期：2016-01-19；修訂日期：2016-03-14。*通訊作者：黃微子，女，博士，人文藝術學院助理教授，主要研究方向：媒體與文化研究。Email: wzhuang@must.edu.mo, Tel: 00853-889729610 引言現任格力電器董事長的董明珠是一個明星高管。現代明星起源於好萊塢影星制度[1]，明星高管的出現則是明星文化擴展的結果。[2]新媒體的發展更是令更多的平常人得以成名。[3]以當代中國的媒介景觀而言，明星大致可以分爲三大類：一類是由成熟的娛樂工業打造的演藝明星；一類是受媒體追捧的專業人士，如體育明星、文化明星[4]、明星高管等；還有一類是首先且主要通過自媒體成名的普通人，即所謂“草根明星”。這
34強烈批評董明珠的受訪者中，有人發表了有著明顯性別歧視的言論。受訪者 F：“董明珠如果是男人的話我也許會更佩服她的。因為我覺得我佩服的人應該是比我強的人，雖然董明珠比我強，但是我總覺得她是一個女人，而一個女人太把男人踩在腳下，我總覺得有些不舒服……所以，我對董明珠的感覺是覺得這個人確實很強大很優秀，但是無法從心裏把一個女人當作偶像對待。所以如果是同樣管理模式、同樣性格、同樣成績的一個男人，我會更敬佩他的。”4 總結董明珠的媒介形象是幾種力量協商的結果——董明珠本人、格力的廣告公關團隊、媒體和媒體人等等，在各自的話語體系之間角力。角力之後，董明珠在大衆媒介上呈現出幹練、强硬、無私、不近人情、追求宏大“政績”的形象，一種“爲中國造奮鬥”的富國强兵式的情懷。而這些基本上都聯繫著經典社會主義的話語和價值——科層體制、高度集權、强調生産和積累、抑制消費、崇尚軍事化。面對對於“女强人”的污名化和質疑，她幷不是急於否認自己作爲“女强人”的形象，相反，是對這一形象的自信接納。從她正當化自己全心全意投身事業的行爲選擇的論述來看，基本上是“婦女能頂半邊天”式的抹除性別差异的平等追求。這也是經典社會主義“婦女解放”的話語策略。董明珠這樣一種個人形象，既和她幾乎是共和國同齡人的成長背景有關，也契合她作爲國企領導人的身份，幷能令其獲得官方意識形態的贊許而爲企業和自身贏取發展空間。然而，上世紀九十年代初以來，隨著市場經濟的確立和消費主義的興起，隨著互聯網行業和虛擬經濟的繁榮，董明珠的形象和她對製造業的堅持，在年輕一輩看來，都顯得“老土”。與筆者研究的其他明星高管個案相比，董明珠雖然有著高知名度，在焦點小組受訪者心中的印象卻比較籠統，缺乏細節支撐，不夠栩栩如生。儘管有受訪者對其持正面態度，但主要是基於其成就而產生的敬佩，沒有強烈的身份認同或私人性的情感投射。“身為一個女人”，是董明珠被評判的起點，無論支持她的人，還是詬病她的人。相比之下，男性的明星高管並不必然被關注性別身份和私生活。不完整的家庭和“不顧家”的行為仍然是董明珠在男權社會性別分工之下面臨的最嚴重指摘。即使董明珠已經以對兒子的母性流露、以做家務的細節，試圖去平衡“女強人”形象所具有的負面效應，但是，對於那些男權思想堅固的受眾來說，仍然無濟於事。參 考 文 獻[1] Marshall, P. David. Celebrity and Power: Fame in Contemporary Culture. Minneapolis/London: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. McDonald, Paul. Star System, Hollywood’s Production of Popular Identity. New York: Columbia University Press. 2001.[2] Rojek, Chris. Celebrity. London: Reaktion Books, 2001. Turner, Graeme. Understanding Celebrity. London: Sage, 2004.[3] Turner, Graeme. Ordinary people and the media: The demotic turn. London: Sage, 2010.[4] 黃微子. 文化明星：知識分子與當代中國的文化生産場. 熱風學術（第五輯）.上海：上海人民出版社，2011: 179-197.[5] Khurana, Rakesh. Searching for a Corporate Savior: The Irrational Quest for Charismatic CEOs. Princeton University Press, 2002.[6] Davies, J. David. “China’s Celebrity Entrepreneurs: Business Models for ‘Success’.” //Louise Edwards and Elaine Jeffreys ed. Celebrity in China. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010: 193-216.[7] Milbourn, T. Todd. CEO reputation and stock-based compensation. Journal of Financial Economics, 2003,68:233-262.[8] Lee, SH. CEO Reputation: Who Benefits - the Firm or the CEO? SSRN Electronic Journal, 2007.[9] Francis, J, AH Huang, S Rajgopal et al. CEO Reputation and Earnings Quality. Contemporary Accounting Research, 2008, 25(1):109–147.[10] Malmendier, Ulrike and Geoffrey Tate. Superstar CEO. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2009, 124(4): 1593-1638.[11] 寶貢敏, 徐碧祥. 國外企業聲譽理論研究述評. 科研管理, 2007, 28(3): 98-107.[12] 姜濤. 企業家聲譽形成機理及其驅動因素研究──基於新的聲譽結構觀[D]. 杭州: 浙江大學, 2010.[13] 徐晉, 王愛民, 陳宏民. 考慮聲譽效應的風險投資控制權激勵機制. 管理工程學報, 2007, 21(3)：67﹣71.[14] 吳迪. 上市公司CEO聲譽與盈余管理程度的關係研究[D]. 大連: 大連理工大學, 2009.[15] Davies, J. David. “China’s Celebrity Entrepreneurs: Business Models for ‘Success’.” // Louise Edwards and Elaine Jeffreys ed. Celebrity in China. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010: 193-216.
36第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 抄襲的文化思辨嚴鴻基（澳門科技大學商學院，澳門）摘要： 中國歷代抄襲行爲不能簡單僵硬地被西方知識產權保護的思想定義為可恥或無價值。在西方，人的獨特性、創意和著作權等觀念形成時有其宗教與歷史淵源，而在中國歷史中文學的抄襲也有其獨特崇高的出發點，使歷代的模仿行為(包括自我抄襲和冒名之作)得到辯解。與現代沽名釣譽的抄襲行爲抗爭,我們必須要從自身的文化出發：諒解我國文化中抄襲行爲背後的動機,幷積極考慮分享與欣賞他人作品的文化價值在現代社會的可行性。最後本文提出一些在教育學術界中防止抄襲的原則。關鍵詞： 抄襲；學術剽竊；中國文化；中國價值觀；中國教育問題An Intellectual Inquiry into Plagiarism in Chinese CultureHongji YAN( Business School, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: This paper rejects the rigid and simplistic definition of Western intellectual copyrights to judge the historical Chinese copying of others as disgraceful or without its value. With her religious and historical origin, the Western notions of human uniqueness, creativity and copyrights have made plagiarism easy to define. A brief review of the historical account of plagiarism in China reveals the noble purpose of sharing and spreading the truth, making the literature copying defendable, including so-called self-plagiarism and publishing under the names of those well-known. However, to fight against the modern fishing for fame and credit, we should understand the motives behind the historical plagiarism under the Chinese context, and consider the feasibility of sharing one’s ideas and appreciating others’ work in today’s society obsessed with copyright-protection and commercial self-interest. The paper concludes by offering some principles to counter plagiarism in academic arena.eywords: Plagiarism; Academic Plagiarism; Chinese Culture; Chinese Traditional Values; Education Problems in China收稿日期：2016-01-19；修訂日期：2016-02-26。*通訊作者：嚴鴻基，男，博士，商學院助理教授。主要研究方向：商業倫理，道德教育。Email: hkim@must.edu.mo，Tel: 00853-88972844。人真是很矛盾：我們像很文明，但也野蠻；像很聰明，但也愚蠢；像很互（兼）愛，但也自私…… 趙煥明 香港世界宣明會總幹事0 引言“我這地方不是托兒所，而是大學。”這是美國一所大學的校長最近的一句話，暗指大學生應該長大了。他在大學的網站上說，“我們的文化只是教孩子專注自己的利益和自我崇拜。每當他們的感覺受傷時，他們就認為自己是受害者。任何人敢於挑戰他們，就是讓他們‘難受’，這些人就被稱為‘憎恨者’，‘頑固不化者’，‘壓迫者’和‘兇手’。” [1] 當然，這位校長的精警措辭是有背景原因的。現在美國的大學生都要求
43嚴鴻基 抄襲的文化思辨創意，支持智慧勞動成果，以及弘揚中國傳統的觀念，如一絲不苟的求學態度和辛勤勞動的美德，都是家庭，學校以及政府和整個社會應採取的措施。這可以通過思想教育和制度建設開始做起。 ● 克服文化中心論。有網友評論日本文化中受中國的影響程度時稱，“雖然處處能見到中國以及歐美文化的影子，卻已經完全是日本文化自己的樣子。這是在文化傳播中的借鑒與融合，而不是抄襲。[24]”在評論一件作品或意念是否抄襲時，我們有時在文化上固步自封，總以爲是別人或他國抄襲了自己的東西，卻不知那是一種進步的表現。 ● 評價和評審制度的改善：任何的評分制度都有優缺點，也不可能完全公平，但對作品（產出）的品質和過程進行的評核能做到公允，公眾的支持（包括學生師長）能使這些評審制度長期運作，那麼注重形式和結果以及剽竊的風氣就有可能改善。在發掘我國歷史文化中的抄襲的動機與方式後，我們發現中國現代抄襲行爲不能一刀切地被西方定義為可恥。古代的分享和切磋的精神不能被現代多含金錢血腥味的商業和學術剽竊所抹黑。現代的中國人反而應該考慮是否有必要弘揚古代大道之行的無私己，積極探討共享的文化價值觀在現代社會的適應性。版權的概念實則是為商業利益服務 , 而個人或企業動輒進行侵權訴訟，國與國之間時不時要發動制裁，其實根本就是變形的保護主義。當保護主義過了頭時，反而扼殺了改良創新的機會。以上的分析和建議僅供教育同道及社會人仕參考。總的來說，現代中國人擁有各種豐富的娛樂，他們似乎沒有空間也沒有時間製造創意的成果。當科技使抄襲的行為變成一種文化和做事的捷徑時，我們必須作出這樣的價值判斷：一個速食型的社會不會深究抄襲的文化含義，人們只圖快快地享樂，過份追求速度而不重視質的變化。因此，認真對待抄襲的行為關乎我們對人性的定位和對文明價值觀應有的取態。這不只是爲了除掉現代的國人陋習，更是在科技時代對中國文化的一次尋根和更新。參 考 文 獻[1] Samuels, A. (Dec 1, 2015). Oklahoma Wesleyan Univ. president: 'This is not a day care'. USA Today. Accessed Dec 11, 2015 from http://college.usatoday.com/2015/12/01/oklahoma-wesleyan-univ-president-this-is-not-a-day-care/[2] 臺灣學術倫理教育推廣資源中心. 不當的研究寫作：抄襲與剽竊[EB/OL].（2015-09-11）[2015-12-28].http://eplus.asia.edu.tw/assets/presentations/351/original/d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e.pdf.[3] 國家版權局版權管理司. 關於認定抄襲行為給青島市版權局的答覆[R]. 權司[1999]第6號.[4] 柳紅. 一個社會對待抄襲的態度決定著很多事項[EB/OL].（2013-4-26）[2015-12-28]. http://www.21ccom.net/articles/zgyj/gmht/article_2013042682202.html.[5] 楊佩玉.媒體抄襲，倫理崩壞[EB/OL].（2012-10-29）[2015-12-30]. http://www.orientaldaily.com.my/columns/mj11564.[6] 參見《關於認定抄襲行為給青島市版權局的答覆》。[7] 百度百科：指人類智力勞動產生的智力勞動成果所有權。它是依照各國法律賦予符合條件的著作者、發明者或成果擁有者在一定期限內享有的獨佔權利，一般認為它包括版權（著作權）和工業產權。版權（著作權）是指創作文學、藝術和科學作品的作者及其他著作權人依法對其作品所享有的人身權利和財產權利的總稱；工業產權則是指包括發明專利、實用新型專利、外觀設計專利、商標、服務標記、廠商名稱、貨源名稱或原產地名稱等在內的權利人享有的獨佔性權利。[8] 夏學理主編.文化創意產業概論. 臺北：五南文化，2008：99.[9] 雅虎知識. 我想問中國歷史上最著名的抄襲王是誰?[EB/OL].（2007-11-06）[2015-12-28]. https://hk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20071106000051KK04444.[10] 《史記正義》[11] 《世說新語 • 文學》[12] 張鳴.無所畏與無所謂.重慶：重慶出版社，2010.[13] 摩訶.原創和抄襲[EB/OL].（2011-04-23）[2016-02-24]. http://jysnow.pixnet.net/blog/post/29004503-原創和抄襲[14] 《禮記·禮運》。[15] 胡志剛.倫理類型的轉換與賽珍珠問題的性質——論“抄襲”問題的凸顯及其倫理類型前提[J].常州大學學報.2011.1（12.1）.[16] 朱宥勳.文學抄襲的三種類型[EB/OL].（2013-10-08）[2016-02-24]. https://zh-tw.facebook.com/notes/文學抄襲的三種類型/629787297062130/[17] 楊睿愷 .台日文化——模仿抄襲致敬？ [ E B / O L ] .（ 2 0 0 9 -05-30） [2016-02-24] . h t tp: / /cas tnet .nctu .edu. tw/castnet /article/1693?issueID=71[18] 百度知道. 如何理解“以人為本”的管理理念[EB/OL].（2013-12-06）[2016-01-02].http://zhidao.baidu.com/.[19] 百度百科. 創新思維[EB/OL].[2016-01-01]. http://baike.baidu.com.[20] IDEO總裁兼首席執行官蒂姆 • 布朗（Tim Brown）在夏季達沃斯峰會上接受騰訊財經專訪（2015年9月10日）。採訪片段來自http://finance.qq.com/a/20140911/005368.htm[21] 張惠琴，李俊儒，段惠.中國大學生“抄襲剽竊”概念實證研究
44[J].外語研究.2008，2（108）.[22] 百度知道. 小說如何判定抄襲與借鑒？[EB/OL].（2015-06-18）[2015-12-30]. http://zhidao.baidu.com/.[23] 互動百科. 抄襲文化[EB/OL]. [2015-12-30].www.baike.com.[24] 白兔卿.文化有無抄襲之說？日本的種種文化是抄襲中國還是一種文化的傳播？[EB/OL].（2015-07-28）/[2016-03-17].https://www.zhihu.com/question/33532171國際交流葡萄牙米尼奧大學校長訪澳科大雙方冀加強合作共培育人才葡萄牙米尼奧大學校長António Augusto Magalhães da Cunha一行於2016年3月2日到訪澳門科技大學，受到澳科大校長劉良講座教授、副校長姜志宏講座教授、副校長龐川教授、協理副校長孫建榮教授、資訊科技學院院長張渡教授及國際學院助理行政主任李寶貞的熱情歡迎。劉良校長向António Augusto Magalhães da Cunha校長簡單介紹了澳科大的發展概況，劉校長表示，大學年輕有活力並發展迅速，建校16年已成為兩岸四地最年輕的百強大學，一直重視教研並重及堅持國際化，會談中，雙方就學校特色及辦學理念等方面作交流，並表示冀加強彼此合作，如舉辦學生交流計劃，共同推動教育發展，培育更多優秀人才。會談後，嘉賓一行參觀了澳科大中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室，對實驗室齊全先進的設備表示讚賞。會談的嘉賓還包括：助理校長Carla Cristina Esteves Martins、校長辦公室主任Heliana Maria Pereira da Silva、高等教育輔助辦公室職務主管姚玉鳳女士等。NaresuanUniversity，Phitsanulok，Thailand副校長 訪科大冀加強雙方更緊密合作交流Naresuan University，Phitsanulok，Thailand一行在副校長ManupatLohithavy博士率領下於2016年2月18日到訪澳門科技大學，受到澳科大協理副校長姜志宏講座教授、科研管理處處長梁勇教授、科大醫院行政總監曾致慧及中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室白麗萍副教授的熱情接待。姜志宏協理副校長首先向ManupatLohithavy副校長簡單介紹了澳科大的發展概況，會談中，雙方更就學生情況及學院特色等方面作交流，並表示冀將來有更緊密合作，共同培育更多醫學界的優秀人才。會談後，嘉賓一行還參觀了澳科大中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室及科大醫院，對各項齊全的設備表示讚賞。參與會談的嘉賓還包括：藥學院SupawanPongpattannawut博士及製藥技術部SupawadeeParhira博士。California Institute of Integral Studies校長 訪澳科大讚揚澳科大發展迅速California Institute of Integral Studies校長Joseph Subbiondo一行於2016年4月8日下午到訪澳科大，獲得劉良校長、孫建榮協理副校長、中醫藥學院周華副院長及國際學院助理行政主任李寶貞女士熱情接待。會談中，劉校長先後介紹了澳科大近年來的整體發展、各學院特色和科研成果等，並指大學充分把握“品質、創新及效益”三個關鍵，開辦適合社會需求的課程，促進教科研等方面可持續發展。Joseph Subbiondo校長指澳科大雖然建校只有16年，已發展成為具代表性的大學，讚揚澳科大的發展成果。會後，周華副院長陪同Joseph Subbiondo校長一行參觀中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室（澳門科技大學伙伴實驗室）。是次到訪嘉賓還包括California Institute of Integral Studies副校長黃立新教授。
45第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 Received 22 Feb. 2016; Revised 15 Apr. 2016*Corresponding author: Jimin CHEN Annie, Lecturer of Department of General Education, Macau University of Science and Technology; MA in Translation Studies, University of Macau. Research area: Translation and Literary Studies.E-mail: jmichen@must.edu.mo; Tel: 00853-88972075/66947914Maintaining SuAtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) Ay Eileen Chang into EnglishJimin CHEN(Department of General Education, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China)AAstract: This paper focuses on the author’s reflective commentary on her translation of a Chinese short story Xin Jing ( Heart Sutra ) by Eileen Chang. The source text (hereinafter referred to as ST) depicts an ambiguous relationship between a father and his daughter. The translation is generally targeted at the English-speaking audience. The self-reflection section analyses the lexical choice (diction) of translating the expressions relevant to the subtle father-daughter relationship. The overall translation approach is basically literal translation, which is to achieve the ultimate faithfulness to the original text. The results of the author’s translation decision making, in other words the lexical choice solutions, contain the translator’s considerations of different aspects in relation to the context. The translation decision making process and the translation product will hopefully provide valuable data and have wider implications of future translation studies.eywords: Xin Jing ( Heart Sutra ); Eileen Chang; Self-reflection; Lexical choice; Diction; Translation decision making禁忌之邊——談英譯張愛玲《心經》中的不倫戀的選詞陳季敏（澳門科技大學通識教育部，澳門）摘要： 論文針對作者自譯張愛玲短篇小說《心經》過程中所碰到的選詞問題進行多角度探究與分析。小說中描繪隱諱又大膽的父女之愛吸睛的同時，也為英譯這段不倫戀帶來意外的挑戰——特別是翻譯用詞如何準確而微妙地傳達原文及原作者之精神與意圖。論文選取原小說中八處描述父女曖昧情感之橋段，從選詞法角度通過對可選英語詞彙的釋義、對比、分析原文意圖、原語對象及目標語對象等等來闡述選詞的過程與結果，並完整體現了翻譯策略與技巧在選詞過程中的應用。關鍵詞： 《心經》；張愛玲；自評；措辭；選詞法；翻譯決策
460 IntroductionEileen Chang (1920-1995) was considered one of the most prominent fiction writers and essayists in modern Chinese literature. She was born into an upper-class family in Shanghai. Her life in the declining and unhappy family as well as the instability she suffered in the Japanese-occupied Shanghai and Hong Kong had a significant impact on her writing career. Chang rose to fame, reached the peak of her career and gained her position in Chinese literature through her best works written in 1940s Shanghai. Her best-written and well-known novella The Golden Cangue (Jin Suo Ji) was also written during this period. Most of her representative works including “Aloeswood Ashes: The First Incense Brazier,” “Jasmine Tea,” “Love in a Fallen City”, etc., were published in a collection of short stories and novellas entitled Romances (Chuanqi, 1944). Heart Sutra (Xin Jing) was one of them [1].In addition to writings in Chinese, Chang also produced translation works as well as original works in English. She translated her own works between the English and the Chinese languages. In other words, Chang was not only a bilingual writer, but was more precisely a “translingual” (Chiang, Rollins, and Wang 2010) writer [2]. However, Chang never translated her Xin Jing.Xin Jing, a short story of approximate twenty thousand words, was completed in Shanghai in July 1943 when Chang was twenty-three. It was originally published in a Chinese-language monthly journal named Wan Xiang. The story is set in the 1940s Japanese-occupied Shanghai. The heroine Xu Xiaohan, a twenty-year-old young woman, has been in love with her biological father Xu Fengyi since childhood and cannot get rid of this feeling as she grows older. She treats her mother as a rival, takes advantage of her admirer Gong Haili and hopes to forever keep her father with her. Her father Fengyi, while subconsciously encourages such distorted love, is getting much guiltier as Xiaohan grows older. Finally, he escapes from such a relationship by eloping with Xiaohan’s classmate Duan Lingqing, a substitute for Xiaohan.The story can be considered a case of Freud’s “Electra complex”. There is no denying that it in some way reveals Chang’s own attitude toward love and men, which is greatly influenced by her family background and life experience. The depiction of this abnormal father-daughter relationship, which appears to be absurd and irrational, reveals the hidden darkness of human nature, including narcissism, selfishness, curiosity about erotic passion, etc.The source text was init ially targeted at Shanghainese as Eileen Chang mentions at the end of one of her essays “Shanghainese, After All” written in 1943:I have written a book of Hong Kong romances for Shanghainese readers, including the seven stories “Aloeswood Ashes: The First Incense Brazier,” “Aloeswood Ashes: The Second Incense Brazier,” “Jasmine Tea,” “Heart Sutra,” “Glazed Roof Tiles,” “Blockade,” and “Love in a Fallen City.”1 The entire time I was writing these stories, I was thinking of Shanghainese people, because I wanted to try to observe Hong Kong through Shanghainese eyes. Only people from Shanghai will be able truly to understand the parts where I wasn’t able to make my meaning clear. I like Shanghainese people, and I hope the Shanghainese will like my book.2 (Jones, Trans. 2005: 55) [3]The motif of Heart Sutra itself is bold. It has been considered the Chinese version of Lolita in terms of the depiction of Electra complex. The astonishing tragic story about the distorted love between father and daughter was a great shock to the Chinese society in the 1930s. It was even regarded as a shocking piece of 1. These are all short stories and novellas Chang published in her 1944 collection Chuanqi (Romances).2. Excerpt from one of Chang’s early essays 《到底是上海人》translated by Andrew F. Jones. The original text is: 我為上海人寫了一本香港傳奇，包括《泥香屑》、《一爐香》、《二爐香》、《茉莉香片》、《心經》、《玻璃瓦》、《封鎖》、《傾城之戀》七篇。寫它的時候，無時無刻不想到上海人，因為我是試著用上海人的觀點來察看香港的。只有上海人能夠懂得我的文不達意的地方。我喜歡上海人，我希望上海人喜歡我的書。
47Jimin CHEN Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into Englishwork in Chinese literature. This work not only shows Chang’s talent and sensitivity in creative writing, but also makes the Chinese audience “reassess the relationship between you and your family members” (Zhao 2011: 2) [4]. Some literary critics argued that Chang was somehow influenced by Freud’s theory and reflected her unhappy childhood and life in this short story.Nevertheless, the translation of Heart Sutra is targeted at English-speaking readers. The translator hopes to make this short story, which is one of her favorite of Chang’s works, available to the English-speaking world.1 Significance and Objectives of the StudyThe entire paper on self-reflection on my own translation of Xin Jing is a case study of possible word choice that can be applied in the rendition of the original short story.As a female translingual writer, Chang and her works have attracted a lot of attention among readers and researchers, many of whom have done relevant translation studies on her works as well as her translations from various aspects. However, the study of Chang’s works has been mainly focusing on her most popular novels, her writings in English and translations. There is still no existing English translation of Xin Jing. Only a handful of scholarly reviews on Xin Jing either in Chinese or in English have been published.Although Xin Jing, as one of Chang’s early works, has never been considered one of her representative works because the writing technique and style in Xin Jing may not be as well-developed as Chang’s other works, many of which focus on ordinary people’s life and their view of love and marriage in a certain historical context, the story itself tempts me for its shocking theme. In fact, Chang seldom wrote about parent-child relationship in her writings. The other short story dealing with such family issue is Jasmine Tea, which was written and published almost at the same time as Xin Jing.Since the intriguing father-daughter relationship is the highlight of the entire story, this paper aims to find out what translation decision the translator can make to accurately convey the complexity of the original text to the target audience. It is hoped that the handling of expressions on the subtle relationship in this study will provide data and insight for further investigation.2 Literature Review2.1 Diction –– the main translation issue and theoretical modelTranslation is actually a decision-making process. “Choice is meaning” is a principle that can be widely applied, especially in the field of translation (黃國文 2001: 44) [5]. According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, diction means “the choice and use of words in literature” (2009: 551) [6]. One of the most well-known examples of the application of diction in English-Chinese translation might be the Chinese translator Yang Bi’s translation of the word “good” in Thackeray’s Vanity Fair. He translated “… who is a good Christian, a good parent, a good child, a good wife or a good husband; …” as “… 真的是虔誠 (devout) 的教徒，慈愛 (loving) 的父母，孝順 (dutiful) 的兒女，賢良 (virtuous) 的妻子，盡職 (responsible) 的丈夫 …” (see Zhang, 2006: 129) [7]. The translator renders the word “good” into various expressions according to the translator’s own criteria for social ideals. In fact, this case is an important source of inspiration for this study, though translation direction of the work is Chinese to English. The translator may be faced with many options when rendering one Chinese word into English. For instance, in the ST there are lots of descriptive words for women’s appearance such as “玲瓏”, “秀麗” and “俊秀”, all of which can be translated as “beautiful” or “pretty”. However, all these modifier adjectives in Chinese should have their closest English renditions even though English adjectives for describing women’s beauty may not be as numerous as those in Chinese’s. In the English translation, “玲瓏”, “秀麗” and “俊秀” are translated as “delicate”, “dainty” and “handsome” respectively. Beauty itself has kind of
48hierarchy, in other words, there are plenty of English words that can indicate beauty, such as “beautiful”, “nice”, “pretty”, “good-looking”, “handsome”, “fine”, “cute”, “lovely”, “fair”, “graceful”, “smart”, “dainty”, “attractive”, “refined”, “delicate”, “superior”, “exquisite”, “gorgeous”, “elegant”, etc. However, how to select the right word among all these lexical choices to precisely render the original meaning as well as the author’s intention depends on the translator’s understanding of the meaning of the word in the original and the delicate difference from one word to another in the target language.Another example about the application of diction in translating Xin Jing is a conversation between Xiaohan and Lingqing. Talking about their classmate Gong Haili, Lingqing says to Xiaohan: “他喜歡你”. The word “喜歡” can be rendered into English words expressing different degrees of intensity, such as “like”, “be fond of”, “fancy”, “love” and “adore”. Which one is the most appropriate translation for “喜歡” depends on context.2.2 DataThe expressions touching such subtlety are the focus and highlight of this study because this is the most intriguing element of the short story. In fact, the story is not at all erotic in terms of its language. However, some expressions relevant to the relationship between the father and the daughter are very ambiguous. Eight such examples are selected for analysis. Each of the examples is followed by reflective comments on how and why such lexical choice has been made by the translator.3 Case Analysis of Translating Expressions Implying the Existence of a SuAtle RelationshipExample 1ST:峰儀道：“你今天吃了酒？”小寒點點頭。峰儀笑道：“女孩子們聚餐，居然喝得醉醺醺的，成何體統？”小寒道：“不然也不至於喝得太多——等你不來，悶的慌。”峰儀道：“我早告訴過你了，我今天有事。”小寒道：“我早告訴過你了，你非來不可，人家一輩子隻過一次二十歲生日！”峰儀握著她的手，微笑向她注視 (1) 著道：“二十歲了。”沉默了一會，他又道：“二十年了……你生下來的時候，算命的說是克母親，本來打算把你過繼給三舅母的，你母親捨不得。”Target Text (hereinafter referred to as TT):Fengyi asked: “Have you been drinking today?” Xiaohan nodded. Fengyi smiled: “How can you girls get drunk during the party? It is so improper!”Xiaohan said: “We were so bored waiting for you for so long, otherwise we wouldn’t have drunk too much.”Fengyi said: “I already told you that I was busy today.”Xiaohan said: “I had been telling you that you must come. I have my twentieth birthday only once in my life!”Fengyi held her hand, looked at her with a smile and said: “Twenty years old.” He paused a moment and went on saying, “twenty years ago…when you were born, the fortune-teller said that you would bring your mother misfortune. So we intended to have you adopted by your third uncle’s wife, however, your mother didn’t want to lose you.”Reflection on translation decision making:This scene takes place at the beginning of the short story, when Xiaohan returns home after see-ing her classmates from her birthday party out. The dialogue between Xiaohan and Fengyi shows that she still complains about her father’s being late for her birthday while he reflects on Xiaohan’s life in the last twenty years.According to different Chinese-English diction-aries, there are basically four verbs that can be used to literally render “注視” in this context:a) To look atb) To gaze atc) To stared) To watchThe definition of each word is listed in the table
49Jimin CHEN Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into Englishbelow according to the Oxford English Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as “OED”) [8]:Look To direct one’s sightGaze To look fixedly, intently, or deliberately at somethingStare To gaze fixedly and with eyes wide openWatchTo look at sb/sth for a time, paying attention to what happens“注視” in the ST apparently is not a difficult word to translate. Nevertheless, the four lexical options, although can all be the translation of “注視”, are slightly different in terms of their connotations. Therefore whether to translate “注視”as “to look at”, “to gaze at”, “to stare” or “to watch” depends on the context. The question the translator faces here is how intimate and intense the father-daughter relationship is at this stage. As a translator, when I read the original text for the first time, I saw no clue at this stage suggesting their relationship is abnormal. I could only feel that they have a very close relationship. Since this dialogue appears at the beginning introducing these two main characters to the audience, it might not be necessary to make such relationship too explicit to the TL readers. The word “look” compared to the other three verbs is more neutral and does not imply any meanings to cause audience’s suspicion. The word “gaze” somehow suggests that father-daughter relationship has become very much like that of lovers. The aggression the word “stare” implies obviously is not in accord with the context. Nevertheless, “watch” indicates that somebody keeps his eyes on others, which is not the exact meaning the ST tends to convey. In the original text, for those who know the entire story might find “注視” a bit ambiguous. However, those who read it for the first time cannot detect anything wrong between the father and the daughter at this stage. For them, “注視”only shows a father’s concern for his daughter. Therefore, I decided to translate “注視” as “to look at” and leave space for the TL readers.Examples 2 and 3ST:小寒也笑了，湊在他頭髮上聞了一聞，皺著眉道：“一股子雪茄煙味！誰抽的？”峰儀道：“銀行裡的人。”小寒輕輕 (2) 用一隻食指沿著他鼻子滑上滑下，道：“你可千萬別抽上了，不然，就是個標準的摩登老太爺！”峰儀拉住 (3) 她的手臂，將她向這邊拖了一拖，笑道：“我說，你對我用不著時時刻刻裝出孩子氣的模樣，怪累的！”TT:Xiaohan laughed as well. She sniffed his hair and frowned: “It smells of cigar! Who was smoking?”Fengyi said: “People in the bank.”Xiaohan ran her forefinger up and down his nose bridge softly and said: “Don’t fall into the habit of smoking. Otherwise you will be a real modern day patriarch!”Fengyi held her by the arm and pulled her a bit closer, smiling: “I would say: you don’t need to act like a child in front of me all the time –– quite tiring actually!”Reflection on translation decision making:This example has the same setting as the previous one. The dialogue and acts between Xiaohan and Fengyi not only reveal their care for each other, but also could imply there is something illicit between the father and the daughter. The first word “輕輕” can be generally rendered as:a) Lightlyb) Gentlyc) SoftlyAccording to OED, the definitions of the selected words for translating “輕輕” are as follow:LightlyWith little weight, so as not to be heavy; with little pressure, force, or violence; not strongly or severely; gently, superficially; in both material and immaterial applications.GentlyIn a quiet, moderate, or subdued fashion; slowly, softly. Or mildly, tenderly, kindly.SoftlyGently, carefully, tenderly; in such a manner as to avoid causing pain or injury; without force or violence; with gentle action.
50Basically, these three synonym adverbs can be used alternately due to their similar denotations. In the ST, Xiaohan’s advice for her father somehow gives the audience a feeling that she is not speaking to her father, but someone with whom she has a romantic relationship, because both her tone and movement are quite flirtatious. “Lightly” is the most neutral adverb of the three words in terms of its emotional quality. “Gently” and “softly” are very similar to each other and they both contain some kind of affection. “Softly”, compared to “gently”, is a more feminine and delicate touch. Xiaohan’s Electra complex can more or less be revealed through her tone and gestures. Therefore, I choose “softly” to make the heroine’s Electra complex slightly more explicit to the TT readers.The second word “拉住” according to the context can be rendered as follow:a) To grabb) To holdHere are the OED’s definitions of the two lexical choices:GrabTo grasp or seize suddenly and eagerly; hence, to appropriate to oneself in a rapacious or unscrupulous manner.Hold To carry sth; to have sb/sth in your hand, arm, etc.The word “grab”, similar to grasp or catch, implies more emotional intensity than “hold”. The word “hold”, just like “lightly” in the previous case, tends to be more neutral. This time, it is the father Fengyi that pulls Xiaohan to him. Fengyi’s feeling for his daughter is more repressive and veiled as he always knows such relationship cannot be further developed, and he wants to find a way out. That is why I have chosen to use more implicit and neutral expressions when Fengyi is involved. In this case, I have chosen to use “to hold”, which makes the father remain “innocent” to the TT readers at this stage.Example 4ST:隔著玻璃，峰儀的手按在小寒的胳膊上——象牙黃的圓圓的手臂，袍子是幻麗的花洋紗，朱漆似的紅底子，上面印著青頭白臉的孩子，無數的孩子在他的指頭縫裡蠕動。小寒——那可愛的大孩子，有著豐澤的，象牙黃的肉體 (4) 的大孩子……峰儀猛力掣回他的手，仿佛給火燙了一下，臉色都變了，掉過身去，不看她。TT:Fengyi laid his hand on Xiaohan’s arm behind the glass –– she had chubby ivory white arms. She wore a gorgeous floral muslin robe with kids of black hair and white faces printed on a vermillion background. Numerous kids were wriggling through his fingers. Xiaohan –– the lovely big kid with a plump ivory white body…Fengyi drew back his hand immediately as if it got burned. He turned pale and turned away from her.Reflection on translation decision making:This scene happens in the middle of the short sto-ry. The entire story somehow reaches a climax at this point. After a frank and serious conversation between Xiaohan and Fengyi, Fengyi realizes the seriousness of the problem and intends to find a way of getting everything back to normal. However, Xiaohan’s per-sistence softens Fengyi.The word “肉體” can be rendered as:a) Bodyb) FleshThe decision analysis begins with the definition of each word according to OED:Body The physical form of a person, animal, or plant.FleshThe human body when considering its physical and sexual needs, rather than the mind or soul.This example might be the most erotic scene in the story. As a reader and translator, I actually find this passage quite bold. The word “肉體” itself does not really convey an erotic image. However, the father’s intense reaction reveals his incestuous feelings. Even Fengyi himself is shocked. “肉體”, in the context can by all means be translated as either “body” or “flesh” because their denotations are almost the same. The only difference between “body” and “flesh” is that, “body” tends to be more objective and neutral while “flesh” has more sexual implications. The “flesh”
51Jimin CHEN Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into Englishmight be an appropriate translation of “肉體” in this case. However, Fengyi’s emotions and feelings, compared to Xiaohan’s, are expressed in a relatively implicit way as he is always controlling himself and does not allow himself to indulge in such taboo relationship. Therefore, I use “body” instead of “flesh” to depict Fengyi’s mental activities.Example 5ST:峰儀跟了出來，靜靜地道：“小寒，我決定了。你不走開，我走開。我帶了你母親走。”小寒道：“要走我跟你們一同走。”他不答。她把手插到陰涼的綠葉子裡去，捧著一球細碎的花，用明快的，唱歌似的嗓子，笑道：“你早該明白了，爸爸——”她嘴裡的這一聲“爸爸”滿含著輕褻與侮辱，“我不放棄 (5) 你，你是不會放棄 (5) 我的！”TT:Fengyi followed her out and said quietly: “Xiao-han, I have made a decision. If you are not leaving, I am leaving. I am going to take your mom with me.”Xiaohan said: “I am going with you both.”He didn’t reply.She put her hand into the cool green leaves and held a cluster of small flowers. She laughed with a bright and singing voice: “You should have known, Dad –”This “Dad” she uttered was full of contempt and insult, “you won’t let go of me if I don’t let go of you!”Reflection on translation decision making:This is the end of the dialogue from the same scene as the previous example. Fengyi finally makes the decision that he will take Xiaohan’s mother to go away from Xiaohan. The conflict between the father and the daughter becomes rather violent. Xiaohan’s hysteric shout shows her great suffering from this relationship.Based on the context, the meaning of “放棄” can be rendered as follow:a) To leaveb) To give upc) To abandond) To quite) To let go ofAccording to OED, the definitions of these expressions are:LeaveTo depart from, quit, relinquish: To go away from, quit (a place, person, or thing); to deviate from (a line of road, etc.). Or to go away from permanently; to remove from, cease to reside at (a place), to cease to belong to (a society, etc.); to forsake the company, quit the service of (a person).Give upTo resign, surrender; to hand over, part with. Or to forsake, abandon, relinquish, desist from, relinquish the prospect of; to cease to have to do with (a person); to sacrifice, ‘lay down’ (one’s life).Abandon To give up or relinquish completely.Quit To set free, relinquish, or leave.Let go ofTo release or (euphem.) dismiss (a person) from employment.Fengyi’s decision to stay away from Xiaohan makes her panic. Besides contempt and insult, the “dad” she utters actually carries irony as well. “放棄” in the ST literally means “to give up” or “to abandon”. “To abandon” is the first option to be eliminated as it may mislead the TT readers. The TT reader will still consider it a parent-child relationship if Xiaohan says to her father “I won’t abandon you”. In fact, I initially intended to render “放棄” as “to give up”, which contains all the implications it tends to convey. “To leave”, although can be used for both parent-child relationship and lovers, seems a bit more general and broad. “To quit” is a relatively informal express, which conveys the same meaning as “to leave”. However, it is rarely used between father and daughter. The phrase “to let go of”, compared to the other four options, is more appropriate and matches the original meaning. Although it is not a literal translation of “放棄”, the equivalent effect remains. The TT audience can thus understand the implications of “to let go of”, which not only refers to letting go of the father-daughter relationship, but refers to letting go of such illicit feelings between the father and the daughter.
52Examples 6, 7, 8ST:小寒急道：“你難道就讓他們去？”許太太道：“不讓他們去，又怎樣？你爸爸不愛 (6) 我，又不能夠愛 (7) 你——留得住他的人，留不住他的心。他愛 (8) 綾卿。他眼見得就要四十了。人活在世上，不過短短的幾年。愛，也不過短短的幾年。由他們去吧！”TT:Xiaohan asked anxiously: “Will you just let them go like this?”Mrs. Xu said: “What can I do if I don’t let them go? Your father doesn’t love me. He can’t love you either –– you can keep his body but not his heart. He is in love with Lingqing. He is nearly forty. We can only live in this world for several decades [translator’s correction] and love can only last for several years. So just leave them alone!”Reflection on translation decision making:This dialogue between Xiaohan and her mother is placed towards the end of the story. “愛” in the ST can be rendered as:a) To loveb) To be in love withAccording to OED, the definition of each word choice is listed below:LoveTo have or feel love towards (a person, a thing personified) (for a quality or attribute); to entertain a great affection, fondness, or regard for; to hold dear.Be in love withenamoured (of), filled with love (for); (in extended use) very fond (of), much addicted (to).“Love”, compared to “be in love with”, contains a broader and more general concept. The word “love” can be used in both a parent-child relationship and a romantic relationship. However, “be in love with” almost exclusively refers to romantic relationships. How to translate “愛” in the original text can somehow give away the translator’s attitude towards this taboo issue. Whether to make it implicit or explicit to the TL readers and can the TT be accepted by the TL readers are all needed to be considered. The first question I would probably ask myself is why Mrs. Xu says “又不能夠愛你”? Can’t a father love his daughter? Or does she mean “a father can’t fall in love with his daughter”? It seems Mrs. Xu means the latter. However, can I translate it that way? Will it make the TL readers feel uncomfortable or astonished? The other question is even though the readers all know what Mrs. Xu means, do I need to make the meaning more explicit, or should I just give the audience some space to make their own interpretations? In my opinion, both “love” and “be in love with” can be used in the translation. However, the latter just makes the meaning more explicit to the TL readers while the former is more ambiguous, leaving the audience some room for imagination. I prefer to use “love” in Examples 6 and 7.For “他愛 (8) 綾卿”, “be in love with” is more appropriate than “love” since Mrs. Xu does think that her husband goes away with Lingqing for love, otherwise she wouldn’t say that “人活在世上，不過短短的幾年。愛，也不過短短的幾年。由他們去吧！” Although the audience all know that actually Lingqing is just a substitute for Xiaohan since they two look similar and Fengyi may not really love her, yet it will not make too much difference for Mrs Xu. And perhaps she would rather her husband fell in love with someone else than indulge in the abnormal relationship with Xiaohan.4 DiscussionThe total eight examples touching the borderline of taboo love are selected for case analysis from the perspective of lexical choice of appropriate English word or phrase to faithfully render the original intention of the text in the short story.Nevertheless, there is still a lack of systematic theoretical framework of diction. Most diction choice and reflection is based upon the translator’s comprehension and subjective judgment about the source text. What the translator chooses are not merely words, but rather the choice of affective meanings. Since the principle of translating Xin Jing is to achieve the ultimate faithfulness to the original work, the translator basically adopts neutral meaning
53Jimin CHEN Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into Englishto carefully tackle the sensitive issue. Meanwhile, the original intention of the author and the story are also taken into account. Another principle of dealing with this father-daughter relationship is that Xiaohan’s behavior, words and feelings tend to be more exposed while Fengyi’s are more veiled due to their different positions and roles in the family as well as in society. Therefore, the translator’s lexical choice of such father-daughter relationship in the translation process also follows that principle to maintain the message the ST tends to convey. In addition to the affective meaning, diction can also be applied in the choice of ambiguous meanings. For instance, in the last example, whether to render the “愛” in “（你爸爸）又不能夠愛你（女兒）” as “love” or “be in love with” is a choice of either making it implicit or explicit as “love” is a more general term compared to “be in love with”. Although the exact meaning of the original text is the latter one, the ST does not make such love too explicit and specific by saying “愛上”, therefore the translator’s final solution of lexical choice is “love” to remain the original subtlety in translation.Therefore, although diction is apparently concerned with words, it has a diverse range and classification. Different translators might have different lexical choices, considerations, and solutions based on their translation techniques as well as comprehension of the source text. Heart Sutra is merely the first English version produced so far. As Newmark states that “translation is for discussion” (1991: 132) [9], all lexical choices can definitely be discussed and negotiated according to different viewpoint and understanding of the original story.5 ConclusionThe major translation approach and strategy adopted in translating Heart Sutra is literal translation for the reason that “In communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best, it is the only valid method of translation” (Newmark 2001a: 39) [10]. The commentary on my own translation mainly focuses on the lexical choice of expressions touching the subtle father-daughter relationship and the reasons why the translator makes such choices.Lexical choice, or put simply, diction as a translation issue and technique can be actually applied everywhere in translation process. The translator tends to be neutral in lexical choices and to maintain subtlety when tackling the taboo subject of the short story.In general, diction cannot be decided without the context. In other words, lexical choice should rather be the choice of contextual meanings instead of the meaning of the word itself. Without the context, word is meaningless, as Newmark asserts that “No word is an island entire to itself” (1991: 99) [9]. All diction cases are actually analyzed according to the context rather than the definition of the word itself. The whole study will be meaningless if the translator only focuses on word selection without considering the entire story.All in all, lexical choice in handling this subtlety in translation is a relatively new viewpoint. Hopefully, such direction of study can gain more attention from scholars, and the translation of Heart Sutra can provide useful data and insight for translation studies and comparative studies.References [1] Chang, E. (張愛玲) (2003) 心經。《傳奇》(pp. 239-262) 。 北京：經濟日報出版社。[2] Chiang, B. C., J. B. Rollins & J. Wang (2010) “Cultural Self-Translation and Chinese Globalization: Eileen Chang’s Yuan nü and The Rouge of the North”, in Translation Quarterly (53&54), 73-92.[3] Chang, Eileen (2005) Written on Water (translated by Andrew F. Jones), New York: Columbia University Press.[4] Zhao, Q. (趙強) (2011) 從心經看張愛玲的戀父情結，論文，雲南師範大學。[5] Huang, G. W. (黃國文) (2001) 《語篇分析的理論與實踐》，上海：上海外語教育出版社。[6] Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2009) London: Oxford University Press.[7] Zhang, M. F. (張美芳) (2006) 《翻譯研究的功能途徑》，上海：上海外語教育出版社。[8] Oxford English Dictionary Online, from http://0-www.oed.com.umaclib3.umac.mo/[9] Newmark, Peter (1991) About Translation , Clevedon and Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.[10] Newmark, Peter (2001a) A Textbook of Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
54AppendixParallel Texts (Excerpts) of Xin Jing Ay Eileen Chang and Heart Sutra Ay Annie ChenExcerpt 1峰儀道：“你今天吃了酒？”小寒點點頭。峰儀笑道：“女孩子們聚餐，居然喝得醉醺醺的，成何體統？”Fengyi asked: “Have you been drinking today?” Xiaohan nodded. Fengyi smiled: “How can you girls get drunk during the party? It is so improper!”小寒道：“不然也不至於喝得太多——等你不來，悶的慌。”Xiaohan said: “We were so bored waiting for you for so long, otherwise we wouldn’t have drunk too much.”峰儀道：“我早告訴過你了，我今天有事。”Fengyi said: “I already told you that I was busy today.”小寒道：“我早告訴過你了，你非來不可，人家一輩子隻過一次二十歲生日！”Xiaohan said: “I had been telling you that you must come. I have my twentieth birthday only once in my life!”峰儀握著她的手，微笑向她注視著道：“二十歲了。”沉默了一會，他又道：“二十年了……你生下來的時候，算命的說是克母親，本來打算把你過繼給三舅母的，你母親捨不得。”Fengyi held her hand, looked at her with a smile and said: “Twenty years old.” He paused a moment and went on saying, “twenty years ago…when you were born, the fortune-teller said that you would bring your mother misfortune. So we intended to have you adopted by your third uncle’s wife, however, your mother didn’t want to lose you.”小寒道：“三舅母一直住在北方……”Xiaohan said: “My third uncle’s wife has been living in the north…”峰儀點頭笑道：“真把你過繼了出去，我們不會有機會見面的。”Fengyi nodded and smiled: “Had we have you adopted, we wouldn’t have had the chance to know each other.”小寒道：“我過二十歲生日，想必你總會來看我一次。”峰儀又點點頭，兩人都默然。半晌，小寒細聲道：“見了面，像外姓人似的……”如果那時候，她真是把她母親克壞了……不，過繼了出去，照說就不克了。然而……“然而”怎樣？他究竟還是她的父親，她究竟還是他的女兒，即使他沒有妻，即使她姓了另外一個姓。他們兩人同時下意識地向沙發的兩頭移了一移，坐遠了一點。兩人都有點羞慚。Xiaohan said: “I think you would come to see me once on my twentieth birthday.” Fengyi nodded again and they were both silent for a long while. Xiaohan murmured: “So when we finally met, we would be like strangers…” Had she really doomed her mother…No, not if she had been adopted. But…“But” what? He would still be her father and she would still be his daughter, even if he had no wife or she had taken another family name. They both subconsciously moved further away from each other, ashamed somehow.峰儀把報紙折疊起來，放在膝蓋上，人向背後一靠，緩緩地伸了個懶腰，無緣無故說道：“我老了。”Fengyi folded the paper and put it on his lap. He leant back and had a good stretch on the sofa, then said out of the blue: “I am old.”小寒又坐近了一點道：“不，你累了。”Xiaohan sat closer and said: “No, you are just tired.”峰儀笑道：“我真的老了。你看，白頭發。”Fengyi smiled: “I am really old. Look, my grey hair.”小寒道：“在哪兒？”峰儀低下頭來，小寒尋了半日，尋到了一根，笑道：“我替你拔掉它。”Xiaohan asked: “Where?” Fengyi bowed his head. Xiaohan searched for a while and found one. She said smiling: “Let me pull it out for you.”峰儀道：“別替我把一頭頭髮全拔光了！”Fengyi said: “Don’t pull out all my hair!”小寒道：“哪兒就至於這麼多？況且你頭髮這麼厚，就拔個十根八根，也是九牛一毛！”Xiaohan said: “You don’t have so much grey hair, do you? Besides, you have a lot of hair, even if I pulled out eight or ten of them, it would only be like pulling one hair off nine bulls!”3峰儀笑道：“好哇！你罵我！”Fengyi laughed: “Wow! Are you cursing me?”3. This is a word-for-word translation of a Chinese idiom “九牛一毛” meaning an iota from a vast quantity, or more idiomatically, a drop in the bucket in English.
55Jimin CHEN Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into English小寒也笑了，湊在他頭髮上聞了一聞，皺著眉道：“一股子雪茄煙味！誰抽的？”Xiaohan laughed as well. She sniffed his hair and frowned: “It smells of cigar! Who was smoking?”峰儀道：“銀行裡的人。”Fengyi said: “People in the bank.”小寒輕輕用一隻食指沿著他鼻子滑上滑下，道：“你可千萬別抽上了，不然，就是個標準的摩登老太爺！”Xiaohan ran her forefinger up and down his nose bridge softly and said: “Don’t fall into the habit of smoking, otherwise you will be a real modern day patriarch!”峰儀拉住她的手臂，將她向這邊拖了一拖，笑道：“我說，你對我用不著時時刻刻裝出孩子氣的模樣，怪累的！”Fengyi held her by the arm and pulled her a bit closer, smiling: “I would say: you don’t need to act like a child in front of me all the time –– quite tiring actually!”小寒道：“你嫌我做作？”Xiaohan said: “You think I am being artificial?”峰儀道：“我知道你為什麼願意永遠不長大。”Fengyi said: “I know why you don’t want to grow up.”小寒突然撲簌簌落下兩行眼淚，將臉埋在他肩膀上。Tears ran down Xiaohan’s cheeks suddenly and she buried her face in his shoulder.峰儀低聲道：“你怕你長大了，我們就要生疏了，是不是？”Fengyi murmured: “You are afraid that we will not be as close as we are once you are grown up, right?”小寒不答，只伸過一條手臂去兜住他的頸子。峰儀道：“別哭。別哭。”Xiaohan made no reply. She just wrapped her arm about his neck. Fengyi said: “Don’t cry. Don’t cry.”這時夜深人靜，公寓只有許家一家，廚房裡還有嘩啦啦放水洗碗的聲音，是小寒做壽的餘波。穿堂裡一陣腳步響，峰儀道：“你母親來了。”In the stillness of night, the Xus was the only one household in the building that still had the sound of washing dishes under running water coming from the kitchen — ripples of Xiaohan’s birthday party. There were footsteps in the corridor. Fengyi said: “Your mother’s coming.”他們兩人仍舊維持著方才的姿勢，一動也不動。許太太開門進來，微笑望了他們一望，自去整理椅墊子，擦去鋼琴上茶碗的水漬，又把所有的煙灰都折在一個盤子裡，許太太穿了一件桃灰細格子綢衫，很俊秀的一張臉，只是因為胖，有點走了樣。眉心更有極深的兩條皺紋。她問道：“誰吃煙來著？”The two of them did not move, remaining in the same position. Mrs. Xu opened the door and looked at them with a smile. Then she went in to tidy the chair cushion, wipe off the water stain left by the teacup on the piano and put all the cigarette ash into a plate. Mrs. Xu wore a pink gray pin check silk gown. Her face was quite handsome but a bit out of shape because of her weight. She had two deep wrinkles between her eyebrows. “Who was smoking?” she asked.小寒並不回過臉來，只咳嗽了一聲，把嗓子恢復原狀，方才答道：“鄺彩珠和那個頂大的余小姐。”Xiaohan just cleared her throat and replied without turning her face: “Kuang Caizhu and Miss Yu, the eldest.峰儀道：“這點大的女孩子就抽煙，我頂不贊成。你不吃罷？”Fengyi said: “Are you saying girls that young smoke? I totally disapprove of it. You don’t smoke, do you?”小寒道：“不。”“Of course not.” said Xiaohan.許太太笑道：“小寒說小也不小了，做父母的哪裡管得了那麼許多？二十歲的人了——”Mrs. Xu laughed: “We parents cannot be in charge of everything. Anyway, Xiaohan is not that young anymore. She is twenty——”小寒道：“媽又來了！照嚴格的外國計算法，我要到明年的今天才二十歲呢！”“There you go again, mom!” said Xiaohan, “Seriously, according to the Gregorian calendar, I am not twenty until this day next year!”峰儀笑道：“又犯了她的忌了！”Fengyi laughed: “A taboo for her!”許太太笑道：“好好好，算你十九歲！算你九歲也行！九歲的孩子，早該睡覺了。還不趕緊上床去！”Mrs. Xu laughed: “Alright, alright! You are just nineteen, or nine, or whatever! You would have been in bed
56if you were nine. Go to bed, now!”小寒道：“就來了。”Xiaohan said: “I am going.”許太太又向峰儀道：“你的洗澡水給你預備好了。”Mrs. Xu said to Fengyi: “Your bath is ready.”峰儀道：“就來了。”Fengyi said: “I am coming.”許太太把花瓶送出去換水，順手把煙灰碟子也帶了出去。Mrs. Xu took the vase to change water and took away the ashtray as well.小寒抬起頭來，仰面看了峰儀一看，又把臉伏在他身上。Xiaohan looked up at Fengyi and pressed her face against him again.峰儀推她道：“去睡罷！”Fengyi jogged her and said: “Go to bed!”小寒只是不願。良久，峰儀笑道：“已經睡著了？”硬把她的頭扶了起來，見她淚痕未幹，眼皮兒抬不起來，淚珠還是不斷地滾下來。峰儀用手替她拭了一下，又道：“去睡罷！”Xiaohan just didn’t want to. After a while, Fengyi smiled and asked: “Are you asleep?” He lifted her head up and saw her tears still coming down. She couldn’t even keep her eyes open. Fengyi wiped her tears and said once more: “Go to bed!”小寒捧著臉站起身來，繞到沙發背後去，待要走，又彎下腰來，兩隻手叩住峰儀的喉嚨，下頦擱在他頭上。峰儀伸出兩隻手來，交疊按住她的手。又過了半晌，小寒方才去了。Xiaohan stood up with her face cupped in her hands and went round to the back of the sofa. When she was about to leave, she bent down again to fold her arms around Fengyi’s neck with her chin resting on his head. Fengyi covered her hands with his. Xiaohan stayed for quite a while and then left.Excerpt 2第二天，她父親辦公回來了，又是坐在沙發上看報，她坐在一旁，有意無意地說道：“你知道那龔海立？”The next day, her father was again sitting on the sofa reading a newspaper after coming back from work. Xiaohan sat aside and said casually: “Do you know Gong Haili?”她父親彈著額角道：“我知道，他父親是個龔某人——名字一時記不起來了。”Her father tapped his finger against his forehead: “Well, I know his father is Gong so-and-so—I can’t recall his given name at the moment.”小寒微笑道：“大家都以為他要跟余公使的大女兒訂婚了。昨天我不該跟他開玩笑，賀了他一聲，誰知他就急瘋了，找我理論，我恰巧走開了。當著許多人，他抓住了波蘭的妹妹，問這謠言是誰造的。虧得波蘭脾氣好，不然早同他翻了臉了！米蘭孩子氣，在旁邊說：‘我姊姊沒著急，倒要你跳得三丈高！’他就說：‘別的不要緊，這話不能吹到小寒耳朵裡去！’大家覺得他這話稀奇，逼著問他。他瞞不住了，老實吐了出來。這會子嚷嚷得誰都知道了。我再也想不到，他原來背地裡愛著我！”Xiaohan smiled: “Everybody thought he was getting engaged with Minister Yu’s eldest daughter. I shouldn’t have joked with him yesterday. I congratulated him, and he just got frantic and wanted to argue with me, yet I had already walked away. In front of many people he caught Poland’s sister and asked who had made such rumor. Thank goodness Poland is good-natured, otherwise she would have lost her temper with him! Milan said childishly: ‘My sister is not making a fuss. Why are you so upset?’ He then said: ‘Just have to make sure that these words will not be blown into Xiaohan’s ears!’ Everybody felt curious about this. Under close questioning, he confessed to all, to my amazement, that he had secretly been in love with me.峰儀笑道：“那他就倒楣了！”Fengyi laughed: “Then he is so unfortunate!”小寒斜瞟了他一眼道：“你怎見得他一定是沒有希望？”Xiaohan glanced at him: “How do you know that he has no hope?”峰儀笑道：“你若是喜歡他，你也不會把這些事源源本本告訴我了。”Fengyi laughed: “Well, you wouldn’t have told me the whole story if you liked him.”小寒低頭一笑，捏住一綹子垂在面前的鬈髮，編起
57Jimin CHEN Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into English小辮子來，編了又拆，拆了又編。Xiaohan looked down and grinned. She took a ringlet hanging in front of her shoulder, braiding and unbraiding, and braiding again.峰儀道：“來一個，丟一個，那似乎是你的一貫政策。”Fengyi said: “It seems to be your long-standing policy that whoever has a crush on you will be dumped.”小寒道：“你就說得我那麼狠。這一次，我很覺得那個人可憐。”Xiaohan said: “I am that cruel in your eyes. I just feel sorry for him this time.”峰儀笑道：“那就有點危險性質。可憐是近於可愛呀！”Fengyi laughed: “That’s a bit dangerous. Pity is very close to love!”小寒道：“男人對於女人的憐憫，也許是近於愛。一個女人決不會愛上一個她認為楚楚可憐的男人。女人對於男人的愛，總得帶點崇拜性。”Xiaohan said: “The pity a man feels for a woman might be close to love. However, a woman will never fall in love with a man she pities. A woman’s love for a man always involves a little hero worship.”峰儀這時候，卻不能繼續看他的報了，放下了報紙向她半皺著眉毛一笑，一半是喜悅，一半是窘。Fengyi stopped reading. He put down the paper, frowned and smiled at her, delighted but embarrassed.隔了一會，他又問她道：“你可憐那姓龔的，你打算怎樣？”After a while, he again asked her: “You feel sorry for Gong. What are you going to do?”小寒道：“我替他做媒，把綾卿介紹給他。”Xiaohan said: “I will be the matchmaker and introduce Lingqing to him.” 峰儀道：“哦！為什麼單揀中綾卿呢？”Fengyi said: “Oh, why Lingqing?”小寒道：“你說過的，她像我。”Xiaohan said: “You said she looks like me.”峰儀笑道：“你記性真好！……可你不覺得委屈了綾卿麼？你把人家的心弄碎了，你要她去拾破爛，一小片一小片耐心地拾拼起來，像孩子們玩拼圖遊戲似的——也許拼個十年八年也拼不全。”Fengyi laughed: “You have a good memory! …but won’t you feel sorry for Lingqing? You break other’s heart into pieces, and expect her to pick them up and put them together piece by piece patiently like kids playing jigsaw puzzles –– eight or ten years may not be long enough to finish it.”小寒道：“綾卿不是傻子。龔海立有家產，又有作為，剛畢業就找到了很好的事。人雖不說漂亮，也很拿得出去。只怕將來羡慕綾卿的人多著呢！”Xiaohan said: “Lingqing is not a fool. Gong Haili is a man of fortune and talent. He got a good job upon graduation. Although he is not very good-looking, he is quite presentable. I’m just afraid that Lingqing would be the envy of many people in the future.”峰儀不語。過了半日，方笑道：“我還是說：可憐的綾卿！”Fengyi said nothing and after a while, he laughed: “Still, I want to say, poor Lingqing!”小寒咦著他道：“可是你自己說的：可憐是近於可愛！”Xiaohan said: “You’ve just said that pity is very close to love!”峰儀笑了一笑，又拿起他的報紙來，一面看，一面閑閑地道：“那龔海立，人一定是不錯，連你都把他誇得一枝花似的！”小寒瞪了他一眼，他只做沒看見，繼續說下去道：“你把這些話告訴我，我知道你有你的用意。”Fengyi smiled and again picked up the paper, reading while saying casually: “Gong Haili must be a very nice guy. Even you have such high opinion of him!” Xiaohan glared at him, yet he simply ignored that and went on, “I know you must have a purpose in telling me all these.”小寒低聲道：“我不過要你知道我的心。”Xiaohan murmured: “I just want you to know my heart.”峰儀道：“我早已知道了。”Fengyi said: “I’ve known it all along.”小寒道：“可是你會忘記的，如果我不常常提醒你。男人就是這樣！”Xiaohan said: “But you will forget if I don’t often
58remind you. Men are all like that!”峰儀道：“我的記性不至於壞到這個田地罷？”Fengyi said: “My memory is not that poor.”小寒道：“不是這麼說。”她牽著他的袖子，試著把手伸進袖口裡去，幽幽地道：“我是一生一世不打算離開你的。有一天我老了，人家都要說：她為什麼不結婚？她根本沒有過結婚的機會！沒有人愛過她！誰都這樣想——也許連你也會這樣想。我不能不防到這一天，所以我要你記得這一切。”Xiaohan said: “That’s not what I meant.” She took his sleeve and tried to put her hand into it, said pensively, “I am determined to stay with you for the rest of my life. One day, when I am old, others will say: why doesn’t she get married? She has never had a chance to get married! Nobody ever loved her! Everybody will think so –– perhaps even you will think that way. I cannot help doing something to prevent this from happening someday. So I want to make sure that you remember all these.”峰儀鄭重地掉過身來，面對面注視著她，道：“小寒，我常常使你操心麼？我使你痛苦麼？”Fengyi turned round solemnly and looked into her eyes, saying: “Xiaohan, do I make you worry often? Do I give you pain?”小寒道：“不，我非常快樂。”Xiaohan said: “No, I am very happy.”峰儀噓了一口氣道：“那麼，至少我們三個人之中，有一個是快樂的！”Fengyi sighed: “Well, at least one of the three of us is happy!” 小寒嗔道：“你不快樂？”Xiaohan was displeased and asked: “Aren’t you happy?”峰儀道：“我但凡有點人心，我怎麼能快樂呢？我眼看著你白耽擱了你自己。你犧牲了自己，於我又有什麼好處？”Fengyi said: “How can I be happy as long as I have a bit of conscience? I see you delay your days and sacrifice yourself, how can it do me any good?小寒只是瞪大了眼睛望著他。他似乎是轉念一想，又道：“當然哪，你給了我精神上的安慰！”他嘿嘿地笑了幾聲。Xiaohan stared at him merely. He then added as an afterthought: “Of course, you have given me spiritual comfort!” He chuckled.小寒銳聲道：“你別這麼笑！我聽了，渾身的肉都緊了一緊！”她站起身來，走到陽臺上去，將背靠在玻璃門上。Xiaohan squeaked out: “Don’t you laugh like that! It makes me shiver all over!” She stood up, walked to the balcony, and leaned her back against the glass door.峰儀忽然軟化了，他跟到門口去，可是兩個人一個在屋子裡面，一個在屋子外面。他把一隻手按在玻璃門上，垂著頭站著，簡直不像一個在社會上混了多年的有權力有把握的人。他囁嚅說道：“小寒，我們不能這樣下去了。我……我們得想個辦法。我打算把你送到你三舅母那兒去住些時……”Fengyi all of a sudden relented and followed her to the door. However, one was inside while the other one was outside. He put one hand on the glass door and stood with his head drooping, not at all like a powerful man of the world who had power. “Xiaohan,” he said haltingly, “we cannot go on like this. I…we must find a way out. I plan to send you to live with your third uncle’s wife for some time…”小寒背向著他，咬著牙微笑道：“你當初沒把我過繼給三舅母，現在可太晚了……你呢？你有什麼新生活的計劃？”Xiaohan turned away from him and said between her teeth, smiling: “You didn’t have me adopted by my third uncle’s wife in the first place. Now it is too late…how about you? What’s your plan for your new life?”峰儀道：“我們也許到莫干山去過夏天。”Fengyi said: “We may spend the summer at Mogan Mountain.”小寒道：“‘我們’？你跟媽？”Xiaohan asked: “‘We’? You and mom?”峰儀不語。Fengyi said nothing.小寒道：“你要是愛她，我在這兒你也一樣的愛她。你要是不愛她，把我充軍到西伯利亞去你也還是不愛她。”Xiaohan said: “If you love her, no matter where I am, you will still love her. If you don’t love her, even though I
59Jimin CHEN Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into Englisham banished to Siberia, you still won’t love her.”隔著玻璃，峰儀的手按在小寒的胳膊上——象牙黃的圓圓的手臂，袍子是幻麗的花洋紗，朱漆似的紅底子，上面印著青頭白臉的孩子，無數的孩子在他的指頭縫裡蠕動。小寒——那可愛的大孩子，有著豐澤的，象牙黃的肉體的大孩子……峰儀猛力掣回他的手，仿佛給火燙了一下，臉色都變了，掉過身去，不看她。Fengyi laid his hand on Xiaohan’s arm behind the glass –– she had chubby ivory white arms. She wore a gorgeous floral muslin robe with kids of black hair and white faces printed on a vermillion background. Numerous kids were wriggling through his fingers. Xiaohan –– the lovely big kid with a plump ivory white body…Fengyi drew back his hand immediately as if it got burned. He turned pale and turned away from her.天漸漸暗了下來，陽臺上還有點光，屋子裡可完全黑了。他們背對著背說話。小寒道：“她老了，你還年青——這也能夠怪在我身上？”As darkness fell, the room was completely dark while there was a speck of light on the balcony. They talked with their backs to each other. Xiaohan said: “She is old and you are still young. Is it my fault?”峰儀低聲道：“沒有你在這兒比著她，處處顯得她不如你，她不會老得這樣快。”Fengyi whispered: “She would not be getting old that fast had there not been you here. You are superior to her in every way.”小寒扭過身來，望著他笑道：“嚇！你這話太不近情理了。她憔悴了，我使她顯得憔悴，她就更憔悴了。這未免有點不合邏輯。我也懶得跟你辯了。反正你今天是生了我的氣，怪我就怪我罷！”Xiaohan turned around and looked at him chuckling: “It is so absurd! She has become haggard. I have made her appear to be haggard, and she thus looks even more haggard. It is kind of illogical. I am tired of arguing with you. You are mad at me today anyway, I am to blame for it!”峰儀斜倚坐在沙發背上，兩手插在褲袋裡，改用了平靜的，疲倦的聲音答道：“我不怪你。我誰也不怪，只怪我自己太糊塗了。”Fengyi reclined on the sofa with his hands in his pockets and said in a calm and weary voice: “I don’t blame you. I don’t blame anybody. I have only myself to blame for being such a fool.”小寒道：“聽你這口氣，仿佛你只怨自己上了我的當似的！仿佛我有意和我母親過不去，離間了你們的愛！”Xiaohan said: “You speak as if you only regretted being taken in by me as if I deliberately made things difficult for my mother and alienated you from her!”峰儀道：“我並沒有說過這句話。事情是怎樣開頭的，我並不知道。七八年了——你才那麼一點高的時候……不知不覺的……”Fengyi said: “I didn’t say that. I have no idea how it started. Seven or eight years ago when you were only that height…unconsciously…”啊，七八年前……那是最可留戀的時候，父女之愛的黃金時期，沒有猜忌，沒有試探，沒有嫌疑……小寒叉著兩手擱在胸口，緩緩走到陽臺邊上。沿著鐵欄杆，編著一帶短短的竹籬笆，木槽裡種了青藤，爬在籬笆上，開著淡白的小花。夏季的黃昏，充滿了回憶。Ah, seven or eight years ago…that was the most memorable time, the golden age of father-daughter love with no jealousy, no sounding, no suspicion…Xiaohan went to the balcony slowly with her hands crossed on her chest. There were some bamboo fences along the iron railing. The ivy planted in the wood slot straggled over the fences with pale white flowers on it. Summer evenings are full of memories.峰儀跟了出來，靜靜地道：“小寒，我決定了。你不走開，我走開。我帶了你母親走。”Fengyi followed her out and said quietly: “Xiaohan, I have made a decision. If you are not leaving, I am leaving. I am going to take your mom with me.”小寒道：“要走我跟你們一同走。”Xiaohan said: “I am going with you both.”他不答。He didn’t reply.她把手插到陰涼的綠葉子裡去，捧著一球細碎的花，用明快的，唱歌似的嗓子，笑道：“你早該明白了，爸爸——”她嘴裡的這一聲“爸爸”滿含著輕褻與侮辱，“我不放棄你，你是不會放棄我的！”She put her hand into the cool green leaves and held a cluster of small flowers. She laughed with a bright and singing voice: “You should have known, Dad ––”This “Dad”
60she uttered was full of contempt and insult, “you won’t let go of me if I don’t let go of you!”Excerpt 3小寒回過一口氣來，咬牙道：“你好！你縱容得他們好！爸爸跟段綾卿同居了，你知道不知道？”Xiaohan recovered her breath, gnashed her teeth and said: “You! Look at what you have done! You turned a blind eye to them! Do you know Dad and Lingqing are living together?”許太太道：“我知道不知道，關你什麼事？我不管，輪得著你來管？”Mrs. Xu said: “Whether I know it or not is none of your business. Did I ask you to interfere?”小寒把兩臂反剪在背後，顫聲道：“你別得意！別以為你幫著他們來欺負我，你就報了仇——”Xiaohan said in a trembling voice with her hands clasped behind her: “Don’t be so smug! Don’t you think by helping them bully me you are avenged!”許太太聽了這話，臉也變了，刷地打了她一個嘴巴子，罵道：“你胡說些什麼？你犯了失心瘋了？你這是對你母親說話麼？”Mrs. Xu lost her countenance and gave her a smack on her face and scolded: “What nonsense are you talking about? Are you out of your mind? Is this the way you talk to your mother?”小寒挨了打，心地卻清楚了一些，只是嘴唇還是雪白的，上牙忒楞楞打著下牙。她是有生以來第一次看見她母親這樣發脾氣，因此一時也想不到抗拒。兩手捧住腮頰，閉了一會眼睛，再一看，母親不在陽臺上，也不在客室裡。她走進屋裡去，想到書房裡去見她父親，又沒有勇氣。她知道他還在裡面，因為有人在隔壁翻抽斗，清理檔。Smacked, Xiaohan seemed almost herself again. However, her lips were still white and her teeth were chattering. It was the first time she had ever seen her mother lose her temper, thus she didn’t know how to react at that moment. She held her face in her hands with her eyes closed for a while. When she opened her eyes again, her mother was neither on the balcony nor in the lounge. She went into the house. She wanted to meet his father in his study, yet she lacked the courage. She knew he was still in there as she heard someone rummaging around in the drawers, cleaning out some papers in the next room.她正在猶疑，她父親提了一隻皮包從書房裡走了出來。小寒很快地搶先跑到門前，把背抵在門上。峰儀便站住了腳。Her father came out from the study with a bag while she was wondering whether she would enter. Xiaohan ran to the door as quickly as possible and had her back against the door. Fengyi stopped.小寒望著他。都是為了他，她受了這許多委屈！她不由得滾下淚來。在他們之間，隔著地板，隔著檸檬黃與珠灰方格子的地席，隔著睡熟的狸花貓，痰盂，小撮的煙灰，零亂的早上的報紙……她的粉碎了的家！……短短的距離，然而滿地似乎都是玻璃屑，尖利的玻璃片，她不能夠奔過去。她不能夠近他的身。Xiaohan looked at him. She had been so wronged! And it’s all because of him. Tears rolled down her face. There were a lot of things between them: the floor; the lemon yellow mat with pearl gray checks; the sleeping civet cat; the spittoon; a bit of soot; the messy morning newspapers…her broken home!…The distance between them was so short. However, the floor seemed to be covered with glass chippings, sharp pieces of broken glass so that she couldn’t run to him. She couldn’t get near him.她說：“你以為綾卿真的愛上了你？她告訴過我的，她是‘人盡可夫’！”She said: “You thought Lingqing was really in love with you? She told me that anyone can be her husband!”峰儀笑了，像是感到了興趣，把皮包放在沙發上道：“哦？是嗎？她有過這話？”Fengyi smiled and seemed to be interested in what she had said. He put the bag on the couch and asked: “Oh, really? She told you that?”小寒道：“她說她急於結婚，因為她不能夠忍受家庭裡的痛苦。她嫁人的目的不過是換個環境，碰到誰就是誰！”Xiaohan said: “She told me that she was eager to get married because she couldn’t bear the pain she has suffered from her family. Marriage for her is just a change of environment. She would marry whomever she bumped into!”峰儀笑道：“但是她現在碰到了我！”Fengyi laughed: “But now she has bumped into me!”
61Jimin CHEN Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into English小寒道：“她先遇見了龔海立，後遇見了你。你比他有錢，有地位——”Xiaohan said: “She met Gong Haili first and then you. You have more money and power ––”峰儀道：“但是我有妻子！她不愛我到很深的程度，她肯不顧一切地跟我麼？她敢冒這個險麼？”Fengyi said: “But I have a wife! Had she not loved me so deeply, would she have given up everything and followed me? Would she have taken the risk?”小寒道：“啊，原來你自己也知道你多麼對不起綾卿！你不打算娶她。你愛她，你不能害了她！”Xiaohan said: “Ah, you also know what wrong you are to Lingqing! You are not going to marry her. You must not hurt her like that if you love her!”峰儀笑道：“你放心。現在的社會上的一般人不像從前那麼嚴格了。綾卿不會怎樣吃苦的。你剛剛說過：我有錢，我有地位。你如果為綾卿擔憂的話，大可以不必了！”Fengyi laughed: “Don’t worry. People nowadays are not as rigid as they used to be. Lingqing won’t suffer too much. As you just said: I have money and power. There is certainly no need for you to worry about Lingqing!”小寒道：“我才不為她擔憂呢！她是多麼有手段的人！我認識她多年了，我知道她，你別以為她是個天真的女孩子！”Xiaohao said: “I am not worried about her at all! She knows how to play her cards! I have known her for many years. I know her. Don’t you think she is an unsophisticated girl!”峰儀微笑道：“也許她不是一個天真的女孩子。天下的天真的女孩子，大約都跟你差不多罷！”Fengyi smiled: “Perhaps she’s not. The unsophisticated girls in the world might all be like you!”小寒跳腳道：“我有什麼不好？我犯了什麼法？我不該愛我父親，可是我是純潔的！”Xiaohan stamped and yelled: “What’s wrong with me? Did I commit any crime? Shouldn’t I love my father? But I am pure!”峰儀道：“我沒說你不純潔呀！”Fengyi said: “I didn’t say that you are not pure!”小寒哭道：“你看不起我，因為我愛你！你哪裡還有點人心哪——你是個禽獸！你——你看不起我！”Xiaohan cried: “You despise me because I love you! Don’t you have heart? You are such a beast! You –– you despise me!”她撲到他身上去，打他，用指甲抓他。峰儀捉住她的手，把她摔到地上去。她在掙扎中，尖尖的長指甲劃過了她自己的腮，血往下直滴。穿堂裡一陣細碎的腳步聲。峰儀沙聲道：“你母親來了。”She flung herself upon him, beat him and scratched him with her nails. Fengyi caught her hands and threw her to the ground. Her cheek was scratched by her sharp long fingernails and blood dropped down constantly when she was struggling. There was a little pattering of feet in the corridor. Fengyi said raucously: “Your mother’s coming.”Excerpt 4小寒鬧了一天，到了這個時候，業已精疲力盡，竟扭不過她母親。雨下得越發火熾了，啪啦啦濺在油布上。油布外面是一片滔滔的白，油布裡面是黑沉沉的。視覺的世界早已消滅了，餘下的僅僅是嗅覺的世界——雨的氣味，打潮了的灰土的氣味，油布的氣味，油布上的泥垢的氣味，水滴滴的頭髮的氣味，她的腿緊緊壓在她母親的腿上——自己的骨肉！她突然感到一陣強烈的厭惡與恐怖。怕誰？恨誰？她母親？她自己？她們只是愛著同一個男子的兩個女人。她憎嫌她自己的肌肉與那緊緊擠著她的，溫暖的，他人的肌肉。呵，她自己的母親！Xiaohan was so far completely exhausted after such a long day. She was overpowered by her mother. It was raining harder than ever and the rain was splattering on the awning. It was all white outside; while inside the awning it was all dark. The visual world had already disappeared and what remained was merely the world of smell –– the smell of rain, wet dust, awning, the dirt on the awning, and the dripping hair. Her leg pressed tightly on her mother’s –– her own flesh and blood! She all of a sudden felt a sharp sense of disgust and terror. Who was she afraid of? Who was she to hate? Her mother? Herself? They were just two women in love with the same man. She detested her own flesh as well as the warm flesh of the other that clung to hers. Ah, her own mother!她痛苦地叫喚道：“媽，你早也不管管我！你早在那兒幹什麼？”She exclaimed painfully: “Mom, why didn’t you mind
62me earlier! What have you been doing out there?”許太太低聲道：“我一直不知道……我有點知道，可是我不敢相信——一直到今天，你逼著我相信……”Mrs. Xu whispered: “I didn’t know…I knew a bit, but I couldn’t believe it –– until today, you forced me to believe…”小寒道：“你早不管！你……你裝著不知道！”Xiaohan said: “You didn’t care earlier! You…you pretended that you didn’t know!”許太太道：“你叫我怎麼能夠相信呢？——總拿你當個小孩子！有時候我也疑心。過後我總怪我自己小心眼兒，‘門縫裡瞧人，把人都瞧扁了’。我不許我自己那麼想，可是我還是一樣的難受。有些事，多半你早已忘了：我三十歲以後，偶然穿件美麗點的衣裳，或是對他稍微露一點感情，你就笑我。……他也跟著笑……我怎麼能恨你呢？你不過是一個天真的孩子！”Mrs. Xu said: “How could I believe this? –– I always treated you as a kid! Although sometimes I suspected, I would blame myself for being narrow-minded afterwards. A saying goes: ‘If you peer at a person through a crack, he looks flat.’4 I didn’t allow myself to think like that, however, I still felt sad. You might have already forgotten this: After I turned thirty, you would laugh at me when I occasionally wore some beautiful clothes or showed the slightest feeling for him…and he would laugh as well…how could I hate you? You were just an innocent child!”小寒劇烈地顫抖了一下，連她母親也感到那震動。她母親也打了個寒戰，沉默了一會，細聲道：“現在我才知道你是有意的。”小寒哭了起來。她犯了罪。她將她父母之間的愛慢吞吞地殺死了，一塊一塊割碎了——愛的淩遲！雨從簾幕下面橫掃進來，大點大點寒颼颼落在腿上。Xiaohan shuddered. Even her mother felt it, and shuddered too. After a moment’s silence, she said quietly: “Now I know that you did it on purpose.” Xiaohan started to cry. She was guilty of a crime. She killed the love between her parents slowly, cutting it into pieces bit by bit! Large drops of the rain swept in and spattered on the legs, hard and cold.許太太的聲音空而遠。她說：“過去的事早已過去了。好在現在只剩了我們兩個人了。”4. This is a Chinese allegorical saying which idiomatically means “look down upon someone”.Mrs. Xu’s voice was far away. She said: “The past is past. Luckily now the two of us have each other.”小寒急道：“你難道就讓他們去？”Xiaohan asked anxiously: “Will you just let them go like this?”許太太道：“不讓他們去，又怎樣？你爸爸不愛我，又不能夠愛你——留得住他的人，留不住他的心。他愛綾卿。他眼見得就要四十了。人活在世上，不過短短的幾年。愛，也不過短短的幾年。由他們去罷！”Mrs. Xu said: “What can I do if I don’t let them go? Your father doesn’t love me. He can’t love you either –– you can keep his body but not his heart. He is in love with Lingqing. He is nearly forty. We can only live in this world for several decades5 and love can only last for several years. So just leave them alone!”小寒道：“可是你——你預備怎樣？”Xiaohan said: “But you –– what’s your plan?”許太太歎了口氣道：“我麼？我一向就是不要緊的人，現在也還是不要緊。要緊的倒是你——你年紀輕著呢。”Mrs. Xu said with a sigh: “Me? I have always been an unimportant person and now I am still unimportant. You are the only person that matters –– you are still young.”小寒哭道：“我只想死！我死了倒乾淨！”Xiaohan cried: “I just want to die! Then all troubles will end!”許太太道：“你怪我沒早管你，現在我雖然遲了一步，有一分力，總得出一分力。你明天就動身，到你三舅母那兒去。”Mrs. Xu said: “You blame me for not caring about you earlier. Although it’s a bit late now, I’ll do whatever I can for you. Tomorrow you will be sent to your third uncle’s wife’s place.”小寒聽見“三舅母”那三個字，就覺得肩膀向上一聳一聳的，熬不住要狂笑。把她過繼出去 ?Hearing the “third uncle’s wife”, Xiaohan felt that she shrugged her shoulders and could not help laughing. She intended to have her adopted?5. The Chinese original text is 人活在世上，不過短短的幾年。(We can only live in this world for several years). The translator considers it was only a slip of the pen on the author’s.
63Jimin CHEN Maintaining Subtlety: Translating Xin Jing (Heart Sutra) by Eileen Chang into English許太太又道：“那不過是暫時的事。你在北方住幾個月，定下心來，仔細想想。你要到哪兒去繼續念書，或是找事，或是結婚，你計劃好了，寫信告訴我。我再替你佈置一切。”Mrs. Xu went on: “It is temporary. You just live in the north for a few months, get down and think it over. Write to me when you have plans: continue to study, or find a job, or get married. I will arrange everything for you.”小寒道：“我跟龔海立訂了婚了。”Xiaohan said: “I am engaged to Gong Haili.”許太太道：“什麼？你就少胡鬧罷！你又不愛他，你惹他做什麼？”Mrs. Xu said: “What? Stop that nonsense! You don’t love him. Why do you mess about with him?”小寒道：“有了愛的婚姻往往是痛苦的。你自己知道。”Xiaohan said: “Marriage with love is often painful. You know it.”許太太道：“那也不能一概而論。你的脾氣這麼壞，你要是嫁了個你所不愛的人，你會給他好日子過？你害苦了他，也就害苦了你自己。”Mrs. Xu said: “You cannot generalize. You have such a bad temper. If you marry someone you don’t love, how you be kind to him? You will make both him and you suffer.小寒垂頭不語。許太太道：“明天，你去你的。這件事你丟給我好了。我會對他解釋的。”Xiaohan bowed her head and said nothing. Mrs. Xu said: “You will leave anyway tomorrow. I’ll take care of it. I will explain it to him.”小寒不答。隔著衣服，許太太覺得她身上一陣一陣細微地顫慄，便問道：“怎麼了？”Xiaohan didn’t reply. Mrs. Xu felt a quiver through her body and asked: “Are you alright?”小寒道：“你——你別對我這麼好呀！我受不了！我受不了！”許太太不言語了。車裡靜悄悄的，每隔幾分鐘可以聽到小寒一聲較高的嗚咽。Xiaohan said: “You –– why are you so good to me? I can’t bear it! I can’t bear it anymore!” Mrs. Xu did not utter a word. It was very quiet in the rickshaw. Xiaohan’s high-pitched sob could be heard every few minutes.車到了家。許太太吩咐女傭道：“讓小姐洗了澡，喝杯熱牛奶，趕緊上床睡罷！明天她還要出遠門呢。”They arrived home. Mrs. Xu told the maid: “Let Miss Xu take a bath, drink a cup of hot milk and go to bed as quickly as possible! She has a long journey tomorrow.”小寒在床上哭一會，又迷糊一會。半夜裡醒了過來，只見屋裡點著燈，許太太蹲在地上替她整理衣箱。雨還澌澌地下著。Xiaohan lay in bed, cried for a while and sometimes snoozed a little. When she woke up at midnight, the lamp was burning. Mrs. Xu was squatting on the ground packing the suitcase for Xiaohan. The rain was still falling.小寒在枕上撐起胳膊，望著她。許太太並不理會，自顧自拿出幾雙襪子，每一雙打開來看過了，沒有洞，沒有撕裂的地方，重新卷了起來，安插在一疊一疊的衣裳裡。頭髮油、冷霜，雪花膏，漱盂，都用毛巾包了起來。小寒爬下床頭，跪在箱子的一旁，看著她做事，看了半日，突然彎下腰來，把額角抵在箱子的邊沿上，一動也不動。Xiaohan raised herself on one elbow on the pillow and looked at her mother. Mrs. Xu paid no heed. She took out some socks, checked each one to make sure that there was no hole and tear in it. Then she rolled up the socks again and inserted them into the folded clothes. The hair oil, cold cream, face cream and tooth glass were all wrapped up in the towel. Xiaohan got out of bed, knelt at the suitcase, looking at her mother for a while. Then she suddenly leaned down and put her forehead on the edge of the case without moving.許太太把手擱在她頭髮上，遲鈍地說著：“你放心。等你回來的時候，我一定還在這兒……”Mrs. Xu rested her hand on her hair and said stolidly: “Don’t worry. By the time you come back, I must still be here…”小寒伸出手臂來，攀住她母親的脖子，哭了。Xiaohan reached out and flung her arms round her mother’s neck, cried.許太太斷斷續續地道：“你放心……我……我自己會保重的……等你回來的時候……”Mrs. Xu said incoherently: “Don’t worry… I … I will take care of myself…when you come back…” （一九四三年七月） July 1943
64第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 Received 21 Jan. 2016; Revised 21 Jan. 2016*Corresponding author: Keith Morrison, PhD, Professor. Research Area: Education, Sociology, Assessment, Pedagogy, Social Science Research Methods, Management and Leadership. E-mail:kmorrison@must.edu.mo Tel:00853-88972006Randomized Controlled Trials in Educational Research: Learning from the “Medical Model”Keith MORRISON(Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China)AAstract: The increased use of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in educational research has close affinity to the “medical model” of RCTs. However, currently there are both similarities and differences between the two. This paper argues that, taking the lead from RCTs in medicine, there should be much greater rigour and sensitivity in RCTs in educational research. The analogy is drawn between key considerations in RCTs in medical research and those in education. The argument is advanced that, though medical treatments operate more on a one-to-one basis than education, nevertheless, in matters of research, the similarities between the two are sufficient for education to abide by the rigours of RCTs in medicine.eywords: Randomized controlled trials; Experiments; Medical model; Clinical trials 教育研究中的隨機對照試驗：以“醫學模式”為學習藍本祈務晨（澳門科技大學，澳門）摘要： 在教育研究中使用日增的隨機對照試驗（Randomized controlled trials, RCTs）與“醫學模式＂的RCTs有很密切的關聯，但現階段兩者還是有相似和相異的部份。本文將探討關於在醫學的RCTs的引領下，教育研究中的RCTs應具更高精確性及靈活性。在本文中，醫學研究中的RCTs的主要考量將與教育研究中的作類比。本文更將論述即使RCTs醫學上的應用與教育上的應用相比，更傾向於一對一的模式，但兩者在研究中的相似性已經足以使教育上的應用遵從醫學中RCTs的精確性。關鍵詞： 隨機對照試驗，實驗，醫學模式，臨床試驗0 IntroductionThe evidence based movement in education is fuelled by the increase in randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and the frequently used phrase “what works” in education relies very heavily on RCTs. The advance of RCTs in educational research seems unstoppable, rapidly achieving hegemonic status[1]. Their allure seems irresistible to governments and researchers alike, and the Campbell Collaboration, the social
65Keith MORRISON Randomized Controlled Trials in Educational Research: Learning from the “Medical Model”science equivalent of the Cochrane Collaboration, provides powerful evidence of this. The USA has the What Works Clearinghouse, the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) and the non-profit Coalition for Evidence-based Policy (which lists over 90 RCTs). The What Works Clearinghouse, for example, enables educationists to interrogate the data of RCTs in education by topic, student characteristics and units of randomization (individual and cluster). International organizations focusing on RCTs report twelve national RCTs in Europe[2], as do educational researchers in the evidence-based movement[3]. In the UK, the Educational Endowment Foundation was established in 2011[4], initiating 59 RCTs involving 2,300 schools; the Behavioural Insights Team opened in 2012; and in 2013 the UK’s Department for Education announced two major RCTs on (a) schools’ attainment in mathematics and science and (b) child protection. Indeed the Cabinet Office of the UK government, declared that “[r] andomised controlled tr ials (RCTs) are the best way of determining whether a policy is working”[5].RCTs commenced in agriculture[6], then were taken up by education and the social sciences, and, later still, were taken up in medicine. Educationists term RCTs the “medical model”, and advocacy of its use in educational research is increasing. It is, perhaps, an irony, that education, the field which preceded medicine in its use of RCTs, should be turning increasingly strongly to this “medical model”. In order to increase the explanatory power of RCTs in education – why certain effects are found – they are typically accompanied by ethnographic and other qualitative data (“process evaluations”). As the Vice-President of the British Educational Research Association observed: RCTs “must be complemented by other approaches including evaluation research, qualitative research, ethnographic research, action research and theoretical research” (p. 39)[7]. The Centre for Education and Inclusion Research echoes this: “RCTs on their own provide limited detail on why an intervention has a positive (or negative) impact, or whether specific aspects of a complex intervention are more (or less) effective than others. Because of this, our RCT evaluation designs incorporate a process evaluation that mixes qualitative and quantitative research approaches. . . .” (p. 1)[8]. Indeed Campbell himself, after whom the Campbell Collaboration is named, had reservations about the exclusion of qualitative research in relying too heavily on the experimental approach[9].The challenges facing RCTs in education have been well aired in much literature[10]. Rather than rehearsing these, this paper argues, more positively, that if this “medical model” is to be followed in educational research, then much greater attention must be given to the details of RCTs. Currently the research literature on RCTs in educational research, whilst advancing apace, provides little or no evidence of the level of rigour and detailed attention to differences that one finds in RCTs in the “medical model’. The present paper not only draws attention to this but indicates what is required to inject such rigour and detail into RCTs in educational research, which is currently absent in the field. On the one hand, stricter, more rigorous, sensitive, sophisticated, targeted and differentiated RCTs are required, with greater attention to sub-sampling. On the other hand, educational research must also be aware of the limits of RCTs and ensure that attention is paid to: the whole person; contexts and other interventions and practices that are taking place in the educational experiences of students at the time of the RCTs; duration, intensity and differential inputs into, operations of, and responses to the intervention; and to the often non-linear and dynamical systems nature of the “careers” of participants. The paper argues that current RCTs in educational research are often too simplistic, and it indicates how to address this.This paper raises issues through a literature review in the field. It argues that, in improving the quality of RCTs in educational research, they could learn from RCTs in the medical field: the “medical model”. Further, the paper contends that, whilst RCTs have their place, they require much greater attention to: the “real world”; the whole person;
66differentiated sub-groups; differentiation by personal characteristics of participants; dose-response (e.g., attention to amount, quality, strength, frequency, intensity, duration); recognition that a person is a complex system which combines and connects very many elements whose interactions and outcomes change over time (with commensurate changes to interventions over time). In education, this argues that a too-simplistic interpretation of RCTs is occurring and that, if the “medical model” of RCTs is to be used in educational research, then, like medicine, it should recognize the complexities and safeguards involved. The paper sets out such safeguards and rigour in RCTs in the “medical model” which currently are difficult to discern in educational RCTs, and it argues that such rigour could usefully be applied to RCTs in educational research. Further, whilst RCTs have their place in educational research, just as with medical research, this does not obviate the importance of, or preclude the use of, other research approaches, for example observational studies, case-cohort studies, analysis of multiple data sources, longitudinal studies, retrospective studies and research that addresses the whole person and the person-as-individual[11]. These provide additional data on important contextual and process factors. Whether the complexity of education lends itself to RCTs is addressed, and the paper rehearses the familiar point that pragmatic, “real world” RCTs in education, as in some medicine, should hold prominence over laboratory-like trials. By drawing attention to an alternative “medical model” – personalized medicine – to complement an RCT, the paper argues that RCTs in educational research too, could benefit from being accompanied by alternative models and methodologies of educational research. The push for RCTs in educational research, if it marginalizes other kinds of research, might be counterproductive.1 RCTs in Medical and Educational ResearchRCTs in education have their protagonists and antagonists. On the one hand, RCTs claim to provide evidence of “what works”, which is preferable to introducing or using untested interventions in education. RCTs can meet a rigorous standard of evidence and can upset long-held, false myths about education, and can suggest probabilistic causation. Small scale RCTs acting as pilots can also reduce risk[12]. On the other hand, RCTs have been criticized on many counts. For example, the irreducible complexity and multiplicity of purposes, intended outcomes and contents of education stand in contrast to the “medical model” which seeks to cure a single or limited number of illnesses at a time. Further, there is incongruence between the “medical model” which is pathological, seeking to cure a disease, and the educational model which has more positive aims (this caricature is for heuristic clarity). Concerns have also been raised about the questionable ethics of randomization (e.g., denying control groups access to potentially positive interventions). Randomization in educational RCTs might be difficult, and the solution may not necessarily be provided by cluster randomization. Some RCTs may have limited external validity (generalizability), and findings in one context may not work in another context. Further, blind- and double-blind experiments may not be feasible in education. An experiment may fail to catch, or may ignore, the complexity and significance of teacher-student interactions, and education comprises an ongoing, dynamic interplay of systems, contexts and people that may not be captured in a single RCT, i.e., RCTs, almost necessarily, over-simplify the “real world”[13]. What happens in the hermetically sealed world of the laboratory is unlike what happens in the “real world” in which contamination and the Hawthorne effect may occur. Indeed in clinical trials, some patients may not take the correct dose, or may take it at the wrong time of day, or not at all etc., i.e. in the “real world’ the RCT may not operate as intended. An RCT might suggest whether something “works”, but not why, how or how well, and these are the very thing that educationists need to know. The measures used in RCTs focus on the average,
67Keith MORRISON Randomized Controlled Trials in Educational Research: Learning from the “Medical Model”overall results rather than outliers or important sub-sample differences (discussed below), and, unlike clinical trials, there are very few replication RCTs in education. Non-cognitive outcomes may be ignored, and focus is placed on whether a particular intervention brings its designed outcome, regardless of the cost (widely defined).Whilst some of the responses to potential criticisms of RCTs suggest having yet more, and more rigorous, RCTs; other criticisms are at the level of principle, i.e., unlike the explicit relatively narrow focus of clinical trials, RCTs in education betray the complex world of education and, thereby, are simply not a “good thing”. Whilst not simply dismissing RCTs, this paper argues that, as educational research increasingly adopts the “medical model” of RCTs, it is important to understand how RCTs have fared in light of current developments in medicine, and how this can be applied to educational research. RCTs in medicine have a prominent place in drug testing, clinical and other therapies. Some medical RCTs are conducted in less controlled, “real world” settings, taking account of contextual matters, replacing experimental RCTs with pragmatic RCTs[14]. Indeed Campbell, a towering figure in experimental research in education, was an advocate of quasi-experiments and field-experiments[15]. Pragmatic trials fit clinical settings well, addressing, for example: patients who forget to, or refuse to, take medicine or take it irregularly; comorbidity; patients taking multiple medications; doctor-patient relations; and so on. Research using RCTs, as mentioned above, can be complemented by other research types and data, indeed other kinds of clinical practice. By way of example this paper introduces personalized medicine, an alternative “medical model”. This is done to suggest the importance of triangulation in models of research, giving greater reliability, validity and contextualization to the research.Taking the example of personalized medicine, then, with targeted therapies, this growing field at one level involves the whole person, the severity or stage of their disease, environmental and sociodemographic characteristics, socioeconomic, cultural, personal factors, health-related behaviours, the presence of other risk factors and comorbidities, in short the elements affecting the whole person, all of which requires careful screening and diagnosis: “Personalized medicine” refers to the tailoring of medical treatment to the individual characteristics of each patient. It does not literally mean the creation of drugs or medical devices that are unique to a patient but rather the ability to classify individuals into subpopulations that differ in their susceptibility to a particular disease or their response to a specific treatment. Preventive or therapeutic interventions can then be concentrated on those who will benefit, sparing expense and side effects for those who will not. . . . Moreover, the ability to stratify patients by disease susceptibility or likely response to treatment could also reduce the size, duration, and cost of clinical trials, thus facilitating the development of new treatments, diagnostics, and prevention strategies. (President’s Council of Advisers on Science and Technology, p. 1)[16]At another level, personalized medicine works with the science of genetics and biomarkers, where “a biomarker for target status is used to define a subgroup of patients who have a different benefit/risk ratio than an unselected population”[17]. The claim is made that personalized medicine, genetics and genomics are causing clinicians to rethink the landscape of RCTs,[18] though how far this is currently the case is equivocal; RCTs still hold sway in much clinical research. Frueh argues that RCTS “cannot be the answer to pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine” since “medical practice has not evolved around the concept of randomized trials, but around the idea of careful observations, (anecdotal) case studies and the evaluation of retrospective data” (p.
681077)[19], and there is an enduring significance of drugs that were developed before RCTs and which relied on observational studies[20].Personalized medicine also addresses the difference between genotype (the genetic make-up of an organism) and phenotype (the set of observable characteristics of an individual which stem from the interaction between the genotype and its environment), and this has major implications for sampling and sub-sampling in RCTs (e.g., based on biomarkers)[21]. Liu, Leung & Tian[22] remark that RCTs “have struggled to keep pace with the emerging understanding of individual pharmacogenomics” (p. S100), and recent advances in genetics and molecular biology can identify which patients to target in respect of different diseases, and which patients might not benefit from certain treatments. A range of factors, e.g., environment, comedication, comorbidities play a critical role[23] in treatment, and personalized medicine takes into account this range of factors operating in an individual case (discussed below). Do RCTs in educational research currently do this?Genotype-based educational research has been conducted (and monozygotic and dizygotic twin studies have a long history here), e.g.,: (a) a study of the association between Apolipoprotein E genotype on IQ, educational attainment, memory and plasma lipids[24]; (b) a study of schooling and variation in the COMT gene[25]; (c) an investigation into the biased or moderator effect of genotype of parental education on offspring[26]. In terms of research on social networks, using ‘genotype” metaphorically, one study [27] correlated genotypes in friendship networks, and another[28] identified “the social media genome”. The educational significance of genotyping, both actually and metaphorically, is to suggest that sub-group sampling must include targeted sub-groups rather than risking excluding them and that context must feature in educational research, something which even a field RCT might struggle to address. In other words, the genotype-phenotype relationship can be taken at an analogical level to ensure that sub-groups are organized according to a range of inclusive criteria in educational research.Personalized medicine emphasizes the need to ensure that groups differentiated by genotype and biomarkers, not solely by phenotype, are included in the sample, otherwise important groups and sub-samples may be excluded or neglected (thereby risking Type II errors: false negatives). For example Liu, Leung & Tian (2011)[29]note that a false negative result was found for a cancer drug because “none of the patients in the trials had been selected based on EGFR [epidermal growth factor rejector] activity” (p. S100), and yet a specific sub-group actually benefited from the drug but was not included in the research, i.e., a sampling problem. Similarly, the drug Tamoxifin, for example, in breast cancer treatments, does not work in the treatment of some ten per cent of women who do not have a tumour which has a particular genetic flaw. The sub-sample should be planned in advance rather than conducting post hoc data analysis in the hope of finding some statistical significance, and the RCT must ensure statistical power to avoid a Type II error, particularly if small samples and sub-samples are involved[30]. In RCTs in educational research, attention must be given to the inclusion of relevant sub-samples.In RCTs for new drugs, attention is given to the dose-response factor: what level of dosage brings about what kind of response in the patient? Too little, and the medication is seen to be ineffective; too much, and it can be lethal. Some treatments may require initial intensive medication, tailing off to a maintenance level (e.g., many people start antibiotics with a double dose and then maintain a single dose for several days); some medication may require a gentle start, with an increasing, cumulative dosage as the body responds to treatment. Some drugs (e.g., lithium, insulin) may require ongoing, regular, close monitoring, whilst others require less a less watchful eye. The point here is that medication is not a single event but, as the career of a disease and a patient changes over time, so does the treatment. The equivalents of these points in clinical RCTs do not appear to operate in the simple input-output
69Keith MORRISON Randomized Controlled Trials in Educational Research: Learning from the “Medical Model”model of many current RCTs in educational research. Some students need intensive treatment, others do not; some require an intensive early intervention, tailing off over time, whilst with others the opposite may be true; some students may require close monitoring whilst others may not. How are these addressed in RCTs in educational research, and how is this both monitored and factored into the assessment of “what works”? Indeed, whilst “treatments” in clinical trials may be easier to standardize (e.g., the amount of a drug), in education this is much less so the case, as it involves social interactions, personalities, motivations etc., and these may differ from person to person or group to group[31].Patients differ from each other in genotype (biological subgroups) and phenotype (e .g. , behaviours) and respond variably to the same drug,[32] and average effects, as measured in an RCT, may differ markedly from effects on a given individual. Randomization, harking back to Fisher, is designed to overcome a myriad of within-group and between-group differences that risk the threat of bias or confounds by evenly distributing them between the control and experimental group, thereby insulating – screening off – the variable from other causes in the RCT, and focusing on averages between control and experimental groups. This might be all well and good for the agricultural model in his The Design of Experiments[33], but humans – be they patients in medicine or students in school – are infinitely more complex and less passive than seeds which are affected by soil, heat, light, weather, location and water[34]. Medicines are not fertilizers; a fertilizer may have only one effect whereas a medicine may have many, and, whereas fertilizers look for average effects, medicine is acutely concerned with the benefit to an individual patient[35]. Similarly in education, one intervention may cause a multiplicity of outcomes and may vary according to the characteristics of the students. Indeed the same treatment with the same class may produce different results[36]. T h o u g h o n e c a n q u e s t i o n h o w f a r t h e individualization and specificity (the one-to-one nature: from doctor to patient) of medical treatment matches the world of education which, typically, is not one-to-one, i.e., is one teacher to many students, nevertheless the point that it makes about attention to individual differences is important for education as well, and the concept of “differentiation” is widely noted in the field of education: taking account of individual differences and responding to them in pedagogical practices. This is not at all to say that RCTs are unaware of this; indeed how effectively and efficaciously a medical or educational treatment works is highly variable across groups. Together, these two points argue for a rigorous, cautious approach in adopting RCTs in educational research and in the claims for generalizability that are made from them. Indeed the claim for generalizability may have substance if the causal system at work in the RCT matches that in the wider “real world”.2 The Limitations of AveragesIn clinical trials, it is not sufficient to have a single outcome measure, an average; rather it is important to differentiate by sub-sample and by dosage. So it should be with educational research, yet currently many RCTs in educational research are content with a single average measure, a single dose, a single measure of effect size or statistical significance, overlooking dose-response differences, within-group differences, between-groups differences and sub-sample differences (which factorial designs may or may not catch). This is an important feature for educational research here: if RCTs in education are to be conducted, then they need to be more sophisticated and rigorous, at the same time, sensitive to individual and group differences, to context, and to the need to move beyond singular measurements of outcomes such as averages. Average difference conceals within-patient variation, between-patient variation and patient-treatment interaction. Whilst stratification attenuates this, it increases the sample size, e.g., in each stratum, in order to retain statistical power, thereby raising logistical or practical problems of acquiring a suitably large sample.
70Whether or not average effects are found, the point is that in medicine, particularly perhaps personalized medicine, given the variability of dosage and response, targeted therapies are required rather than the “one size fits all” approach. Whilst personalized approaches are also being used alongside RCTs on drugs, RCTs alone do not drive individualized therapies. Moving from RCT to treatment is an art as much as a science[37]. As Osler, a key early figure in medicine remarked, “if it were not for the great variability among individuals, medicine might have well been a science and not an art” (p. 40[38]. So it is in education – using data from an RCT in education to inform educational practice is moderated and mediated by a range of other factors.Fisher’s comment that randomization, linked to the importance of averages which are intended to overcome individual differences, “will suffice to guarantee the validity of the test of significance, by which the result of the experiment is to be judged” (p. 21) is self-condemning[39] as: (a) contextual factors can affect outcomes in ways that cannot be overcome by randomization; and (b) significance testing has limited value, telling the researcher only about the likelihood of the result occurring by chance rather than which patients might or might not benefit, and by how much[40]; one cannot read off from a general result, an average or a test of statistical significance, what will be the result for an individual (the ecological fallacy).For RCTs in educational research, the lessons from clinical trials argue that average results alone are simplistic and inadequate for catching the complexities and differences in participants and the contexts and environments in which their learning takes place. On the other hand Goldacre[41], a leading protagonist for RCTs in education, remarks that in the world of education “[e]very child is different, of course, and every patient is different too; but we are all similar enough that research can help find out which intervention will work best overall, and which strategies should be tried first, second or third, to help everyone achieve the best outcome” (p. 7). However, he provides no evidence to support his claim. Averages – the measure used in RCTs – may disguise which sub-group did or did not benefit from, or were endangered or harmed by, the treatment[42]. Standardizing treatments for, or across, a whole population may be risky or suboptimal for some individuals or sub-groups. As Healy, Bechthold & Tolias observe, “[c]linical practice wants to discover heterogeneity, not obliterate it” (p. 81)[43]. So it is in education.Variable responses (“heterogeneity of treatment effects”) are almost inevitable in heterogeneous patients and their sub-groups. RCTs often overlook such heterogeneities, leading to claims for results being more broadly applicable than in reality they are. Indeed there is plentiful evidence to show that clinical trials may overlook sub-groups, comorbidities, comedication and other patient characteristics[44]; this is a warning for educational research which too easily assumes that a single intervention will have a single effect; a blunt instrument with a blunt measure. For RCTs in educational research, benefits come from the sophisticated sub-sampling and subgroup targeted treatments with varied outcomes, researched in suitably differentiated trials in the “real world”. This is a far cry from the relatively crude, undifferentiated input-output RCTs that appear in educational literature which typically report statistical significance and a single, overall effect size. Averages conceal differences, and medicine looks to individuals and sub-groups as well as to averages[45]. RCTs have to be, and many are, sensitive to variability in patient groups. Currently in educational research this is largely not the case. In this respect large samples may overlook important smaller differences but small samples may lack statistical power or risk a Type II error. Big is not beautiful, but neither is small. If RCTs are applied without due attention to individuals then treatment is undermined, and the argument here is for case-control and non-random cohort studies, in tandem with careful observational studies, non-random and retrospective analyses of data, i.e., methods that have been used long before RCTs came into vogue. Research in education would
71Keith MORRISON Randomized Controlled Trials in Educational Research: Learning from the “Medical Model”benefit from such differentiation and complementary data.Measures of central tendency in RCTs, typically by using averages, may be their strongest point or their Achilles heel, depending on the purpose of the research. Here the lesson from personalized medicine (PM) may be helpful; de Leon observes that whereas many clinical trials seek “to establish the best treatment for the average patient and ignores the outliers, PM focuses on the outliers” (p. 153)[46]. Patients, average or outliers, may or may not benefit equally from the treatment. One should not assume population or response homogeneity; a “drug response is a statistically heterogeneous phenomenon” (p. 153)[47]. It is all too easy to dismiss outliers, regardless of the levels at which they are defined: 1 per cent, 5 cent, 10 per cent, or whatever. The same could be said of educational research: the more difficult, extreme and small in number is the sub-group, the more it risks being overlooked. Given the problem of the use of averages in RCTs, it may be useful to supplement the findings from RCTs with evidence from other methodologies[48], e.g., epidemiological studies, case studies, historical studies and clinical experience[49]. Excluding and including variables, often focusing on a single variable of interest in an artificial setting, overlooks broader contexts and applicability. This can apply equally well to the field of research in education.3 What Researchers Want and Need to nowSignificance testing is silent on what many researchers and users of research want or need to know: how much of an effect an intervention has, and on whom (which groups and sub-groups), under what conditions and contingencies, with how much “treatment” (e.g., quantity, quality, intensity, strength, frequency, duration), and at what cost. However, RCTs tend to focus on null hypothesis significance testing,[50] but this only tells us whether an intervention makes a difference by chance or not by chance, not how much difference it makes. What most researchers wish to know is the magnitude of an effect, something that statistical significance alone cannot provide.[51]This is amplified by Pearce & Raman in their comment on the relation between RCTs and policy making, suggesting that advocates of RCTs could help institutions more by putting “the evidence from trials in its proper context, clarify the conditions under which interventions work or do not work and why”[52] (p. 398). Such concerns about RCT’s resonate with Pawson’s comment that an evaluation of an intervention would be well advised to provide data on whether to “implement it through A, B, C . . . to target it at D, E, F . . . and . . . beware of the pitfalls of G, H, I . . . .” (p. 190).[53] RCTs in educational research operate from a restricted view of causality and predictability, understate the value of other data sources and types, display unrealistic reductionism, simplification and atomization of a complex whole, understate the importance of multiple perspective in judging “what works”, fail to catch the dynamics of nonlinear phenomena, are silent on the processes that take place in experiments (the black box approach), and neglect the significance of context[54]. In other words, undifferentiated RCTS alone cannot tell the whole story of efficacy, generalizability and effectiveness. In addition to needing to know “how much” effect a treatment has, and on whom, RCTs generally do not indicate why some patients do or do not respond to treatment, others have an excessive response, and others experience side effects or adverse effects[55], i.e., why there is such variability in effects. It is difficult to find an RCT in educational research that states in advance the criteria for the level of success that it requires in order to be judged efficacious or effective and how it will address contingencies and responses to interventions. Many have no specified targets, though some may indicate an overall effect size sought in order to ensure statistical power. Indeed it is difficult to find RCTs in educational research, which, unlike clinical trials, state their prognoses, targeted improved benefit (for whom, how much and about what), predicted benefit or its lack (and for whom), predicted risk and its mitigation
72(though ethics committees are supposed to act here), and estimated “dose” (intervention). Medicine, as exemplified in personalized medicine, seeks to identify the right treatment at the right time to the right patient[56]; this kind of information is notably absent in educational research which uses RCTs. Whilst RCTs might be useful in educational research, it is infinitely more difficult to operate them than in clinical trials because, unlike medicine, where outcomes are easier to predefine or narrower in focus, this is not the case in education, and, even if we could identify such outcomes in education, measuring them is much more challenging than in medicine, and surrogates and proxies in medicine may not have their equivalents in education[57]. In responding to the need for recognizing the importance of detail, contingencies and contexts, and taking the “medical model” further, RCTs in educational research could benefit from the rigour attached to RCTs in medicine, as pharmacopeias indicate: whether a medicine is freely available or a controlled drug; dosage strengths, frequency and quantities; patient screening and diagnosis; security, safety and misuse; indications; contraindications, side effects and adverse effects; delayed effects; register of providers and users; treatment regimens; cautions; patients at risk (e.g., by age, abnormality, special features), presence of other illnesses and other medicines; and methods of treatment. The equivalence of these in RCTs in educational research is currently difficult to find in their planning, design, conduct, analysis and reporting. In medicine, unlike in the laboratory, the doctor faces a person, not simply a disease[58]. Treatment must take account a host of other factors, contexts and systems in which they exist; rather than trying to control out such factors, contexts and systems, they occupy a central position. Similarly in the field of educational research, RCTs have an important place, but theirs is not the entire story of “what works” when considering the whole system of persons, contingencies, changes, contexts, education systems and policy making that obtain in a dynamic, non-linear, inter-connected system such as education. 4 The Need for “Real World” Evidence and RegulationAdvances in medicine are being made in “real world evidence”[59], i.e., data which do not come solely from RCTs but from electronic health records, patient registries, claims databases, patient reported outcomes, literature reviews and summaries (e.g., meta-analysis and the Cochrane Collaboration). It is also argued that that RCTs are part of “yesterday’s toolkit”, whereas the “New Health Toolkit” admittedly includes RCTs but also, inter alia, stakeholder research, observational studies, registries, budget impact models, cost-effectiveness models, social media and patient data collection/surveys[60]. Such data should include patients’ biomarkers, comorbidities, confounders, comparable effectiveness and should consider multiple, alternative and mixed approaches in generating evidence. So too in educational research; RCTs are only one source of evidence in educational research, and, indeed the argument has been advanced that they should be complemented by qualitative and quantitative data of many different types[61].Further, in drug research, the Food and Drug Administration in America has regulatory oversight of the drug and its trials; there is currently no educational equivalent of this. Would that educational practices had the same stages of trialling as apply to drug testing[62]: ● Stage One : the dose-response stage of laboratory testing to identify safe dosages and to derive the medicines (derivation); ● Stage Two: trials (randomized and non-randomized trials) with larger samples to determine levels of efficacy of the drug (validation); ● Stage Three : l a rge sample tes t ing to compare the drug with the standard regimen (comparative effectiveness studies); and ● Stage Four: the post-marketing stage to study longer term effects.
73Keith MORRISON Randomized Controlled Trials in Educational Research: Learning from the “Medical Model”Regulation and staged interventions in RCTs appear to be neglected in educational research.5 ConclusionDespite differences, there is considerable similarity between RCTs in educational research and clinical trials. Whilst being able to identify whether an intervention “works” under carefully controlled conditions, RCTs also need to take account of “real world” settings, and improving RCTs involves sub-group identification and inclusion, in short, careful and detailed stratification and analysis of differential treatment effects. Further, pragmatic RCTs trump experimental RCTs, as the former respect the heterogeneity of the population rather than averaging out or overlooking such differences; they also catch a much richer situation than the sanitized world of the laboratory. Goodman calls for “adaptive clinical trials” (p. 15)[63] which include one or more, or ongoing, decision points and “mid-course corrections” that are built into the trial design. Evidence that this happens in the black boxes of RCTs in educational research is difficult to detect. There is a need for RCTs to be supplemented by observational studies with a variety of sources, both prospective and retrospective, and this is happening in educational research, where experimental data are being complemented by qualitative research.Medicine places great store on detailed diagnosis. This stands in contrast to many RCTs in education which seem to take a largely undifferentiated approach to diagnosis of who might and might not benefit from an intervention, and then proceed to a relatively crude RCT that is targeted at an undifferentiated group. One lesson here is that RCTs in educational research may benefit from being differentiated to targeted groups, based on careful diagnosis; the other lesson is that treatments will need to take account of the whole person, not just a few variables. For educational research, the paper has argued that RCTs should seek, wherever possible, to abide by the rigours of clinical RCTs and, taking note of the example of personalized medicine, to attend to careful and inclusive sub-group sampling and to the whole person in dynamical systems approaches rather than, or in addition to, the isolationist and reductionist approaches of RCTs in judging “what works”. This paper has argued that if educational researchers wish to use rigorous RCTs they must also recognize that, even with such rigour, RCTs in education may not give educationists all the important information that they need, and they may be unfit for educational purposes unless they relate closely to “real world” settings. As the President’s Council of Advisers on Science and Technology indicates: “data derived from narrowly defined, tightly controlled study populations in analytic validation studies and clinical trials is not always representative of the results that will be achieved with typical patients in real-world settings. . . . Treatments or diagnostic procedures that seem promising in clinical trials may prove to be less effective in routine practice” (p. 8 and p. 46)[64].This paper has recognized that differences lie between medical practice and education, e.g., between pathological modules in medicine and more positive models in education, between one-to-one treatment in medicine and group ‘treatment’ in classes in education, between the broad purposes of education and the more restricted purposes of medicine. Nevertheless one should avoid conflating treatment with research and models of research, and in the latter two there is an affinity between RCTs in educational research and medical research.This paper has argued that if RCTs are to be used in educational research then they could learn much from the rigour and controls applied to their operations in clinical trials, viz.: the detailed sampling and subsampling strategies that they employ; the educational equivalents of the dose-response relationship and outcomes; the isolation and control of moderator and mediator variables (e.g., the equivalent of comorbidities in clinical research); and the educational equivalents of comedications (other concurrent or simultaneous interventions and practices). Further, the paper has argued that RCTs in educational research, as in clinical trials, should
74be supplemented by a range of data from other approaches and methodologies in order to understand and explain the complexity of the phenomenon being investigated, the causal processes at work and the operation of causality. This is happening in some educational research with RCTS[65]. In this respect the paper has also argued that the educational equivalents of personalized medicine could also complement RCTs. If educational researchers accept the role of RCTs as a legitimate methodology, then they need to do it properly, and this means becoming more demanding in constructing RCTs and using the data from them, recognizing the limits of this approach and considering the use of field RCTs rather than striving to adhere exclusively to the canons of laboratory conditions.References [1] Pearce, W. & Raman, S. The new randomized controlled trials (RCT) movement in public policy: challenges of epistemic governance, Policy Sciences, 2014, 47(4): 387–402.[2] Bouguen, A. & Gurgand, M. Randomized Controlled Experiments in Education. EENEE Analytical Report no. 11 for the European Commission. Paris: European Commission, 2012.[3] Goldacre, B. Building Evidence into Education. London: Department for Education, 2013; Gorard, S. & Torgerson, C. The ESRC Researcher Development Initiative: promise and pitfalls of pragmatic trials in education. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Warwick, 6–9 September, 2006; Hassey, N. Randomised control trials and their limitations for use within educational research. researchED., 2015. Available at: http://www.workingoutwhatworks.com/en-GB/Magazine/2015/1/RCTs_and_their_limitations; Hutchison, D. & Styles, B. A Guide to Running Randomised Controlled Trials for Educational Researchers. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research, 2010; Moore, L., Graham, A. & Diamond, I. 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Paper given at ‘Was heißt hier eigentlich “Evidenz”?’, Frühjahrstagung 2015 des AK Methoden in der Evaluation Gesellschaft für Evaluation (DeGEval), Fakultät für Sozialwissenschaften, Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft des Saarlandes, Saarbrücken, May 2015. Available from: http://www.degeval.de/fileadmin/users/Arbeitskreise/AK_Methoden/Hammersley_Saarbrucken.pdf; Hutchison, D. & Styles, B. A Guide to Running Randomised Controlled Trials for Educational Researchers. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research, 2010; Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D. & Campbell, D. T. Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002; Sullivan, G. M. Getting off the “gold standard”: randomized controlled trials and education research, Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 2011, 3 (3): 285–298.[11] Marsden, E. Can educational experiments both test a theory and inform practice? British Educational Research Journal, 2007, 33(4): 565-88; Pring, op. cit., 2015.[12] Torgerson, C. J. & Torgerson, D. J. Designing Randomised Trials in Health, Education and the Social Sciences. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.[13] Hammersley, op. cit. 2015.[14] de Leon, J. Evidence-based medicine versus personalized medicine: are they enemies? Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2012, 32(2): 153–164; Liu, L., Leung, E. L-H., & Tian, X. Y. The clinical trial barriers, Nature, 2011, 480(7378): S100; Sullivan, op cit., 2011; Torgerson &Torgerson, op. cit., 2013.[15] Pearce & Raman, op. cit. 2014; Shadish, Cook & Campbell, op. cit., 2002.[16] President’s Council of Advisers on Science and Technology Priorities for Personalized Medicine, 2008. Washington: Executive Office of the President of the United States. Available from: https://www.whitehouse.gov/files/documents/ostp/PCAST/pcast_report_v2.pdf.
75Keith MORRISON Randomized Controlled Trials in Educational Research: Learning from the “Medical Model”[17] Lesko, L. J. Personalized Medicine: the Value of Targeted Therapies, 2010. Available at: http://www.ispor.org/meetings/atlanta0510/presentations/Lawrence-Lesko-Presentation.pdf.[18] Vaidyanathan, G. Redefining clinical trials: the age of personalized medicine, Cell, 2012, 148(6): 1079–1080; Woodcock, J. The prospects for “personalized medicine” drug development and drug therapy, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 2007, 81(2): 164–169.[19] Frueh, op. cit., 2009.[20] Healy, D., Bechthold, K. &Tolias, P. Antidepressant-induced suicidality: how translational epidemiology incorporating pharmacogenetics into controlled trials can improve clinical care, Personalized Medicine, 2014, 11(1): 79–88.[21] Lyman, G. H. & Hirsch, B. Comparative effectiveness research and genomic personalized medicine, Journal of Personalized Medicine, 2010, 7(3): 223–227.[22] Liu, Leung & Tian, op. cit., 2011.[23] Frueh, op. cit., 2009, p. 1080.[24] Taylor, A. E., Guthrie, P. A. I., Davey-Smith, G., Golding, J., Sattar, N., Hingorani, A. D., Deanfield, J. E. & Day, I. N. M. IQ, educational attainment, memory and plasma lipids: associations with Apolipoprotein E genotype in 5995 children, Biological Psychiatry, 2011, 70(2): 152–158.[25] Campbell, D., Bick, J., Yrigollen, C. M., Lee, M., Jospeh, A., Chang, J. T., Grigorenko, E. L. Schooling and variation in the COMT gene: the devil is in the details. Journal of Child Psychological Psychiatry, 2014, 545(10): 1056–1065.[26] Conley, D., Domingue, B. W., Cesarini, D., Dawes, C, Rietveld, C. A., & Boardman, J. D. Is the effect of parental education on offspring biased of moderated by genotype? Sociological Science, 2015, 2: 82–105.[27] Fowler, J. H., Settle, J. E. & Christakis, N. A. Correlated genotypes in friendship networks, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2011, 108(5): 1993–97.[28] Bogdanov, P. Busch, M., Moehlis, J., Singh, A. K. & Szymanski, B. The social media genome: modeling individual topic-specific behavior in social media. Paper presented at the IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining, Niagara Falls, Ontario, 25–28 August, 2013.[29] Liu, Leung & Tian, op. cit., 2011.[30] Torgerson & Torgerson, op. cit., 2008.[31] Hammersley, op. cit., 2015, p. 5.[32] Lesko, op. cit., 2010.[33] Fisher, op. cit., 1966.[34] Healy, Bechthold & Tolias, op cit, 2014, p. 80.[35] de Leon, op. cit., 2012.[36] Tymms, P. B. Theories, models and simulations: school effectiveness at an impasse. In J. Gray, D. Reynolds, C. T. Fitz-Gibbon, & D. Jesson (Eds.) Merging Traditions: the Future of Research on School Effectiveness and School Improvement, (pp. 121-35). London: Cassell, 1996.[37] de Leon, op. cit., 2012.[38] Lesko, op. cit., 2010, p. 4.[39] Fisher, op. cit., 1966, p. 21.[40] Clay, R. A. More than one way to measure. American Psychological Association, 2010, 41(8): 52.[41] Goldacre, op. cit., 2013, p. 7.[42] Goodman, C. Comparative Effectiveness Research and Personalized Medicine: from Contradiction to Synergy. Falls Church, Virginia: The Lewin Group Center for Comparative Effectiveness Research, 2009.[43] Healy, Bechthold & Tolias, op. cit., 2014, p. 81.[44] Goodman, op cit., 2009.[45] Frueh, op. cit., 2009; Goodman, op. cit., 2009.[46] de Leon, op. cit., 2012, p. 153.[47] ibid., p. 153.[48] Clay, op. cit., 2010.[49] Sullivan, op. cit., 2011; see also Hammersley, op. cit., 2015.[50] Healy, Bechthold & Tolias, op. cit., 2014, p. 84.[51] Ziliak, S. T. & McCloskey, D. N. The Cult of Statistical Significance. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2008; see also Healy, Bechthold & Tolias, op. cit., 2014.[52] Pearce & Raman, op. cit., 2014.[53] Pawson, R. The Science of Evaluation: A Realist Manifesto. London: Sage publications, 2013.[54] Morrison, K. R. B. Randomised controlled trials for evidence-based education: some problems in judging ‘What Works’. Evaluation and Research in Education, 2001, 15(2): 69-83.[55] Hogarth, S. Regulation, innovation and personalised medicine. Paper presented at the EMA workshop, London, October 2012. Available at: http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Presentation/2012/11/WC500134985.pdf.[56] Goodman, op. cit., 2009, p. 3.[57] Smith, M. Evidence-based education: is it really that straightforward? The Guardian, 26 March 2013. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/teacher-network/2013/mar/26/teachers-research-evidence-based-education.[58] Faulkner, Real World Evidence and Implications for Emerging Technologies, 2013, p. 12. Available at: http://www.namcp.org/journals/spring13/Faulkner%20Emerging%20Technologies.pdf .[59] ibid., p. 43.[60] ibid., pp. 51 & 91.[61] Pring, op. cit., 2015.[62] Lyman & Hirsch, op. cit., 2010; Vaidyanathan, op. cit., 2012.[63] Goodman, op. cit., 2009.[64] President’s Council of Advisers on Science and Technology, op. cit., 2008, pp. 8 & 46.
76第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 Received 2 Dec. 2015; Revised 18 Mar. 2016*Corresponding author:Xiaoyan DENG, PhD candidate, Lecturer of Department of General Education. Research Area: Educational Communication, EFLTeaching and Public Diplomacy.E-mail: xydeng@must.edu.mo, Tel:00853-88972805A Study on Learning Styles of University EFL Learners in MacauXiaoyan DENG( Department of General Education, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: The study was inspired by an interesting phenomenon observed in the Macau University of Science and Technology (MUST hereafter) that Chinese mainland students generally have higher achievement than local Macau students in the English classroom. In order to discover the possible explanation to the above phenomenon, this study compares learning styles of the students from Mainland China and Macau in their first year of university study in MUST and explores if there is a statistically significant relationship between learning styles and student learning achievement, at the same time attempts to catch a glimpse of the different sociocultural experience affecting the learning style differences. A translated version of MBTI and Vermunt’s Inventory of Learning Styles (1994) questionnaire is delivered to 112 students from six different majors in MUST, including 60 Macau students and 52 Chinese mainland students. The results are analyzed in detail and factors affecting the differences are discussed. Instead of stereotyping the students of either origin, this study will hopefully help our faculty members to gain insight and adjust teaching methods accordingly to enhance English teaching and learning outcome. eywords: Chinese mainland and Macau students; Learning style; Cultural background; EFL澳門大學生英語學習風格鄧霄妍（澳門科技大學通識教育部，澳門）摘要： 本文以澳門科技大學為例，通過比較該大學本地和內地非英語專業學生之間的英語學習風格，探索學習風格和社會文化背景之間的關係，並進一步研究社會文化差異、學習風格差異以及學習成績之間的相關性。本研究選取澳門科技大學大一共112名非英語專業學生（包括60名澳門學生和52名內地學生）作為研究對象，使用MBTI 和Vermunt學習風格量表展開問卷調查，通過SPSS 對數據進行多角度統計分析。並從統計數據出發，分析了不同社會文化背景下學生的學習風格和學習行為，從而提出基於學習風格差異的相關英语教学策略。關鍵詞： 內地學生；澳門學生；學習風格；文化背景；EFL
77Xiaoyan DENG A Study on Learning Styles of University EFL Learners in Macau0 IntroductionMacau, a former colony of Portugal since mid-16th century, was handed over to China in 1999. This thriving tourist city, seemingly similar to all other major Chinese cities in the Canton area, still maintains its deep-rooted multi-cultural characteristics in many aspects. Local Macau people are residing in an international environment where traditional Chinese culture (mainly Cantonese culture), adapted Portuguese culture, and some other minor foreign cultures converge in a harmonious manner. Along with gaining increasing international reputation through its booming tourist and gaming industry, multiple areas of Macau studies are flourishing, including the growing research on English language education, which is highly relevant to Macau’s cultural diversity.It is observed in the English classroom in Macau University of Science and Technology that the observable classroom behaviors and learning achievement of Chinese mainland students and Macau students from the same class differ to a considerable extent. I t is thus a confusing yet interesting phenomenon that even sharing the same teachers and same homework assignments, Mainland students, in general, have been observed to always have higher achievement in their unified English tests than their native Macau counterparts. Teachers with the same observation hold different opinions. Some have assumed that the contrast in English achievement between students from different regions may largely be attributed to their different learning styles. And some hypothesize that there is likely to be a direct connection between the general personality traits of the two different subcultural groups with their learning styles, mainlanders being more quiet and insightful while Macanese being more extraverted and imaginative. In a study exploring learning style differences between two groups of students: the mainland Chinese group and Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Macau group, Chen[1] and her co-researchers found that the differences of learning styles between these two groups are significant in terms of information processing and comprehension, mainland student group more reflective and the other group more active. In that research, students from Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau are regarded as one group. Questions thus arise: If we compare students from Mainland China and Macau, are their learning styles or strategies different? What are the differences? Are the differences significant enough to lead to different English achievement? Do different cultural and social backgrounds, though in the same country, play a part in breeding different learning styles? This study aims to explore the answers to the above questions by analyzing the results obtained via the MBTI personality traits inventory and Vermunt’s learning style inventory (1994) [2]applied on two groups of students with different origins both studying in MUST, hence to discover the possible explanation to the above phenomenon.1 Literature ReviewIn the long and challenging process of learning a language, it is undeniably important to involve both professional guidance and learners’ own conscious engagement. To be able to involve both effectively, teachers’ understanding of the learners—what they need, how they learn, what stimulates their learning—is to be acquired. Keefe defines learning style as “characteristic, cognitive, affective and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and respond to the learning environment”[3]. According to Felder[4], the amount students learn in the class is partially determined by the students’ ability and prior preparation, and the capability of his or her learning style. Reid and Elison have both observed that “learning is determined by learning styles where students who are able to employ multiple learning styles acquire a greater learning outcome”[5]. Since the learning style plays a crucial role in the learning process, it is important for teachers to understand and make use of it in their teaching. Once the teachers become aware of the differences, they are able to
78decide whether the current teaching methods interact well with students’ learning style; and in turn it is possible to help students to accommodate their style to their needs.1.1 Learning style and sociocultural experienceThe earliest research of learning styles could be traced back to 1950s when Herbert Thelen advanced the concept of learning style for the first time[6]. Thus far, many aspects of learning styles have been taken into consideration in the studies, including personality traits, learning attitudes, cognitive processing, instructing and educational experiences and so on, among which sociocultural background is also an important element.[7] Some argue that a learner’s “consistent way of learning in [different] contexts is created by the individual’s psychological make-up and cultural background”[8].Research done by Riding and Sadler-Smith, Sternberg Grigorenko, and Vermunt on this issue hypothesized that different learning approaches are a result of different sociocultural experiences. [9]As reflection of cultures, historical, geographical and social characteristics all interact with and inter-affect one another, it influenced ways of learning.[10] These studies indicate the importance and necessity for future research to identify the specific relationships between learning dimensions and various aspects of social life and cultural experiences.[11] 1.2 Chinese learning stylesThe majority of cross-culture learning style studies related to Chinese learners focus on comparing Chinese learners as a whole with learners from other countries. A research administrated by Reid[12] examined the learning styles of non-native speaking students studying in U.S., including Chinese EFL students. The findings related to Chinese students are that they demonstrate a preference of kinesthetic learning style among all the cultural groups and dislike group learning style most. A follow-up study carried out by Melton[13] obtained similar results as that of Reid. In a recent study comparing learning styles between Chinese and Irish students, Auley, Morahan and Tiernan[14] found the difference between the two groups lies in the Chinese students tend to be global learners whereas their Irish counterpart tend to be sequential learners. While Chinese learning styles are mostly discussed as a term unifying all people of Chinese Confucian heritage origins, it actually involves people from a broader sociocultural context. In a limited number of studies comparing Chinese students from different regions or sub-cultural groups, researchers concluded that Chinese background students —mainland Chinese and other ethnic Chinese expatriates—at times have been treated as a single group who has a tendency to take surface approaches to study, each has its own distinctive features due to their different economic, political, social and cultural systems. [15]In the study of comparing learning styles of the students from Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, and mainland China, Guibemau & Goldblatt[16] stated that although a similar culture is shared by these Chinese background students, any common culture cannot be authentically understood detached from its sociocultural settings. Consequently, even of the same ethnic group, mainland Chinese students can “have different needs and their study choices need to be explored separately from other East Asian Chinese culture background countries or regions.” In another comparative research, Thao and Li [17] studied the differences in study approach of 192 Chinese cultural background students drawn from different countries of Chinese culture. The results found that, expectations and pressure from the students’ families play an essential role in their studies in terms of choice of subjects and learning approaches; The concept of ‘collaboration’ and ‘independent learning’ is perceived and valued differently; and linguistic factors dictate the orientation towards different learning approaches.The aforementioned studies, on the one hand, are consistent in that the learning style preferences of EFL students from different sociocultural background differ among cultures as well as sub-cultures; On the other hand, show a diversity of findings on the learning styles of Chinese students.
79Xiaoyan DENG A Study on Learning Styles of University EFL Learners in Macau2 Research Methodology2.1 Research questionsIn the case of this study, both cohorts are Chinese students, one from Chinese mainland, typical subjects in studies of Eastern Asian style learning and the other from Macau, who embraces a more diverse traditions, cultural background and social experience, seemingly a rare subject in studies of learning style. To find out the possible reason(s) for the observed difference between both groups in their English learning performance, the following questions are addressed and examined: ● Do the two groups differ in learning styles? ● Based on the result of the first question, what are the differences? ● Based on the result of the second question, do the differences in their learning style have influence over student learning achievement?2.2 SamplingThe study took place at a private university located in Macau. The total of 545 students were enrolled in the general English courses focusing on the learning of English listening and speaking skills. In order to control the factor of teachers’ influence on students’ learning style over time and control the English level of subjects, a total of 112 students enrolled in the course with a same teacher were used as a convenience sample, including 60 Macau students and 52 Chinese mainland students. All of them were year-one students from six different majors and registered in the same College English course of lower intermediate level. The two groups were given two learning styles inventory surveys and were administered with the same English tests both in the middle and the end of the semester to measure student achievement. The survey was self-administrated in the classroom in order to collect data. A Chinese version of MBTI[18] and Vermunt’s Inventory of Learning Styles (1994) questionnaires were administered to students, which were translated from its original English version by a certified NATTI translator with a Band Eight English proficiency (the highest certified level for Chinese students of English major). Valid questionnaire answers and English test scores were collected from a total number of 112 students, four Macau students submitting incomplete questionnaires.2.3 InstrumentsAccording to Wang and Tan[19], up to 2004 there are more than 70 types of models for measuring learning styles. Choosing a suitable model is a vital issue in finding answers to the research questions. Cultural experience is related to the development of learning styles in the way that it involves many factors—life style, education, family, etc.-- that influence people’s cognitive capacities: interpretation, values, perception and problem-solving. In order to explore the relationship of culture (the variable specified as two subcultural groups) and these capacities (represented by learning style) more efficiently, a popular cognitive style model MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) is used. The model classifies students according to their preferences on scales derived from psychologist Carl Jung’s theory of psychological type. This widely acknowledged and well-proven instrument has been used in the early stage of studies of cross-cultural learning styles since 1990s[20]. It was employed in the first stage of the study to investigate whether there are significant learning style differences between Chinese mainland and Macau students. Four categories of learning style are inspected with the MBTI-M questionnaire (a translated version with 93 questions) and data are processed with SPSS 20.The four scales of learning style are to measure learners’ dominant perceptual and cognitive processes related to personal traits and interpersonal orientation. The Extraversion - Introversion (EI) scale is intended to measure whether a person focuses on the outer world of people or the internal world of ideas. The Sensory-Intuition (SN) scale is to reflect whether a person is practical and focuses on facts and procedures or imaginative and focuses on meanings. The Thinking-Feeling (TF) measures a person’s preference of basing judgments on logic analysis or on personal
80values. And the Judgment - Perception (JP) is to reflect whether a person prefers setting agendas and following rules or adapt to the world in a spontaneous approach[21]. In the first stage of analysis, a comparison of two binomial parameters is drawn to determine whether Macau students and Mainland students tend to differ in preferred learning style within each scale. Considering the MBTI used in the first stage of study was a relative simplified version to illustrate a general picture of learning style differences, based on the results of the first-stage study, a more detailed model, ILS (Inventory of Learning Styles Questionnaire, Vermunt, 1994), was used for further exploration and crosschecking. This model is based on Vermunt’s experiential learning theory, which proposes that learning is a process of grasping and transforming experience. [22] ILS covered a much wider range of learning style than MBTI. ILS has been widely tested and influential globally. Coffield, Moseley, Hall and Ecclestone evaluated thirteen influential learning styles models and rated them with four factors, internal consistency, reliability, construct validity and prediction validity. Vermunt’s ILS was the best rated.[23] Due to the availability, a 120-item version was used. The questionnaire includes 4 general categories, under which there are 5 sub-scales, altogether 20 dimensions (Table 1). There are 60 questions in the first two scales, using a 1 to 5 to rate the frequency of the Study Activity. “1” means “I seldom or never do it.” to 5 meaning “I always do it”. The remaining two scales contain 60 questions measuring the degree of agreement to a given statement. “1” means “I Disagree entirely” to “5” meaning “I Agree Entirely.” In the second stage, T-test is used to examine if there are statistically significant differences between the two groups in the four categories of cognitive learning styles. To discover, in the third stage, whether the differences in learning style can affect learning achievement, the hierarchical linear regression analysis is used. This procedure addressed the predictive relationship of learning styles on student achievement while controlling for other factors. Specifically, the study attempts to answer the following three sub-questions: ● Do the different learning styles (strategies) have a predictive relationship with students’ achievement in general? ● Do the different learning styles (strategies) have a predictive relationship with Macau students’ achievement? ● Do the different learning styles (strategies) have a predictive relationship with Mainland Chinese students’ achievement?3 Results and DiscussionAll questionnaires were returned with complete answers with the exception of 4 Macau students absent from their proficiency test. 3.1 Stage OneAccording to Tables 1, we can see a tendency that there are more extrovert, intuitive, tactful and spontaneous leaners from Macau while Mainland students generally tend to be more introvert, practical, truthful and organized. However, the differences are not statistically significant. The T-test result shows that the differences in each category of learning styles between Macau and mainland students are relatively small (Table 1)TaAle 1 MBTI SuAscale Preferences of Mainland Chinese and Macau StudentsCultural group Stud No. Extr vs. Intr Sens vs. Intu Think vs. Feel Judg vs. PercvMacau n=56 32 24 22 34 20 36 25 31Mainland n=52 24 28 24 28 30 22 29 23Sig. (between cultural group) 0.258 0.475 0.252 0.126Stud=student, Extr=Extraversion, Intr=Introvertion, Sens=Sensing, Intu=Intuitive, Think=Thinking, Feel=Feeling, Judg=Judging, Percv=Perceiving
81Xiaoyan DENG A Study on Learning Styles of University EFL Learners in Macau3.2 Stage TwoAccording to the results from stage one, two groups differ very little in terms of the four categories of preference in perceptual-cognitive processes related to personal traits and interpersonal orientation. There are, however, other aspects of cognitive processes intimately connected with learning styles. To further explore the relationship between learning style of the two groups, more data are collected using ILS (Table 2 & 3).In terms of processing strategies, mainland Chinese students score higher in using the strategies of relating and structuring, critical processing, memorizing and rehearsing, and analyzing in their English learning while Macau students score higher in concrete processing, which means paying more attention to the practical use of knowledge. However, there is no statistically significance between Macau and Mainland students. In regulation strategies, the differences between Mainland and Macau students are mostly statistically significant, especially with regard to self-regulation (of learning processes and results: d=0.58; of learning content: d=0.38). This result suggests that Mainland students tend to exert control over their learning by directing and regulating their own actions toward their learning goals. In contrast, the Macau students appear relatively lack of both external and self regulation (d=0.60) in their learning process, content and result. They score particularly high in the questions of “I realize that it is not clear to me what I have to remember and what I do not have to remember.” and “I have trouble processing a large amount of subject matter.” and particularly low in “I do more than I am expected to do in a course” and “If I don’t understand a study text, I try to find other literature about the subject concerned”. This result suggests Macau students participating in this study tend to be dependent learners, and they generally learn in an undirected pattern. According to Vermunt’s experiential learning theory, co-operation is of great value to students with this learning style. [24]The results addressing learning orientation reveal some interesting differences between the two groups. Macau students tend to be more vocation-directed. In other words, their learning goals and approaches are more closely related to profession and professional skills. They are more likely to be motivated if the learning content is to prepare for present or future jobs. A majority of Macau students have part-time jobs during their university years whereas very few of Mainland students do. It is due to the fact that mainland students are forbidden by law to have part-time jobs in Macau; and it is not uncommon for mainland students to receive generous financial support from their parents, and job related issues are not on the priority list for most year-one students from mainland China. The findings on the scales of self-tested and ambivalence suggest a contradictory attitude towards learning on the part of mainland students. According to their answers to the questionnaires, on one hand, mainlanders tend to be more willing to challenge and prove themselves, to “test myself to see whether I am capable of doing studies in higher education” and to “show others I’m capable of successfully doing studies in a higher education context”, which is suggested by a higher self-test directed score. On the other hand, they score higher in ambivalent than local students, with a moderate effect size (d=0.06). The result indicates that compared to local students, many mainland participants in this study “wonder whether these studies are worth all the effort” and “doubt whether this is the right subject area for me”. In other words, they show little confidence in their choice of school, subject and have doubts on their learning capacities. In the part of mental models, mainland students score higher in stimulating education (d=0.60) and Macau students have statistically higher tendency to work with other people (d=0.70).Teachers’ guidance and encouragement has always been an influential factor in language learning. And it appears more so to mainland students in this study. The perception that mainland students prefer to work together is not statistically supported in this study. To sum up the results from stage two, in the
82TaAle 2 Summary of differences Aetween two cultural groups in learning styles Aased on ILS Learning Style Scales p Cohen’s d Higher ScoreProcessing StrategiesRelating and Structuring 0.379 0.18 MainlandCritical Processing 0.590 0.10 MainlandMemorizing and rehearsing 0.549 0.12 MainlandAnalyzing 0.350 0.18 MainlandConcrete Processing 0.628 0.09 MacauRegulation strategiesSelf Regulation of Learning Processes and Results 0.003** 0.58 MainlandSelf Regulation of Learning Content 0.050* 0.38 MainlandExternal Regulation of Learning Processes 0.484 0.13 MainlandExternal Regulation of Learning Results 0.231 0.23 MainlandLack of Regulation 0.002** 0.60 Macau Learning orientationPersonal Interest 0.861 0.20 MainlandCertificate Directed 0.669 0.08 MacauSelf-test Directed 0.000** 1.10 MainlandVocation Directed 0.000** 1.11 MacauAmbivalence 0.000** 1.09 MainlandLearning Mental ModelsConstruction of Knowledge 0.289 0.19 MainlandIntake of Knowledge 0.479 0.14 MainlandUse of Knowledge 0.910 0.30 MacauStimulating Education 0.002** 0.60 MainlandCo-operation 0.000** 0.70 Macau * p< =0.05, **p< 0.01 TaAle 3 Summary of the different learning styles Aetween two groups Aased on ILS scale /sub-scaleMacau ( n = 56 ) Mainland ( n = 52 )p Cohen’s dM SD M SDProcessing Strategies1. 23.23 5.70 24.15 6.15 0.379 0.182. 12.98 1.94 13.19 2.10 0.590 0.103. 19.68 2.86 19.34 2.88 0.549 0.124. 20.04 4.06 20.79 4.26 0.350 0.185 19.16 3.25 18.85 3.46 0.628 0.09Regulation Strategies6. 24.54 3.75 26.85 4.13 0.003** 0.587. 12.55 2.31 13.48 2.56 0.050 0.388. 23.28 4.95 23.92 4.45 0.484 0.139. 19.67 3.49 20.48 3.43 0.231 0.2310. 23.95 3.26 21.92 3.44 0.002** 0.60Learning Orientation11. 20.14 3.47 18.61 3.49 0.861 0.2012. 20.13 3.45 20.38 2.77 0.669 0.0813. 19.55 2.78 21.02 3.13 0.000** 1.1014. 22.34 2.88 19.21 2.76 0.000** 1.1115. 18.28 3.34 21.56 2.57 0.000** 1.09Learning Mental Models16. 35.28 4.18 36.19 4.65 0.289 0.1917. 35.33 4.55 34.75 4.02 0.479 0.1418. 25.71 2.52 25.76 2.49 0.910 0.3019. 31.9 4.64 28.86 5.32 0.002** 0.6020. 31.52 3.82 28.52 4.74 0.000** 0.70 *p < 0.05. **p <0.01
83Xiaoyan DENG A Study on Learning Styles of University EFL Learners in Macaufour categories (20 scales) of learning styles based on Vermunt’s experiential learning theory, the statistically significant differences between students from mainland China and Macau fall in eight dimensions. Compared to their counterparts, mainland Chinese students prefer ● the strategies of self-regulation in learning processes and results; ● the strategies of self-regulation in learning content; ● they are more self-test directed; ● more ambivalent about their learning, and ● prefer stimulating education. ● Macau students, meanwhile, are comparatively lack of regulation, ● vocation directed and ● opt for cooperation in their learning process.3.3 Stage ThreeIn stage two, the t-test has discovered the Chinese mainland and Macau students differ in certain learning strategy preferences. In order to address the third research question including three sub-questions, data of the previously tested eight learning strategies which are different between the two groups are collected, together with students’ English mid-term and final exam scores from each group as the variables for further processing. Three hierarchical linear regressions are run to examine possible relationship, more specifically predictive relationship, between the eight specific learning strategy preferences of Macau and mainland Chinese students and their English achievement in general and respectively. 3.3.1 Sub-question 1Do the different learning styles (strategies) have a predictive relationship with students’ achievement in general? (Table 4).In order to examine the presence of general predictive power of each to-be-tested learning strategy over student final achievement while controlling their prior English knowledge, both Macau and mainland Chinese students’ mid-term exam scores are collected as initial scores to serve as a base line of student prior English knowledge. It is entered as the independent variable in Block 1. The result of this block indicates that the mid-term assessment is an influential factor in predicting the final achievement (p=0.000,β=0.431). In Block 2, independent variables for different learning strategies are entered to decide if they each have predictive relationship with learning achievement . Previous English achievement controlled, part of these variables yield significant predictive power: self-regulation in learning content (p=0.000<0.01, β=0.376), lack of regulation (p=0.009<0.01, β= -0.268) and stimulating education (p=0.041<0.05, β=0.225). The result indicates that these three dimensions in learning styles are important predictors to student English achievement in this study. Judging from the value of β, self-regulation in learning content is the strongest indicator among the three and lack of regulation has a reversing effect on learning achievement. Therefore, as the higher scorer of self-regulation and stimulating education, mainland Chinese student achievement can be predicted to be higher. As the higher scorer of lack TaAle 4 The correlation Aetween learning style and English achievement (N=108)Blocks and predictor variable B SE B β R2 ΔR2Block 1: Mid-term exam score 0.469 0.100 0.413 0.171 0.163**Block 2: self-regulation of learning process and results 0.678 0.314 0.203 0.379 0.322Self-regulation of learning content 2.079 0.487 0.376**Lack of regulation -0.657 0.343 -0.168**Self-test directed 0.784 0.381 0.180Vocation directed -0.027 0.371 -0.006Ambivalence 0.408 0.437 0.102Stimulating education 0.727 0.277 0.225*Cooperation 0.154 0.264 0.051 *sig. <0.05. **sig. < 0.01.
84of regulation, Macau student achievement can be predicted lower. Thus the result partially supports the original assumption that learning style is a significant reason why mainland students generally get better achievement. However, not all learning styles are predictive indicators. In this study, the three above mentioned prove to be generally effective.3.3.2 Sub-questions 2 and 3Do the different learning styles (strategies) have a predictive relationship with Macau/Mainland Chinese students’ achievement? In response to the other two sub-questions, hierarchical linear regressions are used separately to identify whether learning style is a significant predictor of English achievement for either of the Macau and mainland Chinese students. Similar analyses are employed as that in response to sub-question 1. Instead of using all the students’ exam scores, scores from Macau and mainland Chinese students are entered separately in responding to the second and third sub-questions in the third stage of the study.In block 1, the result to sub-question 2 suggests that Macau student mid-term assessment is not an influential factor in predicting their final achievement (p=0.174, β=0.184). In Block 2, previous English achievement controlled, one of the learning strategies is a predictor of English achievement: self-regulation in learning content (p=0.005<0.01, β=0.380). (Table 5) For the mainland Chinese group, the result to sub-question 3 suggests that mainland students’ mid-term assessment is an important predictor of the final achievement (p=0.000, β=0.692). In Block 2, previous English achievement controlled, “ambivalent”, one of the learning styles, is an inverse predictor of English achievement. (p=0.017<0.01, β= -0.243) (Table 6)TaAle 5 The correlation Aetween Macau student learning style and English achievement ( N = 56 )Blocks and predictor variable B SE B β R2 ΔR2Block 1: Mid-term exam score 0.226 0.193 0.184 0.034 0.016Block 2: self-regulation of learning process and results 0.534 0.441 0.134 0.692 0.480Self-regulation of learning content 2.461 0.826 0.380** .Lack of regulation 0.347 0.541 076Self-test directed 0.753 1.167 0.140Vocation directed 0.004 0.575 0.001Ambivalence 1.228 0.977 0.274Stimulating education 0.546 0.365 0.166Cooperation 0.191 0.457 0.049 N=56 *sig. < 0.05. **sig. < 0.01. TaAle 6 The correlation Aetween mainland Chinese student learning style and English achievement ( N = 52 )Blocks and predictor variable B SE B β R2 ΔR2Block 1:Mid-term exam score 0.780 0.115 0.692 0.479 0.468**Block2: self-regulation of learning process and results 0.416 0.273 0.145 0.646 0.570Self-regulation of learning content 0.649 0.443 0.140Lack of regulation 0.873 0.327 0.253Self-test directed -0.456 0.412 -0.104Vocation directed -0.264 0.414 -0.061Ambivalence -1.124 0.454 -0.243*Stimulating education -0.345 0.319 -0.116Cooperation 0.027 0.236 0.011 N=52 *sig. <0.05. **sig. <0 .01.
85Xiaoyan DENG A Study on Learning Styles of University EFL Learners in Macau4 ConclusionsIn this study, two cognitive-style learning models are used to answer the first two research questions, finding out the differences of learning style between two sub-cultural groups. The results indicate a certain degree of differences in learning style between the Macau and mainland Chinese freshmen in the same learning context. Statistically, the differences lie in that mainland students tend to be more self-regulated in learning processes, results and content, and more self-aware of their learning skills. What’s contradictory about them is that they are more self-test directed— confident and willing to challenge themselves; but at times they suffer from self-doubt, more ambivalent about their learning and prefer stimulating education. In contrast, though embracing the same Chinese traditions, Macau students are more or less influenced by a diverse multi-cultural life style and educational experience. They are comparatively less regulated, more vocation-directed and opt for cooperation in their learning process. The data of these differences in learning style are then used to address the third research question: do these different learning styles (strategies) affect student English achievement? Hierarchy linear recessions are used to explore whether the former has predictive relationship on the latter.According to the results, while controlling students’ prior English knowledge, certain learning styles (strategies) statistically prove to be significant indicators of learning achievement. Self-regulation of learning content, lack of regulation and stimulating education prove to indicate learning achievement in a general way. This result partially supports the original assumption that the difference in achievement is attributed to different learning styles of the two sub-cultural group and points out in this study, some of the learning strategies mainland students adopt helps them to generally score higher than their Macau peers. When analyzed separately, self-regulation of learning content prove to be an important factor to influence Macau student achievement; whereas ambivalent holds its rank in affecting the learning outcome of Mainland Chinese students. Different in some ways as they are, however, students from Macau and mainland China still share similar learning styles, especially their information processing and decision-making strategies. Being aware of this and make full use of the aforementioned factors is very likely to encourage more learning to happen in the English classroom. 4.1 Implication“Learner-centered” is not just a notion that sits beyond everyone’s reach. The importance of studying learning style is that teachers can consider the differences of our students and hence adjust our teaching methods accordingly in an informed way. To understand students’ learning styles and behaviors, we’ll have to include sociocultural factors that exert impact on students’ learning. Where they are from; where their motivation lies; what the teachers can do to relate to them; what kind of learning environment stimulates them; what discourages them, and what offends them: these should be among the most important questions teachers ask themselves before they teach. Knowing the difference of our students is the first step of improving our teaching. The effective way to help them improve their English ability is to find what would be most suitable to students’ learning styles. In the case of this study, the results indicate that when teaching Macau students, taking self-regulation into account might effectively help students improve their English. This involves encouraging students to use materials other than textbooks in their learning. In terms of tasks, regular assignments or projects that stimulate research interest and have practical value would be of great help. Larger amount of group work, major-related language tasks and blended learning activities are appropriate in such case. Authentic and practical teaching materials are essential to provide external motivation. Apart from encouraging self-regulation, moderate amount of external regulation is needed as well. Whatever types of tasks we assign to our students, make sure the instructions are clear and
86always ask students to repeat the instruction when a complex task is to be performed. And hold short briefing and wrap-up meetings when necessary.Since “ambivalent” is an important factor influencing the achievement of mainland students, building up their confidence is a major issue to deal with. It is well advised to help them gradually increase confidence in a teacher-guided, student-regulated language classroom. More autonomous tasks can be experimented in such classrooms including “flipped classroom”. Sincere and timely feedback is necessary for leaners who constantly self doubt. Short one-on-one or small group meeting or communication in a relaxing environment such as online platform can be helpful. For students from both Macau and mainland, great value is attached to acknowledging the importance of “stimulating education”, which generally refers to the belief that teachers should motivate and inspire them in every step of their learning and meta-learning. Too much “stimulation”, may lead to nothing but teachers’ exhaustion and inefficiency. Consequently, aside from requiring teachers’ inspiration and motivation, learners need to learn to be independent and self-motivated. And the digital age allows us to combine them altogether. The use of online learning community for educational and social purposes, have created an opportunity for more effective communication among teachers and students, allowing for both teacher monitoring and student autonomy. For English learning, a simple language blog can be an interesting place to start. More ambitious demands can be met by setting up an online learning network or a teaching/learning website.Learner-centered instruction implies a need to provide a more personalized approach of teaching, which is a challenge for both teachers and students. From this first step on, we can work on how to integrate important style-specific elements into one classroom where we can satisfy the learning needs of students from different cultural backgrounds. We may be able to develop students’ potential on the basis of understanding their needs and styles. And based on our knowledge of our students, it is possible to provide them with effective counseling and assessment. This study is hoped to serve as authentic statistics for further studies on teaching strategies and provide more insights into effective teaching. 4.2 LimitationThe sample of this study is selected in one university, which may be a stand-alone case in Macau. It involves three stages, using two different learning style models to measure students’ learning style, but the consistency of the two instruments is not tested. The English course in this study is one focused on listening and speaking skills. The relationship between learning styles and reading/writing achievement is not included in this study, which is suggested for further study.References [1] 陳麗新等. 港澳台僑與大陸大學生學習風格差異研究. 高教探索,2009, 6:104-107.[2] Vermunt, J. Inventory of learning styles (ILS) in higher education: Scoring key. Tilburg: Tilburg University, 1994.[3] Keefe, J.W. Learning Style Theory and Practice. Virginia: NASSP,1987.[4] Felder, R.M. Matters of Styles. [EB/OL]. (1996)[2012]. http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/LS-Prism.htm[5] Reid, J.M. The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly, 1987, 21: 87-109.[6] 譚頂良. 學習風格論. 江蘇:江蘇教育出版社, 1995.[7] Keefe, J. W. Development of the NASSP learning style profile//Keefe, J. W. Profiling and utilizing learning style. Virginia: NASSP,1988: 1-5.[8] Hyland K. Culture and learning: A study of the learning style preferences of Japanese students. RELC Journal, 1993, 24(2): 69-87[9] Yang, J.M. Many Chinese cultures, many learning styles. [EB/OL]. (2009)[2016]. http://www.proceedings.com.au/isana/docs/2009/paper_yang2.pdf[10] 鄧炎昌, 劉潤清. 語言與文化一英漢語言文化對比. 北京: 外語教學與語言研究出版社, 1989.[11] Yamazaki, Y., & Kayes, D. C. An experiential approach to cross-cultural learning: A review and integration of competencies for successful expatriate adaptation. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2004, 3(4): 362-379.[12] Reid, J.M. The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly, 1987, 21: 87-109.[13] Melton, C.D. Bridging the cultural gap: A study of Chinese students’ learning style preferences. RELC Journal, 1990, 21(1): 29-58.[14] Mc Auley, L., Tiernan, S., & Morahan, N. Teaching and Learning Styles: a contrast between Ireland and China. [EB/OL]. (2011)[2012]. http://www.sefi.be/wp-content/papers2011/T10/225.pdf[15] Yang, J.M. Many Chinese cultures, many learning styles. [EB/OL]. (2009)[2016]. http://www.proceedings.com.au/isana/docs/2009/
87Xiaoyan DENG A Study on Learning Styles of University EFL Learners in Macaupaper_yang2.pdf[16] Guibemau, M., & Goldblatt, D. Introduction: Understanding Social Change // Woodward, K. Questioning identity: Gender, class, Ethnicity. London: Routledge, 2000:115-153[17] Li, S., & Thao, L. (2006). Discourses of Chinese Cultures: A Tale of Many Cities. Paper presented at the AARE. [EB/OL]. (2009)[2016] http://www.aare.edu.au/06pap/li06365.pdf [18] Myers, I. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1978.[19] 王華容, 譚頂良. 近十年西方學習風格研究述評. 外國中小學教育, 2008,4:15-20.[20] Felder, R.M. Matters of Styles. [EB/OL]. (1996)[2014].http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/LS-Prism.htm [21] Martin, J. A Comparison of Personality Type and Learning Style of Elementary Education Majors, Math Majors, and Math Professors: Cultures in Conflict. [EB/OL].(1992)[2012]. http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=education_honproj[22] Vermunt, J., Minnaert, A. Dissonance in student learning patterns: when to revise theory? Studies in Higher Education, 2003, 28(1): 49-61[23] Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre, 2004.[24] Kalaca, S., & Gulpinar, M. A Turkish study of medical student learning styles. Education for Health, 2011, 24(3):459 兩岸四地兩岸四地中醫藥專家齊聚珠海共襄中醫藥發展大計2016年2月27日，兩岸四地中醫藥科技合作中心（簡稱“中心”）於珠海銀都酒店舉行了2016年度理事會會議，來自兩岸四地的中醫藥專家五十多人齊聚一堂，共襄中醫藥事業在兩岸四地長足發展的大計。國家中醫藥管理局國際合作司王笑頻司長，澳門科學技術發展基金行政委員會鄭冠偉委員，中央人民政府駐澳門特別行政區聯絡辦公室文化教育部夏晶助理，廣東省中醫藥局徐慶鋒局長，珠海市衛生和計劃生育局李力局長，澳門科技大學校董會主席、“中心”會長周禮杲教授，澳門科技大學校長、“中心”理事會理事長劉良講座教授，台灣陽明大學陳介甫教授，香港浸會大學中醫藥學院副院長趙中振教授，中華人民共和國國家中醫藥管理局國際合作司魏春宇處長等出席了會議。“中心”理事長劉良講座教授致開幕辭，會長周禮杲教授做工作報告。劉良講座教授對與會專家學者和嘉賓出席會議表示熱烈歡迎，並對歷來支持“中心”工作的各地管理部門、專業團體及各位專家學者致以衷心的感謝。劉教授指中醫藥事業將迎來新的發展機遇，“中心”未來的工作也將更為重要，意義更加深遠，因為“中心”是兩岸四地中醫藥同仁共同創立的聯繫紐帶，也是兩岸四地開展中醫藥科技合作，共同為兩岸四地民眾謀福祉的良好平台。他希望“中心”的各位同仁一起精心地培植和支持“中心”發展，使“中心”能夠更好地團結大中華地區的中醫藥科技精英，為弘揚中華民族優秀的傳統文化瑰寶——中醫藥學貢獻智慧和力量。王笑頻司長代表國家中醫藥管理局對會議的順利召開表示了熱烈祝賀，她談到自2008年“中心”成立以來，為促進內地與港澳臺地區中醫藥交流與合作做出了顯著貢獻，國家對中醫藥事業高度重視，已把中醫藥列入國家戰略目標。希望“中心”繼續發揮優勢，攜手並進，為兩岸四地中醫藥的共同發展作出新貢獻。徐慶豐局長和李力局長介紹了珠海市和廣東省中醫藥的發展與進步，並表示將全力支持“中心”在廣東和珠海拓展更多的合作。陳介甫教授、趙中振教授和周禮杲教授分別代表台灣、香港、澳門在會議開幕禮致辭。“中心”會長周禮杲教授代表上一屆理事會做工作報告，全面地總結了“中心”在培訓與學術交流、科學研究、中醫藥標準化等方面的成績和進展，並表示“中心”將繼續舉辦高水平的學術交流與培訓，積極推動科研合作，繼續完善中醫藥標準化資訊平臺的建設，為“橫琴粵澳中醫藥科技產業園”提供技術支援，並與中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室深化合作。會議上，“中心”新一屆的理事會和監事會履新。會議由兩岸四地中醫藥科技合作中心主辦、澳門科技大學中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室協辦，獲得了澳門基金會和澳門科學技術發展基金的支持與贊助。
88第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 制度性因素對權益類國外組合投資的影響湯曉雷（澳門科技大學商學院，澳門）摘要： 隨著國際金融市場一體化程度的不斷提高，各國之間權益類組合投資對全球經濟發展發揮著越來越重要的作用，因此研究權益類組合投資的影響因素具有重要的現實意義，已有文獻對制度性因素關注相對比較少，因此本文重點探討制度性因素對權益類資產國外組合投資的影響。本文基於15個經濟體2002至2012年的面板數據，採用引力模型進行實證分析，實證結果表明，除了語言作為信息成本的代理變量對權益類資產國外組合投資有一定正向影響，GDP和金融發展程度等變量對權益類資產國外組合投資也具有重要影響，更重要的是，本文發現金融開放度等制度性因素對這類國外組合投資也具有顯著的影響作用。關鍵詞： 引力模型；權益類國外組合投資；金融發展；金融開放度The Impact of Institutional Factors on Foreign Equity Portfolio InvestmentXiaolei TANG( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China )AAstract: With the increasing integration of international financial markets, foreign equitiy portfolio investment across countries plays a more and more important role in the global economic development, so it is important to investigate the influencing factors of foreign equity portfolio investment. As an important form of capital flows, foreign portfolio investment is drawing more and more researchers' attention. Based on a panel dataset of 15 economies from 2002 to 2012, from the aspect of institutional factors, this paper investigates influencing factors of equity portfolio investment among different economies using a gravity model. The results show that, as a proxy for the cost of information, common language has a significantly positive effect on the equity portfolio investment between two countries; in addition, GDP and financial market development also exert positive effects on equity portfolio investment; More importantly, it is found that institutional factors such as financial openness also influence foreign equity portfolio investment significantly.eywords: Gravity model; Foreign equity portfolio investment; Financial development; Financial openness收稿日期：2016-01-07；修訂日期：2016-03-05。本文系澳門科技大學基金會項目部分研究成果，項目編號：0428。*通訊作者: 湯曉雷，男，博士，商學院助理教授，主要研究方向：匯率理論和匯率制度，貨幣政策，證券投資。E-mail：xltang@must.edu.mo，Tel：00853－88972904。0 引言隨著經濟一體化和全球化的日益深化，國際金融市場的迅速發展以及各國金融開放度的提高，國際資本流動結構也發生了一定的變化，不同經濟體之間的證券投資在資本流動中的佔比越來越高。事實上自 1990 年以來，在世界範圍內，國外組合投資（FPI）無論是在總量上還是增速上都明顯高於國外直接投資（FDI）和全球貿易的增長速度。截至 2012 年，FPI、FDI 與全球貿易的平均增長速度分別為 12%、10% 和 7%。
94對國際權益類資產交易也有重要促進作用。更重要的是，本文發現金融開放度和社會治理指數等制度性因素對國際權益資產組合投資的影響也非常顯著。這為制度性因素對國際權益資產組合投資具有重要影響提供了有力的實證支持。另外，實證結果還表明投資國制度性因素對資本流動的推動作用大於東道國相應因素的吸引作用，當然，這一點是否適用於全球所有的經濟體，還有待在後續研究中針對更大的樣本進一步深入分析。雖然由於數據可得性原因樣本中中國只是作為東道國被納入實證分析，但通過估計面板模型所得的實證結論對中國的對外組合投資也應該基本適應的。本文的實證結論隱含的政策含義就是，我國應該大力加強金融市場建設，不斷努力完善金融體制和加強社會治理。我們應當完善金融法規，促進金融市場的公平競爭，加強金融市場的監管，同時深化各項社會制度的改革，改善投融資環境。目前我國在對外逐步開放資本市場的同時也鼓勵國內投資者走出國門到海外資本市場進行投資，實行 QFII 和 QDII 制度，也就是允許合格的境外機構投資者（QFII）到我國資本市場投資的同時，也鼓勵合格的境內機構投資者到國外的資本市場進行投資。2014 年 11 月中國正式啟動滬港通，使得香港與內地的資本市場相互聯通起來，我國資本市場與國際資本市場一體化程度更進一步。但目前這些制度對境內外機構投資者和個人投資者仍然有比較強的投資約束。今後資本市場發展的趨勢，是要進一步完善 QFII、QDII 和滬港通等相關制度的基礎上，在風險可控的前提下逐步提高包括境内外居民在內的所有投資者在境內外金融市场上的投资便利程度，進一步拓寬境內外投資者的投資渠道。這樣才能進一步提高金融市場效率，使金融資源得到合理配置，從而充分有效地利用國際資本的流動以促進經濟的發展。致 謝作者在此感謝澳門科技大學研究基金對本項目的資助，同時對兩位匿名評審專家提出的寶貴意見表示感謝。參 考 文 獻[1] Grinblatt M., Keloharju M.. How distance, language and culture influence stockholdings and trades.Journal of Finance, 2001, 5(6):1053 – 1073.[2] Hau H.. Location matters: an examination of trading profits. Journal of Finance，2001, 5(6):1959 – 1983.[3] Nieuwerburgh V. S. and L. Veldkamp. Information Immobility and the Home Bias Puzzle. Journal of Finance, 2009, LXIV( 3):1187-1215.[4] Portes R. and H. Rey. The Determinants of Cross-border Equity Flows. Journal of International Economics, 2005, 6(5):269-296.[5] Lane, R., Philip and Milesi-Ferretti.. International Investment Patterns. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 2008, 90(3):538-549.[6] Garcia-Herrero, Alicia and Wooldridge, Philip..Why Don't Asians Invest in Asia? The Determinants of Cross-Border Portfolio Holdings. Asian Economic Papers, 2009, 8(3):228-248.[7] Fratzscher M.. Capital Flows, Push versus Pull Factors and the Global Financial Crisis.2011, NBER Working Paper No. 17357 [8] Thapa C. and S. S. Poshakwale. International Equity Portfolio Allocations and Transaction Costs. Journal of Banking & Finance, 2010, 34:2627-2638.[9] Giofré M.. Domestic Investor Protection and Foreign Portfolio Investment[J]. Journal of Banking & Finance, 2014, 46(3):355-371.[10] Sarno L., Tsiakas I. and B. Ulloa. What Drives International Portfolio Flows? Journal of International Money and Finance, 2016,60:53-72.[11] 范小雲，王偉，肖立晟. 權益類國際資產組合投資的引力模型分析[J]. 世界經濟，2012，（7）:42-66[12] 劉健，王有鑫.2013.金融發展與國際資本流動結構的實證分析[J]. 經濟經緯，2013，5（10）:155-160.[13] Chinn, M. D. and Ito, H.. A New Measure of Financial Openness. Comparative Statistics, 2008, 10( 3):309-322.[14] Blundell R. and S. Bond.. Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. Journal of Econometrics,1998, 87: 115–143.
95第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 個人與工作適配對員工創新行為的影響： 家庭親善文化的干擾效果？連智華1，黃 華2*，馮娜娜3（1. 廈門大學嘉庚學院，廈門；2. 澳門科技大學商學院，澳門；3. 吉林大學珠海學院，珠海）摘要： 本文以社會交換和社會認知的理論觀點，探索員工個人-工作適配同創新行為之間的關係，以及職業壓力的傳遞效應和家庭親善文化的干擾作用。研究以全國10個省、市、自治區的社會企業員工及其主管的302份配對調查資料進行統計分析，通過結構方程模式檢驗了樣本資料不存在共同方法偏差，最後，模型實證結果表明，社會企業個人-工作適配是預測員工創新行為的有效因子，職業壓力在個人-工作適配與創新行為之間發揮中介作用；而家庭親善文化則調節了職業壓力與創新行為之間的影響。 關鍵詞： 個人-工作適配；職業壓力；家庭親善文化；創新行為 Person-job Fit and Innovative Behavior:The Moderating Effect of Family-friendly?Zhihua LIAN1, Hua HUANG2*, Nana FENG3( 1. Xiamen University Tan Kah Kee College, Xiamen, China; 2. School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China; 3. Zhuhai College of Jilin University, Zhuhai, China )AAstract: This paper took the social exchange and social cognitive perspectives to examine the effects of person-job fit on innovative behavior for social enterprise employees , and how to play a mediation in job stress and moderating effect in family-friendly. In the research, we collected 302 pairing investigation data of social enterprise employees on the 10 provinces for statistical analysis, and verified the data does not exist problems of common methods biases by the proposed SEM. Finally, the results indicated that person-job fit has a significant positive impact on innovative behavior and job stress plays a mediating role between person-job fit and innovative behavior. In addition, family-friendly makes a moderated effect between job stress and innovative behavior.eywords: Person-job Fit; Job Stress; Family-friendly; Innovative Behavior收稿日期：2016-04-28；修訂日期：2016-05-16。資金資助項目：教育部人文社科研究青年基金項目，項目號 15YJC630069；福建省高校傑出青年科研人才培育項目，項目號 201623；福建省中青年教師教育科研項目，項目號 JAS150780。*通訊作者：黃華，女，澳門科技大學商學院博士研究生，主要研究方向：組織行為與人力資源。E-mail:hhuang123123@gmail.com，Tel:0086-186756227090 引言 當前，以創新和服務為導向的社會時期，越來越多的組織不再滿足於單純的經濟回報和管理績效，而是希望通過商業手段解決社會問題，從而提升自我社會價值和持續發展優勢，社會企業就在如此的背景下生根發芽，社會企業家開始湧現，社會創投躍躍欲試，而知識型社會企業員工所面臨的工作要求也越來越高，學術界對此表現
105連智華，等 個人與工作適配對員工創新行為的影響： 家庭親善文化的干擾效果？影響，以及在特定背景的情況下，家庭親善文化的調節作用影響。然而，本研究還存在一定的局限性。未來研究可以考慮對以下問題進行深入探討 : 首先，本文調查的資料來源單一性，主要出自於沿海地區的社會企業，未能涵蓋中國西南、西北地方的非營利性組織員工的職業生態情況，而研究變量之任務性績效評價雖然由對應的主管評價，並且控制了共同方法偏差，但是難免有較大的樣本風險，因此未來研究應多元調查資料來源，包括要求同事評價等，以期獲得更為豐富的研究結果。其次，研究雖然是基於職業壓力的視野首次探討了個人 - 工作適配、家庭親善文化和創新行為的內在現象，但稍顯解釋力不足，後續研究需要尋求更多的因變量和調節變量來預測通過職業壓力的影響，例如社會企業員工的反績效行為、職場負向管理等變量之研究成果仍舊缺乏，也不失為今後在管理研究中一個有價值的課題。參 考 文 獻[1] Lauver K. J., Kristof-Brown A. Distinguishing between employees' perceptions of person-job and person-organization fit[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2001,59:454-470.[2] Burch G. S. J., Anderson N. Measuring person-team fit:Development and validation of the team selection inventory[J]. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 2004,19:406-426.[3] Epstein S. The stability of confusion: A reply to Mischel and Peake[J]. Psychological Review, 1983,90:179-184.[4] Kristof A. L. Person-organization fit:An intergrative review of its conceptualiztions,measurement,and implications[J]. Personnel Psychology, 1996,49:1-49.[5] Han T., Chiang H., McConville D. et al. A Longitudinal Investigation of Person-Organization Fit, Person-Job Fit, and Contextual Performance: The Mediating Role of Psychological Ownership[J]. Human Performance, 2015,28(5):425-439.[6] Chen T., Li F., Leung K. When Does Supervisor Support Encourage Innovative Behavior? Opposite Moderating Effects of General Self-efficacy and Internal Locus of Control[J]. Personnel Psychology, 2016,1(69):123-158.[7] Kirton M. J. Adaptors and Innovators: a Description and Measure[J]. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1976,61:622-629.[8] Borman W. C. Motowidlo S. J. Expanding the Criterion Domain to Include Elements of Contextual Performance: Personnel selection in organizations[Z]. Schmitt, Borman W. C. San Francisco: CA: Jossey-Bass, 199371-98.[9] Motowidlo, Van S. Evidence that Task Performance Should Be Distinguished from Contextual Performance[J]. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1994,79:475-480.[10] Porath C. L., Erez. Does rudeness really matter? The effects of rudeness on task performance and helpfulness[J]. Academy of Management Journal, 2007,50:1181-1197.[11] Frone A., Schat C. H. Exposure to psychological aggression at work and job performance: The mediating role of job attitudes and personal health[J]. Work & Stress, 2011, 25(1):23-40.[12] West M. A., Farr J. L. Innovation at Work: Psychological Perspectives[J]. Social Behavior, 1989,4:15-30.[13] Woodman R. W., Sawyer J. E., Griffin R. W. Toward a theory of organizational creativity[J]. Academy of Management Review, 1993,18:293-321.[14] 俞明傳, 顧琴軒, 朱愛武. 員工—組織關係與創新行為:一個被調節仲介模型的構建與檢驗——基於社會交換視角[J]. 2014,26(3):41-51.[15] 聶婷, 張伶, 連智華. 工作適配度與組織公民行為關係:工作預期對職業價值觀的仲介調節效應檢驗 [ J ] . 商業經濟與管理 , 2012(06):41-51.[16] Gladstein D. L. Groups in context: A model of task group effectiveness[J]. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1984,29:499-517.[17] 王雪麗, 馬琳, 張勉. 基於獨生子女的調節作用的個人-工作匹配、工作滿意度與員工離職傾向研究[J]. 管理學報, 2014(05):691-695.[18] Graen G. B., Uhl-Bien M. The transformation of professionals into self-managing and partially self-designing contributions：To-ward a theory of leader-making[J]. Journal of Management Sisters, 1991,3:33-48.[19] Kahn R. L., Wolfe D. M., Quinn R. P. et al. Organizational Stress:studies in role conflict and ambiguity.[M]. New York: John Wi-ley, 1964.[20] Beehr T. A., Newman J. D. Job Stress, employee health, and organi-zational effective: a facet analysis, model, and literature review[J]. Personal Psychology, 1978,31:665-699.[21] French J. R. P., Caplan R. D., Van Harrison R. The mechanisms of job stress and strain.[M]. New York: Wiley, 1982.[22] Quratulain S., Khan A. K. How Does Employees’ Public Service Motivation Get Affected? A Conditional Process Analysis of the Effects of Person-Job Fit and Work Pressure[J]. Public Personnel Mannagement, 2015,44(2):266-289.[23] Cropanzano R., Howes J. C., Grandey A. The Relationship of Organizational Politics and Support to Work Behavior, At t i tudes ,Stress[J] . Journal of Organizat ional Behavior, 1997,18(2):159-180.[24] 林彥梅, 劉洪, 王三銀. 工作邊界強度與工作壓力的關係——基於個人—環境匹配理論[J]. 中國工業經濟, 2015,324(3):122-134.[25] 黃品全, 韓明娟. 壓力源與積極顧客服務表現：角色寬度自我效能及社會交換知覺之調節式仲介模型[J]. 人力資源管理學報, 2014,14(1):1-22.[26] Huber G. P. Organizational learing:the contributing process and the literatures[J]. Organization Science, 1991,2(1):88-115.[27] 張伶, 聶婷, 黃華. 基於工作壓力和組織認同仲介調節效應檢驗的家庭親善政策與創新行為關係研究[J]. 管理學報, 2014(05):683-690.[28] Webster J. R., Beehr T. A., Christiansen N. D. Toward a better understanding of the effects of hindrance and challenge stressors on work behavior[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2010(76):68-77.[29] Wood S. J., Michaelides G. Challenge and hindrance stressors and wellbeing-based work–nonwork interference: A diary study of portfolio workers[J]. Human Relations, 2016,69(1):111-138.
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107第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 管制與治理：面對共享經濟的挑戰 ——以Uber網路約車平臺為例蔣曉陽*，江 川（澳門科技大學商學院，澳門）摘要： Uber網路約車平臺進入中國，它不僅對傳統計程車行業造成了衝擊，也使得政府治理進退維谷。本文首先從市場失靈的角度，分析了網路約車平臺的監管需求；然後以中美兩國的相關法律作為比較，重點分析網路約車平臺所帶來的監管難題，並對管制更新提出探討。以網路約車平臺為特徵的共享經濟，對傳統的管制模式帶來了衝擊；要提高政府治理水準，必須改善落後的管制手段，充分發揮政府管制、自我監督與第三方監督的作用。關鍵詞： 共享經濟；管制；治理；自我監督；第三方監督Regulation and Governance: Facing the Challenges of the Sharing Economy: The UAer Car Booking Platform as an Example Xiaoyang JIANG*, Chuan JIANG( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China )AAstract: With the advent of Uber, an Internet car booking platform, sharing economy enters into our life. However, the Internet car booking platform not only has caused enormous impact on traditional taxi industry, but also led the regulatory system in dilemma. Voices for and against deregulation and lowering the market entry criteria both have strong support in society. This paper focuses on the regulation issues and governance models relating to the Internet car booking platform and the emerging sharing economy. Using the concept of market deficiency, it first discusses the necessities of supervision on the newly developed industry. To explore possible regulation approaches, it makes comparisons between current regulatory laws in China and USA. To deal with conflicts and contradictions aroused by the booming sharing economy, the government should renew its regulatory methods. It is anticipated that self-supervision and third-part supervision will play more important role in the new governance model.eywords: Sharing economy; Regulation; Governance; Self-supervision; Third-part supervision.收稿日期：2016-05-10；修訂日期：2016-05-18。* 通訊作者：蔣曉陽，男，博士，澳門科技大學商學院助理教授，主要研究方向：政府管制，公共財政與社會福利，中國城市化。Email: xyjiang@must.edu.mo. Tel:00853-88972963，63722719.0 引言Uber 互聯網用車公司於 2009 創立於美國三藩市，其初期被定義為：僅為特定人提供汽車租賃服務，其主營範圍是高端汽車租賃業務。隨後，便推出了 UberX，即為市場提供價格更為低廉的汽車租賃服務。真正具有跨時代意義的，是其推出了一款名為“人民優步”的打車軟體技術平臺，該平臺是將私家車統一進行管理，提供最多 4 人的拼車服務，共享經濟這一旨在通過個體間資訊交流，充分利用彼此閒置資源進而提高資源利用率的資源配置模式也伴隨著這個軟體進入了人們
109蔣曉陽，等 管制與治理：面對共享經濟的挑戰 ——以Uber網路約車平臺為例總稱。僅是管制的一種法律手段。中國大陸地區的《行政許可法》採用的是狹義的概念，僅包括行政機關根據公民法人或其他組織等行政相對人的申請，經依法審查，准予其從事某種特定活動的行為（應松年，2010）[10]。 政府管制具有的優勢在於其可以憑藉其權威和強制力制定具有普遍約束力的行為規範，以及一整套配合該規範執行實施的機構。政府調配資源的能力也比其他主體具有更為明顯的優勢，對經濟制度的發展起到了巨大的作用，其中便包括市場准入設定、市場規則制定或承認、違規違法行為的糾正等諸方面。在制度發展中，政府一方面要在不同的利益集團之間分配產權以實現自身利益最大化，另一方面要降低費用使社會產出最大化（戴維斯與諾斯，1994）[11]。諾斯在經濟制度的分析中，將較為隱晦的公正中立的裁決者逐步轉向了政府，一方面現實生活中的確沒有比政府（廣義）更加具有合法強制力的組織對社會的整體制度進行安排，另一方面政府所產生的目的和其所屬的各部門對於社會治理的全域性把握依舊具有得天獨厚的條件（North，1993）[12]。無偏向的政府管制可以更加激勵競爭市場（McCraw，2009）[13]。 政府在調整市場失靈中的作用以及在應對經濟危機中的作用有目共睹，但是政府也不是萬能的，依舊存在政府失靈，其主要表現是政府政策與工作的低效、政府部門的自我擴張、公共產品供給低效率以及尋租和腐敗（Hughes，2012）[14]。就政府管制而言，最突出的問題決策常常與社會實踐脫軌，造成社會損失以及政策效用的減損、規則僵硬不適應社會實踐、政府管制初始性目的喪失等漏洞的出現。這些僵化和漏洞顯然不能適應社會的發展，也更加劇了政府監管的難度。在此背景下，公共部門改革的主要內容之一，便是對管制體系的革新（Hughes，2012）[14]。1.3 自我監督與第三方監督監督和管理主體的多樣性也有效彌補了政府治理困境。自我監管並不是陌生的概念，其是與商業信用和商業利益相掛鉤的產物，在公司誕生之初，單個公司的公司章程，行業協會的行業準則，都是自我監管存在的有力證明（Cohen and Sundararajan，2015）[3]。一方面企業的質檢標準往往高於國家檢驗標準，這也是企業在追逐商業利益、贏取商業信譽的有效途徑，就這方面而言其監管目標並不是外部強制給予的。法律規範和政策要求中，也經常提及自我監管的方式和其需完成的目標。另一方面，即使是行政處罰中也常伴隨著“責令限期整改”這樣的用語，雖然帶有外部強制性特徵，但也體現出政府對於企業自身糾錯能力一定程度的信任和肯定。很顯然，這種思路，符合當代政府管制創新中的“回應式管制”（responsive regulation）思想，即政府在對企業的監管中，不是強調對企業違規行為的懲罰，而是讓企業對政府的可能處罰（其力度是逐漸升高的，最極端是吊銷執照）作出回應，及時矯正自身的行為（Ayres and Braithwaite，1992[15];Braithwaite，2006[16]）。同時，任何外部監管規則實際上最終將會轉化成為企業規則或行業準則落實在具體的生產實踐，是對於再生產活動直接調整的依據（Cohen and Sundararajan，2015）[3]。 任何關於社會治理與政府管制的討論，不能忽視市場本身的作用。管制作為強制型的政策工具，有可能扭曲自願和私人行為而導致經濟的低效率，它體現在幾個方面，比如影響價格機制；遏制創新和技術進步；缺乏靈活性等（霍利特與拉米什，2006）[17]。在這種情況下，發揮市場有效配置資源的作用是首選。與行業相關的消費者及其他的市場參與者以第三方監督形式在市場運行中發揮著越來越重要的作用。由於第三方是直接與該行業有商業往來的主體，直接與商業信用所帶來的利益相聯繫，進而使得企業自我管制必須考慮滿足第三方的要求，有效激勵自我管制的完善。在互聯網時代，第三方監督的作用或者所形成的力量較以往要強大得多，其原因在於：網路的聯通性已經使得分佈在社會各個角落的消費者
117蔣曉陽，等 管制與治理：面對共享經濟的挑戰 ——以Uber網路約車平臺為例缺乏有效監管的問題。行政管制可以借助於第三方的監督來決定是否介入以及介入的時間和程度，運用國家強制力解決問題。當前的社會治理方式必然尋求新的突破，然而新的治理方式不會憑空產生。制度的變遷絕不是一個平靜的邁向高效率交易的過程（坎貝爾等，2009）[21]。在考慮到制度變遷所帶來的低效率或無效率的情況下，最好的檢驗方法就是其在運行過程中是否得到廣泛的社會認可。一種無效率的安排自然社會認可程度低，它很容易造成法律、政策本身無法推行或出現規避政策亦或運用潛規則的現象蔓延。它不僅使法律、政策束之高閣形成紙面上的法律（死法），不會產生政府所希望出現的治理效果，更容易使監管部門陷入於法無據的境地，進而出現頻繁的越權、濫權、行政怠惰等現象，這些都是政策制定者應該儘量避免的的情形。參 考 文 獻[1] Allen, D and Berg, C. The Sharing Economy: How Over Regulation could Destroy An Economic Revolution. Melbourne: Institute of Public Affairs, 2014. [2] Rogers, B. The Social Costs of Uber. University of Chicago Law Review, Forthcoming. 2015:95-97[3] Cohen, M. and Sundararajan, A. Self-Regulation and Innovation in the Peer-to-Peer Sharing Economy. The University of Chicago Law Review Dialogue, 2015, 82:116.[4] Wosskow, D. Unlocking the Sharing Economy，An Independent Review. Report to the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. 2014,BIS/14/1227.[5] 周麗霞.規範國內打車軟件市場的思考--基於美國對Uber商業模式監管實踐經驗借鑒.價格理論與實踐.2015, 7（373）:21-24.[6] 顏婧宇.Uber啟蒙和引領全球共享經濟發展的思考.商業現代化，2015，15：5.[7] 黃健榮.公共管理學.北京：社會科學文獻出版社,2008.[8] Rhodes, R.A.W. The New Governance: Governing without Government. Political Studies, 1996, 44:652-67.[9] Rosenbloom,D.H, Kravchuk,R.S and Clerkin,R.M. Public Adminis t ra t ion (8th edi t ion) .New York: McGRAW-HILL Company,Inc.,2015:404-408.[10] 應松年.行政法.北京：高等教育出版社.2010:119-120.[11] 戴維斯.L.E,諾斯.D.C.制度變遷的理論: 概念與原因//科斯等,財產權利與制度變遷.上海:上海三聯書店，上海人民出版社,1994.[12] North, D. C. Institutional Change: A Framework of Analysis. Institutional Change: Theory and Empirical Findings, 1993:35-46.[13] McCraw, T. K. Prophets of Regulation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009.[14] Hughes, O.E., Public Management & Administration: An Introduction (4th edition,).New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2012.[15] Ayres, Ian and Braithwaite, John. Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.[16] Braithwaite, John. Responsive Regulation and World Economies, World Development, 2006, 34(5):884-98.[17] 霍利特.M與M.拉米什.公共政策研究：政策迴圈和政策子系統.龐詩等譯.北京:生活.讀書.新知三聯書店，2006:141-174.[18] 以上案例內容來自相關新聞匯總。[19] 路易吉•津加萊斯.繁榮的真諦.余江譯.北京：中信出版社,2015:10-15.[20] General Assembly of North Carolina Session, Session Law 2015-237, Senate Bill 541.[21] 坎貝爾.J.L,霍林斯沃斯.L.J, 林德伯格.L.N .美國經濟治理.董運生、王岩譯.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.服務澳門資訊科技學院與神顯科技（深圳）有限公司簽订戰略合作協議澳門科技大學資訊科技學院與神顯科技（深圳）有限公司於2016年2月23日簽定了戰略合作協議。雙方同意就裸眼3D系列化顯示技術研究、人才培養、新應用產品的研發、產業化、市場服務等方面展開全面合作，包括設立獎學金、投資共建研究室（研究院）、孵化基地、產業基地、深圳新校區等。神顯科技（深圳）有限公司為深圳市高新科技企業，致力於以圖像裸眼3D立體顯示技術的系列產品研發、推廣以及產業化。澳門科技大學資訊科技學院在計算機圖形圖像處理、機器學習、大數據分析以及互聯網及應用等學術領域具有較強優勢。雙方合作將發揮校企雙方的優勢，共同走向更大、更高的發展。
118第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 Received 6 Nov. 2015; Revised 26 Feb. 2016*Corresponding Author: XiaoPing LU, PhD, Assistant Professor. Research Area: Shape determination for asteroidsE-mail: xplu@must.edu.mo, Tel: 00853-88972837Research on Rotational Period of NEA:2011UW158Xiangjie HUANG1, Xin JIN2, Sinhang LAO2, Manhei NG2, Xiaoping LU1*(1. Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China; 2.Pooito Middle School,Macau,China)AAstract: The research on the rotational period of asteroids, especially the NEA(Near Earth Asteroids)plays very important role in the evolution of the solar system. In this article, we present a method of applying Fourier series to derive the rotational period of the asteroid 2011UW158 based on the light curves observed during three continuous nights at Purple Mountain Observatory in Nanjing. Furthermore, the rotational period is also derived by the Cellinoid shape model, which is consistent with the result by Fourier series method.eywords: Rotational Period; 2011UW158; Asteroid; Light curves; Fourier series近地小行星（2011UW158）的自轉週期研究黃相傑1，金 鑫2，劉善恆2，吳文希2，盧曉平1*（1. 澳門科技大學，澳門；2.澳門培道中學，澳門）摘要： 小行星旋轉週期的研究，特別是近地小行星旋轉週期的研究對太陽系的演化起著非常重要的作用。在這篇文章中，我們用在南京紫金山天文台連續三個晚上觀測得到的光變曲線數據，提出了運用傅立葉級數推導出小行星2011UW158旋轉週期的方法。此外，運用Cellinoid 形狀模型推導出的該旋轉週期與傅立葉級數模型結果一致。關鍵詞： 自轉週期；2011UW158；小行星；光變曲線；傅立葉級數0 Introduction2011UW158 Asteroid is a near-Earth asteroid (NEA) and it was discovered in 25 October 2011 from the Pan-STARRS (Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System) Observatory at Haleakala, Hawaii, U.S.A. It is a very special asteroid, because it has very fast rotational period, and it’s very different from many other asteroids.The study about the asteroid, including asteroid’s rotational period, plays more and more important role in the research of solar system. There are more than 600,000 asteroids have been found. But for few of them, the physical parameters, such as rotational periods, are known. Nevertheless, the main research data about asteroids are the light curves, collected by the ground-based observatories until now. There have been many research focusing on deriving the physical parameters of asteroids from light curves since 1906, when Russell firstly attempted to derive the albedo map from the light curves observed on the opposition.[1]
119Xiangjie HUANG, et al Research on Rotational Period of NEA:2011UW158Because the observed brightness of asteroids from the ground-based telescopes is often influenced by the atmosphere and accuracy of telescopes, it is very hard to collect enough light curves for so many asteroids. Cellino et al. applied an ellipsoid shape to derive the physical parameters of several asteroids by genetic algorithm.[2] Lu et al. illustrated a fast ellipsoid method to search the physical parameters of asteroids.[3] Cellino et al. presented a special shape model, consisting of eight octants from eight ellipsoids with its adjacent octants having the same semi-axes in common.[4] This shape model can be applied to simulate the asymmetric shape of real asteroids only with 3 more parameters than ellipsoid shape. Lu et al. analyzed its physical characteristics and called it ‘Cellinoid’ for the first time.[5] In this paper, we attempt to apply Fourier series method to fit our 2011UW158 Asteroid’s light curves which is taken on August 2-4 of 2015 by the Purple Mountain Observatory and get its rotational period.The paper will be arranged as follows. First of all, in Section 1 the Fourier series method will be concisely presented with its mathematical characteristics and curve fitting process is illustrated in detail. The cellinoid shape model is introduced in Section 2. Following the theoretical description, the numerical experiments will be shown to examine the performance of Fourier series method and curve fitting in Section 3.At the end of this paper, we sum up the primary work of this paper in Section 4.1 Fourier series method and Curve fitting1.1 Fourier seriesIn mathematics, a Fourier series is a way to represent a function as the sum of simple sine waves, obviously. More formally, it decomposes any periodic function or periodic signal into the sum of a set of simple oscillating functions, namely sines and cosines. If is a periodic function with period P. Then, we can write the function in this forms: ( 1 )And we can also write the function in its complex forms: ( 2 )Where: ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 )As the value of N increases, the function is represented more accurately. However, we can’t get value of N to infinity. So in this article, we set the maximum value of N is 20, which is the appropriate balance between the efficiency and accuracy.1.2 Curve fittingCurve fitting[6~7] is the process of constructing a curve, or mathematical function, that has the best fit to a series of data points,[8] possibly subject to constraints.[9~10]Curve fitting problems fall into two categories: linear curve fitting and non-linear curve fitting, depending on whether or not the residuals are linear in all unknowns. In this paper, we used the linear curve fitting to fit the light curves.1.2.1 Least squaresThe method of least squares is a standard approach in regression analysis to the approximate solution of overdetermined systems. Least squares means that the overall solution minimizes the sum of the squares of the errors in the results of every single equation. The most important application is in data fitting. The best fit in the least squares sense minimizes the sum of squared residuals, a residual being the difference between an observed value and the fitted value provided by a model.The objective consists of adjusting the parameters of a model function to best fit a data set. A simple data set consists of n points , i =1,…, m , where xi is an independent variable and yi is a dependent variable whose value is found by observation. The model function has the form , where m adjustable parameters are held in the vector .The goal is to find the parameter values for the model which “best’’ fits
120the data.The least squares method finds its optimum when the sum, , of squared residuals ( 6 )is a minimum. A residual is defined as the difference between the actual value of the dependent variable and the value predicted by the model. ( 7 )So we must find the vector to make the value of a minimum.1.2.2 linear curve fittingIf ( 8 )Where the function is a function of x.Then ( 9 )And we set (10)Then the normal equations will be ( 11 )Where and And then we can get the vector to fit the light curves.2 Cellinoid shape modelThe ce l l ino id shape model i s shown in Fig.1,which consists of eight octants from eight ellipsoids. The cellinoid shape is totally controlled by six parameters, a1, a2, b1, b2, c1, and c2.In addition, its total volume V will be ( 12 )and its centre of mass has the following form: ( 13 )Cellinoid shape model could be adopted in simulating the irregular shapes of asteroids. Then,Cellinoid shape model could also derive the rotational period of asteroids from observed light curves.[11]Fig.1 Cellinoid shape model3 Numerical experimentsFollowing the previous theoretical introduction about the curves fitting with the Fourier series method for light curves, the numerical experiments will show that the curves fitting with the Fourier series method is efficient and performs well in simulating the real light curves. In this study, the value of Fourier series N is 12, 15 and 20 in Eq.(1), respectively. Here the three light curves of 2011UW158 asteroid taken on August 2-4 of 2015 by the Purple Mountain Observatory are used show how to fit the light curves by the Fourier series method.3.1 Curve fitting by the August 2 of 2015 light curves.The August 2 of 2015 light curves are shown in Fig.2. which is marked by ‘*’.The best fitting curves, when N=12 are shown in Fig.2.(a) which is marked by ‘—’. The best fitting curves, when N=15 are shown in Fig.2.(b) which is marked by ‘—’. And the best fitting curves, when N=20 are shown in Fig.2.(c) which is marked by ‘—’. Furthermore, all the fitted parameters are shown in Table 1. Additionally, as shown in Fig.2. the fitted three light curves by the Fourier series method are almost identical to the observed light curves.3.2 Curve fitting by the August 3 of 2015 light curves.The August 3 of 2015 light curves are shown in
121Xiangjie HUANG, et al Research on Rotational Period of NEA:2011UW158( a )( A )( c )Fig.2. For August 2 of 2015 light curves, when N=12, search best-fitting curves(a), when N=15, search best-fitting curves (b) and when N=20,search best-fitting curves (c). ‘*’ for the light curves and ‘-’ for the fitted light curves.
122( a )( A )( c )Fig.3 For August 3 of 2015 light curves, when N=12, search best-fitting curves(a), when N=15, search best-fitting curves (b) and when N=20,search best-fitting curves (c). ‘*’ for the light curves and ‘-’ for the fitted light curves.
123Xiangjie HUANG, et al Research on Rotational Period of NEA:2011UW158( a )( A )( c )Fig.4 For August 4 of 2015 light curves, when N=12, search best-fitting curves(a), when N=15, search best-fitting curves (b) and when N=20,search best-fitting curves (c). ‘*’ for the light curves and ‘-’ for the fitted light curves.
124Fig.3. which is marked by ‘*’.The best fitting curves, when N=12 are shown in Fig.3.(a) which is marked by ‘—’. The best fitting curves, when N=15 are shown in Fig.3.(b) which is marked by ‘—’. And the best fitting curves, when N=20 are shown in Fig.3.(c) which is marked by ‘—’. Additionally, as shown in Fig.3. the fitted three light curves by the Fourier series method are also almost identical to the observed light curves.3.3 Curve fitting by the August 4 of 2015 light curvesThe August 4 of 2015 light curves are shown in Fig.4. which is marked by ‘*’.The best fitting curves, when N=12 are shown in Fig.4.(a) which is marked by ‘—’. The best fitting curves, when N=15 are shown in Fig.4.(b) which is marked by ‘—’. And the best fitting curves, when N=20 are shown in Fig.4.(c) which is marked by ‘—’. Additionally, as shown in Fig.4. the fitted three light curves by the Fourier series method are also almost identical to the observed light curves.3.4 The fitting period based on Cellinoid shape model The best-fitting period for 2011UW158 asteroid based on Cellinoid shape model is shown in Fig.5. which is marked by ‘O’. The best-fitting period is 0.61076808 hour or 36.6460848 minutes, when is minimum.The best-fitting period based on Fourier series method, 36.6153(min) shown in Table 1,is very close to the period which is based on Cellinoid shape model.Table 1 The fitted parameters for N =12 ,15,20, respectively.N a0 a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3 a4 b4 a512 0.6272 -0.0058 0.0044 0.2600 -0.0674 0.0013 0.0047 0.4133 -0.1171 -0.008315 0.6271 -0.0058 0.0046 0.2599 -0.0674 0.0012 0.0046 0.4130 -0.1169 -0.008420 0.6270 -0.0060 0.0045 0.2598 -0.0674 0.0012 0.0045 0.4128 -0.1168 -0.0083TaAle 1-ContinuedN b5 a6 b6 a7 b7 a8 b8 a9 b9 a1012 -0.0012 0.1712 -0.0592 0.0070 -0.0062 0.0523 -0.0795 -0.0024 0.0090 0.001015 -0.0012 0.1712 -0.0593 0.0065 -0.0059 0.0522 -0.0798 -0.0025 0.0096 0.000920 -0.0013 0.1710 -0.0593 0.0065 -0.0056 0.0521 -0.0799 -0.0027 0.0099 0.0006TaAle 1-ContinuedN b10 a11 b11 a12 b12 a13 b13 a14 b1412 -0.0215 -0.0003 -0.0032 -0.0114 -0.0019 \ \ \ \15 -0.0217 -0.0004 -0.0031 -0.0120 -0.0010 0.0020 0.0003 0.0088 0.0092 20 -0.0218 -0.0008 -0.0027 -0.0119 -0.0009 0.0013 0.0001 0.0086 0.0097TaAle 1-ContinuedN a15 b15 a16 b16 a17 b17 a18 b18 a19 b1912 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \15 -0.0006 -0.0018 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \20 -0.0009 -0.0009 0.0065 0.0060 0.0048 -0.0017 -0.0013 -0.0007 0.0032 0TaAle 1-ContinuedN a20 b20 P(min) χ212 \ \ 36.6153 0.3583115 \ \ 36.6153 0.3376120 -0.0015 0.0048 36.6153 0.32072
125Xiangjie HUANG, et al Research on Rotational Period of NEA:2011UW1584 ConclusionsBased on the Fourier series method, the whole curve fitting process is introduced in this paper to show how to derive the rotational period from the observed light curves. As the value of N increases, the time of program running also increases. When N=12,15,20 the time of program running is 6 minutes, 13 minutes, 31 minutes, respectively. However, we derived the same rotational period, which is shown in Table 1. So, from an efficiency point of view, the best choice for N is 12. But from an accuracy point of view, the best choice for N is 20. It was proved that the Fourier series method is an effective and efficient method to fit light curves and derive the rotational period.AcknowledgementsThis work is funded under the Grant no. 095/2013/A3 from the Science and Technology Development Fund, MSAR.References [1] Russell,H.,1906.Onthelight-variationsofasteroidsandsatellites.Astron.J.24(5),1–18.[2] Cellino,A.,Hestroffer,D.,Tanga,P.,Mottola,S,Dell’Oro,A.,2009.Genetic inversion of sparse disk-integrated photometric data of asteroids: application to Hippar- cos data. Astron. Astrophys. 506(2),935–954.[3] Lu,X.,Zhao,H.,You,Z.,2013.A faste llipsoid model for asteroids inverted from light curves. Res.Astron.Astrophys.13(4),465–472.[4] Cellino,A.,Zappalà,V.,Farinella,P.,1989. Asteroid shapes and light curve morphology. Icarus78(2),298–310.[5] Lu ,X . ,Zhao ,H . ,You ,Z . , 2014 .Ce l l i no id shape mode l fo r asteroids,Earth,Moon Planets 112(1–4), 73–87.[6] Sandra Lach Arlinghaus, PHB Practical Handbook of Curve Fitting. CRC Press, 1994.[7] William M. Kolb. Curve Fitting for Programmable Calculators. Syntec, Incorporated, 1984.[8] S.S. Halli, K.V. Rao. 1992. Advanced Techniques of Population Analysis. ISBN 0306439972 Page 165 (cf. ... functions are fulfilled if we have a good to moderate fit for the observed data.)[9] The Signal and the Noise: Why So Many Predictions Fail-but Some Don’t. By Nate Silver[10] Data Preparation for Data Mining: Text. By Dorian Pyle.[11] Xiao-Ping Lu , Wing-Huen Ip,2015, Cellinoid shape model for multiple light curves, Planetary and Space Science 108(2015) 31-40.[12] Surdej,A.,Surdej,J.,1978.Asteroid lightcurves simulated by the rotation of a three axes ellipsoid model. Astron. Astrophys. 66, 31–36.Fig.5 Search the best-fitting period for 2011UW158 asteroid based on Cellinoid shape model. The best-fitting period is 0.61076808 hour which is marked by ‘O’.
126[13] Kaasalainen,M.,Lamberg,L.,1992a.Interpretation of light curves of atmosphere less bodies. I—General theory and new inversion schemes. Astron.Astrophys.259, 318–332.[14] Kaasalainen,M.,Lamberg,L.,1992b.Interpretation of light curves of atmosphere less bodies. II—Practical aspects of inversion. Astron.Astrophys.259,333–340.[15] Kaasalainen, M., and Torppa, J. 2001, Optimization Methods for Asteroid Light curve Inversion. I. Shape Determination, Icarus, 153, 24-36[16] Kaasalainen,M.,Torppa,J.,Muinonen,K.,2001.Optimization methods for asteroid light curve inversion II. The complete inverse problem. Icarus153(1),37–51.[17] Kaasalainen, M., Lu, X., Vänttinen, A., 2012. Optimal computation of brightness integrals parametrized on the unit sphere. Astron. Astrophys. 539 (A96).[18] Karttunen,H.,1989.Modelling asteroid brightness variations.I—Numerical methods. Astron.Astrophys.208,314–319.[19] Karttunen,H.,Bowell,E.,1989.Modelling asteroid brightness variations.II—The interpretability of light curves and phase curves.Astron.Astrophys.208,320–326.[20] Surdej,A.,Surdej,J.,1978.Asteroid light curves simulated by the rotation of a three- axes ellipsoid model. Astron. Astrophys. 66, 31–36.學生活動澳門科技大學商學院學生奪第二十一屆“21世紀-可口可樂杯” 全國英語演講比賽二等獎澳門科技大學商學院二年級學生路藝函榮獲三月份於北京舉辦的第二十一屆“21世紀-可口可樂杯”全國英語演講比賽總決賽二等獎。“21世紀杯”全國英語演講比賽由中國日報社於1996年創辦，已歷經二十年的發展，被公認為內地級別最高的英語學習競賽，被譽為中國英語教學界一年一度的盛宴。此全國大賽由每年5月至次年3月舉辦，經過互聯網選拔賽、校園選拔賽、電話口試、地區決賽等階段，從全國大陸及港澳台地區近一千所高等院校的數十萬名參賽的大學生中，選拔出66名優秀選手在總決賽同台比賽。著名國際英語教學組織、新聞界、外國駐華使領館、外交部、國內外著名高校的一流專家應邀參與總決賽的評判工作。參與大賽及觀摩的人數逾百萬。本次比賽，進入總決賽的66名選手分別來自中國大陸各個省份和港澳台地區高等院校分賽區的前三名，以及韓國、泰國等海外地區。經過已備演講，即席演講和現場問答三個環節的緊張角逐之後，澳科大商學院二年級的路藝函同學代表澳門賽區以流利的英語，純正的發音，優雅的台風，敏捷的思維和組織能力，成功脫穎而出，奪得總決賽二等獎。作為非英語專業的學生，用英語來表達自己的思想和見解，充分展示出學生的語言綜合能力、文化溝通能力和思考能力。展示了澳門科技大學通識教育的成果。其導師李啟昌也在本次比賽中榮獲指導教師二等獎的殊榮。澳門科技大學獲全澳大專院校歌唱大賽2016校園班霸大獎由澳門無疆界青年協會主辦，“全澳大專院校歌唱大賽”總決賽5月22日晚假澳門城巿大學文化中心舉行，場面十分熱鬧。本屆參與之大專院校代表來自澳門城巿大學、澳門大學、澳門科技大學、聖若瑟大學、澳門理工學院、澳門旅遊學院、澳門鏡湖護理學院、澳門管理學院八間大專院校，合共24組代表參與活動，突破了過往大專院校之參賽數目，比賽效果理想及普及率高。各院校代表均為校內優勝選手，歌唱水準卓越，現場競爭相當激烈，到場觀眾更是座無虛席。特殊奧運會學員與八間校園代表共同演唱，為活動打開序幕。大會邀請了香港歌手JW王灝兒擔任表演嘉賓，將場面氣氛推致最高峰。澳門科技大學此次派出三位同學參賽，包括張可恩與藝術團歌手隊韓雪璠、郝婧文。三人共同演繹的《All About The Bass & Bang Bang》發揮出色，獲得當晚班霸大獎稱號！金獎由澳門科技大學張可恩獲得。
127第 10 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.10 No.12016 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, 2016 澳門中醫藥發展的歷史特質及現狀分析 程春松1，2，陳偉謙1，梁 傑1，2，王燦堅1，2 張志鋒1，2，劉 良1，2，周 華1，2*（1. 澳門科技大學中醫藥學院，澳門） （2. 中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室（澳門科技大學），澳門）摘要： 本文從澳門歷史出發，綜述了中醫藥在澳門的發展歷程。歷史紀錄顯示澳門是西醫在中國早期傳播的重要渠道，西醫隨後取代了澳門傳統的中醫進入了主流醫療體系，而中醫則處於民間發展的境況，近年來則出現西醫和中醫相互促進、共同繁榮的可喜局面，民間華人力量是澳門中醫藥得以傳承發展的重要基石。本文也從目前澳門中醫醫療服務、產業規模、教育科研、社團發展、政策法規等方面，總結分析了澳門中醫藥的現狀，認為隨著澳門經濟適度多元化發展戰略的實施，橫琴中醫藥產業園的建設與發展，世界衛生組織傳統醫藥合作中心等中醫藥國際交流平臺的運行，澳門中醫藥未來發展積蓄了強勁的動力；立足現有的區域優勢，澳門中醫藥對於完善未來澳門經濟結構、推動中醫藥產業化與國際化將發揮著重要作用。關鍵詞： 澳門；中醫藥；歷史；現狀History Characteristics and Current Situation of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Macau Chunsong CHENG1,2, Weiqian CHEN1,2, Jie LIANG1,2, Canjian WANG1,2, Zhifeng ZHANG1,2, Liang LIU1,2, Hua ZHOU1,2*( 1. Faculty of Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )( 2 State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine (Macau University of Science and Technology), Macau, China )AAstract: In this paper, the development of traditional Chinese medicine in Macau was reviewed in a historical view of Macau. The historical records show that Macau held a very important position in the early stage of spreading of the Western medicine in China. The Western medicine by then replaced the position of traditional Chinese medicine in public medical system as conventional method for illness treatment, the traditional Chinese medicine however turned to a complementary method for treatment in private sector. In recent years, a situation of mutual promotion and common prosperity in traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine has been gradually formed. Chinese society and individuals is a cornerstone in the inheritance and development of traditional Chinese medicine in Macau. The current situations of Chinese medicine in Macau, such as medical service, industry scale, education and research, society development, and policies and regulations, were also summarized. Replying on the implementation of Diversified Development at an Appropriate Level of Macau Economy, the establishment and development of Hengqin Traditional Chinese Medicine Science and Technology Industrial Park, the running of traditional Chinese medicine international exchange platform such as the Collaborating Center for Traditional Medicine of the World Health Organization, there is a powerful strength for the development of traditional Chinese medicine in Macau in future. With its current regional 收稿日期：2015-12-11；修訂日期：2016-02-01。*通訊作者：周華，男，中醫藥學院副教授，主要研究方向：中藥質量研究。E-mail:hzhou@must.edu.mo Tel：00853-88972458
1281 澳門歷史概述澳門，古稱濠鏡澳，有著背靠珠江三角洲，隔珠江口與香港相望的地理格局。澳門自秦統一中國始就正式劃入中國版圖，屬南海郡番禺縣。因為其獨特的地理位置，是我國南方對海外聯絡的重要門戶之一。明 ‧ 嘉靖十四年（1535）市舶提舉司（相當於現在的海關）遷至澳門徵稅，標誌著澳門成為廣東對外貿易的重要港口。1571 年，第一張標明有澳門（Macao）的《寰宇圖志—東亞地圖》表明該時期西方文化開始影響澳門（圖1A），1607 年《東西印度紀行文集》中的澳門城圖中出現了大量的西洋建築（圖 1B），顯示澳門已經成為西方文化向中國傳播的據點，成為東西方文明溝通和西方與華人交流的窗戶。A：1571年寰宇圖志之東亞地圖B：1607年《東西印度紀行文集》之澳門城圖圖1 明朝時期的澳門地圖葡萄牙人在澳門的出現，有文字記載的始於明 ‧ 正德九年（1514），葡萄牙人以進貢為名來到廣東沿海（屯門）經商，由於無文書證明被勒令回國。但他們久留東南沿海不去，並於明 ‧嘉靖三十二年（1553 年）開始，藉口船上貨物濕水，需要“借地晾曬”，逐步上岸在澳門居住、修築城牆炮臺、私設官吏，實現對澳門的逐步佔領，澳門也成為西方在中國的第一個據點，亦是歐洲、中國、日本之間的重要貿易中轉站，為澳門帶來了繁榮。儘管如此，至鴉片戰爭以前，雖允許葡萄牙人自治，澳門仍屬於清政府管轄。鴉片戰爭以後，香港被英國佔領，澳門在國際貿易中的地位也開始被香港取代。1849 年葡萄牙人佔領澳門本島，1851 年佔領氹仔島，1856 年攻佔路環島，1887 年，清政府與葡萄牙王國在北京簽署了《中葡和好通商條約》，官方認可了葡萄牙永久佔領澳門的主權。自此，葡萄牙人實質上統治澳門地區直到 1999 年澳門回歸，共 150 年。1937年，抗日戰爭爆發，由於葡萄牙和日本的特殊關係和協議，澳門成為第二次世界大戰時華南唯一的中立港口和日本保護地，這導致大量人口由內地和香港遷入，使人口由 15 萬人急增至約 50 萬人，出現了饑荒，後得中醫慈善機構鏡湖醫院和同善堂賑濟，饑荒才有緩和，這也為隨後澳門中醫藥發展創造了機會，也為經濟發展奠定了人口基礎[1~3]。可見，澳門地理和歷史具有一定的特殊性和不可取代性，這也決定了澳門中醫藥學的發展具有一定的歷史特質，目前澳門經濟尋求正在經濟多元化，歷史的特質和現實的需求之間的撞擊將使得中醫藥在澳門未來的發展升級具備重要的作用。2 澳門中醫藥發展的歷史特質澳門長達 150 年的殖民歷史決定了澳門醫藥advantages, the traditional Chinese medicine will play a very important role in improving the economic structure of Macau and promoting the industrialization and internalization of Chinese medicine in future.eywords: Macau; Traditional Chinese Medicine; History; Current Situation
編輯委員會Editorial Board編委會主席：劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編 ：許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編委：劉良、許敖敖、祈務晨、余秋雨、張志慶、姜志宏、方泉、林偉基、戴龍基、黎曉平、唐澤聖、陳乃九、龐川、孫立雲、孫建榮Editorial Board Members:Liu Liang, Xu Ao Ao,Keith Robert Barclay Morrison, Yu Qiu Yu, Zhang Zhi Qing, Jiang Zhi Hong, Fang Quan, Lam Wai Kei, Dai Long Ji, Li Xiao Ping, Tang Ze Sheng, Chan Lai Kow, Pang Chuan, Sun Li Yun, Sun Jian Rong澳門科技大學學報Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology主辦單位: 澳門科技大學Organizer: Macau University of Science and Technology編委會主席: 劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編: 許敖敖Chief Editors: Xu Ao Ao編輯: 《澳門科技大學學報》編輯部Editor: The Editorial Department, Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話： +853-8897-2173 Tel: +853-8897-2173 ● 傳真：+853-2888-0022 Fax: +853-2888-0022 ● 電郵：publication@must.edu.mo E-mail: publication@must.edu.mo ● 地址： 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau出版及總發行：澳門科技大學Publisher & Distribution: Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話：+853-8897-2166 Tel: +853-8897-2166 ● 電郵：cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo E-mail: cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo ● 地址： 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau 封面及版式設計：高鴻 王港Graphic & Layout Designers: Gao Hong, Wang Gang印刷： 700本Print Run: 700出版日期：2016年6月Issued Date: June 2016國際標準期刊號：ISSN: 1994-4926規格： 21cm×29.7cmSize: 21cm width by 29.7cm height版權所有，翻印必究All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher.
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