半年刊 2007年6月創刊第八卷 第二期 2014年12月出版JOURNAL OF MACAU UNIVERSITYOF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYSemiannual, Started in June 2007Vol.8 No.2 December 2014定價: 20元澳門幣(人民幣/港幣)ISSN 1994-4926半年刊Semiannual Vol.8二 一四年 第八卷 第二期JOURNAL OF MACAU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYVol.8 No.2 December 2014
編輯委員會Editorial Board編委會主席:劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編 :張曙光、許敖敖Chief Editors: Zhang Shu Guang, Xu Ao Ao編委:劉良、張曙光、許敖敖、祈務晨、余秋雨、張志慶、姜志宏、麥希國、方泉、林偉基、戴龍基、黎曉平、蔡亞從、唐澤聖、齊東旭、陳乃九、龐川、孫立雲、孫建榮Editorial Board Members:Liu Liang, Zhang Shu Guang, Xu Ao Ao,Keith Robert Barclay Morrison, Yu Qiu Yu, Zhang Zhi Qing, Jiang Zhi Hong, Michael Hitchcock, Fang Quan, Lam Wai Kei, Dai Long Ji, Li Xiao Ping, Tsoi Ah Chung, Tang Ze Sheng, Qi Dong Xu, Chan Lai Kow, Pang Chuan, Sun Li Yun, Sun Jian Rong澳門科技大學學報Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology主辦單位: 澳門科技大學Organizer: Macau University of Science and Technology編委會主席: 劉良Chairman of Editorial Board: Liu Liang主編: 張曙光、許敖敖Chief Editors: Zhang Shu Guang, Xu Ao Ao編輯: 《澳門科技大學學報》編輯部Editor: The Editorial Department, Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話: +853-8897-2173 Tel: +853-8897-2173 ● 傳真:+853-2888-0022 Fax: +853-2888-0022 ● 電郵:publication@must.edu.mo E-mail: publication@must.edu.mo ● 地址: 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau出版及總發行:澳門科技大學Publisher & Distribution: Macau University of Science and Technology ● 電話:+853-8897-2166 Tel: +853-8897-2166 ● 電郵:cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo E-mail: cbpsadmin@must.edu.mo ● 地址: 澳門科技大學 澳門氹仔偉龍馬路 Address: Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau 封面及版式設計:高鴻 王港Graphic & Layout Designers: Gao Hong, Wang Gang印刷: 700本Print Run: 700出版日期:2014年12月Issued Date: December 2014國際標準期刊號:ISSN: 1994-4926規格: 21cm×29.7cmSize: 21cm width by 29.7cm height版權所有,翻印必究All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher.
ContentsHumanities and ArtsShanghai Theatre under the Influence of Western Culture in late Qing and early Republic ……………………………………………………………………………………… Haixia ZHAO (1)Fellow travellers on the Road to Modernity: Intellectuals, Stars and the Field of Cultural Production in the Republican Era of China ……………………………………………………Weizi HUANG (7)On the Dissemination and Influence of Heshi Yulin through Citations by Ancient Books and Records Since Ming and Qing dynasties …………………………………………………… Haiying HU (17)LAWDiscussion On the Way to Secure Jurisdiction over The Sea Area of Macau ……………………………………………………………… Mingjian HUANG, Shuhong PAN (23)Management and TourismMarket Competition, Earnings Management and Credit Risk: Evidence from Casino Industry in Macau …………………………… Shun-Ho CHU, Haitian CHEN, Yijing SHEN, Yanan ZHOU (31)Relationship Conflict in the Supervisor-Subordinate Dyads in China: Goal Interdependence as Antecedent ………………………………………………………………………… Eko Yi LIAO (43)Two Approaches of Measurement and Evaluation with Considering Undesirable Outputs——An Empirical Analysis Based on Eight Chinese Economic Regions ……… Yu SONG, Feng ZENG (60)Strategic supply chain coordination with vendor managed inventory and trade credit mechanisms A Comparative study ………………………………… Xiaodan ZHANG, Xia XIONG, Yingni LIU (72)A Study on Organizers’ Reputation from the Perspective of Exhibitors:constitution, antecedents and influence on loyalty ……………………………………………… Juan TANG, Xiao WANG (79)Constructing of Environmental total-factor contruction materials productivity measurement model of EU building industry ……………………………… Songhong CHEN, Yu SONG, Yun SUN (89)Research on the Economy Dynamic Relationship of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao in the Pattern of Regional Integration ………………………………………… Ye XU1, Yu-Fei WANG (98)Work-family facilitation: An exploratory study of Taiwanese banking industry …………… Ting WU (108)Information TechnologyImpact of TXOP on Node Buffer Sizing for IEEE 802.11 WLANs ……………………………………………………… Shaobo YANG, Qinglin ZHAO, Zhijie MA (118)
1第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 晚清民初西方文化影響下的上海戲園趙海霞(澳門科技大學國際學院,澳門)摘要: 晚清的上海,作為開埠通商口岸,融入了多種西方文化。上海的戲園借助租界的特殊地域文化環境,在西方文化的影響下呈現出與傳統不同的新面貌。這種新面貌包括新媒介及宣傳手段、國外劇團進滬的影響、新的經營模式、新的舞臺佈置、表演和編劇的新追求、新思想和戲曲改良等。這些變化在中西方文化交流和激烈衝突中產生,推動中國戲劇在社會的轉型中跟上時代步伐。關鍵詞: 晚清民初;西方文化;上海;戲園Shanghai Theatre under the Influence of Western Culture in late Qing and early RepublicHaixia ZHAO( Macau University of Science and Technology, International College, Macau, China )bstractt: As a treaty port, Shanghai absorbed modern Western Culture extensively in the Late Qing Dynasty. And with help of a special regional cultural environment, the theatre of Shanghai demonstrated some new positive signs under the influence of Western Culture.The new features include new media and propaganda, the influence of the foreign company in Shanghai, new tendency of screenwriter, new business models, new stage decoration, new ideas and opera reform,etc. With the intense conflict of the Chinese and Western Culture, these changes appeared and pushed Chinese opera to keep pace during the period of social transformation.eyyordst: Late Qing and early Republic; Western Culture; Shanghai; Theatre收稿日期:2014-07-14;修訂日期:2014-08-14。通訊作者:趙海霞,女,文學博士,助理教授,主要研究方向為中國近代文學與文化。E-mail: hxzhao@must.edu.mo,Tel: (853)889723460 引言上海於 1843 年開埠後,迅速成為全國經濟中心,國內外萬商雲集,大批富豪、商人因躲避江南的戰亂寓居上海,形成一個龐大的消費群體,促進了上海消閒娛樂業的發展。茶樓、酒館、戲園在租界內比比皆是,去戲園觀戲,成為大眾娛樂的主要活動之一。1872 年《申報》刊載的晟溪養浩主人《戲園竹枝詞》描繪了當時景象:“洋場隨處足逍遙,漫把情形筆墨描:大小戲園開滿路,笙歌夜夜似元宵。穿來柳巷與花街,一片歌聲處處皆;新彩新燈新腳色,叫人沿路貼招牌……。”[1]繁華“洋場”指開埠後的上海,外國人多,外國商品也多。這則竹枝詞描寫了上海戲園興盛的景象,大小戲園開滿路,笙歌夜夜似元宵的熱鬧情形。海上看戲熱潮為戲劇的變革奠定了基礎,且自 1840 年以後,中國就進入社會急劇動盪、社會經濟大轉型的重要時期。作為近代社會轉型的積極回應,藉助特殊的文化地域環境,上海的戲園在西方文化的影響下呈現出前所未有的新變化。
7第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 現代同路人:民國時期的知識分子、 明星及文化生產場黃微子(澳門科技大學人文藝術學院,澳門)摘要: 今日知識分子和明星通常被認為是截然不同的文化事實。然而,本文追溯民國時期的歷史情境,發現兩者不僅有許多共性,而且之間充滿互動。他們都是現代性的標杆、個人主義的表徵,他們都由大眾傳媒催生,並常常在文化生產和傳播中合作,甚至於有的人能夠在兩個位置之間流動。這之所以可能,乃由於當時的新文學次場域和新演藝次場域是同源同構的。兩個次場域中的知識分子和明星有著重塑國民性的共同議程,所以說他們是現代同路人。關鍵詞: 知識分子;明星;文化生產場;民國;現代性Felloy travellers on the Road to Modernityt: Intellectuals, Stars and the Field of Cultural Production in the Republican Era of ChinaWeizi HUANG( Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )bstractt: Nowadays intellectuals and stars are regarded as sharply different cultural facts. This paper, however, argues that intellectuals and stars not only shared some similarities but also frequently interacted in the republican era of China. Shaped by mass media, they were both model of modernity and representation of individualism. They collaborated a lot in the cultural production and circulation. Some could even move between the two positions as intellectual and star. What makes this possible is the homologic nature between the sub-field of new literature and the sub-field of new performing arts. The intellectuals and stars in these two sub-fields promoted a common agenda of re-constructing the Chinese national characters. Hence, they were fellow travellers on the road to modernity.eyyordst: Intellectual; Star; Field of cultural production; the republican era of China; Modernity 收稿日期:2014-01-08;修訂日期:2014-02-26。通訊作者:黃微子,女,博士,助理教授,主要研究方向為媒體與文化研究。 Email:wzhuang@must.edu.mo, Tel: 853-8897 29610 引言知識分子和明星現在通常被認為是截然不同的文化事實,他們極少被放到一起研究。然而假如我們回到民國時期文化傳播的歷史現場,我們會發現,知識分子和明星並不像一般想像的那麼相去甚遠。在二十世紀初期的中國,知識分子和明星不僅孕育於同一社會歷史形態,而且之間充滿互動(interaction)。他們都是在同一個文化生產場(field of cultural production)之中,而且知識分子並非當然地總在“高雅”的“有限生產的次場域”(sub-field of restricted production),明星也並非全然處於“低俗”的“大量生產的次場域”(sub-field of large scale production)。這與布赫迪
8厄(Pierre Bourdieu)1 基於十九世紀下半葉的法國文學場所作的觀察不盡相同,而這恰恰是我們探討這個題目的意義之所在。1 知識分子和明星儘管在學術上對“明星”的定義也糾纏不清,但是在“常識”/ 經驗的層面它卻比“知識分子”要容易限定。不論認為明星是一種“因出名而出名”(well-known for his/her well-knownness)的“人造假像”(the human pseudo-event)[1],還是將其視作“想像的能指”(the imaginary signifier)[2],抑或是“個人潛能的表徵”(the representation of the potential of the individual)[3],牽涉的更多只是不同學派之間價值取向的迥異。普遍的看法都把二十世紀二十年代影迷雜誌的興起、好萊塢明星制度的形成當作是現代明星的正式登臨[4],後來大眾文化和明星工業的發展使得繼影星之後,歌星、體育明星、電視明星等娛樂明星被製造出來,甚至在社會上形成一種明星化(celebrification)2的趨勢,出現了政治明星、明星 CEO 等等。事實上,自好萊塢的明星制度傳入中國之初,就處於一種被挪用的混雜狀態 [5],中國社會後來的發展,更使得明星工業和明星話語與它們的西方對應物貌合神離甚或面目全非。至於“知識分子”,其內涵和外延更是難以取得學界共識,不同的知識分子對“知識分子”一詞的界定,往往成為“夫子自道”因之各說各話。在這裏,暫且擱置著名的知識分子們對此的爭議,我倒寧願援引一位“業餘”知識分子陳明遠的見解,他說,“我們要區分兩種‘知識分子’的界定。一種是某些人心目中‘知識分子應該是怎樣的人’,例如‘社會的良心’、‘民眾的喉舌’等;另一種是‘社會上老百姓看作是知識分子的1 Pierre Bourdieu的中文譯名包括布赫迪厄、布爾迪厄、布迪厄等,本文統一使用“布赫迪厄"。2 “celebrification"這個詞出自Chris Rojek (2001). Celebrity. 至於各行各業的明星化趨勢,Graeme Turner(2004)在Understanding Celebrity中也提到了明星文化的擴散,David Marshall(1997)則在Celebrity and Power的最後一章聚焦了明星權力向政治文化的延伸。人’。”[6]陳明遠在他的另一本書《文化人的經濟生活》中曾說,20 世紀中國“知識分子”的概念被攪得稀裏糊塗,生活裏常用的說法又往往是模糊混亂,這在嚴格的學術研究中是不許可的,因此他選擇了“文化人”這樣一個在他看來比較不容易引致混淆的概念。[7]但是他很快打破自己的界定,而在該書的續篇之中便把“知識分子”擺進了書名。這除了旁證他的書不是“嚴格的學術研究”以外,大概是“知識分子”與“文化人”這些名詞在日常使用中往往難以區分的一個絕佳佐證。3在陳明遠的論述中,“文化人”基本等於“文化工作者”。[8]在本文中,我願意保留和承認在文化實踐中“知識分子”、“文化人”、“文化 / 文藝工作者”等名詞之間的含混曖昧,把他們視作特定卻邊界模糊的同一群人。不同的名稱只是透露了對於他們的不同論述(discourse)。當然,由於各自的文化實踐及所擁有的慣習(habitus)的不同,知識分子內部也可以分出許多次類型(sub-category)。 許紀霖將民國時期的知識分子分為所謂“五四一代”和“後五四一代”。他將崛起於1915 年以後,以魯迅、胡適為代表的“五四一代”知識分子視為“中國第一代現代意義上的知識分子”。而在二十世紀三四十年代嶄露頭角的“後五四知識分子”則是“五四知識分子”的學生輩,並成長為“知識分工相當明確的專家”。4 [9]3 陳明遠的這些書雖然自稱花了二十幾年的時間來搜集和考據(見《知識分子與人民幣時代》跋),但由於缺乏人文學術方面的正規訓練(或曰“文化資本"),而且欠奉注釋等學術規範,所以被嚴格的學術界認為不足為信。但是從《文化人與錢》(2001)到《才、材、財》(2004)、《人、仁、任》(2004)、《喜、嬉、戲》(2004)一套“現代文化人生活叢書"再到《文化人的經濟生活》(2005)及其續編《知識分子與人民幣時代》(2006)再到最新的《何以為生——文化名人的經濟背景》(2007),我想指出的並不是短短幾年間陳先生在同一範疇旺盛的生產力,以及這其間可能存在怎樣的“重複建設",而是讀者消費這些書的熱情(才可能使得四家不同的出版社以不同的名目一版再版),可見陳明遠的論述再現/代表(represent)了大眾的贊同(consensus),成為主流話語的一部分。馬嘶(2003)的《20世紀中國知識分子生活狀況》也屬於這一類型。4 必須指出,許教授對“20世紀中國六代知識分子"的劃分、描述和評價有值得檢討的地方,雖然可以理解為和他自己對知識分子的觀念有關,但不免流於粗糙和武斷。不過,對於認定“五四"知識分子而非晚清知識分子為中國第一批現代知識分子這一點,我是同意的。
15黃微子 現代同路人:民國時期的知識分子、 明星及文化生產場們是呼籲和推進中國走向現代化的同路人。他們自身以與傳統斷裂的姿態,成為現代性的標杆;他們以一種可識別的個性成為資本主義個人主義的表徵;他們都由大眾傳媒催生,並在印刷媒體和視覺媒體之間聯結起一個互動的媒介網路;他們常常有合作及互惠的關係,甚至於有的人能夠在這兩個角色位置之間流動。以場域的視角來看,知識分子和明星是同一個文化生產場之中擁有不同慣習的施為者。知識分子並非當然地總在“高雅”的“有限生產的次場域”,明星也並非全然處於“低俗”的“大量生產的次場域”。反而是,相當一部分知識分子和明星合力創造了新文化這樣一個“有限生產的次場域”,其中,新文學次場域和新演藝次場域是同源同構的。新文學次場域的生成,標誌著現代意義上的文化生產場開始成形。既然文學被認為是建構新國民的手段,那麼其它可達至同一目的的文藝手段,知識分子也樂於使用。明星的出現正是表演藝術作為一個文化生產的次場域的結果。而不論是新文學次場域還是新演藝次場域,為國家和人民謀福祉的政治原則都在其間佔有優勢位置,乃至成為一種文化霸權。一方面它們宣稱為大眾 / 人民而生產,因此不能“苟同”“為藝術而藝術”的“純文藝”原則。另一方面,大眾 /人民在這裏與其說是大量具體的個體,毋寧說是一個被想像出來和建構起來的概念,是需要去啟蒙而不是去迎合的。這是常常標榜為“新”的文化生產的次場域與一般商業通俗文藝的區別。前者往往排除或遮蔽了經濟原則,後者則以暢銷、賣座的經濟原則為皈依。由於新文化次場域的象徵生產如此成功,由於其在整個文化生產場中的優勢地位,所以,不論是主要活躍於新文學次場域中的知識分子,還是主要活躍於新演藝次場域中的明星,在重塑國民性的政治議程中,他們不僅收穫了政治和社會資本,而且同時獲得了文化資本。可以說,朝著現代和革新的方向,民國時期的知識分子和明星是相知相伴、相互扶持的同路人。參 考 文 獻[1] Boorstin, D. The Image. New York: Atheneum, 1962.[2] Metz, C. Psychoanalysis and Cinema: The Imaginary Signifier. London: Macmillan, 1982.[3] Marshall, P. D. Celebrity and Power: Fame in Contemporary Culture. Minneapolis/London: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.[4] McDonald, P. Star System, Hollywood’s Production of Popular Identity. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.[5] 周慧玲. 表演中國: 女明星, 表演文化, 視覺政治, 1910-1945. 臺北: 麥田出版,2004: 115-196[6] 陳明遠. 知識分子與人民幣時代:《文化人的經濟生活》續篇. 上海: 文匯出版社,2006: 2[7] 陳明遠. 文化人的經濟生活. 上海: 文匯出版社,2005: 1[8] 同上,3[9] 許紀霖. 中國知識分子十論. 上海: 復旦大學出版社,2003: 82-83[10] 葉凱蒂. 從護花人到知音——清末民初北京文人的文化活動與旦角的明星化//陳平原、王德威(編). 北京: 都市想像與文化記憶. 北京: 北京大學出版社,2005: 121-134[11] 周慧玲. 表演中國: 女明星, 表演文化, 視覺政治, 1910-1945. 臺北: 麥田出版,2004.[12] Hockx, M. (Ed.). The Literary Field of Twentieth-Century China. Richmond: Curzon, 1998: 3[13] 史春風. 商務印書館與中國近代文化. 北京: 北京大學出版社,2006: 189[14] 同上[15] 王曉漁 . 知識分子的“內戰”:現代上海的文化場域(1927-1930). 上海: 上海人民出版社,2007: 146[16] 葉凱蒂. 從護花人到知音——清末民初北京文人的文化活動與旦角的明星化//陳平原、王德威(編). 北京: 都市想像與文化記憶. 北京: 北京大學出版社,2005: 125-133[17] 周慧玲. 表演中國: 女明星, 表演文化, 視覺政治, 1910-1945. 臺北: 麥田出版,2004: 45-113[18] 同上,115-196[19] 同上,256-270[20] 商務印書館(編). 商務印書館一百年,1897-1997. 香港: 商務印書館,1998: 215[21] 周慧玲. 表演中國: 女明星, 表演文化, 視覺政治, 1910-1945. 臺北: 麥田出版,2004: 197-238[22] 葉凱蒂. 從護花人到知音——清末民初北京文人的文化活動與旦角的明星化//陳平原、王德威(編). 北京: 都市想像與文化記憶. 北京: 北京大學出版社,2005: 130[23] 周慧玲. 表演中國: 女明星, 表演文化, 視覺政治, 1910-1945. 臺北: 麥田出版,2004: 201[24] 布赫迪厄,P. The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. R. Johnson (Ed.). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1993: 40[25] Ibid, 30[26] 朋尼維茲. 布赫迪厄社會學的第一課. 孫智綺,譯. 臺北: 麥田出版,2002: 98(原書Bonnewitz,P. [1998]. Premières leçons sur la sociologie de Pierre 布赫迪厄. Presses Universitaires de France.)[27] 布赫迪厄,P. The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and
17第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 從明清典籍引書看《何氏語林》的傳播與影響 ——兼論明清著作引書的若干特點胡海英(澳門科技大學通識教育部,澳門)摘要: 明代何良俊的《何氏語林》是一部著名的“世說體"著作,流傳很廣。明清以來的典籍對《何氏語林》有廣泛的引用,考察這些引用情況,可以追蹤《何氏語林》的傳播與影響,并可以發現明清典籍引用《何氏語林》有如下特點:經、史、子、集四部皆有引用;《何氏語林》被引的用途很廣;四部引錄頻率不平衡且有時代差異;明清典籍引用《何氏語林》還包括對其進行考證、糾謬與誤系。這些情況說明整個傳統文化陣營對它甚為重視。明清典籍對《何氏語林》引用的情況折射出時代差異,反映了時代風尚與學風的轉換。關鍵詞: 《何氏語林》;明清典籍;引書;傳播;影響On the Dissemination and Influence of Heshi Yulin through Citations by ncient Books and Records Since Ming and Qing dynastiesHaiying HU( General Education Department, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China )bstractt: Heshi Yulin(The Ho Language, 何氏語林) is a famous book edited and written by He liangjun of the Ming Dynasty. Tracking the dissemination and influence of Heshi Yulin through citations from it by ancient books and records since Ming and Qing dynasties can discover those citations feature in four aspects: involved by the Four Branches of Literature(Siku, 四庫), used broadly, not proportionately according to the Four Branches of Literature and times, including textual criticism, amending and mistaking other books for Heshi Yulin. All these reflect the difference of academic atmosphere between Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty alongside stating clearly the importance of Heshi Yulin.eyyordst: Heshi Yulin(The Ho Language); ancient books and records since Ming and Qing dynasties;citations;dissemination; influence收稿日期:2014-04-03;修訂日期:2014-04-03。通訊作者:胡海英,男,澳門科技大學通識教育部助理教授,文學博士,主要研究方向為中國古典文獻學、中國文化電話:00853-88972802; E-mail:ihuhaiying@gmail.com0 引言明代著名藏書家、作家、學者何良俊(1506 ~1573,字元朗,号柘湖,松江人)撰有《何氏語林》一書,此書又稱《語林》,是一部筆記體小說,共三十卷、2700 餘條,為博采 400 餘種著作文獻編錄而成,涉及內容的時代上自漢朝,下至元末明初。這是一部非常有名的著作,自明代刊行後即大受歡迎,流傳很廣。[1]何良俊自稱:“余所撰《語林》,山東各王府亦時時差人買去。”[2]《何氏語林》還流傳到了海外。日本“世說體”仿作《近世叢語》的作者,甚至被視作何良俊之流亞,可見日本人對於《何氏語林》及何良俊其人甚為
23第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 澳門海域管轄權取得途徑芻議黃明健1*,潘書宏2(1. 澳門科技大學法學院,澳門;2. 福建江夏學院法學院,福州)摘要: 取得海域管轄權是澳門海域使用管理的邏輯起點。現階段,澳門取得海域管轄權有兩種途徑:一種是通過調整或確認海域行政區劃的方式取得,另一種是通過“租用"一定範圍的海域並取得中央特別授權的方式取得。上述兩種方式各有利弊,但考慮到澳門的現狀和未來發展趨勢、取得方式本身的經濟成本和所取得海域資源作用的發揮等因素,澳門應當積極爭取通過調整或確認海域行政區劃的方式取得海域管轄權。關鍵詞: 澳門海域;海域管轄權;取得途徑Discussion On the Way to Secure Jurisdiction over The Sea Area of MacauMingjian HUANG1*, Shuhong PAN2( 1. Faculty of Law,Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China ) ( 2. Law Department of Fujian Jiangxia University, Fuzhou, China )bstractt: To secure jurisdiction over the sea area adjacent to Macau is the logical starting point of the use and management of sea areas. At present, there are two ways to secure the jurisdiction.One is made by adjusting or confirming the sea area administrative division between Zhuhai and Macau; The other one is made through authorization of central authority on the base of Macau’s renting a certain scope of sea area. The above two ways each have their advantages and disadvantages, but considering the present situation and the future development trend, the economic cost and the value of the sea area obtained-to-be, Macao should strive for it by adjusting or confirming the sea area administrative division between Zhuhai and Macau.eyyordst: the waters of Macau; jurisdiction over the sea area ; ways to secure the jurisdiction收稿日期:2014-05-27;修訂日期:2014-07-06。澳門科技大學研究基金資助項目,項目代號0367*通訊作者:黃明健,男,博士,副教授,主要研究方向:民商法,環境與資源保護法。 E-mail:mjhuang@must.edu.mo,Tel:853-88972247。0 引言《全國人民代表大會關於設立中華人民共和國香港特別行政區的決定》第二條規定:“香港特別行政區的區域包括香港島、九龍半島,以及所轄的島嶼和附近海域,香港特別行政區的行政區域圖由國務院另行公佈。”《全國人民代表大會關於設立中華人民共和國澳門特別行政區的決定》第二條規定:“澳門特別行政區的區域包括澳門半島、氹仔島和路環島。澳門特別行政區的行政區域圖由國務院另行公佈。”從這兩個決定和兩地的行政區域圖的對比中,我們發現澳門是沒有海域的。“澳門沒有海域”有兩層意思,一是指,在行政區劃上,澳門僅包括半島、氹仔島
31第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 市場競爭、盈餘管理與信用風險: 以澳門博彩業為例朱順和*,陳海天,沈伊婧,周亞楠(澳門科技大學商學院,澳門)摘要: 澳門開放外國博彩企業可以進入澳門博彩市場,可引進外國博彩企業的管理經驗與技術;相對地,也帶來經營競爭的壓力。澳門博彩公司除提供薪資外,並提供紅利計劃以激勵經理人績效表現。然而,他們可能選擇有利於其績效表現之會計處理方法,以獲取其個人紅利。本研究為探討市場競爭與盈餘管理對澳門博彩公司信用風險的影響,經實證結果:1.澳門博彩公司發生破產概率極低;2.澳門博彩業屬於高集中度市場結構;3.可操控應計利潤及資產規模對信用風險存在顯著負相關,市場競爭與可操控應計利潤交互作用項及財務槓桿對信用風險存在顯著正相關。關鍵詞: 市場競爭;盈餘管理;信用風險;博彩業Market Competition, Earnings Management and Credit Riskt: Evidence from Casino Industry in Macau Shun-Ho CHU*, Haitian CHEN, Yijing SHEN, Yanan ZHOU( Macau University of Science and Technology, School of Business, Macau, China )bstractt: Macau allowed foreign casino companies enter into local casino market, which caused introduction of foreign casino management experience and technology and an increase in competitive pressure. In addition to salary, Macanese casino companies provide bonus plans to incentive outperformance of managers. However, they may practically select accounting processes good for their performance in order to get bonus. This study is to examine the impact of market competition and earnings management on credit risk of casino companies in Macau. The empirical results of this study show that Macanese casino companies had the lowest possibilities of bankruptcy. Secondly, the Macanese casino industry was a high-concentration market. Thirdly, discretionary accruals and company size had significantly negative correlation with credit risk, whereas interaction of HHI and discretionary accruals and financial leverage had significantly positive correlation with credit risk.eyyordst: Market competition, Earnings management, Credit risk, Casino industry收稿日期:2014-07-21;修訂日期:2014-08-14。澳門科技大學研究基金資助項目,項目代號0336* 通訊作者:朱順和,男,博士。研究方向:銀行管理、退休金管理。 E-mail: shchu@must.edu.mo,Tel:853-88972879。0 引言澳門自 2006 年迄今已位居全球第一大賭城。2009 年中國國務院頒布《珠江三角地區改革發展規劃綱要(2008-2020 年 )》,澳門定位為世界旅遊休閒中心,加上受惠於中國經濟快速成長及港澳自由行旅遊政策,澳門旅遊業持續蓬勃的發展,博彩業的博彩收入亦呈現增長趨勢(朱順和,2011[1])。2013 年澳門博彩收入高達澳門幣 3607
32億元,較 2012 年增長 18.61%。博彩業為澳門第一大產業,其重要性充分反映在對政府財政稅收的貢獻。 2004 年澳門正式開放外國博彩企業可以進入澳門博彩市場,博彩市場開放可以引進外國博彩企業的管理經驗與技術;相對地,也帶來經營競爭的壓力。Porter(2008)[2] 指出產業過度競爭會導致企業投資報酬率的降低,如接近經濟學家所稱完全競爭產業的投資報酬率,會造成企業的虧損或者倒閉。近年來,面對來自澳門本地博彩市場與鄰近國家博彩市場的激烈競爭,此已成為澳門博彩業者首要關注的問題;同時,也成為澳門博彩監管機構制定監管政策必需考量的重要因素,確保本地博彩市場的公平經營與競爭,並維持博彩業的長期可持續性發展。澳門博彩公司對於高階管理人員薪酬制度,除薪資外,並且提供紅利計劃(如股票認股期權計劃)以激勵高階管理人員工作績效。近年來,澳門博彩業營運快速發展,獲利能力提升,使得高階管理人員薪酬(含績效紅利)實質增加。Watts and Zimmerman(1978)[3] 認為,紅利計劃將激勵企業經理人選擇會計處理方法及應計利潤(Accruals),以利於提高其個人工作績效。另外一方面,DeAngelo, DeAngelo, and Skinner(1996)[4]指出,如企業未能維持盈餘穩定增長,會導致企業股票回報率下跌,使得企業經理人會運用會計處理方法,調整其會計報告盈餘。企業股東、投資者等人在使用會計報表從事投資活動時,可能造成企業股東、投資者等的決策偏誤。學者對澳門博彩業的風險相關研究,大多基於宏觀經濟因素(朱順和、陳海天、羅迪,2013[5])或公司特有因素(Gu and Kim, 1998[6]; Rowe and Kim, 2010[7]; Chu, 2014[8])。鮮少從市場競爭與盈餘管理的視角,探討對博彩業風險的影響。本研究為填補此一研究缺口,嘗試運用Altman's Z-Score 模型(Altman, Hartzell, and Peck, 1995[9])、Concentration 模型與 modified Jones 模型(Bikker and Haaf, 2002[10]),實證研究市場競爭與盈餘管理對澳門博彩公司信用風險的影響。據此,本研究目的為: ● 以 Altman's Z-Score 模型評估與分析澳門博彩公司信用風險水平。 ● 以 Concentration 模型評估與分析澳門博彩業市場結構狀況。 ● 以 modified Jones 模型評估與分析澳門博彩公司盈餘管理狀況。 ● 實證研究市場競爭與盈餘管理對澳門博彩公司風險的影響。 ● 提出對澳門博彩監管機構及澳門博彩公司的風險管理上的具體建議。1 文獻探討本文先進行市場競爭理論及盈餘管理理論之探討,以作為實證研究之理論支撐;其次,探討國內外相關文獻,以作為本研究框架之参考依據。1.1 市場競爭理論1.1.1 市場競爭理論與運用關於企業競爭的理論基礎,學者提出資源基礎理論(recourse-based theory),以有形資產及無形資產為重心,強調企業資源是形成企業競爭優勢的重要來源。Wernerfelt(1984)[11] 首先提出企業資源基礎觀點(resource-based view),認為企業資源包括有形資產與無形資產。當多角化經營的企業在規劃戰略時,其企業資源可作為處理重要問題的基礎。Barney(1991)[12] 認為企業資源包括所有資產、能力、組織流程、企業屬性、信息、知識等,能使企業構想與執行改善企業經營效率與效果的戰略;並提出戰略規劃體系(strategic planning system),企業資源的異質性與不可移動性,可形成企業可持續競爭優勢。Grant(1991)[13] 則提出戰略分析的企業資源基礎方法(resource-based approach to strategy analysis),從分析企業資源,來評估企業能力,並據之以分析企業競爭優勢,最後形成企業的戰略。Peteraf(1993)[14]提出競爭優勢的基礎(cornerstones of competitive
34(Davidson, Stickney, and Weil, 1987[20])。學者進一步對盈餘管理定義提出具體的看法。Schipper (1989)[21] 定義盈餘管理為經理人為獲取自己利益的意圖,而有目的地干預外部財務報告處理。Healy and Wahlen(1999)[22] 定義盈餘管理為經理人使用在財務報告及在建構交易的判斷來改變財務報表,並以財務報表的會計數字,來誤導利害關係人有關企業經濟績效或影響合同的結果。Dechow and Skinner(2000)[23] 則定義盈餘管理為重要事實或會計數據被有意圖的、巧飾的、錯誤報表或省略,將會被誤導,或當時被認為所有信息是可被利用的,使得使用人作出錯誤的判斷或決策。Leuz, Nanda, and Wyscoki (2002)[24] 認為盈餘管理為藉由內部人對企業經濟績效報告的改變,誤導利害關係人或影響合同結果。彙整學者之定義觀點,本研究認為盈餘管理是企業經理人基於自己利益,而有意圖採取對其績效激勵制度有利之會計處理,造成誤導利害關係人對企業財務報表的使用。Burgstahler and Dichev(1997)[25] 認為企業為減少與利害關係人交易成本,會避免會計報告盈餘減少或損失;同時,企業是虧損的規避者。因此,企業藉由操控來自營運現金流量及營運資金變動,經常調升盈餘或為正數利潤,而較少調低盈餘或為損失。企業經常以盈餘績效為基礎,提供紅利計劃酬勞企業經理人。Healy(1985)[26] 指出企業普遍的薪酬制度包括遲延薪資、保險計劃、股票選擇權、限制股票、股票增值權、績效計劃及紅利計劃;其中,績效計劃及紅利計劃端視企業會計盈餘而定。Fox(1980)[27] 針對 1980 年的美國 1000 家大製造企業,研究發現:有 90% 企業採用紅利計劃以激勵經理人,25% 企業採用績效計劃以激勵經理人,主要是因為紅利計劃對於高階經理人的薪酬所占比重大於績效計劃。企業經理人在公佈盈餘的時候,著重關注會計報告為正數盈餘、持續最近的經營績效及符合分析師的預期等三項門檻(Degeorge, Patel, and Zeckhauser, 1999[28])。這是因為盈餘管理與代理問題存在著關聯性(Oberholzer-Gee and Wulf, 2012[29])。因此,企業經理人進行決策時,會考量自己個人相關利益,如薪酬(Sun, 2012[30])、個人職位(Dechow, Sloan, and Sweeney, 1995[31])、員工股票期權計劃(Burns and Kedia, 2006[32])、紅利(Healey, 1985[26])等因素,但與企業股東利益不一致(Baker, 1992[33])。1.2.2 盈餘管理衡量方法 總應計利潤(total accruals; TA)為衡量盈餘管理的主要關鍵,其又可分為可操控應計利潤(discretionary accruals; DA)與不可操控應計利潤(nondiscretionary accruals; NDA),而盈餘管理分析著重於管理者對於可操控應計利潤的運用。可操控應計利潤的衡量方法包括:Healy Model、DeAngelo Model、Jones Model、Modified Jones Model 及 Industrial Model。Dechow, Sloan, and Sweeney(1995)[31] 進行衡量方法之比較分析,實證結果顯示:Modified Jones Model 較其他四種模型具有效性。依據 Modified Jones Model,可操控應計利潤的計算步驟如下:第一步驟:計算第 i 家公司第 t 期的總應計利潤。其計算公式為(Healy, 1985[26]):其中,= 第 i 家公司第 t 期總應計利潤;= 第 i 家公司第 t 期流動資產之變動金額; = 第 i 家公司第 t 期現金與約當現金之變動金額;= 第 i 家公司第 t 期流動負債之變動金額;= 第 i 家公司第 t 期一年內到期長期負債之變動金額;= 第 i 家公司第 t 期折舊與攤提費用; = 第 i 家公司第 t-1 期總資產。第二步驟:運用下列多元回歸模型計算出
35朱順和,等 市場競爭、盈餘管理與信用風險: 以澳門博彩業為例 係數值。 其中, 第 i 家公司第 t 期銷售收入之變動金額; 第 i 家公司第 t 期應收帳款之變動金額; 第 i家公司第 t期的折舊性固定資產; 第 i 家公司第 t 期誤差項。 第三步驟:運用第二步驟的多元回歸模型計算出 係數值,代入以下公式,得出第 i家公司第 t期的不可操控應計利潤。其計算公式為 : 其中, 第 i家公司第 t期不可操控應計利潤。 第四步驟:計算出可操控應計利潤。用 減去 ,得出第 i 家公司第 t 期的可操控應計利潤。其計算公式為: 其中, 第 i 家公司第 t 期可操控應計利潤。1.3 國內外相關文獻1.3.1 市場競爭與博彩業風險相關文獻 Walker and Nesbit(2013)[34] 研究 1997 年至2010 年期間美國密蘇里州區域內博彩公司的市場競爭對博彩收入的影響。研究結果顯示:1. 角子機博彩、賭桌博彩與營業面積對博彩收入存在正相關;2. 角子機博彩與營業面積對市場競爭存在負相關;賭桌博彩與市場競爭存在正相關;3. 市場競爭對博彩收入存在負相關。Chu, Wu, and Zhang(2014)[35] 為探究澳門放寬博彩市場賭牌管制,允許本地及國外公司投資新建賭場,是否影響著澳門本地博彩市場的集中度與競爭程度。研究採用香港證交所上市 6 家澳門博彩公司的 2008 年至 2012 年期間數據,運用CR 及 HHI 等集中比率來檢驗市場集中度水平,並以 Panzar-Rosse 模型實證博彩市場屬於壟斷、競爭或壟斷性競爭類型市場。實證結果發現:澳門博彩市場為高集中度水平,且為壟斷性競爭(monopolistic competition)類型市場。研究建議博彩公司應擴大經濟規模優勢,以提高市場競爭力。1.3.2 盈餘管理與博彩業風險相關文獻Gu and Choi(2004)[36] 檢驗博彩公司執行長(CEO)薪酬的影響因素。實證結果顯示:執行長的薪酬與獲利能力、資產規模、財務槓桿及股票選擇權呈正相關;但與資產週轉率呈負相關。研究建議應將執行長薪酬與公司股東利益緊密結合,並以股票績效表現為執行長薪酬的重要影響因素。Rogers(2005)[37] 探討美國博彩業股票選擇權重定價活動對高階管理人員風險承擔激勵作用的影響;若股票選擇權不具價值,會導致高階管理人員追求高風險、負淨現值(NPV)的投資方案,實證研究發現 : 重訂價可以減少激勵高階管理人員追求風險。Sun and Rath(2009)[38] 探討 2000 年至 2006年期間澳洲不同行業 4844 家企業的盈餘管理影響因素。研究顯示 : 資產規模及資產回報率對盈餘管理有正向影響關係。1.3.3 其他因素與博彩業風險相關文獻 Gu and Kim(1998)[6] 檢視美國 35 家博彩業風險特徵及其影響因素,研究以 1992 年至 1994年博彩業數據,選取貝他值(β)為因變數,自變數為流動比率、財務槓桿、資產週轉率及淨利率,進行實證研究。研究結果顯示:1. 博彩業總風險有 92% 歸因於非系統風險及 8% 歸因於系統風險;2. 資產週轉率與系統風險呈顯著負向關係,流動比率、財務槓桿及淨利率與系統風險不存在相關性。Shin(2009)[39] 檢視博彩業影響系統風險的
41朱順和,等 市場競爭、盈餘管理與信用風險: 以澳門博彩業為例3.5.3 就市場競爭與可操控應計利潤交互作用項(HHI×DA) 而言研究假設三認為市場競爭與可操控應計利潤交叉作用項與信用風險存在正相關關係,但實證結果市場競爭與可操控應計利潤交叉作用項與信用風險也呈顯著正相相關。澳門博彩市場為高集中度市場結構,博彩公司擴大經營規模,以獲取經濟規模效益;同時,博彩公司高階管理人可能會操控應計利潤,以驗證其正確投資決策,並實踐其個人績效表現。3.5.4 就資產規模(SIZE)而言研究假設四認為資產規模與信用風險存在負相關關係,但實證結果資產規模與信用風險也呈顯著負相關。此顯示澳門博彩公司持續擴大規模,以獲取經濟規模效益,以減低其信用風險。此一結論與 Round(1975)[46] 看法一致。3.5.5 就財務槓桿(LEV)而言研究假設四認為財務槓桿與信用風險存在正相關關係,但實證結果財務槓桿與信用風險也呈顯著正相關。澳門博彩公司採取高財務槓桿策略,以持續擴大經營規模;然而,假若澳門博彩市場轉趨疲弱不振,將影響其經營績效,可能導致經營虧損。此一結論與 Rowe and Kim(2010)[7] 見解一致。4 結論與建議經實證結果與討論分析,本研究獲致結論 :1.澳門博彩公司發生破產概率極低;2. 澳門博彩業屬於高集中度市場結構;3. 可操控應計利潤及資產規模對信用風險存在顯著負相關,市場競爭與可操控應計利潤交互作用項及財務槓桿與信用風險存在顯著正相關。本研究基於上述的實證分析結果與結論,對澳門博彩監管機構及澳門博彩公司提出風險管理建議如下: ● 澳門博彩公司伴隨著經營績效表現及股票價格上漲,企業經理人會進行可操控應計利潤之盈餘管理操作,使得企業經理人獲得薪資外,也獲得認股計劃的利益;同時,也使得股東利潤最大化。因此,Eisenhardt(1989)[19] 指出,風險分享(risk-ahsring)可減低代理問題,本研究建議澳門博彩公司應檢討企業經理人的薪酬制度,採取彈性績效獎勵制度,避免造成企業經理人操控盈餘管理。 ● 澳門博彩監管機構應致力維持澳門博彩市場為高集中度市場結構,以獲取經濟規模效益;應避免過於強調公平性,導致高集中度市場結構轉趨為低集中度市場結構。同時,採取適當博彩政策,適度地鼓勵博彩公司擴大規模,維持博彩業可持續經營,以確保澳門經濟穩定發展。 ● 澳門博彩公司採取高財務槓桿經營策略,伴隨經營收益大幅增長,使得淨值回報率提高,但也陸續償還借款,負債比率亦隨之減低。本研究建議澳門博彩公司應注意經濟狀況,在獲利情形良好情況下,適度地提前清償借款,降低財務槓桿,以減輕借款資金壓力。 ● 近年來,澳門政府陸續批准批土地予現有博彩公司在路氹金光大道上新建或擴建賭場。然而,此一政策使得本地博彩市場競爭更加激烈,本研究建議澳門博彩監管機構與澳門博彩公司應注意可能的危機發生,建立監控與預測風險與危機之方法。參 考 文 獻[1] 朱順和. 澳門博彩公司經營績效評估之研究-灰色關聯分析之應用. 澳門經濟,2011,31: 134-143.[2] Porter, M.E.. The Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy. Harvard Business Review, 2008, 24-41. [3] Watts, R.L. and Zimmerman, J.L.. Toward a Positive Theory of the Determinants of Accounting Standards. The Accounting Review, 1978, 53(1): 112-134.[4] DeAngelo, H.. DeAngelo, L.. and Skinner, D.. Reversal of Fortune, Dividend Signaling and the Disappearance of Sustained Earnings Growth. Journal of Financial Economics, 1996, 40(3): 341-371. [5] 朱順和、陳海天、羅迪. 宏觀經濟因素對澳門博彩業風險承擔影響之研究. 澳門經濟,2013,35: 14-25.[6] Gu, Z. and Kim, H.. Casino Firms’ Risk Features and Their Beta
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43第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 Received 5 Sep. 2014; Revised 8 Oct. 2014Funding project: 0324 Investigation on employee counterproductive behaviorsEko Yi Liao, Female, Doctor, Assistant Professor. Research area: conflict management, leader-member relationships, employee innovation. Email: yliao@must.edu.mo. Tel: 8897 1981Relationship Conflict in the Supervisor-Subordinate Dyads in Chinat: Goal Interdependence as ntecedentEko Yi LIAO( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )bstractt: Interpersonal relationship conflict at workplace has long been regarded as the destructive force in terms of job satisfaction, team performance, and turnover behaviors. Previous research has not much identified the antecedents of relationship conflict. In addition, less is known about the relationship conflict in the context of supervisor-subordinate dyads. Addressing these two research gaps, this study analyzed the cases and survey data collected through interviews with 103 employees in Chinese State-Owned Enterprises. Results indicate that relationship conflict undermines the leader-member exchange, open-minded discussion, leader effectiveness, and confidence in future collaboration. Also, structural equation analyses results support the reasoning that competitive or independent goals intensify relationship conflict, whereas cooperative goals limit relationship conflict and its effects on leadership. Results suggest that a subordinate’s perception of having cooperative goals with his/her supervisor is likely to reduce likelihood of perceiving relationship conflicts.eyyordst: LMX; Relationship conflict; Goal interdependence領導-成員關係衝突:以目標互存為前因廖 逸(澳門科技大學商學院,澳門)摘要: 工作場所中人際之間的關係衝突對於員工的工作滿意度,團隊表現以及員工的離職都有很大影響。之前對於關係衝突的研究較少提及它的前因變量,並且鮮有對於領導-成員閒關係衝突的研究過。針對這兩個問題,本研究以103位中國國企的員工作爲採訪對象進行數据收集。研究結果表明關係衝突影響了領導-成員關係,開誠佈公的程度,領導效力,以及員工對於今後合作的信心。並且,SEM的結果也支持了目標互存的前因作用。結果顯示,儅員工認爲與領導擁有合作型的目標時,關係衝突將會相對減弱。關鍵詞: 領導成員關係;關係沖突;目標互存
440 IntroductionScholars’ and business practitioners’ perspectives toward interpersonal conflict at workplace have changed to a large extent in last few decades. Conflict was first regarded as the “poison” in organization because of its negative influence on employee’s satisfaction and performance outcomes (Keller, 1975). Then, with the debut of the classification (relationship conflict versus task conflict) on interpersonal conflict at workplace (Jehn, 1994, 1995, 1997), scholars started to investigate and indicate the different impacts on attitudinal and performance outcomes from different types of conflict (e.g., Tjosvold, Law, & Sun, 1999). With increasing literature gathered in this area, relationship conflict has often been discovered as a destructive force at workplace. With a focus on interpersonal issues rather than task-related issues, relationship conflict often induces negative feelings such as hostility, suspicion, or resentment (Jehn, 1994, 1997). As a result, employees tend to experience negative perceptions and emotions, and display unfavorable behaviors such as withdrawal or turnover (De Dreu & Van Vianen, 2001; De Dreu & Weingart, 2003).However, although gathering a number of research in discovering its nature and outcomes, the topic of interpersonal relationship conflict still leaves much space for academic investigation. Research is needed to understand how relationship conflict may also have far-reaching effects on leadership related outcomes as well as to identify the situations that foster or prohibit relationship conflict. First, the context of relationship conflict needs to be broadened in order to gain a systematic understanding of how it functions in organizations. Previous empirical studies focusing on relationship conflict are mostly conducted in the context of working groups (e.g., Jehn, 1997; Simons & Peterson, 2010), limiting the external validity of their findings to some extent. To this end, there is a need to examine the relationship conflict in other dynamics. For example, relationship conflicts among group members are more of the concern to previous researchers (e.g., De Dreu & Van Vianen, 2001; De Dreu & Weingart, 2003). To this end, a lack of focus on such conflict between supervisor-subordinate dyads may interfere with advancement of the theories as well as practical implications. Extending relationship conflict to individual level is meaningful in two ways: 1) previous research of supervisor-subordinate conflict focuses majorly on a general perspective, where there is no distinction on different types of conflicts. Yet it is important to discover if the group-level findings will apply to individual level, especially on supervisor-subordinate level. Such findings should be able to provide both theoretical and practical implications on the dynamics between supervisors and subordinates; 2) while relationship conflict is regarded as important generally, it may have particularly strong effect in Chinese context, where individuals may react to interpersonal clashes differently from people in other cultural background. Learning relationship conflict in individual level, especially in supervisor-subordinate dyads, is able to help better understand its influence on individual’s perceptions and attitudes accordingly. Second, with a large portion of previous studies contributing to the knowledge of the relationship between relationship conflict and its outcomes, there is a lack of findings on specific predictors to relationship conflict.Targeting at these research gaps, this study explores the antecedents and consequences of relationship conflict between supervisors and subordinates in Chinese State Owned Enterprises (SOEs). It adopts Deutsch’s (1973) theory of cooperation and competition to understand the conditions when supervisors and subordinates develop relationship conflict in Chinese organizations. It is proposed that relationship conflict will undermine leadership related outcomes, which are leader-member exchange (LMX), open-minded discussion, future collaboration, and leader effectiveness. However, different types of goal interdependence (cooperative goals, competitive goals, or independent goals) between supervisors and subordinates are likely to influence the relationship conflict perceptions.
45Eko Yi LIAO Relationship Conflict in the Supervisor-Subordinate Dyads in China: Goal Interdependence as Antecedent1 Literature Reviey and Hypotheses Development1.1 Relationship Conflict in Supervisor-Subordinate DyadsAccording to Jehn (1995, 1997), relationship conflict exists when there are “interpersonal incompatibilities” among individuals, which typically includes tension, animosity, frustration, and other negative feelings and perceptions (Pelled, Eisenhaardt, & Xin, 1999). The tension and interpersonal clashes accompanied with the occurrence of relationship conflict are likely to negatively influence or even destroy the harmonious relat ionships among employees, causing individual’s psychological or physical withdrawal (Jarboe & Wittemen, 1996; Jehn, 1995).However, the role of relationship conflict in leadership has not been much studied. Dyads of supervisors and subordinates, with some similar nature to the relationships among coworkers, are also apt to have relationship conflict due to personality differences, diverse understanding and perspectives of problems, and different attitudes and understanding toward tasks and the organization (De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008; Jones, 2009; Thomas & Schmidt, 1976; Watson & Hoffman, 1996). In addition, a supervisor-subordinate dyad has its unique characteristic: the nature of the relationship is leading-and-following, rather than the equal status which coworkers obtain when working in a group. This special characteristic makes the results and findings of relationship conflict among coworkers not applicable in the supervisor-subordinate dyads. In addition, poorly handled conflict between supervisors and subordinates disrupt an organization’s labor relations and productivity (Katz, Kochan, & Weber, 1985; Tjosvold & Chia, 2001). To this end, current study aims at uncovering the triggers of relationship conflict between supervisors and subordinates, and investigating how relationship conflict affect leadership effectiveness and related outcomes.1.2 Effects of Relationship Conflict in Supervisor-Subordinate DyadsThis study adopts the four important constructs (quality of LMX, open-minded discussion, future collaboration, and leadership effectiveness) which contribute substantially to successful leadership (Hui, Law, & Chen, 1999; Tjosvold, Wong, and Hui, 2002; Robertson, 2001; Boas, Howell, 1999), as measures to understand the influence of relationship conflict on leadership. These four constructs are organized as outcomes with theoretical reasons, rather than putting together on a random choice. They represent different aspects separately: dyadic exchange quality of the supervisor-subordinate dyad (i.e., LMX), current status of dyadic interactions (i.e., open-minded discussion), willingness to engage in future working relationship (i.e., future collaboration), and successfulness and influence of supervision (i.e., leadership effectiveness). Successful leadership and effective supervisor-subordinate dyads require all these four aspects to be fulfilled in order to maximize the productivity and performance outcomes. It is argued that relationship conflict between a supervisor and a subordinate will play a harmful role in these four aspects. The following paragraphs explain the detailed mechanisms through which relationship conflict negatively influences its outcomes.LMX is defined as the exchange relationship between a leader and a member (Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975; Graen & Cashman, 1975; Wang, Law, Wang & Chen, 2005). Through decades of research on LMX, numerous studies have documented that relationships between supervisors and subordinates affect such critical outcomes as job performance and commitment in organization settings (Brower, Schoorman, & Tan, 2000; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; House, Wright & Aditya, 1997; Lam, Hui & Law, 1999). With relationship conflict, a supervisor and a subordinate are likely to experience tensions and frustrations in their interactions. Both sides will lower their expectations on dyadic relationship and tend to avoid unfavorable interaction. To this end, their exchange relationships will be negatively influenced. Thus, it is proposed that relationship conflict is associated with low quality LMX relationships.
46 ● Hypothesis 1t: Relationship conflict between supervisors and employees lowers the quality of LMX. Open-minded discussion happens when two persons strive to make their ideas, opinions, or perspectives consistent with those of the other parties, in order to make an agreement on topics or issues of interest (Johnson, Johnson, & Tjosvold, 2005). Prior studies identified the usefulness of open-minded discussion for collaboration in organizations, including high-quality decision and solutions to complex problems that benefit from integrative thinking (Johnson, Johnson, & Tjosvold, 2005; Kolzow, 1990; Farh & Leung, 1995; Uline, Tschannen-Moran, & Perez, 2003). It is argued that the relationship conflict will interfere with open-minded discussions between a supervisor and a subordinate in two ways. First, the focus of relationship conflict is often on the interpersonal incompatibilities or negative confrontations (Jehn & Mannix, 1997; Simons & Peterson, 2000), both parties will have less energy and put less emphasis on solving actual problems or achieving an agreement. Parties involved in the relationship conflict are more likely to spend effort and energy on dealing with each other, limiting their constructive interactions and communications. Second, relationship conflict tends to induce hostility views on the other party (Jehn, 1994, 1997), prevent individuals to actively engage in effective communication. The supervisor may simply refuse to engage in formal meetings or informal discussions with the subordinate who he/she has relationship conflict with, since the supervisor is empowered with the right to make workplace decisions. On the other side, the subordinate may also be unwilling to initiate open discussions with the supervisor, considering the unfavorable dynamics and experiences.This study tests whether the negative feelings and hostility caused by relationship conflict frustrate open-minded discussion between supervisors and subordinates. ● Hypothesis 2t: Relationship conflict between supervisors and employees interferes with their open-minded discussion. Successful leadership and effective working relationships requires ongoing and continuance influence on subordinates. Leaders are more successful when they work with employees in such a way that they become more willing to work together in the future (Chen & Tjosvold, 2006). Relationship conflict in the supervisor-subordinate dyads is likely to decrease subordinate’s willingness to pursue further opportunities to work with the supervisor. First, continuance and consistent collaboration requires compatible working styles and mutually agreed strategies on problem solving. Only when there is mutual recognition on each other’s personal character and belief in the dyad’s ability in achieving agreement, can the two parties develop a long-term working relationship. However, with the unfavorable or even disruptive experiences brought by relationship conflict, subordinates are less likely to acknowledge the supervisor’s way of getting things done or leadership strategies.Thus, long-term work relationships between supervisors and employees are critical. This study explores how relationship conflict affects future collaboration. ● Hypothesis 3t: Relationship conflict between supervisors and employees undermines their future collaboration. Leadership often requires positive influence on subordinates because supervisors must work with and through subordinates. Employees who are more positively influenced by their supervisor are intended to consider the supervisor effective (Pelz, 1952). As people experiencing relationship conflict have psychological or physical withdrawal from disturbing situations (Jehn, 1995), subordinates may, to some extent, refuse to follow their supervisor’s instruction or simply avoid working with the supervisor. With employee’s feeling of dissatisfaction toward their leader and lower job performance caused by interpersonal clashes (Jehn, 1995), relationship conflict may end in ineffective leadership. Thus,
47Eko Yi LIAO Relationship Conflict in the Supervisor-Subordinate Dyads in China: Goal Interdependence as Antecedent ● Hypothesis 4t: Relationship conflict between supervisors and employees frustrates leadership effectiveness. 1.3 Goal Interdependence as ntecedents for Relationship Conflict Deutsch (1973, 1985) indicated that that how people believe their goals are related helps to understand the dynamics and consequences of their interaction, and specifically how they perceive and deal with conflict. This study proposes that with cooperative goals, supervisors and subordinates are positively oriented toward their diversities and see them as contributions to their joint work. In turn, they will perceive less negative feelings from the relationship conflict. However, with competitive or independent goals, supervisors and subordinates are tempted to use their differences to frustrate each other and this mutual frustration results in strong negative perceptions of relationship conflict. The theory of cooperation and competition dis t inguishes cooperat ive , compet i t ive , and independent goals between two involved parties (Deutsch, 1949; 1985). With cooperative goals, the two parties (i.e., supervisors and subordinates) believe that their goals are positively related, so that as one moves toward goal attainment the other party also moves toward his/her goals. With competitive goals, people understand that, as their goals are negatively related, they are better off when others act ineffectively. They can achieve their goals only when the other party does not achieve his/hers. With independent goals, people behave indifferently to others. They conclude that success by one brings neither failure nor success for others. Whether others develop high quality ideas or work hard does not impact their own productivity (Johnson & Johnson, 2005). S t u d i e s h a v e d o c u m e n t e d t h a t g o a l interdependence is a useful way of analyzing the dyadic relationship between a supervisor and a subordinate. For instance, supervisors and subordinates with cooperative goals apply and develop their abilities for mutual success (Lawler & Yoon, 1993, 1996; Tjosvold, Andrews, & Struthers, 1991). However, studies are needed to test whether goal interdependence is useful in understanding when and how relationship conflict develops between supervisors and subordinates.This study argues that cooperative goals reduce the possibility and negative influence of relationship conflict and contribute to leadership, while competitive and independent goals increase the possibilities and harmful influence of relationship conflict, and undermine leadership. Cooperative goals engender the feelings of working for mutual benefit and wanting each other to be resourceful and successful. Thus supervisors and employees cherish each other’s respect and appreciation. On the other hand, with competitive goals, people regard each other as threats to their own success; frustrations and tension intensify and result in relationship conflict. With independent goals, people do not care about each other and have little motivation to strengthen their relationship. Therefore, it is hypothesized that cooperative goals reduce relationship conflicts whereas competitive and independent goals between supervisors and subordinates induce relationship conflict. ● Hypothesis 5t: Cooperative goals between supervisors and subordinates are negatively related to relationship conflict. ● Hypothesis 6t: Competitive goals between supervisors and subordinates are positively related to relationship conflict. ● Hypothesis 7t: Independent goals between supervisors and subordinates are positively related to relationship conflict. 1.4 Relationship Conflict in Collectivist Contexts Chinese SOEs, where the data for this study were collected, have been regarded as typical collectivist organizations in a collectivist culture. Collectivist values have been hypothesized to affect people’s behavior and their interaction. (Hui, Law, & Chen, 1999; Tung, 1991; Triandis, 1990; Trompenaars, 1993). Chinese people as collectivists with strong orientation to relationships are thought to cherish interpersonal harmony. Supervisors in China function
48like parents in a family, where they give orders and take responsibilities (Farh & Cheng, 2000; Chen & Chung, 1994). There is a need to study relationship conflict in a collectivist culture as ideas developed in the West cannot be assumed to be applicable in the East (Hofstede, 1993). It could be argued that relationship conflict seldom occurs in Chinese SOEs and rare events have little impact. However, researchers have argued that collectivists can develop even more hostile feelings toward out-group members than individualists (Chen, Peng, & Saparito, 2002). It may be that relationship conflict has particularly strong effects in collectivist cultures because it very much challenges the value of interpersonal and organization harmony. To this end, this study will try to provide preliminary answers to these conflicting perspectives. It aims at discovering whether relationship conflict exists in supervisor-subordinate dyads in Chinese SOEs. If yes, further investigate is needed to understand what is the specific mechanisms through which relationship conflict functions under the collectivist culture, and how the two parties view this type of events.2 Methods2.1 Participants and Interviey Schedule Participants of this study include 103 employees who are from in 18 Chinese SOEs in Nanjing and Guangzhou, two cities of Mainland China. 63 participants from Nanjing and 40 participants from Guangzhou were interviewed by the first author. Participants were recruited from the author’s personal network and were recruited to represent diverse workforce (e.g., regions, business types, gender, age, and education level) in Chinese SOEs. Of the 103 participants, 60 (58%) were male and 43 (42%) were female. The average age of the interviewees was 35.2; 38 (37%) participants were between 20 and 30 years old, 35 (34%) between 31 and 40, 21 (20%) between 41 and 50, the remaining 9 (9%) are 51 and older. Regarding the highest educational qualifications obtained, 18 (18%) have high school degrees, 30 (29%) have college degrees, 40 (39%) have university degrees and 15 (15%) have graduate degrees. Of all the participants, 29 (28%) worked with their immediate supervisors for less than 6 months, 33 (32%) worked with their immediate supervisors for 6 months to 1 year, 41 (40%) worked with their immediate supervisors for more than one year. Critical Incident Technique (CIT) (Flanagan, 1954) was used in developing the interview structure for this study. CIT is considered to be a particularly useful method when studying complex interpersonal phenomenon (Walker & Truly, 1992). This method can provide more detailed information of the events/incidents provided by the participants, and could help minimize the errors compared to having to summarize across many incidents as required in most surveys (Schwartz, 1999). Several pilot tests were conducted with employees in Hong Kong and Guangzhou. Then the interview schedule was modified according to the pilot tests’ feedback and adopted for usage for the following interviews. Participants were informed that the content of the interview is for academic research only and they were assured of anonymity and confidentiality before giving their consent to participate. Upon their agreement to participate in the interviews, they were then asked to describe a specific incident when they had relationship conflict with their supervisor. The concept of relationship conflict was clearly explained by the interviewer with descriptive words and explanations such as “interpersonal clashes characterized by anger, frustration and other negative feelings”, “it can include people’s interpersonal incompatibilities that typically include tension, animosity, and annoyance”. Interviewees were told to recall the settings, what happened, the cause and consequences of the incident. They were informed that result of the incident could be constructive or destructive. All the interviews were conducted in Mandarin and most of them lasted for forty minutes to one hour. As the interview schedule was originally written in English, the first author translated it into Chinese.
49Eko Yi LIAO Relationship Conflict in the Supervisor-Subordinate Dyads in China: Goal Interdependence as AntecedentAnother bilingual researcher back translated the questions to ensure conceptual consistency. The two researchers agreed upon the final version. 2.2 Measures Goal interdependence. Scales for the three types of goal interdependence were adopted from previous studies (Alper, Tjosvold & Law, 1998). Variables for goal interdependence indicated how the interviewees perceived the relationship between their goals and those of their supervisor’s in the relationship conflict incident. The three items for cooperative goals measured the degree to which they share common interests and common benefits. A sample item for cooperative goals is “In this incident, my supervisor and I sought compatible goals with each other.” The three items for competitive goals measured the degree to which there are incompatibility of goals and rewards. A sample item is “In this incident, my supervisor did things in ways that promote his or her own goals rather than my goals.” The three items for independent goals measured the independence of goals, tasks and benefits. A sample item is “In this incident, my supervisor and I work for our own independent goals”. Participants were required to rate on a 7-point Likert type scale (from 1= strongly disagree to 7= strongly agree) to indicate their agreement on the items. The confident alphas value for the cooperative, competitive and independent goal scales were 0.81, 0.82, 0.73, respectively. Relationship conflict. The four-item scale for relationship conflict was adopted from previous studies (Jehn, 1995, 1997). The scale measured the extent to which personality differences and other interpersonal clashes occurred between the interviewees and their supervisors during the incident they recalled. A sample question is “In this interaction, how much emotional conflict was there between you and your supervisor?” The coefficient alpha value for this scale is 0.93. LMX. The scale of LMX was adopted from previous research (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Fairhurst, Rogers, & Sarr, 1987; Fairhurst & Chandler, 1989). The five items measured the quality of the relationships between a subordiante and a supervisor. A sample item is “To what extent do you believe you and your supervisor are satisfied with each other’s work.” The coefficient alpha value of this scale is 0.89. Open-minded discussion. A three-item scale measuring open-minded discussion was taken from previous studies (Alper, Tjosvold, & Law, 1998). The scale measured the extent to which a supervisor and a subordinate were open to different ideas and positions after the interaction. A sample item is “To what extent do you believe you and your supervisor listen carefully to each other.” The coefficient alpha value of open-minded discussion is 0.87. Future collaboration. A three-item scale was adopted to measure the interviewee’s inclination to work together with his/her supervisor in the future (Tjosvold, Andrews & Struthers, 1991). A sample item is “To what extent do you want to collaborate with your supervisor in the future.” The future collaboration scale had a cronbach alpha value of 0.95. Leadership effectiveness. The three-item scale measuring leadership effectiveness was taken from previous studies on leadership (Liu, Tjosvold, & Wong, 2004, Chen & Tjosvold, 2005). A sample item is “To what extent do you believe your supervisor performs his roles appropriately.” The coefficient alpha value of this scale is 0.94. 2.3 AnalysesBoth qualitative and quantitative analyses were used to test the hypotheses and the proposed model. The quantitative data are the interviewees’ ratings on the scales of all the variables of interest. The single factor procedure was used to address the problem of common method variance; confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was carried out to test whether the respondents’ ratings would load on goal interdependence, relationship conflict, and the outcomes as eight distinct factors. Correlation analysis was applied to perform the preliminary tests of the relationships among different variables, i.e., how are the three types of goal interdependence related to relationship conflict, and whether relationship conflict are negatively related to the four outcomes. Finally, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to
50test the proposed model and study the relationships among three antecedents (goal interdependence), one mediator (relationship conflict) and four outcomes (LMX, open-minded discussion, future collaboration, and leadership effectiveness). To obtain first-hand information and in-depth understanding of the whole process of how goal interdependence affects relationship conflict, which in turn lead to leadership consequences, participant’s narrative records about the incident were examined. As one of our main purpose is to clarify the role of goal interdependence between supervisors and subordinates, reasons for relationship conflict provided by interviewees were analyzed thoroughly and classified into three types according to the cases collected. This paper also presents one example of such case to illustrate the relationship conflicts happened between supervisors and subordinates. 2.4 Common Method Variance Since this study has collected cross-sectional data, there may be the concern of common method bias. To address the issue of common method variance, Harman’s Single Factor procedure is adopted. This method is one of the widely used techniques that have been used by researchers (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986; Podsakoff, Scott, Lee & Podsakoff, 2003). It also has been used in leadership research to assess the common method variance problems (Kark, Shamir, & Chen, 2003). CFA is used to compare the fit of a single factor model (common method) to the multi-factor model under investigation (McFarlin & Sweeney, 1992). In comparison, indexes of model fit indicated that the proposed model (Bentler-Bonnett nonned fit index= 0.89; Comparative fit index = 0.90) fits the data significantly better than the one-factor model (Bentler-Bonnet nonned fit index= 0.52; Comparative fit index = 0.59). The poorer fit of the one factor analysis suggests that common method is not a likely explanation of the results; the common method variance did not pose a serious threat in interpreting findings. 2.5 Confirmatory Factor nalysis A series of CFA were applied using AMOS to assess whether the respondents’ ratings would load on eight distinct factors, namely three types of goal interdependence, relationship conflict, and the four outcomes. Four indicators are used to judge whether the observed data fit into our hypothesized model: An overall chi-square measure and its associated degrees of freedom, the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI, Tucker & Lewis, 1973), and the RMSEA. The CFI is recommended as the appropriate approximation of the population value (Gerbing & Anderson, 1993). Bentler and Bonnett (1980) suggested that the CFI value should be above 0.90 to indicate a sufficient fit. The TLI compares the relative improvement in fit of the proposed model over a strict null model of complete independence among the various items. In contrast to the CFI, the TLI appears to be relatively unaffected by model situation (Wheaton, 1987) and by a small sample size (Marsh, Balla, & McDonald, 1988). In addition, a value of less Table 1. Confirmatory Factor nalysesModels d.f. Model χ² Δ χ² CFI TLI RMSEA Baseline 8-factor Model (M0) keeping all 8 variables as distinct factors 292 786.56 - 0.93 0.91 0.08 7-factor Model (M1) including a combined relationship conflict and LMX factor 300 1478.8 692.24** 0.71 0.69 0.11 7-factor Model (M2) including a combined relationship conflict and leadership effectiveness factor 300 1538.9 752.34** 0.68 0.66 0.14 7-factor Model (M3) including a combined relationship conflict and open-minded discussion factor 300 1578.2 791.64** 0.64 0.62 0.15 Notes: N =103. The eight studied variables are: cooperative goals, competitive goals, independent goals, relationship conflict, LMX, open-minded discussion, leadership effectiveness, and future collaboration.**p<0.01; *p<0.05
51Eko Yi LIAO Relationship Conflict in the Supervisor-Subordinate Dyads in China: Goal Interdependence as Antecedentthan 0.08 on RMSEA is considered to be a good fit (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993, p.124). Table 1 shows the results of the CFA analyses. Model M0 in Table 1 indicates that our proposed 8-factor model fits the data quite well. The CFI and TLI are 0.93 and 0.91, respectively. The indicators show that the 8-factor baseline model fitted the data significantly better than the seven alternative models. The model chi-squares of alternative models increase significantly compared with the baseline model. The CFI and TLI of the alternative models are all below 0.90, and the RMSEA value is above 0.08, indicating that they fit the data less satisfactorily than the proposed model. Based on these indices, it is concluded that the respondents are able to distinguish the eight constructs. 2.6 Hypotheses Tests Correlational analysis was performed as the first step for hypothesis testing. SEM was then used to examine the underlying relationships among goal relationships (i.e., cooperative, competitive, or independent), relationship conflict, and outcomes (i.e., LMX, open-minded discussion, future collaboration, and leadership effectiveness). Then, a nested model test was conducted, which compared three alternative models to our hypothesized model (indirect model). 3 Results3.1 Correlational Analysis Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations, reliability coefficients, and zero-order correlations of all the studied variables. The results provide initial support to the hypotheses. Specifically, cooperative goals between supervisors and employees are related to less relationship conflict (r = -0.46, p< 0.01), while competitive goals and independent goals are positively related to relationship conflict (r = 0.44, p< 0.01; r = 0.54, p< 0.01). Results also provide support to the negative relationship between relationship conflict and the four outcomes (r = -0.37, p < 0.01; r = -0.39, p<0.01; r = -0.55, p < 0.01; r = -0.54, p <0.01). 3.2 SEMSEM was used to further explore the relationships among goal independence, relationship conflict and the outcomes. First, the hypothesized model was compared to alternative models to see whether the proposed model fits the data the best. Then more detailed explanation of the hypothesized model is presented. 3.3 Nested Model Comparison. Results (shown in Table 3) indicate that the hypothesized model statistically fits the data. The χ2 Table 2. Correlations mong VariablesMean Std. D. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)Cooperative Goals 4.12 1.65 1Competitive Goals 3.51 1.37 -0.40** 1Independent Goals 2.67 1.24 -0.32** 0.55** 1Relationship Conflict 2.33 1.33 -0.46** 0.44** 0.54** 1Leader-member Relationships 3.64 1.41 0.54** -.39** -0.30** -0.37** 1Open-minded Discussion 3.22 1.47 0.47** -0.45** -0.28** -0.39** 0.69** 1Future Collaboration 4.34 1.38 0.52** -0.32 -0.32** -0.55** 0.75** 0.66** 1Leadership Effectiveness 3.87 1.59 0.57** -0.44** -0.37** -0.54** 0.73** 0.74** 0.77** 1 Notes: N=103; **p<0.01; *p<0.05.
52of the hypothesized model was 164.35 (d.f.=198) and CFI, TLI and RMSEA were 0.91, 0.90 and 0.078, respectively. Given the usually critical value of 0.90 (Bentler & Bonnett, 1980), results of the fit statistics suggested that the hypothesized model fitted the data to a satisfactory level. However, even if the hypothesized model fits the data well, three alternative models are considered and compared in case a better model exists. The first alternative model (M1) direct model, omits the paths related to the mediator. It indicates the direct effects of goal interdependence on the four outcomes. The second alternative model (M2) holds that both goal interdependence and relationship conflict lead to the four outcomes. The third alternative model (M3) indicates that goal interdependence has direct impacts on relationship conflict and outcomes. The TLI and CFI values of the alternative models are all below 0.90, while RMSEA values are above 0.09. The hypothesized model thus showed substantial improvement in the chi-square indicates over the other three alternative models. Thus, it suggests hypothesized model fit the data better after comparing to the alternative models. 3.4 SEM nalysis on the Hypothesized Model. Path coefficients provide more detailed findings to support the proposed model (Figure 1). Results show that cooperative goals are negatively related to relationship conflict (ß= -0.24, p< 0.01), while competitive and independent goals are positively related to the perception of relationship conflict (ß=0.18, p<0.01; ß=0.42, p<0.01). Consistent with the hypotheses, relationship conflict is significantly and negatively related to the outcomes of leader-member relationships, open-minded discussion, future collaboration, and leadership effectiveness (ß= -0.40, p<0.01; ß= -0.65, p<0.01; ß=-0.43, p<0.01; ß=-0.57, p<0.01). Generally, the results of path coefficients support the hypotheses and are consistent with the correlational analyses. Notes: N=103; **p<0.01; *p<0.05. Fig. 1 Path Estimates for the Hypothesized Structural Model4 DiscussionThis study develops a theoretical model of relationship conflict within the dyads of supervisors and subordinates in Chinese SOEs. It aims to investigate the mechanisms through which goal Table 3. Nested Model nalyses Chi-square df Δ χ² TLI CFI RMSEA 1. M0 164.35 198 - 0.90 0.91 0.078 3. M1 319.11 193 154.76** 0.74 0.75 0.093 4. M2 282.34 186 117.99** 0.82 0.82 0.089 5. M3 296.74 187 132.38** 0.70 0.73 0.090 Notes: N=103 M0: the proposed model; M1: the direct model that omits the paths related to the mediator; M2: goal interdependence and relationship conflict directly lead to the four outcomes; M3: goal interdependence has direct impacts on relationship conflict and outcomes.**p<0.01; *p<0.05.
53Eko Yi LIAO Relationship Conflict in the Supervisor-Subordinate Dyads in China: Goal Interdependence as Antecedentinterdependence status between the two parties influences the relationship conflict, which in turn affects leadership related outcomes. SEM results support the overall theorizing that cooperative goals between supervisors and subordinates are negatively related to relationship conflict, whereas competitive or independent goals tend to intensify the negative perceptions of relationship conflict. Then, relationship conflict in turn undermines leadership consequences. These results suggest that strengthening cooperative goals is a potentially important way to reduce the likelihood of intense relationship conflict and thereby contribute to successful leadership. 4.1 Effects of Relationship Conflict on Leadership Previous researchers have demonstrated the negative relationships between relationship conflict and group performance, employee job satisfaction, and other outcomes in group settings (Jehn, 1995, 1997; De Dreu, et al., 2003). Results of this study investigated relationship conflict in the context of the supervisor-subordinate dyads, and indicated the negative effects of relationship conflict on leadership: specifically, reduced quality of LMX, less open-minded discussion, lower confidence in future collaboration, and weakened leadership effectiveness. Effective LMX has long been considered critical for understanding successful leadership (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Findings of this study provide insight into the dynamics of how relationship conflict undermines LMX in Chinese SOEs. Interviewees reported their inferior position was a major impediment when engaged in a relationship conflict with their supervisors. Usually their argument ended with the supervisors imposing their one-side opinions and refusing to consider employee’s needs and viewpoints. Feelings of tension and frustration and supervisor’s superior position became barriers to healthy and favorable dyadic relationship.With the existence of relationship conflict, subordinates report a low possibility of open-minded discussion with their supervisors. Relationship conflict limits the information processing capability as people’s energy and focus are devoted to their hostile thoughts and actions toward each other. Respondents in this study reported that their supervisors often regarded the problems causing relationship conflict as “trivia” and “unrelated to work” so they did not deserve much focus and discussion. Results suggest that the more the relationship conflict, the less tendency of future collaboration between supervisors and employees. Participants reported subordinates are not willing to participate in future collaboration once there were uncomfortable and destructive perceptions accompanied by the relationships conflict. However, noting the organization’s emphasis on “harmony”, some employees decided to compromise before the conflict escalates, but to avoid working with the supervisor in the long run because they no longer had confidence in their working relationship. In terms of leadership effectiveness, participants indicated they felt their supervisors were less responsible and had low commitment to their leader’s role during and after the conflict clashes. When engage in relationship conflict, supervisors were perceived to put their own interests and concerns as their first priority. These behaviors leave subordinates less trusting of their supervisors and regard them as irresponsible leaders. Thereby, relationship conflict lowers supervisors’ leadership ability. 4.2 Goal Interdependence and Relationship Conflict Consistent with expectations, results from the correlational analysis and SEM support hypotheses that goal interdependence between supervisors and subordinates is an important antecedent to relationship conflict. When their goals are considered cooperatively related, they experienced less relationship conflict. In contrast, when are competitively or independently related, their relationship conflicts are perceived more intense and interuptive. These results support Deutsch’s (1973) conclusion that how people believe their goals are related is a useful way to understand the dynamics and consequences of conflict. 4.3 Cooperative Goals and Relationship Conflict. Relationship conflict has often been theorizing as detrimental to organizational outcomes but
54previous studies have not much explored the mechanisms that contribute to diminish the negative influence of relationship conflict. Results of the quantitative and qualitative analyses in this study suggest that cooperative goals between supervisors and subordinates help to mitigate the influence of relationship conflict, suggesting that relationship conflict is not inevitably intractable. With cooperative goals, supervisors and subordinates tend to be more open to differences and less aggressive toward each other. With cooperative goals, supervisors and subordinates engage in less interpersonal hostility; they realize they can use each other’s ideas and assistance to solve the problems and incompatibilities. They behave less aggressively and voice their diverse views, explore the opposing perspectives, and are willing to incorporate opposing views and reach an agreement. For example, when recalling a personal clash with his supervisor, an employee from an iron factory indicated that his boss suggested that they “calm down and sit down to have an honest, face-to-face talk”. Both of them agreed to “try to stop offensive arguments” as their goals were not to win over the other. The negative perceptions reduced gradually as they developed a useful method to discuss and solve the problem, rather than focusing on interpersonal clashes. Supervisors and subordinates with cooperative goals are motivated to solve the problem that underlies the conflict, instead of continuing their hostility. A middle-level sales person had a heated debate with his department head in a regular meeting. The head accused him of being a bad team member because he was always absent from the department’s after-work activities; he countered that whether he attended or not was his personal preference and which was not related to work. This discussion helped them break out of their accumulated rancor as the head had frequently complained about his absence. The employee recalled both of them felt “it was necessary to work out the problem” as they both wanted more effective group relationships. Thus, it is concluded that supervisors and subordinates with more cooperative goals appreciate that they should get things done together, and thus are motivated to solve difficulties and reduce the tension and frustration. 4.4 Competitive and Independent Goals and Relationship Conflict. With competi t ive goals, supervisors and subordinates tend to outperform and win over each other. When they engage in relationship conflict, they make little effort to understand the other’s opinions or ideas. Supervisors need employees to obey their orders without complaints, while employees strongly believe in their own rationale, making them feel stressed, annoyed, and frustrated. Many participants indicated that these negative feelings became more severe when they repeatedly argue for their own benefit. Almost half of the participants who had competitive goals with their supervisor recalled their supervisor as “pushy” and “tough” leaders, who force them to stop complaining and conform to orders and regulations. Results also show significant negative effects of independent goals on relationship conflict, with a stronger weight than competitive goals to relationship conflict. It is not just competitive goals that increase negative feelings, even unrelated goals between supervisors and subordinates strengthen relationship conflict. With independent goals, the two parties focus on their own ends and show little care to each other. Both sides get annoyed when they realize the other party only consider their own benefits with neglecting attitude, intensify the severeness of conflicts. Subordinates depicted their supervisors in these situations as “indifferent” and “inconsiderate”. As a designer recalled the reason for an enduring argument with a team leader, she concluded that “even when we finally understood each other’s views, both of us did not want to make any concessions”. Sometimes they kept emphasizing their own opinions without reaching an agreement. Many participants believed the situation that employees and supervisors “did not have agreement on what should be achieved”, leaving them in a deadlock. 4.5 Practical Implications
55Eko Yi LIAO Relationship Conflict in the Supervisor-Subordinate Dyads in China: Goal Interdependence as AntecedentFindings of this study have important practical implications for supervisors and subordinates. Results indicate that relationship conflict can be a very significant obstacle to effective leadership. To this end, supervisors can make relevant adjustments to their leadership style and methods in order to prevent such conflict, or to decrease the negative perceptions when it happens. Specifically, supervisors and subordinates can work to develop cooperative goals with their subordinates. Subordinates can find a way to make that their goals related positively to their supervisor’s in order to build a favorable environment for dyadic relationship. Previous research suggests that developing a shared vision, common tasks, shared rewards, and joint celebrations can convince organizational members that their goals are positively related (Tjosvold, 1995). Supervisors and subordinates can reinforce these cooperative goals by openly expressing their ideas as well as to explain their reasoning behind their positions (Tjosvold, 1993). Frequent communication are encouraged between supervisors and subordinates in order to combine different views and figure out how both sides can work for mutual benefits and help each other achieve their goals. They can avoid win-lose arguments aroused by different personalities or opinions on trivial issues which are not tasks-centered. Supervisors and subordinates should adopt and practice skills of cooperatively managing conflict that include self-expression, perspective taking, and creative problem solving (Tjosvold, 1993). Chinese culture has always been indicated as more on the collectivist end (Hofstede, 1993), where people are likely to value interpersonal relationships and emphasize on collective achievements. However, with the development of market economy in China during the last few decades, people may develop different perspectives on the cultural orientation of Chinese people. From the findings of this study, although it did not include culture elements as direct variables, it suggests that individuals in Chinese organizations do still value interpersonal relationships. What is more, subordinates are likely to perceive less relationship conflict when they feel that they have compatible goals with their supervisors, suggesting that a harmonious relationship where goals are balanced and cooperative is cherished by Chinese employees.5 LimitationsThis study has several limitations. The relatively small sample of 103 participants in interviews limits the validation and generalization of the findings. Although interviews can help the exploration of complex organization phenomenon, and are showed to be useful in this study, its operations make collecting a wide sample of data difficult. Although the sample is not representative of Mainland China as whole, developing data from two cities yielding similar results suggest that the findings are not highly restricted. Results should also be considered tentatively, as the data are self-reported and subject to biases, and may not accurately describe the relationships. The study may suffer from common method variance (mono-method bias), although the results of the Harman’s one factor analysis suggested it did not pose a serious threat to interpreting the findings. Research has suggested that well-designed experiments, usually randomized experimental designs, are more able to provide sound findings for mediation analysis, rather than normal surveys where the situation may not be compatible with the reality (Stone-Romero & Rosopa, 2008). To this end, future research may adopt more verified and suitable designs, such as randomized experiments, multi-source surveys, and/or longitudinal designs (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Lee, 2003), in order to provide more persuasive findings to shed lights on both theoretical and empirical work.Also, the findings of this study may be limited in providing theoretical implications because lacking of related control variables. Although the focus is on relationship conflict and the usage of CIT technique can help strengthen the arguments for research model and for the findings, the overall output still indicates less powerful implications compared to research
56designs where control variables (e.g., task conflict and process conflict) are included since without including the conceptually related mediators it would be more challenging to prove a generalized contribution. However, the adoption of combining qualitative and quantitative data analyses may be able to alleviate such problems, in the way that such method can help to make sure the participant rated the survey questions only based on the incidence they have recalled during the interview. Thus, the CIT technique itself and the research model should be able to lend some support to this issue.There may be concerns of the seemingly interchangeable roles of LMX and relationship conflict in the research model since both of them are relationship based and oriented. It is not deniable that LMX may be adopted as a potential mediator between the goal interdependence and the three other outcomes, however, theories and findings of this study has supported a mediating role of relationship conflict. First, goal interdependence theory argues that the relationships among goals of different individuals will exert their influence on outcomes through its impact on interpersonal interactions. While LMX can be regarded as a related variable of this kind, relationship conflict is more supported because it directly describes the dynamics between the supervisor and the subordinate during the conflict incidence. Second, data analyses finding have supported the mediating role of relationship conflict. However, future research with more appropriate cause-effect research designs (e.g., experiments) should be helpful to provide more sound findings in these relationships.In addition, the incidents recalled by participants may not show the complete situation happened at workplace. Spector and Brannick (1995) have argued that the most effective way to overcome recalling and other methodological weaknesses is to test ideas with different methods. Further survey and experimental studies investigating the dynamics of relationship conflict and the role of goal interdependence would strengthen this study’s findings. Experiments of a longitudinal design would be particularly useful for indicating the causal relationships among goal interdependence and perceived relationship conflict. 6 ConclusionResults of this study suggest that relationship conflict, with accompanied frustrations and hostility, obstructs leadership. Conflict pervades the workplace (Thomas & Schmidt, 1976; Watson & Hoffman, 1996), and considerable research attention has been paid to conflict management within organizations (Gayle, & Preiss, 1998; Rahim, 1985). However, there has been less attention to possible antecedents of conflict (Deutsch, 1990). This study suggests that goal interdependence can be an important predictor to relationship conflict between supervisors and subordinates in the context of Chinese SOEs. Relationship conflicts then in turn undermine leadership. Statistical results support the hypotheses and the proposed model, where goal interdependence is related to relationship conflict that in turn affects leader-member relationships, open-minded discussion, future collaboration, and leadership effectiveness. Overall results indicate that when supervisors and subordinates conclude their goals are cooperatively related, instead of competitively or independently, they are likely to experience less relationship conflict and develop a high quality LMX relationship, discuss their disagreement open-mindedly and constructively, experience effective leadership, are prepared to work together in the future. References [1] Alper, S., Tjosvold, D. & Law, K. S. (2000). Conflict management, efficacy, and performance in self-managing work teams. Personnel Psychology, 53: 625-642.[2] Alper, S., Tjosvold, D. & Law, S.A. (1998). Interdependence and controversy in group decision making: antecedents to effective self-managing teams, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 74: 33-52.[3] Avolio, B. J. (2007). Promoting more integrative strategies for leadership theory-building. American Psychologist, 62: 25-33. [4] Bentler, P. M. & Bonnett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structure. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3): 588-60.[5] Bono, J. E. & Anderson, M. H. (2005). The advice and influence networks of transformational leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90: 1306-1314.
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59Eko Yi LIAO Relationship Conflict in the Supervisor-Subordinate Dyads in China: Goal Interdependence as Antecedentmember exchange as a mediator of the relationship between transformational leadership and Organizational Citizenship Behavior. The Academy of ManagementJournal. 48(3): 420-432. [83] Watson, C., & Hoffman, L. R. (1996). Managers as negotiators: A test of power versus gender a predictor of feelings, behavior, and outcomes. Leadership Quarterly, 7: 63-85.[84] Wheaton, B. (1987). Assessment of fit in overidentified models with latent variables. Sociological Methods and Research, 16: 118-154科研进展澳科大學者再次在世界頂級學術期刊發表學術文章 12月19日,在世界頂級學術期刊Science(《科學》)上,刊登了澳門科技大學中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室梁麗嫻助理教授、黃錦偉助理教授、姜志宏教授、李婷助理教授、劉良講座教授(責任作者)的學術文章《整合網絡醫學―中醫藥學在發展新一代醫學中的作用(Integrated network-based medicine: The role of traditional Chinese medicine in developing a new generation of medicine)》。該篇論文首次提出了“整合網絡醫學”(Integrated Network-based Medicine,INBM)這一新概念,並描述其基本框架,認為傳統中醫藥學將在新一代整合網絡醫學的發展中發揮基石般作用。“澳門科技大學月球與行星科學實驗室—中國科學院月球與深空探測重點實驗室夥伴實驗室”舉行揭牌儀式11月19日,“澳門科技大學月球與行星科學實驗室”,作為中國科學院在境外設立的首個重點夥伴實驗室的揭牌儀式,在澳門科技大學隆重舉行。中國科學院院長白春禮院士親臨澳門,與澳門特區政府、中联办等领导共同主禮這一盛大儀式。數百人共同見證了這一盛典:澳門特區又增加了一個新的現代化高科技學術平台。澳門科技大學建校於2000年3月,是一所活力充沛、發展迅速的年輕高等學府,在上海交通大學世界一流大學研究中心剛剛發佈的2014年“中國兩岸四地大學排名”中,位列第五十七,又有了新的進步。 近年來,大學積極推動教研並重的發展策略,鼓勵和支持教研人員開展多學科結合的創新性合作研究,使大學的研究成果逐步達到了同類研究的國際水準,多次獲得國家和澳門科學技術獎勵。自進入21 世紀以來,國際上興起了月球和行星探測的高潮,我國先後發射了嫦娥一號、二號、三號探月衛星,實現了著陸器的月面軟著陸。最近,又成功進行了衛星由月球返回地球的再入返回實驗,為嫦娥五號做準備。國家將遵循深空探測的長遠規劃,逐步探測火星、小行星及其它星球。作為港澳地區最早介入國家深空探測項目的大學之一,澳門科技大學進行的月球與行星科學的研究歷史雖然不長,但是已經取得了顯著的學術成果,並獲得澳門特區政府2012年頒發的首屆自然科學獎。與此同時,澳科大還充分利用學術研究成果,及時對澳門社會和中小學生進行了廣泛有效的科學普及工作,產生了良好的社會影響。澳門科技大學月球與行星科學實驗室作為中國科學院首個在境外設立的重點夥伴實驗室,開創了內地和港澳臺科學家在深空探測科技領域中緊密合作的先河。重點實驗室和夥伴實驗室之間的合作創新模式必將更好的發揮雙方各自的區位資源和人力資源的優勢,對提升兩個實驗室的整體能力、研究水平以及在國際上的影響力、競爭力,對活躍學術思想、拓展研究思路、實現國家探月工程乃至未來的深空探測工程科學數據在深化應用上快出成果、多出成果、出好成果的目標,都有著重要而深遠的意義。可以期待,夥伴實驗室與重點實驗室的緊密合作、共同發展必將為我國月球和行星科學研究登上新台階作出更大貢獻!
60第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 考慮非期望產出下的兩種測度及評價 ——八大經濟區域實證研究 宋 宇*,曾 峰(澳門科技大學商學院,澳門)摘要: 本文採用了Malmquist-Luenberger(ML)指數的距離函數法對1998~2010年的中國八大經濟區域的全要素生產率(TFP)進行測算,得到以非期望作投入變數的生產率指數(ML1)和以非期望作產出變數的生產率指數(ML2)及其分解指標(技術進步和效率改變)。研究結果顯示: ML1和 ML2的年平均增長分別為2%和1.6%,經濟較不發達區域的ML1低於ML2,而經濟較為發達區域的ML1高於ML2。面板資料回歸分析下ML2資料更適合模型,八大經濟區域的增長動力來源於人均CO2排放量、人均廢水排放量和環境技術進步,依賴資源粗放型的發展格局並沒有實質性的改變。關鍵詞: 全要素生產率;非期望產出;曼奎斯特-盧恩伯格指數;經濟區域Tyo pproaches of Measurement and Evaluation yith Considering Undesirable Outputs ——n Empirical nalysis Based on Eight Chinese Economic RegionsYu SONG*, Feng ZENG( Macau university of science and technology, School of business, Macau, China )bstractt: This paper evaluates the development of total factor productivity (TFP) with the Malmquist-Luenberger (ML) productivity index in china. During the period from 1998 to 2010, this paper takes into account the undesirable outputs as inputs and outputs variable with directional distance function approach in two methods. The results show that the average annual ML1 and ML2 productivity index is 2 % , 1.6% respectively. Based on the regression analysis of panel data. Series of data of ML2 is more suitable for the model, and this paper found that per CO2 emissions per capita, wastewater emissions per capita and environmental technology progress all have a positive role in promoting regional economy. However , the extensive pattern of development with resource has not been virtually changed.eyyordst: Total factor productivity; Undesirable outputs; Malmquist-Luenberge; Economic region收稿日期:2014-10-10;修訂日期:2014-11-10。本文受澳門基金專案No.0314資助。* 通訊作者:宋宇,澳門科技大學,副教授;研究方向:房地產金融;E-mail:ysong@must.edu.mo0 引言中國近十年的發展可謂是突飛猛進,年均GDP 增幅保持在 10.7%,與 2002 年相比 2010 年的 GDP 已經翻了 4 倍,這讓處於全球經濟低迷陰影下的西方國家所驚訝。不過由於在過度的依賴資源的“高投入、高消耗、高成本、低效率”的粗放型發展模式下,中國的環境惡化已經威脅到了人們生活。2008 年全國因環境污染導致的經濟損失就超過了 1 萬億元(岳叔敬等,2009)[1],能源的過度消耗和環境的嚴重破壞已經嚴重地制約
61宋宇,等 考慮非期望產出下的兩種測度及評價 ——八大經濟區域實證研究 了中國經濟的可持續發展。2007 年 10 月中共十七大將中國經濟發展戰略由“又快又好”調整為“又好又快”,再次加強對環境觀念的認知(李強,聶銳,2010)[2]。要想在經濟活動中更加有效地採取措施控制環境污染,則懂得如何正確真實評估環境保護的效率以及估算環境效率變得十分重要。已有大量國內外文獻探討了我國全要素生產率的增長,但考慮到環境因素和污染問題的相對較少,往往都只是考慮資本、勞動等生產要素的投入約束,結果導致對社會福利和經濟績效的評價產生了偏差(Hailu st al)[3]。此外在考慮環境要素的文獻中則常常把污染等非期望產出作為產出變數來測算,鑒於此本文在考慮環境要素的前提下,基於“綠色生產率”1的視角,以中國 30 個省份的投入產出資料為基礎,測算並比較分析了我國八大經濟區域在考慮把非期望產出作為投入部分和作為產出部分,即資源投入角度和環境約束角度下的全要素生產率、技術效率、技術進步、純技術效率、規模效率等指數,進而合理評價自 1998 年以來八大區域經濟和環境共同發展績效。1 文獻回顧從傳統的生產角度來看,伴隨著生產過程產生的都是期望產品,即“好的產出”。而那些對環境有著污染的附帶產物(我們稱之為“非期望產出”或“壞的產出”),如水污染和空氣污染這些在傳統的生產率測算中都往往被人們忽略。(Chung et al.1997)[4]。如果把環境要素加入經濟運行的評價體系中,勢必需要解決一個問題:即污染物作為非期望產出和期望產出是不一樣的,因為其沒有價格,這也正是傳統的全要素生產率測度方法(Tornqvist 指數法和 Fisher 指數1. (1998 年聯合國環境署第五次國際清潔生產高級研討會上發佈的《國際清潔生產宣言》中首次提出“綠色生產率"(green productivity, GP)的概念。亞洲生產率組織給生產率的定義是“為了實現社會經濟發展而提高生產率的環境績效的戰略,通過應用適當的技術、生產過程和管理技術,生產具有環保功能的產品和服務,能夠提高收益率的生產率。Malmquist-Luenberger 生產率指數同時反映了產出增長和污染減少的生產率增長,本文認為其為一種較好的綠色生產率指數。)法)沒有辦法解決的問題。Fare et al(1985)[5]採用的 Shephard 距離函數基於徑向 DEA 分析方法不需要價格資訊,但依然沒有考慮環境約束,Chambers et al(1996)[6] 和 Chung et al(1997)[4]在 Shephard 距離函數基礎上首次採用方向性距離函數法(directional distance function),較好地解決了污染物等非期望產出的效率評價問題,從而得到了廣泛應用,上述文獻採取的都是徑向角度的 DEA 模型。Hailu 和 Veeman(2001)[7] 研究如何提升加拿大造紙行業的產生率並發現傳統的忽略非期望產出的測算方法會低估真實的生產率,而真實的生產率的增長應該考慮到污染帶來的影響。Fare et al(2001)[8] 和 Kumar(2006)[9] 運用兩種不同的方法對比考慮非期望產出和忽略期望產出的兩組結果,也得到了相同的結論。最近越來越多國內學者在研究生產力效率時也把環境因素加入考慮範圍,胡鞍鋼等(2008)[10] 結合環境因素估算了中國各省份技術效率,發現環境因素對於各省份的影響並不一致,但技術效率與經濟增長模式有密切的關係。袁曉玲等(2009)[11] 在考察中國全要素能源效率時也把環境污染作為一個重要因素而加以考慮,根據研究環境因素分析技術效率和生產力效率的變化。近年來國內外愈來愈多地採用方向性距離函數模型來考察環境要素約束對生產率測算的影響,這樣的估算得到的TFP 更具有經濟學含義(胡鞍鋼,2008)[10]。陳詩一(2010)[12] 運用方向性距離函數針對改革以來中國工業全要素生產率進行了重新估算,結果發現考慮環境約束的實際全要素生產率比傳統的未考慮環境因素的測算值低了很多,而 Chunhong Zhang et al(2011)[13] 幾位學者針對我國各省生產率增長和環境政策的相關研究,利用 Malmquist-Luenberger 指數測算 1990-2009 年 30 個省份資料並得出考慮非期望產出的平均生產率指數低於忽略非期望產出的平均生產率指數的结論。不同與之前的研究,本文將重點探討在考慮非期望產出的前提下,將非期望產出分別作為投入變數和產出變數,採用 Malmquist-Luenberger 和方向性距離
62函數法, SBM 模型的提出者 Tone[14] 指出,SBM模型並不成熟,實際上在鬆弛的經濟內涵方面存在理解和解釋的困難,並不如傳統的 DEA 方法來的直觀和便於詮釋。基於這個原因,本文採用徑向非角度 DEA 方法,一方面保留了徑向角度 DEA便於理解和詮釋的特點,另一方面借鑒了非徑向非角度(SBM)同時考慮投入和產出的優勢。於此同時,筆者在環境和能源的約束下從動態和靜態兩個角度來對中國各省以及所在區域間的生產率及分解指標增長變化做一個對比研究,並試圖從中發現這兩種方法的異同變化特徵,以及其結果與我國區域發展戰略和產業政策調整的相互作用進行探討。本文安排如下:第一部分文獻回顧;第二部分是研究模型闡述和資料選取;第三部分則為實證結果和分析,採用兩種方法下的生產率指數以及指數分解的結果進行對比,並對能源約束下中國各經濟區域生產率增長的波動;第四部分為經濟指標和環境指標構建的面板資料回歸分析,最後一部分為結論及建議部分。2 研究模型闡述和資料選取2.1 方向性距離函數方向性距離函數是在生產性集合的基礎上,即可以通過距離函數來計算出每個決策單元的相對效率。它的核心思想是:“既要保證產出增長,又要盡可能的減少污染”,主要測量在給定方向、投入和環境技術結構下,擴大“好產出”和縮小“壞產出”的可能性大小,這是和傳統的Shephard(Shephard et al,1970)[15] 提出的產出距離函數的不同之處。在公式(1)中,g =( gx ,- gb)是方向向量,它表示人們對“好產出”和“壞產出”進行取捨的不同效用偏好。貧困地區生存需要遠高於環境保護,因此可能忽略污染的排放;而在發達地區的人對於生活更加看重品質,則會嚴格控制污染的排放,所以 gy 比 gb 大的多。假定g =(y, -b), 這表示在給定投入 x 的情況下,“好產出”y 與“壞產出”b 成比例地擴大或縮小,β就是“好產出”y 擴大、“壞產出”b 縮小的最大可能數量。此外本文還考慮了以下兩種方向作為其對比:(1)本文結合義大利學者 Mauro Coli 等人(2011)[16]提出的 DEA 修正公式(2),將“壞產出”即環境污染做為投入變數的同時盡力將其最小化。 (2)其中 xij 表示投入變數 i( i = 1, 2…, m),yrj表示產出變數 r( r =1, 2 …, s),htj 表示決策單元 j( j = 1, ..., n)中的非期望產出 t( t = 1, ..., z),ru 、 iv 和 tϖ 分別是產出變數、投入變數和非期望產出賦予的權重。還有一種情況就是當忽略環境污染的情況下,即 g =(y, 0),在構造生產技術時不考慮“壞產出”如公式(3)。上述均可以用DEA 方法求解,都可轉化為線性規模問題,以“壞產出”做資源投入或環境約束變數為例。 (3) 2.2 Malmquist-Luenberger生產率指數為了度量從 t 時期到 t +1 時期決策單元Malmquist-Luenverger(ML)生產率指數變化,需要計算有關投入和產出的四個方向性距離函數(Chung et al,1997)[4]。基於產出的 Malmquist-Luenverger(ML) t 期和 t +1 期之間的生產率為:
63宋宇,等 考慮非期望產出下的兩種測度及評價 ——八大經濟區域實證研究 (4) 在等式(4)中,如果 ML >1 時,表明從 t 時期到 t +1 時間的生產率是增長的,反之就是下降的。同時 ML 可以分解為 MLEFFCH 和 MLTECH兩個部分,MLEFFCH 代表技術效率變動指數,而MLTECH 代表技術改進指數。技術改變指數是指兩個時期之間生產可能邊界線上的移動。技術效率改進指數則是指在生產邊界線不變的條件下,生產在邊界線上的移動。MLTECH >1 說明技術發生進步,MLTECH =1 說明技術停滯,MLTECH <1則說明技術退步;而 MLEFFCH >1, MLEFFCH =1, MLEFFCH <1 分別表明技術效率改進、不變以及退化。在規模報酬不變的假設下獲得技術改進和技術效率改變的值以後,Fare et al(1996)[16] 表明可以鬆動規模報酬的假設,進而將技術效率改變繼續分解成純技術效率和規模效率兩個部分,即: (5)其中等式(5)中,MLSECH 代表規模改變效率,MLPECH 則代表純技術效率。純技術效率改變是指利用投入能力的改變,管理活動的效率改變等,規模效率改變則主要是指各經濟區域運行的效率規模改變。通過分解可以進一步地探討在保持現有技術不變的情況下,導致效率變化的動力。MLSECH >1,MLSECH =1 和 MLSECH <1 分別說明規模效率的改善,規模效率不變以及規模效率退步,MLPECH 的界定亦然。2.3 資料選取本文研究樣本為 1998 ~ 2010 年 30 個省(市、自治區)的資料(除去香港、澳門以及缺少部分資料的西藏地區),資料來源於其中各年《中國城市統計年鑒》、《中國能源統計年鑒》、《中國環境統計年鑒》以及《新中國 60 年統計資料彙編 1949-2010》。2.3.1 投入指標:(1)勞動力(L)。採用歷年各地區全部就業人口數量。(2)資本(K)。採用歷年各地區“全社會固定投資額”,並“固定資產投資價格指數”進行平減。(3)能源消耗(E)。能來源資料採用各地區“能源消費總量”,全部資料均折算成萬噸標準煤。2.3.2 產出指標:(1)期望產出採用各地區生產總值(GDP),並根據 GDP 指數換算成基於 1998 年的不變價。(2)在參考過程丹潤、李靜(2009)[18] 的研究後,非期望產出選取四種指標,分別為各省份全部廢水、全部 SO2、全部煙塵和 CO2 的排放總量。這四個指標的資料在各年《中國環境統計年鑒》但是 CO2 排放的資料在《中國環境統計年鑒》中並沒有公佈,由於 CO2 的排放與各種能源的使用密切相關,所以本文根據(李強、聶銳,2011)[2] 的研究利用目前普遍採用的計算能源消耗與 CO2 排放之間的關係對各地區 CO2 的排放量進
64行測算。CO2 的排放總量可以通過各種能源消耗產生的 CO2 排放量加總得到,即: (3) 公式(3)中,C 為各地區 CO2 排放總量;E為各地區能源的消費總量;Ri 代表各地區第 i 種能源消耗在總能源消耗中所占的比重:Xi 代表第 i 能源的碳排放係數。其中各種能源的碳排放係數可以從國家發展和改革委員會能源研究所 2003 年出版的《中國可持續發展能源暨碳排放情景分析》中得到。缺少的係數指標可以在 IPCC(Intergovernment Panel On Climate Change, 2006)[19] 指引中找到。為了更能體現經濟增長績效動態變化趨勢的宏觀協同行為,並且依據“十一五”報告的指示,中國之前沿用的東、中、西區域劃分方法已經不合時宜,根據一些學者的相關研究[20 ~ 21]並結合中國區域劃分的九大原則2,本文將中國各省耦合成為八個經濟區域,分別為北部沿海綜合經濟區(北京、天津、河北、山東);東北綜合經濟區(吉林、遼寧、黑龍江);東部沿海綜合經濟區(上海、江蘇、浙江);南部沿海經濟區(廣東、海南、福建);黃河中游綜合經濟區(陝西、山西、河南、內蒙古);長江中游綜合經濟區(湖北、湖南、江西、安徽);大西南綜合經濟區(雲南、貴州、四川、重慶、廣西);大西北綜合經濟區(甘肅、青海、寧夏、新疆)。3 實證結果和分析結合之前介紹的測算模型與各省(市、直轄區)經濟增長、能源消耗以及環境污染的資料,本文首先核算了 3 種情況下的年平均生產率指數以及其分解指標,每個年平均生產率指數取得都是幾何平均值。為了方便對比研究,下面將不同情況下測算的全要素生產率指數分別稱為 ML1(非期望產出作投入變數),ML2(非期望產出作產出2. 中國區域劃分的九大原則:(1)空間上相互毗鄰;(2)自然條件、資源稟賦結構相近;(3)經濟發展水準接近;(4)經濟上相互聯繫密切或面臨相似的發展問題;(5)社會結構相仿;(6)區塊規模適度;(7)適當考慮歷史延續性;(8)保持行政區劃的完整性;(9)便於進行區域研究和區域政策分析。變數),M(忽略非期望產出),並且因為空間有限,八大經濟區的名稱也做了相應的簡化處理(如“東北綜合經濟區”以下被稱為“東北地區”)。從表 1 中可得知,除去長江中游經濟區外其他七大區域的生產率基本是維持著累積上升的趨勢,說明各個區域的生產力大致是逐年遞增,但對於每個經濟區域而言,這種遞增的幅度卻顯出很強的異質性。並且分解指標一定程度上代表著區域在受到不同環境管制政策、周邊經濟因素影響。傳統的忽略非期望產出的生產率指數(M)(0.989)呈現出 1998 ~ 2010 減少的跡象,技術效率變動(MEFFCH)和生產率指數(M)趨勢相同,唯有技術改進指數(MLTECH)提升了 1.8%,而 ML1 指數和 ML2 指數均高於 M 指數,分別提升了 2% 和 1.6%。同樣考慮了非期望產出的兩組技術效率變動和技術改進全部都大於忽略非期望產出的那組。雖然提升程度不高但並未出現王兵(2008)[22]、楊文舉(2011)[23] 等學者提到的指標存在與現實不甚吻合的大規模退步現象的問題。其中技術改進指標(MLTECH1 和 MLTECH2)數值為 1.044 和 1.024(>1)。由此可得出,在我國的能源環境下的生產率符合 Porter 假設,即嚴格且適宜的環境管制能夠激勵企業發展新的生產技術和組織方式,這反而可能提高企業的生產率和市場競爭力(Lanoite et al 2008)[24]。由於本文研究的重點在於考慮非期望產出的情況下,對比兩種方法得到的ML1指數和ML2指數及其分解指標,因此隨後不會再對忽略非期望產出的 M 指數及其分解指標做相關分析。從各大經濟區域角度可以發現,除去東北地區、長江中游區和西南地區外其他 5 個經濟區域的 ML 生產率指數均表現 ML1為大於 ML2 的情況。其中北部沿海綜合地區也是ML1 和 ML2 中最高的,增長率在 6.4% 和 3.7%。最低的經濟區域在兩組中均是長江中游綜合經濟區(0.987)和(0.999)。表 2 是為了增加研究的可信度,本文將兩組資料 ML1 和 ML2 以及其分解指標,加入非參數檢驗中的曼 - 惠特尼 U 檢驗(Mann-Whitney U Test)和
70約束兩種視角把環境污染作為投入變數和產出變數的考慮下,我國生產力效率增長績效的區域分佈格局、演變規律以及區域差異形成的原因。本文利用 1998 ~ 2010 年中國省(市、直轄市)的投入和產出資料,測量了 1998 ~ 2010 年八大經濟區域的資源投入和環境約束下的全要素生產率,新世紀以來的西部大開發、振興東北綜合經濟區、中部崛起等區域協調發展戰略並未能有效改觀內陸地區的生產率,其增長績效遠遠落後於沿海地區的格局。在高耗能產業“污染西遷”的梯度轉移影響下,區域經濟發展水準的差距越來越大,區域之間發展越發的不協調。從 1998 至 2010 年,各經濟區域在能源與環境約束下的生產率 ML2 指數整體高過 ML1 指數並基本上保持增長趨勢(除了長江中游綜合經濟區和西南綜合經濟區),東部和北部經濟區的數值要高過於中西部經濟區,不過排名變化不大,可見雖然我國大力推行西部大開發、中部崛起等戰略,但實際上並沒有獲得太多的成效。反而在 ML2 指數裡北部和東部的增長幅度明顯低於 ML1 指數中兩經濟區的數值,全國經濟區域展現出一個自邊緣向中心的增長方式。而經濟區的技術效率情況,兩種測度都表現為效率下降,但 MLEFFCH2整體大於 MLEFFCH1。反觀技術改進指數均都呈現出上升的數值,由此看出技術進步是中國經濟區域生產率提升的主要動力,技術效率卻起著抑制的作用。而規模效率中雖然 MLSECH1 弱於MLSECH2 表現更為顯著,可是兩視角下測度出數值相差並不多,這表明技術效率的下降主要原因是純技術效率的減少,尤其是西北地方兩組數值最大差值僅為 0.009,我國經濟發展依舊還是在依靠高投入高污染帶來高速增長的 GDP,其中中部經濟區和東北經濟區比東西部的技術革新更少、發展速度更慢,已經落後與中國平均水準。由於 DEA 方法是由於其客觀性較強成為應用熱點,但其方法結果對於資料的精度非常敏感,不同的計算模型所得結果差別很大,因此對以污染作為投入的 Malmquist-Luenberger 模型需要做進一步研究。而在回歸模型中,因為本文選取的時間段較短,所以獲取的樣本數量不足使得隨機效應無法計算,並且在一定程度上影響了回歸結果。參 考 文 獻[1] 岳叔敬,劉富華. 環境約束下的經濟增長效率及其影響因素[J].《數量經濟技術經濟研究》,2009(5):94-106.[2] 李強,聶銳. 能源與環境約束下的中國省級工業生產率——基於Malmquist-Luenberger指數的實證研究,第六届中国科技政策与管理学术年会, 2010.[3] Hailu.A,T.S.Veeman.2000, Environment Sensitive Productivity Analysis of the Canadian Pulp and Paper Industry,1959-1994,An input Distance Function Apporach.[4] Chung.Y.H,R. Fare and S.Grosskopf,1997.“Productivity and Undesirable Outputs: A Directional Distance Function Approach”, Journal of Environmental Management,51,299-240.[5] Färe, R., S. Grosskopf and C.A. K. Lovell, 1985, The measurement of efficiency of production (Kluwer Nijhoff, Boston).[6] Chambers, R. G., Chung, Y. and F¨ are, R. (1996). Benefit and distance functions. Journal of Economic Theory,70, 407–419.[7] Hailu A,Veeman T,Non-parametric productivity analysis with undesirable outputs:an application to Canadian pulp and paper industry.American Journal of Agricultural Economics 2001,83(3),605-16.[8] Färe, R, Grosskopf.S,Pasurka Jr.CA.Accounting for air pollution emissions in measures of state manufacturing productivity growth.Journal of Regional Science 2001,41(3),381-409.[9] Kumar, S., 2006. Environmentally sensitive productivity growth: a global analysis using Malmquist–Luenberger index. Ecological Economics 56 (2), 280–293.[10] 胡鞍鋼,鄭京海,高宇寧等. 考慮環境因素的省級技術效率排名(1999-2005)[J].《經濟學(季刊)》,2008(7、3):933-960.[11] 袁曉玲,張寶山,楊萬平.基於環境污染的中國全要素能源效率研究[J].《中國工業經濟》,2009,(2):76-86.[12] 陳詩一. 中國的綠色工業革命:基於環境全要素生產率視角的解释(1980-2008),《經濟研究》,2010第11期.[13] Chunhong Zhang,Haiying Liu,Hans Th.A. Bressers,Karen S.Buchanan, Productivity growth and environmental regulations--accounting for undesirable outputs: Analysis of China’s thirty provincial regions using the Malmquist-Luenberger index, Ecological Economics,2011(70),2369-2379.[14] Tone, K., 2004. Dealing with undesirable outputs in DEA: A slacks-based measure (SBM) approach. Operations Research Society of Japan, 44–45.[15] Shephard, R. W., 1970, Theory of cost and production functions (Princeton University Press, Princeton).[16] Mauro Coli;Eugenia Nissi;Agnese Rapposelli;2011.Monitoring environmental efficiency: An application to Italian provinces.Environmental Modelling and Software 26,38-43.[17] Färe, R., Grosskopf, S., Tyteca, D., 1996. An activity analysis model of the environmental performance of firms—application to fossil-fuel-fired electric utilities. Ecological Economics 18,161–175.[18] 程丹潤,李靜. 環境約束下的中國省區效率差異研究:1990-2006.
71宋宇,等 考慮非期望產出下的兩種測度及評價 ——八大經濟區域實證研究 《財貿研究》,第1期2009.[19] IPCC(Intergovernment Panel On Climate Change,2006).Full Report.[20] 王兆華,豐超等.中國典型區域全要素能源效率變動走向及趨同性分析. 《 北京理工大學學報(社會科學版)》. 2013, 15(5),1-22.[21] 樊敏.《中国八大经济区域物流产业运作效率分析—基于三阶段DEA模型》. 现代管理科学. 2010(2).[22] 王兵,吳延瑞,顏鵬飛. 中國區域環境效率與環境去要素生產率增長.《經濟研究》,2010第5期.[23] 楊文舉,張亞雲. 中國地區工業的勞動生產率差距演變—基於DEA的經驗分析.《經濟與管理研究》,2010(10),115-212.[24] Lanoite et al,“Environment R egulation and productivity: New Findings on the Porter Hypothesis”,Journal of Productivity Analysis,2008(30),2,121-128.[25] 孫東琪,朱傳耿,王振波,劉芸. 中國區域經濟地理學的發展歷程、現狀與展望,《人文地理》.2011(27):25-30.[26] 姚西龍,於渤. 規模效率和技術進步對CO2排放影響的實證.《中國人口·資源與環境》,2011,21(12):22-26.[27] 李静. 能源与环境双重约束下的中国经济增长效率——基于非期望产出模型的分析. 《科技管理研究》,2013,33(5):209-214.校园活动2014/2015學年第一學期校園活動一覽表序號 日期 舉辦形式 主題 主講者 主辦單位1 9月1-7日 科普展覽2014年澳門太空探索科普展-近距離一窺太陽系神秘面貌太空科學研究所2 9月13日 全校大會 新學年開學典禮 大學3 9月17日 校園講座 中國古代的君子之道著名文化學者、人文藝術學院院長余秋雨教授人文藝術學院4 10月17日 座談會藝術名家進科大:電影藝術家與科大學生暢談創作經驗和人生感悟澳科大藝術團5 10月18日 全校運動會 澳科大第四屆運動會 澳科大學生會6 10月24日 座談會 澳門回歸十五周年暨政制發展 社會和文化研究所澳科大第四屆校園創業系列活動正式展開由澳門科技大學創業就業發展中心主辦,澳門科技大學學生會協辦,澳門基金會贊助的第四屆澳科大校園創業系列活動,於10月開始,已順利展開。第四屆校園創業系列活動包括校園創業課程、創業計劃書競賽以及校園攤位比賽。首先, 澳門科技大學創業就業發展中心於10月17日邀請了著名生涯規劃與創業教育專家、中國青年政治學院副校長、教授,兼任國際勞工組織KAB創業教育中國研究所所長的李家華教授,為科大學生進行了一场《發現你的職業優勢—大學生就業與創業之道》講座,拉開了第四屆校園創業系列活動的序幕。之后,自10月24日起一連7個週五下午舉辦了第四屆校園創業課程。本屆課程邀請到各行業精英和傑出校友來做專題講座,分享創業經驗,拓展創業思維,為學生提供學習和實踐相結合的創業舞臺。同時,創業就業發展中心還於10月組織同學參訪澳門電力公司、澳門商業銀行、澳亞衛視、威尼斯人酒店、美高梅酒店、銀河酒店等多家機構,期望強化應屆畢業生與企業的聯繫,加強校企互動。使應屆畢業生充分瞭解企業情況,做好職涯規劃。
72第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 收稿日期:2014-09-18;修訂日期:2014-09-29。*通訊作者:張曉丹,女,澳門科技大學商學院博士生,主要研究方向為供應鏈管理。E-mail:Dannyzxd@163.com,電話:18028735926Strategic supply chain coordination yith vendor managed inventory and trade credit mechanisms Comparative studyXiaodan ZHANG1*, Xia XIONG1, Yingni LIU1,2( 1.School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China; 2.Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China)bstractt: Supply chain coordination has been focused on both in theoretical and practical fields. This paper addresses the jointly optimal total cost of using three different mechanisms such as VMI (vender managed inventory), trade credit and their combination to coordinate supply chain. By paired comparison among these three mechanisms, optimal strategy has been presented clearly and a consistent numerical analyze served to finish this research.eyyordst: VMI; Vendor managed inventory; Trade credit; Coordination; Supply chain; Total cost考慮VMI和付款週期機制的供應鏈協同策略張曉丹1*,熊 霞1,劉瑛妮1,2(1. 澳門科技大學商學院,澳門; 2. 澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門)摘要: 協同問題一直是供應鏈理論界和實際應用界最為關注的熱點問題之一,本文對比了三種不同協同機制下的供應鏈全成本結果,分別是:僅VMI條件下、僅付款週期條件下以及VMI與付款週期共存條件下供應鏈的全成本情況,並進行兩兩對比研究,最終得到了三種不同條件下協同的最優機制及對應結果並以算例分析結束全文。關鍵詞: 供方管理庫存(VMI);付款週期;協同;供應鏈;全成本0 Introduction During the past two decades, supply chain coordination as a popular topic has received a great deal of research attention, coordination is the management of dependencies between activities[15]. The purpose of coordination is to achieve collectively goals that individual actors cannot meet, coordination capability is affected by two main issues: information sharing and allocating decision rights across channel members[16], this two main issues are organizational level, but on individual level , researches gradually find that there are a number of mechanisms such as price discounts, trade credit options, buy-back contracts, quantity discount, joint economic lot size (JELS) , joint replenishment policy ,vendor managed inventory, joint development of product, and etc. Among them, price discounts, trade credit options, buy-back contracts have been widely discussed, but
73Xiaodan ZHANG, et al Strategic supply chain coordination with vendor managed inventory and trade credit mechanisms A Comparative studyit seems that a few researches have touched vendor managed inventory, joint development of product, information sharing[1].As a supplement of deficiency above, this paper addresses supply chain coordination strategy under VMI consideration and trade credit options firstly to research their individual and joint effects.In this paper, two coordination mechanisms such as trade credit options and vendor managed inventory have been taken into consideration, the trade credit and VMI theory need to be introduced necessarily. Literature review begin with trade credit. This mechanism has been studied in the operations management literature for a long time since Haley and Higgins[3]. It is the supplier specifies to the buyer a finite time interval (credit period) within which the payment for a purchase is to be made, in lieu of immediate payment.[4~5] and[6] focus on buyer’s inventory policy under given trade credit terms;[7~8] and[9] concert with taking trade credit as a decision variable from the vendor’s or the supply chain’s point of view. However, all of the above papers assumed only trade credit mechanism has the effect on the supply coordination, but in fact, it is not true.Vendor managed inventory mechanism, a VMI system suggests that the vendor manages the inventories of its own and its multiple downstream r e t a i l e r s . [ 1 0 ~ 11 ] a n d [ 1 2 ] p r o p o s e v e n d o r ’s a l l replenishment decision for its buyers to minimize the joint inventory cost. After these researches, VMI system considering information technology (e.g. EDI ) have been discussed[13], on the other hand, They take into account multiple retailers and introduce a common replenishment cycle for product replenishment between multiple retailers and the manufacturer[2].Yu et.al research a vendor managed inventory supply chain with deteriorating raw materials and products combining the deteriorating items and vendor managed inventory system.Models of this paper are based on the VMI and trade credit theories contributed by literatures above. The contribution of this paper is to solve the optimal coordination strategy with the combinatorial consideration of these two mechanisms.The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section1 and Section2 list the research assumption and notation respectively. In Section 3, we analyze the VMI system with trade credit option and develop an integrated model considering a deteriorating product and a raw material. Section 4 develops comparing function to find the optimal solution of the integrated model. Numerical examples are demonstrated in Section 5 and Section 6 give the conclusion and close the paper.1 ssumptions Before the analysis of the two mechanisms, related assumptions are listed below. ● Shortage is not allowed during the cycle time ● Zero interest earned by seller during credit period “n” ● Same replenishment cycle time ● two-echelons supply chain ● Buyer has no finished product holding process that seller has under VMI ● The quantity proportion of finished product and raw material is 1:1 ● The context of the supply chain is that vendor deliver finished product to buyer, and then it will be transferred to distributor according to lot size.2 NotationWe now list the notation used throughout the paper. the credit period in years offered by the seller to its buyers the seller’s replenishment cycle time in years any time point in years during the cycle 0 ≤ t ≤ t2 the time point when seller has completed the order quantity, cumulative product quantity has gotten order quantity “Q” inventory level of seller’s raw material at time t inventory level of seller’s finished goods at time t inventory level of buyer’s finished goods at time t a constant deterioration rate of the finished goods at time t
74 a constant deterioration rate of the raw material at time t production rate of the vendor buyer’s order quantity as a constant a constant demand rate the unit wholesale price of the raw material’s seller’s unit selling price of the finished product (with ) seller’s unit manufacturer cost the average annual inventory holding cost of seller’s unit raw material the average annual inventory holding cost of seller’s unit finished product buyer’s average annual unit finished product holding cost seller’s average ordering cost buyer’s average ordering cost seller’s annual unit discount rate buyer’s annual unit cost rate of capital Functions seller’s total cost function buyer’s total cost function Jointly total cost function with VMI and credit period mechanisms Jointly total cost function with VMI mechanism Jointly total cost function with credit period mechanism3 Mathematical model3.1 Total cost at the seller’s sidet:The total cost of the finished product and raw material mainly includes the elements as the following: The purchasing cost, production cost, raw material and finished product holding cost, discounted cost, ordering cost which can be represented as:Purchasing cost= ;Production cost= ;According to[14], , so, production rate become the demand rate of the raw materials, and as a result, , with boundary condition ,we can get that , raw material holding cost= . Figure1 give the raw material inventory level history curve.Figure 1For finished product holding process, it is divided into two parts as following figure 2:Figure 2The inventory level of finished products is increasing with the production rate unti l t imes of t1.According to [17], and [14],with the boundary condit ion , . Solving these two differential Equations, we have Where, ensures the continuity of these two subsection function at time of .Then, finished product holding cost= Discounted cost= , ordering cost=
75Xiaodan ZHANG, et al Strategic supply chain coordination with vendor managed inventory and trade credit mechanisms A Comparative studySo, the total cost at the seller’s side can be represented as: (1)So far, total cost of seller’s side has been finished. Next, let’s move to the buyer’s.3.2 Total cost at all buyer’s sidet:Total cost of the finished product at all retailers’ side mainly includes these elements represented as following: purchasing cost= , ordering cost = , and , the finished product have not been accepted by buyer until time of t1, as a result, the boundary condition is , solving this differential equation, holding cost= , capital saving cost =And total cost of the finished product at all retailers’ side can be represented as: (2)4 The jointly total cost analysisAs a coordination supply chain, the jointly total cost is the sum of sellers’ and buyers’, in this paper, it can be represented by three different functions (Eq3, Eq4 and Eq5) which have the consideration of only with VMI, only with the credit period and with the combination of first two mechanism respectively. (3) (4) (5)We try to compare these three different total cost to find which is the best strategy for supply chain coordination.Firstly, we make comparing between total cost of Eq3&Eq5, the difference between VMI and combination mechanism can be illustrated by : (6)Because of the positive integer feature of , and ,which is bigger between and become the key point of the result.Theorem1. For any given , , ,if ( ) , total cost of the combination mechanism is more than only with VMI consideration , as a result, the latter is the better coordination strategy.if ( ),total cost under VMI consideration is more than that of the combination mechanism , obviously, the latter is the better coordination strategy.Proof 1-1t:According to equation (6),If , based on the definitions of ,they are all positive variable, so , only if c an ge t , so , w i th VMI consideration only is more optimal coordination strategy in this context.Proof 1-2t:According to equation (6) conversely, If , b a s e d on the definitions of ,they are all positive variable, so ,only if c an ge t , so , bo th w i th VMI& trade credit considerations is more optimal coordination strategy in this context.Without loss of generality, is the seller’s annual
76unit discount rate and is the buyer’s annual unit cost rate of capital, from their definition and historical data, the value actually smaller than , so, in this study, we could get a conclusion that applying the vendor managed inventory and trade credit mechanisms at the same time is the better coordination choice.Secondly, we make comparing between total cost of Eq(4)&Eq(5), that is the difference between combinatorial mechanisms and only trade credit mechanism. The difference equation is represented as : (7)The right side of equation above can be take a deformation, and ( Buyer’s finish product inventory level/ seller’s finish product inventory level ). Theorem 2. For any given ,(1) If , that is ,then only applying the trade credit mechanism is the better coordination choice.(2 ) I f , then combination mechanism is the better coordination choice.Proof 2-1t:In terms of equation (7), If , so, under trade credit mechanism only is more optimal coordination strategy in this context.Proof 2-2t:In terms of equation (7), If So, the combinatorial mechanism is more optimal coordination strategy in this context.From the inequality above, theorem 2 reveal a relationship between the ratio of finished product holding cost and inventory level of different echelons.Lastly, we make comparing between total cost of Eq(3)&Eq(4), that is the difference between only VMI mechanism and only trade credit consideration. The difference equation is represented as : (8)In above comparing function, indicates the gap of finished product holding cost between seller and buyer, and another part of function of shows the cost of capital gap between seller and buyer. In view of this analysis, we get:Theorem 3. (1) If , the difference of finished product holding cost is bigger than the cost of capital between seller and buyer, then only applying the trade credit mechanism is the better coordination strategy.(2) If , the difference of finished product holding cost is smaller than the cost of capital between seller and buyer, then only applying the vender managed inventory mechanism is the better coordination strategy.
77Xiaodan ZHANG, et al Strategic supply chain coordination with vendor managed inventory and trade credit mechanisms A Comparative studyProof 3-1t:Based on equation (8), If the gap of finished product holding cost between seller and buyer> the cost of capital between seller and buyer, with trade credit mechanism only is optimal coordination strategy in this context.Proof 3-2t:Based on equation (8), If the gap of finished product holding cost between seller and buyer< the cost of capital between seller and buyer, with VMI mechanism only is optimal coordination strategy in this context.Notes:Proof x-y represents the yth conclusion of theorem x.5 Numerecal exampleFi rs t ly, some input parameters such as are given the corresponding value in Table1. Secondly, by solving the optimal t2 we get the total cost in three different contexts (theorem1&2&3) presented by Table2, 3&4 respectively. The number with star superscript indicates the optimal total cost in the context which is consistent with corresponding theorems proved before. (e.g. when (Is=0.0486)<(2Ir=0.25),the optimal coordination strategy is combination mechanism according to the theorem 1.)Table 1 input parametersParameters value Parameters valueWs 0.5 Ps 1.05Q 500000 n 0.3Ms 0.03 Os 0.001hsr 0.0085 Ob 0.0025D 480000 t1 0.114θ 0.067 θ1 0.023 Table 2 TCj(VMI&CP) VS TCj(VMI)Is VS 2Ir t2 TCj ( VMI&CP ) TCj ( VMI )0.0486 VS 0.25 0.114 777683.56* 809687.560.0486 VS 0.025 0.114 795402.31 791968.81*Table 3 TCj(VMI&CP) VS TCj(CP)hsf / hbf Δh TCj(VMI&CP) TCj (CP)0.9 964.9 795402.3084* 795435.111500 964.90079 795403.736 795403.22*Table 4 TCj(VMI) VS TCj(CP)d1 d2 d1-d2 TCJ(VMI) TCJ(CP)5.54338 3433.5 < 0 791970.24* 795403.25630.70 3433.5 > 0 797600.39 795403.2*d1: difference of finished product holding cost;d2: difference of cost of capital6 Conclusions and suggestionThis is the one of the first step focusing on restriction and interaction of each antecedents of the coordination system. For any practitioner, a lot of mechanisms exist actually at the same time together, how to choose a series of optimal mechanism is the most realistic topic at present. To choose VMI and trade credit or other policy?This paper provides a methodology to give the answer. Many realistic factors have been considered into the context such as product process, deteriorating rate, raw material holding process and delivery in batches instead of one-off and etc.To be honest, some other cost such as setup cost, logistical cost and transportation and etc. have been omitted and product time t1 can be calculated, but in
78this paper, in order to get comparing result, we give the t1 instead of calculating the product time.cknoyledgmentsThe authors thank the Supply Chain Finance workshop of MUST, a family who teaches us a lots of theorems of coordination of supply chain and inspires us many related ideas. The authors are also grateful for the suggestions made by the anonymous reviewers, associate editor, and department editor.References [1] D. Mungan, J. Yu, and B.R. Sarker, “Manufacturing lot-sizing procurement and delivery schedules over a finite planning horizon,” International Journal of Production Research, vol. 48, 2010, pp. 3619-3636.[2] S.M. Fohn, J.S. Liau, A.R. Greef, and P.J. Grady, Configuring computer systems through constraint-based modeling and interactive constraint satisfaction,” Computer in Industry, vol. 27, 1995, pp. 3–21.[3] C.W. Haley, R.C. Higgins, Inventory policy and trade credit financing,Management Science 20 (1973) 464–471.[4] S.K. Goyal, Economic order quantity under conditions of permissible delay inpayments, Journal of the Operational Research Society 36 (1985) 335–338.[5] S.P. Aggarwal, C.K. Jaggi, Ordering policies of deteriorating items under permissible delay in payments, Journal of the Operational Research Society46 (1995) 658–662.[6] H. Hwang, S.W. Shinn, Buyer’s pricing and lot sizing policy for exponentially deteriorating products under the condition of permissible delay in payments,Computers and Operations Research 24 (1997) 539–547.[7] J. Kim, H. Hwang, S.W. Shinn, An optimal credit policy to increase supplier’s profit with price-dependent demand functions, Production, Planning and Control 6 (1995) 45–50.[8] P.L. Abad, C.K. Jaggi, A joint approach for setting unit price and the length of the credit period for a seller when end demand is price sensitive, International Journal of Production Economics 83 (2003) 115–122.[9] M.Y. Jaber, I.H. Osman, Coordinating a two-level supply chain with delay in payments and profit sharing, Computers and Industrial Engineering 50 (2006) 385–400.[10] Goyal, S.K., 1977. An integrated inventory model for a single supplier-single customer problem. International Journal of Production Research 15 (1), 107–111.[11] Goyal, S.K., 1988. A joint economic-lot-size model for purchase and vendor: a comment. Decision Sciences 19, 236–241.[12] Banerjee, A., 1986. A joint economic-lot-size model for purchase and vendor. Decision Sciences 17, 292–311.[13] Banerjee, A., Banerjee, S., 1992. Coordinated, orderless inventory replenishment for a single supplier and multiple buyers through electronic data interchange. International Journal of Technology Management 7, 328–336.[14] P.N. Ghare, and G.F. Schrader, “A model for exponentially decaying inventories,” Journal of Industrial Engineering, vol. 15, 1963, pp 238-243.[15] Malone, T. W., & Crowston, K. (1994). The Interdisciplinary Study of Coordination. ACM Computing Surveys, 26 (1), 87-119.[16] Anand, Krishnan S, Haim Mendelson. 1997. Information and organization for horizontal multimarket coordination. Management Science 43(12) 1609–1627.[17] Yugang Yu, Zheng Wang, Liang Liang.A vendor managed inventory supply chain with deteriorating raw materials and products. Int. J. Production Economics 136(2012) 266-274學術動態澳科大參與科技史與通識教育學術會議暨第五屆全國科技史研討會 科技史與通識教育學術會議暨第五屆全國科技史研討會7月12日至13日於哈爾濱工業大學舉行。澳門科技大學及包括來自北美、两岸四地60餘所國內外大學和科研機構的80餘名代表參會。會議安排了六位大會發言人,其中澳門科技大學作首位發言。通識教育部劉仲林教授以“澳門科技大學通識課程特色與前瞻”為題,向與會代表介紹了地處東西方文化交融之地的澳科大發展簡況,重點介紹了大學十幾年來利用多元文化交叉的優勢,開設“通識教育”課程,開拓出一條“專業教育與通識教育並重”的獨特教學模式的做法特色。其中大學 “教育應該著力於培養具有廣博知識、健全體魄、完美人格、科學精神與人文精神並重的現代人”的理念、以兩院院士為主的“科技大師系列講座”、以《中國文化通論》《西方文化通論》等為引導的科技、人文、文藝、語言四大類通識課程、以富有朝氣的教師與知名專家教授共同組成的通識教育隊伍等,給代表們留下深刻印象。劉教授還以澳門著名學者鄭觀應的“道器觀”為綱,進一步展望了文理會通、中西文化會通為重點的通識教育發展思路。
79第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 基於參展商視角的組展商聲譽研究: 內涵,前置因素及對忠誠度的影響唐 娟*,王 瀟(澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門)摘要: 隨著會展經濟的長足發展,組展商之間的競爭也越發激烈。聲譽作為企業無形資產具有天然的不可複製性和排他性,可以使組展商牢牢的抓住參展商,獲得競爭優勢。但是目前學界對於組展商聲譽的研究相對比較滯後。事實上,對於什麼是組展商的聲譽,什麼是影響聲譽的前置因素,以及聲譽會對參展商有何種影響,這些問題都有待解決。本文基於此,選取組展商聲譽作為研究对象,構建概念模型,以豐富組展商聲譽的相關理論的同時也為組展商提高聲譽,培育忠誠客戶提出建設性的意見。關鍵詞: 組展商;聲譽;參展商;忠誠度 Study on Organizers’ Reputation from the Perspective of Exhibitorst: constitution, antecedents and influence on loyaltyJuan TANG, Xiao WANG( Macau University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau, China )bstractt: With the significant development of exhibition economy, the competition among the organizers has become increasingly fierce. Reputation as the intangible asset of enterprises is naturally not replicable and exclusive. The organizers, by clinging to the exhibitors, will gain the competitive advantages. However, the research on the reputation of organizers is relatively lagging behind. In fact, what constitute organizer’s reputation in the context of exhibition industry, what are antecedents of reputation, what’s impact of reputation, still remain unknown. On this basis, this paper chooses the reputation of organizers as the research object. The conceptual model is built in order to enrich the relevant theories and to improve to the reputation of the organizers. Constructive suggestions are provided to strengthen the customer loyalty.eyyordst: Organizers; Reputation; Exhibitors; Loyalty收稿日期:2014-09-23;修訂日期:2014-11-24。﹡通訊作者:唐娟,女,博士,助理教授,主要研究方向:旅游市场营销,旅游文化E-mail: jtang@must.edu.mo,Tel: 853-889723570 引言伴隨會展業的蓬勃發展,如今的會展行業競爭空前激烈。組展商都希望所辦展會可以在行業內獨佔鰲頭,但是面對現實,始終能夠引領潮流的卻並不多。那些成功打造出展會品牌的組展商,在業界無不擁有良好的聲譽,這些良好的聲譽不僅僅是展會成功的副產品,也是組展商鞏固其市場地位,在競爭中獲得優勢的有力手段。聲譽可以為企業創造利潤,所以聲譽可以視為企業所擁有的一項重要的無形資本(Kreps,1996)[1]。從
87唐娟,等 基於參展商視角的組展商聲譽研究: 內涵,前置因素及對忠誠度的影響時主要還是參考了其他行業的理論研究模式,從而導致本文理論支持比較薄弱。雖然筆者通過對大量文獻的閱讀總結與對參展商的實地調查以及與會展業專家學者的訪談交流最終確定了相應的指標,但是指標對於組展商特定群體的適用性方面仍然需要進一步驗證。4.2.2 擴大研究範圍。由於研究精力有限,筆者在此研究中僅僅只在探索組展商聲譽的概念,研究清楚了是否為雙維度結構,而對其各項維度的互相影響未列入研究的範圍。同時僅從參展商一方的角度經行探索,因此所得結論較為片面,還需後續研究豐富。在今後的研究中可以通過對組展商各利益相關者的調查研究,在忠誠度的基礎上擴大組展商聲譽影響研究範圍,進而全面的對組展商聲譽主題進行探索。4.2.3 擴大樣本選取範圍。由於時間與資金等客觀條件制約,本研究僅對2013年7月間上海地區舉辦的4個展覽中的參展商進行問卷調查,時間、地域跨度相對集中,因此研究結論的普遍適用性還需驗證。應在今後的研究中增加樣本選取的時間與空間的跨度,以提高研究結論的普適性。參 考 文 獻[1] Kreps, D. M. (1996). Corporate culture and economic theory. Firms, Organizations and Contracts, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 221-275. [2] 盧仕智. 參展商參展決策行為研究(未出版之碩士論文). 北京市:北京第二外國語學院,2011.[3] Fama, E.(1970). Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work. Journal of Finance, 25, 383 – 417.[4] Kreps, D. M., Milgrom, P., Roberts, J., & Wilson, R. (1982). Rational cooperation in the finitely repeated prisoners’ dilemma. Journal of Economic theory, 27(2), 245-252. [5] Mailath, G. J., & Samuelson, L. (1998). Your reputation is who you’re not, not who you’d like to be. University of Pennsylvania, Center for Analytic Research in Economics and the Social Sciences. [6] Wegiel,K., & Camerer,C.(1988).Reputation and corporate strategy: a review of recent theory and applications. Strategic Management Journal,(9),443-454.[7] Gotsi, M., & Wilson, A. M. (2001). Corporate reputation: seeking a definition. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 6(1), 24-30. [8] Gray, E. R., & Balmer, J. M. (1998). Managing corporate image and corporate reputation. Long Range Planning, 31(5), 695-702.[9] Fombrun, C. J.(1996).Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image, Harvard Business. [10] H a l l , R . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e s t r a t e g i c a n a l y s i s o f i n t a n g i b l e resources. Strategic management journal, 13(2), 135-144. [11] K r o e b e r - R i e l , W . , & W e i n b e r g , P . ( 2 0 0 3 ) . Konsumverhalten. München: Verlag Franz Vahlen.[12] Fombrun, C.J., & Shanley, M. (1990). What’s in a name? Reputation building and corporate strategy. Academy of management Journal, 33(2), 233-258.[13] Greyser, S. A. (1999). Advancing and enhancing corporate reputation. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 4(4), 177-181.[14] Schwaiger, M. (2004). Components and parameters of corporate reputation-an empirical study. Schmalenbach Business Review, 56, 46-71. [15] Fombrun, C. J. (2004). Fame and fortune. C. B. Van Riel (Ed.). FT Press.[16] Saxton, M. K. (1998). Where do reputations come from?. Corporate Reputation Review, 1(4), 393-399.[17] Maathuis, O. J. M. (1999). Corporate branding: The value of the corporate brand to customers and managers (Doctoral dissertation).[18] Floreddu,P.B., Cabiddu,F.& Evaristo R.(2014). Inside your social media ring: How to optimize online corporate reputation. Business Horizons, 57, 737—745[19] Huang,Q.,Davison, R.M.&Liu, H.(2014). An exploratory study of buyers’ participation intentions in reputation systems: The relationship quality perspective. Information & Management,51, 952–963[20] Jin,X, Weber, K.&Bauer, T.(2012). Relationship quality between exhibitors and organizers: A perspective from Mainland China’s exhibition industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 1222– 1234[21] Nguyen, N., & LeBlanc, G. (2001a). Image and reputation of higher education institutions in students’ retention decisions. International Journal of Educational Management, 15(6), 303-311.[22] Nguyen, N., & Leblanc, G. (2001b). Corporate image and corporate reputation in customers’retention decisions in services. Journal of retailing and Consumer Services, 8(4), 227-236.[23] Reichheld, F. (1996). Learning from customer defections, Harvard Business Review, 74(2), 56–70. [24] Chaudhuri, A., & Holbrook, M. B. (2001). The chain of effects from brand trust and brand affect to brand performance: the role of brand loyalty. The Journal of Marketing, 81-93.[25] Sen, S., & Bhattacharya, C. B. (2001). Does doing good always lead to doing better? Consumer reactions to corporate social responsibility. Journal of marketing Research, 225-243.[26] Hultsman, W. (2001). From the eyes of an exhibitor: Characteristics that make exhibitions a success for all stakeholders. Journal of Convention & Exhibition Management ,3(3):27-44[27] 苑炳慧,楊傑. 基於參展商視角的展覽環境評價與優化研究——以上海光大會展中心為例. 旅遊論壇,2009,(1).[28] 徐潔,苑炳慧,胡平. 參展商對展館服務的滿意度研究——以上海光大會展中心為例. 旅遊科學, 2008,22(6), 61-69.[29] 王鵬飛. 參展商于組展商關係品質研究(未出版之碩士論文). 北京市:北京第二外國語學院,2013.[30] 曹雯. 影響參展商參展決策行為的因素研究(未出版之碩士論文). 上海市:上海交通大學,2009.
88[31] 琚勝利,陸林,汪定保,楊效忠. 弱市場階段的會展展商消費感知測度——以中國(蕪湖) 國際旅博會為例 . 城市問題,2005, 4, 53-58。[32] Dowling, G. R. (2004). Journalists’ evaluation of corporate reputations.Corporate Reputation Review, 7(2), 196-205.[33] Schwaiger, M. (2004). Components and parameters of corporate reputation-an empirical study. Schmalenbach Business Review, 56, 46-71.[34] Selnes, F., & Gønhaug, K. (2000). Effects of supplier reliability and benevolence in business marketing. Journal of Business Research, 49(3), 259-271.[35] Maignan, I. , & Ferrell , O. C. (2003). Nature of corporate responsibilities: Perspectives from American, French, and German consumers. Journal of Business Research, 56(1), 55-67.[36] 劉立,曲曉飛. 創新型企業: 概念界定與範式闡釋. 現代管理科學,2010(010), 20-21.[37] 郭建鸞. 公司治理視角下我國風險投資基金的組織形式選擇. 財務與會計,2009 ,14, 010.[38] Williamson,O.E.(1985).The Economic Institution of Capitalism. New York :Free Press.[39] Klein, B., & Leffler, K. B. (1981). The role of market forces in assuring contractual performance. The Journal of Political Economy, 615-641.[40] 周雪光. 組織社會學十講. 北京:社會科學文獻出版社,2003.[41] 曾衍文. 從資訊不對稱看會展對國際貿易的影響(未出版之碩士論文). 廣州市:暨南大學,2007. [42] 周愛國. 會展形象識別及其應用. 中國會展,2007,(23),42-45.[43] Kroeber-Riel, W., & Weinberg, P. (2003). Konsumverhalten. München: Verlag Franz Vahlen.[44] 張揚. 中國企業聲譽結構的實證研究(未出版之博士論文). 合肥市:中國科技大學,2009.[45] 徐雙慶. 企業聲譽對消費者忠誠影響機理分析(未出版之博士論文). 杭州市:浙江大學,2009.[46] 章楹. 基於服務品質感知的參展商忠誠行為研究(未出版之碩士論文) . 北京:北京第二外國語學院,2010.[47] 侯杰泰,温忠麟,成子娟. 结构方程模型及其应用. 北京:教育科学出版社,2004[48] Ali,R., Lynch,R., Melewar, T.C.,&Jin, Z(2014). The moderating influences on the relationship of corporate reputation with its antecedents and consequences: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Business Research,1-13服務澳門“2014年澳門太空探索科普展-近距離一窺太陽系神秘面貌” 在澳門三中学及科技大學展出為了讓澳門的青少年學生及居民對我們共同生存的太陽系空間有更深入的理解和認識,瞭解澳門科技大學太空科學研究的發展和壯大過程,激勵社會的進取精神和吸引青少年對太空的科學興趣。澳科大太空科學研究所於9月1日~9日舉辦了”2014年澳門太空探索科普展-近距離一窺太陽系神秘面貌”的科普展覽。展覽內容包括有300餘幅人類在太空探測中獲得的珍貴科學照片,太陽系太陽、大行星、小行星動態演示模型,珍貴隕石樣本,太空探索影視,3月球影像觀賞,專家科普講座,太空科技製作以及太空知識競答等活動。此次太空探索科普展共在培道中學、澳門勞工子弟學校、培正中學和澳門科技大學四個學校進行了巡展。這次展覽,也是宇宙探索的科普活動首次走進澳門校園。後期,太空探索科普展將在更多的學校巡展。澳科大學校領導表示:科普活動迫切需要大學和廣大科學工作者的積極參與和大力投入。大學與澳門的相關團體和機構協作,努力構建青少年科普活動平臺,在青少年科普領域建立校內、校外相銜接的機制,實現科普資源和服務共用,這是澳門科技大學加強青少年科普教育所採取的重要舉措之一。本次展覽是由澳門特別行政區科學技術發展基金資助,澳門教育暨青年局、澳門科學技術協進會以及本澳三間中學支持舉辦。
89第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 歐盟建築業環境全要素建材生產率測量模型的構建陳頌泓,宋 宇*,孫 雲(澳門科技大學商學院,澳門)摘要: 傳統的Malmquist-Luenberger模型無法在全要素框架內測量單因子生產率。根據傳統模型的不足,本研究以能值理論為基礎,結合環境全要素建材效率與Malmquist-luenberger模型構建環境全要素建材生產率(ETFCMP)測量模型來研究歐盟2004至2010年的建築業環境全要素建材生產率指數的變化。經研究發現:東歐地區環境全要素建材生產率指數最大,其次為西歐地區,南歐和中歐地區增長較小,北歐地區最低。通過對比環境全要素建材生產率指數和全要素建材生产率指數發現:忽略環境污染因素影响測量的建築業生產率會出現偏差,對相關建築業的政策制定存在誤導。斯皮爾曼等級相關檢驗說明了ETFCMP測量模型與ML模型存在相關性,ETFCMP模型的創新在於突破傳統Malmquist-luenberger模型無法針對單因子影響下生產率變化測量的局限。歐盟地區的建築業研究結果對發展中國家提高廢棄建材資源化起到重要參考作用。關鍵詞: 能值理論;環境全要素建材生產率模型;Malmquist-luenbergerConstructing of Environmental total-factor contruction materials productivity measurement model of EU building industrySonghong CHEN, Yu SONG*, Yun SUN( Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )bstractt: Traditional Malmquist-Luenberger model can’t be measured productivity of a signal factor in the total-factor framework. According to the limitation of traditional Malmquist-luenberger model , this study based on emergy to combined environmental total-factor construction materials efficiency and Malmquist-luenberger model to construct environmental total-factor construction materials productivity (ETFCMP) measurement model,we used the new measurement model to measure the construction industry productivity of EU from 2004 to 2010. The measurement of five regions of EU that showed construction productivity of eastern Europe is the highest, and western Europe was the second highest. Southern and Central Europe less productivity growth, the productivity of Nordic region was the lowest in five regions.After the comparison between total-factor construction materials productivity index and environmental total-factor construction materials productivity index, the result showed that to measure productivity of construction industry without considering environmental pollution issues impact would create deviation,this situation would cause the policies making to create misleading. Spearman rank correlation coefficient instructs the existence correlation between ETFCMP measurement model and ML model. The ETFCMP measurement model broke through the limitations that traditional Malmquist-luenberger model couldn’t measure single-factor productivity change.The research result of EU was an important reference for developing country to improve construction waste material resources. eyyordst: Emergy; ETFCMPM; Malmquist-luenberge收稿日期:2014-10-10;修訂日期:2014-10-29。* 通訊作者:宋宇,男,博士,澳門科技大學商學院副教授。主要研究方向:房地產經濟學。 電郵:ysong@must.edu.mo, 電話:853-88972350。
91陳頌泓,等 歐盟建築業環境全要素建材生產率測量模型的構建法測量單因子生產率變動指數,因此學者 Satoshi Honma[3] 基於這一不足構建全要素能源生產率模型測量日本地區的能源生產率。然而 Chung,Fareet al[5] 和 Sumardi and Anaman[17] 認為壞產出與好產出是同時產生的,Malmquist 指數法無法對“壞”產出進行測量,為解決“壞產出”的問題,學者Luenberger[15] 提出了 Malmquist-luenberger 指數模型,並且將其分解為技術變動指數和效率變動指數,在 ML 指數模型的指導下,Fare,Grosskop 等人[9]利用 ML 指數法研究了 1974 至 1984 年美國各州製造業的生產率,研究發現考慮空氣污染的生產率比不考慮污染的生產率高 1.9%。ZHAO 和SUN[26] 利用帶有“非期望”產出的資料包絡分析方法指數測度了 1998 至 2010 年中國 31 個省、區、直轄市的水資源全要素生產率增長並分解為純技術效率變化、技術進步和規模效率變化。ML 指數的建立為解決非期望產出指標包含在內進行進行測量的額問題,現今,已有學者結合 Malmquist-luenberger 指 數 法 與 Malmquist 指數法進行有關環境方面的研究分析:Barı,s K. Yörük[11] 等人通過 Malmquist 與 ML 指數法對比OECD 國家的生產力的增長率,并利用 ML 指數法來研究國際協議對全球溫室排放的影響。Dong-hyun Oh[10] 利用 Malmquist-luenberger 指數法研究全球的環境敏感生產力增長指數的變化,同時利用 Malmquist 指數法與 ML 指數法進行生產力增長指數變化的比較。Tsz-Yi Ke[20] 等人以二氧化碳為“壞”產出利用 Malmquis 與 Malmquist-luenberger指數計算 APEC 經濟體的生產力變化,結果發現在不考慮二氧化碳的情況下發達國家的 Malmquist指數要高於發展中國家的 M 指數。Feng He 和Qingzhi Zhang[27] 利 用 Malmquist 與 Malmquist-luenberger 指數測量中國鋼鐵業生產率,研究發現環境監管對技術的進步有正向的潛在影響。儘管學者 Satoshi Honma[3] 整合全要素能源效率與 Malmquist 指數模型構建出可在全要素框架之下分析單因子生產率的模型,但沒考慮環境污染影響下建立的測量模型仍存在局限。學者Luenberger[15] 提出 ML 模型來解決環境污染影響下的生產力測量,由於無法在全要素的框架之下分析單因子的生產率改變而受到局限。基於這些研究的不足,本研究在參考 Li and Hu[12] 建立的生態全要素能源生產率,以廢棄建材投入為單因子構建環境全要素建材生產率模型(Environmental Total-Factor Construction Materials Productivity Model,ETFCMPM)。 環境全要素建材生產率測量模型在方向距離函數方面進行了數學模型的修改,再利用新構建的方向距離函數與 ML 模型進行整合。新構建的測量模型可以根據具體的單一投入變量來測量生產率的變化,其创新性在于突破傳統 Malmquist-Luenberger 模型無法根據單因子的影響進行生產率測量的局限。有關具體建立環境全要素建材生產率模型的方法將在研究方法中進行詳細的介紹。2 研究方法參考 Songhong CHEN[18] 的能值理論對投入產出變量進行計算,在此基礎上首先參考 Jin-Li Hu[12] 等人的研究建立環境全要素建材效率;其次,結合環境全要素建材效率與 Malmquist-luenberger模型,意在構建環境全要素建材生產率測量模型對歐盟建築業生產率進行測量分析。有關環境全要素建材生產率測量模型的具體構建步驟如圖 1 所展示:首先,利用軟件求出建材投入中的鬆弛變量,通過實際建材投入與鬆弛變量之差求出建材的目標投入;其次,利用建材的目標投入與建材的實際投入之比求出環境全要素建材效率;最後,結合環境全要素建材效率與ML 模型的方向距離函數構建出環境全要素建材生產率測量模型,并將模型分解為效率變動指數和技術變動指數兩部分。本研究在參考 Li and Hu[12] 建立的生態全要素能源生產率,以廢棄建材投入為單因子構建環境全要素建材生產率模型(Environmental Total-Factor Construction Materials Productivity Model,ETFCMPM)。
92有關具體建立環境全要素建材生產率模型的方法將在研究方法中進行詳細的介紹。2.1 基於SBM模型的環境全要素建材效率環境全要素建材效率的計算參考了 Jin-Li Hu[12] 的研究,學者 Cooper[16] 指出基於鬆弛型的效率測量模型(SBM)有兩個優點:第一,SBM 模型相對在測量投入產出變量方面更穩定;第二,對投入產出變量沒有嚴格要求,對數據不要求任何特定的函數形式,同時可以建立一個更彈性的分段線性函數。綜合以上的優點考慮,本文選取SBM 模型來計算本研究的環境全要素建材效率。學者 Cooper et al[16] 認為非期望產出的 CRS-SBM模型計算一種生產系統的技術效率,而在這個系統中期望產出和非期望產出是被同時產生的。非期望產出下的 CRS-SBM 模型的數學模型如下: (1)上述模型中 m 為投入,n1 為好的產出,n2 為壞產出;X,Y g 和 Y b 分別為投入矩陣,好產出和壞產出,同時 X,Y g 和 Y b 均大於零;,S g 和 S b分別為投入矩陣,好產出和壞產出鬆弛量,其中λ是常數矢量。基於 SBM 模型的建材效率在 t 時期的 i 區域的模型稱為環境全要素建材效率(ETFCME),模型的數學定義如下: (2)在非期望產出下的 SBM 模型中目標建材投 入定義如下:Target construction materials input ( i , t )=Actual construction materials input( i , t ) (3)-Total construction materials input slack( i , t )2.2 環境全要素建材生產率測量模型的構建環境全要素建材生產率測量模型的構建步驟如下 : 第一,基於數學模型(2)-(3)計算環境全要素建材效率;第二,結合環境全要素建材效率與 Songhong CHEN[18] 描述的 Malmquist-luenberger模型構建環境全要素建材生產率測量模型。基於模型(2)-(3),環境全要素建材效率與 ML 模型的方向距離函數存在如下關係: (4) (5) (6)(7)結合(4)~(7)與Malmquist-luenberger模型,最終環境全要素建材生產率測量模型定義如下: (8)為深入研究生產率的變動,在規模報酬不變情況下,Malmquist-Luenberger 指數分解為效率變動指數(MLEFFCH)和技術變動指數(MLTECH),結合模型(4)-(7)同理可得: (9) (10)通過以上的數學模型構建的環境全要素建材生產率測量模型可以在全要素框架下進行單因子的生產率測量,在完成以上模型的構建后,根據本研究要求選取變量和數據,并通過實證分析來對研究結果進行分析。
97陳頌泓,等 歐盟建築業環境全要素建材生產率測量模型的構建在忽略環境污染因素的情況下而測量建築業的生產率,這種測算會出現一定的偏差,對相關建築業的政策制定存在一定的誤導。第三,通過斯皮爾曼等級相關檢驗說明了本文構建的環境全要素建材生產率測量模型與 ML模型存在著相關性。本文構建的環境全要素建材生產率測量模型在方向距離函數方面進行了改進,新構建的模型可在考慮環境污染影響及針對單因子影響對行業的生產率變化進行測量,突破了傳統 Malmquist-luenberger 模型無法針對單因子影響下生產率變化進行測量的局限。 第四,本文利用環境全要素建材生產率測量模型針對固體建築廢料資源化利用來研究歐盟區建築業的生產率,研究的結果說明歐盟地區的建築廢料利用程度較高對生產率的提升有正向的影響,對發展中國家和地區在推行建築廢棄物集中處理和分級利用,加快建築廢棄物資源化利用技術、裝備研發推廣的起到重要的參考。參 考 文 獻[1] Odum, H.T. Environmental Accounting[M]. Emergy and Decision Making. 1996,370.[2] M.T. Brown ,Vorasun Buranakarn. Emergy indices and ratios for sustainable material cycles and recycle options[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2003,38: 1–22.[3] SatoshiHonmaa, Jin-Li Hu. Total-factor energy productivity growth of regions in Japan[J]. Energy Policy,2009,37:3941–3950.[4] Jin-Li Hu,Shih-Chuan Wang. Total-factor energy efficiency of regions in China[J]. Energy Policy,2006,34:3206–3217.[5] Chung, Y. H., R. Färe, et al. Productivity and undesirable outputs: a directional distance function approach[J]. Journal of Environmental Management ,1997,51: 229-240.[6] ODUM H T, ODUM E C.Energy basis of man and nature [M].New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.[7] ODUM H T.Self-organization, transformity and information[J].Science,1983,1132-1139.[8] M.Dale, S.Krumdieck, P.Bodger.A biophysical approach(GEMBA) part1: An overview of biophysical economics[J]. Ecological Economics, 2012, 73:152-157.[9] Fare R, Grosskopf S, Pasurka C.Environmental production functions and environmental directional distance functions[J].Energy, 2007, 32:1055-1066.[10] Dong-hyunOh. A global Malmquist-luenberger productivity index[J].Journal of Productivity Analysis,2010,34(3):183-197.[11] BarisYoruk,OsmanZaim. Productivity growth in OECD countries:A comparison with Malmquist indices[J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2005, 33(2):401-420.[12] Lan-Bing Li , Jin-Li Hu. Ecological total-factor energy efficiency of regions in China[J]. Energy Policy, 2012,46:216–224.[13] Xiaolong Xue,Qiping Shen,Yaowu Wang and Jinfeng Lu,Measuring the Productivity of the Construction Industry in China by Using DEA-Based Malmquist Productivity Indices[J]. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,2008,134: 64-71.[14] Wilfred H. Roudebush, An Environmental Value Engineering Application to Assess the Environmental Impact of Construction Waste[M]. Construction Management and Technology Program, Bowling Green State University.[15] Luenberger. Externalities and benefits[J]. Journal of Mathematical Economics, 1995,24: 159-177.[16] Cooper,W.W.,Seiford,L.M.,Tone,Kaoru. Data Envelopment Analysis: A Comprehensive Text with Models, Applications, References and DEA-Solver Software[M]. Springer Science and Business Media, 2007, 2nd edtion,492.[17] Rina Hayane Sumardi, Kwabena Asomanin Anaman. Aggregate efficiency analysis of resource use and demand for labour by the construction industry in Brunei Darussalam[J]. 2004,22(7):755-764.[18] Songhong CHEN, Yu SONG, Feng ZENG. The Chinese City Productivity of Biophysical Perspective:Base on the malmquist-Luenberger Analysis[J].Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology, 2014,8(1):21-30.[19] Solow R M. Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function[J].The Review of Economics and Statistics, 1957, 39.[20] Tsz-Yi Ke and Jin-lin Hu. CO2 Emissions and Productivity in APEC Member Economies[J]. Academic Journal,2011,5,38.[21] Kortelainen,Mika.Dynamicenvironmental performance analysis:A Malmquist index approach[J]. Ecological Economics, 2008,64(4):701-715.[22] Alexander J.Macpherson,PeterP.Principe,Megan Mehaffey.UsingMalmquist Indices to evalutate environmental impacts of alternative land development scenarios[J]. Ecological Indicators,2013, 34:296-303.[23] Toshiyuki Sueyoshi,Mika Goto. DEA environmental assessment in a time horizon:Malmquist index on fuel mix, electricity and CO2 of industrial nations[J]. Energy Economics, 2013, 40:370-382.[24] Xue, X. L., Q. P. Shen, et al. Measuring the productivity of the construction industry in China by using DEA-based Malmquist productivity indices[J]. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management-Asce, 2008,134(1): 64-71.[25] Li, Y. and C. Liu.Malmquist indices of total factor productivity changes in the Australian construction industry[J]. Construction Management & Economics, 2010, 28(9): 933-945.[26] ZHAO Liangshi,SUN Caizhi. Water Resource Total Factor Productivity Efficiency in China Using the Global-Malmquist-Luenberger Index[J].Resources Science,2013,35(6):1229-1237.[27] Feng He, Qingzhi Zhang , JiasuLei , Weihui Fu, Xiaoning Xu. Energy efficiency and productivity change of China’s iron and steel industry:Accounting for undesirable outputs[J]. Energy Policy,2013(54):204–21.
98第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 區域一體化格局下的粵港澳經濟動態關係研究徐 曄1,王雨飛2*(1. 澳門科技大學通識教育部, 澳門; 2. 吉林大學珠海學院商學院, 珠海)摘要: 粵港澳區域經濟合作在國家經濟發展中具有重要的戰略作用,研究粵港澳經濟動態關係有助於分析三地經濟合作的差異性,有利於促進三地的經濟融合。本文首先選取經HP濾波後的粵港澳GDP增長率資料,對粵港澳經濟週期波動的相關性和同步性進行檢驗並得出結論:粵港澳三地經濟週期波動的相關性和同步性不斷增強;為進一步研究粵港澳經濟一體化的相互影響程度,本文通過構建VAR模型,對1988~2010年粵港澳三地的GDP資料進行了實證研究,結果表明:廣東經濟發展對港澳經濟產生了較強的正向影響並存在滯後性,港澳經濟發展對廣東經濟影響甚微,港澳經濟之間的相互解釋程度也不高。關鍵詞: 粵港澳;經濟一體化;HP濾波;VAR模型Research on the Economy Dynamic Relationship of Guangdong, Hong ong and Macao in the Pattern of Regional IntegrationYe XU1, Yu-Fei WANG2*( 1. Department of General Studies, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macao,China )( 2. Business Faculty, Zhuhai College of Jilin University,Zhuhai,China )bstractt: Multilateral sub-regional cooperation accelerates the process of regional economic integration of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao. Hong Kong and Macao have become international financial, trade and tourist centers while Guangdong has become the world's manufacturing base. Firstly, we used GDP growth rate data of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao that filtered by HP to test the region’s economic fluctuations and synchronization then concluded: the economic fluctuations and synchronization of the three places showed a significant correlation increasingly. For a further study of the mutual impact of the economic integration of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao, by constructing VAR model, we did an empirical research in 1988-2010 GDP data of the three places. The results show that: the economic development of Guangdong had a strong positive influence and lags on Hong Kong and Macao. But the economic development of Hong Kong and Macao showed minimal impact on Guangdong. And explanation between Hong Kong and Macao economy is insufficient.eyyordst: Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao; Economic Integration; HP filter; VAR Model收稿日期:2014-02-25;修訂日期:2014-03-25。* 通訊作者:王雨飛,女,澳門科技大學商學院博士研究生,吉林大學珠海學院國際貿易與金融系教師。研究方向:區域經濟、城市經濟。Email: hope5760@sina.cn;Tel: 0756-7629395.0 引言廣東、香港、澳門在地理位置方面緊密相連,在親緣民俗、語言文化等方面相近相通。改革開放之初,香港經濟對廣東、澳門的經濟發展具有較大的促進作用,且三地之間的經濟交融互補,對粵港澳經濟的共同發展做出了重要貢獻,逐漸形成地區之間互補互利、共生共榮的區域關係。自 20 世紀 80 年代開始,伴隨中國改革開放進程
99徐曄,等 區域一體化格局下的粵港澳經濟動態關係研究的加快,粵港澳三地的經濟合作無論從內容、規模,還是發展勢頭上都呈現出不斷加強的態勢。在區域經濟一體化的背景之下,尤其是香港、澳門先後回歸祖國後,香港、澳門與內地在貿易往來、技術投資和金融服務等領域展開了廣泛合作。這一合作又因政策的支撐而更加緊密,尤其是CEPA1 協定的簽署,將粵港澳經濟合作在制度層面推向了一個更高的階段,區域經濟一體化程度不斷加深。從全國區域經濟佈局看,最有可能和潛力率先成為世界級新經濟區域的是粵港澳地區[1]。在此背景下,如何分析粵港澳經濟之間的融合和互動程度顯得尤為必要;同時,在國家發展區域經濟的戰略布局下,研究粵港澳的經濟動態關係有助於區域經濟更好地融合和合作。1 文獻探討現有文獻多集中在討論粵港澳經濟合作的產業佈局、貿易結構、金融服務、跨區域投資等方面存在的諸多問題,並提出改進建議。夏麗麗等(2004)從產業發展的角度,認為粵港合作缺乏統一的產業規劃、傳統製造業產業結構趨同,需營造適宜的制度環境促進粵港文化整合[2];周聿峨等(2005)認為,粵港貿易促進了香港經濟的轉型,廣東對香港的服務貿易比較薄弱,澳門由於受自身條件的制約,無法起到商貿服務中心的作用[3];黃桂良(2010)研究發現,粵港澳區域金融發展呈現顯著的σ收斂、β收斂特徵,並在支付結算、監管合作等方面提出促進粵港澳區域金融合作的建議[4];袁持平等(2005)從直接投資的角度,提出粵港澳政府之間在促進資金自由流動方面存在很大的合作空間,要變自發的經濟合作為自覺的制度安排來推進地區間的投資一體化[5]。透過以上文獻不難發現,粵港澳經濟合作取得了巨大的成績,對三地經濟的發展都發揮了重要作用,但粵港澳經濟合作中的矛盾與衝突因素也伴隨合作的加深逐漸顯現,如在不同歷史發展1. 2003年6月和10月,內地分別與香港和澳門簽訂《內地與香港關於建立更緊密經貿關係的安排》、《內地與澳門關於建立更緊密經貿關係的安排》,即為CEPA協議。背景下的觀念差異,地區間的合作發展不均衡,及由此造成的對具體規章制度的認同及工作效率存在差異等[2];粵澳雙方在金融、產業升級合作的多個議題上的討論、醞釀多年來仍然只停留在理論或空泛的議論上,合作中仍存在著層次較低,結合度不高,產業趨同化、重複建設與非良性競爭等問題[6]。粵港澳經濟合作存在的問題讓研究粵港澳經濟互動關係,以及如何深化粵港澳經濟合作成為各界關注的焦點。關於區域經濟增長和經濟週期同步性的研究,常見的分析方法是將所選的宏觀經濟指標分解為趨勢變數和波動變數來研究各變數之間的相互關係,以期深入挖掘資料的縱向動態變化特徵。Crosby(2003)、Darvas Zsolt(2004) 較 早運用 HP 濾波、BP 濾波和結構 VAR 等方法分別探討了亞太地區和歐盟經濟週期的相關性和同步程度[7~8];王悅(2007)用 HP 濾波、時間序列相關性分析、交叉相關分析等方法,證明東亞地區經濟發展存在週期同步性[9];陳軍才等(2006)運用 HP 濾波、結構 VAR 模型等方法分析粵港澳經濟增長和經濟週期之間的聯繫,認為粵港和粵澳之間經濟週期的同步性比港澳之間的同步性弱,粵港和粵澳經濟波動的相互解釋能力有限[10];袁申國等(2008)檢驗了粵港澳經濟波動的協同性,考察了三個地區金融合作的可行性並得出結論:粵港澳經濟波動具有協同性,滿足金融合作的前提條件[11]。以上文獻是對粵港澳經濟一體化問題較為深入的研究成果。這些研究對粵港澳區域協調發展提出了寶貴建議,同時也對構建區域經濟一體化模型進行了有益探索,然而不少文獻在分析粵港澳區域合作的必要性和可行性時缺乏資料輔證,部份運用定量分析的文章中也存在數據的典型性和時效性不足的問題,同時在宏觀經濟指標的選取以及模型的檢驗方面均有待研究和改進。因此,本文將在現有研究的基礎上,從粵港澳經濟增長和經濟週期的同步性、地區之間經濟發展的影響程度兩方面研究粵港澳經濟區域格局的現狀、經
106一種描述系統動態的方法。脈衝回應函數追蹤系統對一個內生變數的衝擊效果,而方差分解通過分析每一個結構衝擊對內生變數變化(用方差來度量)的貢獻度,進一步評價不同結構衝擊的重要性[12]。從預測方差分解結果可以看出各因數相互影響程度。如圖 4 所示,在第一期預測中,廣東 GDP 的預測方差全部由廣東自身擾動引起。在整個追蹤期內,廣東經濟受其自身波動的影響較大,香港和澳門的方差貢獻率均不足 5%。在香港 GDP 變動的方差預測中,第一期預測方差的 29% 由廣東 GDP 擾動引起,71% 由香港自身擾動引起,澳門 GDP 的擾動對香港沒有影響。整個追蹤期內,香港 GDP 預測方差中由廣東 GDP 擾動引起的比重增加,到第 20 期達到近 60%,其平均貢獻率為 52.86%;由香港自身擾動引起的比重緩慢下降,其平均貢獻率為 44.84%;澳門經濟波動對香港 GDP 產生的影響不大,預測方差的貢獻率一直在 2% 到 3% 之間。第一期澳門 GDP 預測方差有31% 是由廣東 GDP 擾動引起,9% 是由香港 GDP擾動引起,60% 是由澳門自身擾動引起。整體而言,澳門經濟主要受其自身波動的影響,方差平均貢獻率為 56.54%;廣東經濟波動對澳門 GDP 波動的影響較大,在第 20 期達到近 40%,其平均貢獻率為 36.16%;香港經濟波動對澳門經濟產生了一定的影響但不明顯,預測方差的貢獻率一直低 圖3 VAR(2)模型的脈衝回應分析圖4 VAR(2)模型預測方差分解結果
108第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 Received 24 Mar. 2014; Revised 10 Apr. 2014.Ting Wu, Female, Assistant professor, PhD in Human Resource Management, National Sun Yat-sen University; Research interest: Work-life balance, Diversity, E-mail: twu@must.edu.mo, Tel: +853 88971930Work-family facilitationt: n exploratory study of Taiyanese banking industryTing WU( School of Business, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China )bstractt: This study explores the relationship between work resources, non-work resources and work-family facilitation. Data were collected from 200 banking employees in Taiwan. We found that (1)job autonomy and supportive supervisors positively influence work-to-family facilitation, and (2) spouse support is positively related to family-to-work facilitation. Multiple resources are mechanisms to support employees to well-play multiple roles while facing challenges from different life domains.eyyordst: Work-family facilitation; Taiwanese banking industry; Resources工作家庭促進之探索性研究:以台灣銀行業為例吳 亭(澳門科技大學商學院,澳門)摘要: 本研究以工作家庭促進及前因變項、了解台灣銀行業員工扮演多重角色的探索性研究。研究結果顯示,工作自主性及支持的上司對工作家庭促進有正向影響;配偶的支持則與家庭對工作的促進有正向影響。當面對多重挑戰時,員工傾向多方運用跨領域的資源以回應多重角色的需求。關鍵詞: 工作家庭促進;台灣銀行業;資源0 IntroductionOver the past few decades, the world has gone through certain changes that need to delve into the interface between work and family (Poelmans, Stepanova, & Masuda, 2008)[1]. With the information technology development, the workplace structure becomes more complicated and demanding (Bhargava&Baral, 2009)[2]. Also, diverseglobal demographics (e.g. single parents, dual-earner partners)have indeed challenged employees to simultaneously manage household and work arrangements(Bhargava&Baral, 2009)[2]. Work and family are the most influential domains in one person׳s life and the experiences in these two domains are inter-correlated (Lazarova, Westman, & Shaffer, 2010)[3]. Due to thesechanges, an increasing body of research over the past several decades has investigated the interdependencies between work and family roles (e.g. Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, &Brinley, 2005)[4].In the past two decades, work-family studies were dominated by a conflict viewpoint that the
109Ting WU Work-family facilitation: An exploratory study of Taiwanese banking industrydemands for one role participation were assumed to interfere with an individual׳s ability to meet the other roles׳ requirements (Marks, 1977; Wayne, Grzywacz, Carlson, &Kacmar, 2007) [5~6,8].Recent literatures suggest that work and family roles don׳t have to be in opposition to each other and they may positively influence each other from various ways (e.g. Greenhaus& Powell, 2006; Poelmans et al., 2008; Wayne, et al., 2007)[1,7~8]. Recent research demonstrates that while individuals receive resources from participating in a role, they may further facilitate the functioning and well-being in another role (Carlson &Grzywacz, 2008; Wayne et al., 2007)[8~9]. Though it is suggested that resources obtained from environment are associated with work-family facilitation, studies provide limited empirical evidence investigating such pattern of consequences (Voydanoff, 2004; 2005)[10~11]. Thus, there is a need to go beyond the negative side of work-family interface for examining the positive interaction and effects between work and family domains on each other (Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Greenhaus& Powell, 2006; Wayne et al., 2007)[2,7~8]. The purpose of this study is to investigate the work-family facilitation based on expansion-enhancement perspectives from financial service employees in Taiwan that examine the antecedents of work-family facilitation. The findings bring up essential management implications for effective work-family policies in the organizations since employees are the most important assets of financial service industry. Furthermore, Taiwan, as a small but key spot in the Great China region was deeply affected by the economic crisis in the past few years.Understanding how work and family resources lead to influence work-family facilitation provides a necessary basis for designing work- and family-relevant policies and programs that enhance work-family facilitation in the workplace to further improve the quality of work and family life.1 Literature Reviey1.1 Theoretical basis of york-family facilitationThough the growing literature, reviews of the multi-disciplinary research is still lacking (e.g. Wayne et al., 2007)[8], therefore, we first bring in the complementary frames to create a theoretical base. Deriving from "positive psychology", expansion-enhancement emphasizes on the positive relationship of work-family relationships (Karatepe&Bekteshi, 2008; Poelmans et al., 2008)[1,12]. It argues that instead of diminishing individual׳s physiological and psychological resources, active involving in different roles can provide greater opportunities and resources to promote growth in various life domains and attain individual fulfillment (Aryee, Srinivas, & Tan, 2005; Grzywacz& Butler, 2005)[13,17]. Researchers have persuasively argued for the benefits of multiple role occupation such as a sense of meaning in life, offering security, increased self-esteem, and social support (Barnett & Hyde, 2001; Wayne, Musisca, &Fleeson, 2004)[14~15]. The benefits of involving in both work and family roles to mental, physical, and relationship health, and the rewards of combining personal and professional lives may go beyond the costs (Barnett & Hyde, 2001)[15].Resources and demands framework describes that the consequences of work-family interaction depends on individual׳s cognitive evaluations regarding available resource allocation to meet the role demands from different domains (Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Voydanoff, 2004)[2,10]. Resources are structural or psychological assets resulting in positive outcomes, such as improved performance, flexibility and resource generation while demands delineates structural or psychological claims to which people have to make physical or mental efforts to meet the expectations and requirements to achieve higher development and growth aims (Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Grzywacz& Butler, 2005; Schieman, Milkie, &Glavin, 2009; Wayne et al., 2007)[2,8,16~17].. Consequently, resources within the specific context become the critical source to interact with environment in gaining more resources and benefits from others (Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Wayne et al., 2007)[2,8]. It can explain the rationale that individuals attempt to reach higher levels of development by means of actively obtaining resources
110from the environment (Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Wayne et al., 2007)[2,8].1.2 The Definition of Work-family FacilitationWork-family facilitation represents synergies from involving in a domain that lead to another domain׳s function improvement (Carlson, Kacmar, Wayne, &Grzywacz, 2006; Wayne et al., 2007)[8,18]. It is characterized as a linking mechanismto integrate process, person, and context to obtain more resources and benefits to attain goals and make participation easier that enhance functioning of the other role (Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Carlson et al., 2006; Poelmans et al., 2008; Wayne et al., 2007)[2,8,18]. Participating in both work as well as family may be beneficial mutually because different constituents and groups may generate the synergetic effects from increased available resources (Barnett & Hyde, 2001, Boyar & Mosley, 2007)[15,19]. Though not much attention has been paid to the work-family facilitation comparing to work-family conflict, this stance considers that work and family are mutually interdependent and is bi-directional in nature, including work-to-family facilitation(WFF) and family-to-work facilitation(FWF)(Bhargava&Baral, 2009)[2].WFF represents the skills, experiences, and positive mood individual acquired at work that improve the family life (Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Poelmans et al., 2008)[1~2]. FWF occurs when individual involving in family activities lead to support, positive mood, and a sense of achievement that posi t ively inf luence one s׳ role a t work (Greenhaus& Powell, 2006)[7]. Consequently, the more accumulated resources one obtain, the better the opportunity for work-family facilitation.1.3 The Antecedents of WFFPreviously-mentioned demands and resources framework recognize that individuals have the natural intentions to make good use of available resources from participating in a role that facilitate the functioning and well-being in another role to improve the system׳s effectiveness (Wayne et al., 2007; Weer, Greenhaus, &Linnehan, 2009)[7~8,20]. By acting multiple roles, individual involving in one domain (e.g. work) may obtain access to resources and experiences that goes beyond the costs and leads to the other domains׳ benefits resulting (e.g. family) in net satisfaction and gratification (Aryee et al., 2005; Grzywacz& Butler, 2005)[13, 17].1.4 Work-related resources and WFFRecent research recognizes that workplace resources may be beneficial for family life and act as the key antecedents of WFF (Grzywacz&Buter, 2005; Seery, Corrigall, &Harpel, 2008; Voydanoff, 2004)[10,17,21]. Work resources refer to physical, social, organizational, or physical job aspects that motivate work role engagement, such as job control, supervisory support, and family supportive environment (Bakker &Demerouti, 2007; Lazarova et al., 2010)[3,22]. Having multiple roles may be beneficial and that multiplicity of roles yield benefits that may decrease the burden of obligations and responsibilities, increase social support, and upgrading income (Barnett & Hyde, 2001)[15]. Thus, workplace resources may serve as the primary predictors for work-family facilitation because these resources enable work-family facilitation through offering a variety of resources, such as physical or psychological benefits for advanced functioning across varied life domain (Grzywacz&Buter, 2005; Sieber, 1974; Voydanoff, 2004)[6,10,17]. As noted previously, a support ive work environment may enhance flexibility and enable the work-family balance (Aryee et al., 2005)[13]. These positive influences may be generated from an indirect way while individuals perceive the availability of the family supportive practices from organizations, they consider the symbolic meanings from the organizations showing concerns toward their employees and their family life quality (Allen, 2001)[23]. Additionally, employees perceiving supervisors׳ support may not only bring direct but indirect influences on employee׳s attitudes but on the overall workplace and further affect their commitment and job satisfaction to the organization itself (Allen, 2001)[23]. Job autonomy represents the extent to which that employees have discretion on work schedules and
111Ting WU Work-family facilitation: An exploratory study of Taiwanese banking industrydecide how to complete, is related to resources, such as management skills, self-confidence that may further lead to work-to-family facilitation (Grzaywacz& Butler, 2005; Hackman & Oldham, 1976; van Steenbergen, Ellemers, &AbMooijaart, 2007; Voydanoff, 2004)[17,24~25]. Job autonomy may increase the perceived control over life and work domains, bring more energy as well as motivation, and enhance the possibilities to gain new knowledge and skills underling the daily work schedules (Bhargava&Baral, 2009)[2]. Due to the support from workplace, employees may show lower levels of interference between work and family sphere (Karimi&Nouri, 2009)[26] and promote the integration of their work and family roles (Karatepe&Bekteshi, 2008)[12]. Once, when people connect to the stronger back-up resource surpluses, they tend to experience more positive life and well-being, namely, facilitation, or better functions in multiple domains. Therefore, ● H1: Work-related resources are positively related to employees׳ WFF. » H1a: Family supportive environment is positively related to employees׳ WFF. » H1b: Supervisor support is positively related to employees׳ WFF. » H1c: Job autonomy is positively related to employees׳ WFF.1.5 Nonyork-related Resources and FWFBasically, in order to maintain and develop the well-being of the workforce, organizations have to recognize that nonwork environment is also important for all employees (Innstrand, Langballe, Espnes, Aasland, &Falkum, 2010; Wayne, Randel, & Stevens, 2006)[27~28].Family resources are characterized as the essential determinant of work-family facilitation from the family members, such as family communication, spouse support, that may be adopted to increase one׳s work performance (Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Lazarova et al., 2010; Poelmans, et al., 2008; Srivastava, Srivastava, Srivastava, 2009)[1~3,29].According to family resilience theory, family support may help individuals thrive when confronting significant risk (Grzywacz& Bass, 2003)[30]. Previous studies demonstrated that positive mood, behavior, and family support from family life have positive influence on employees׳ work life (Srivastava, et al., 2009)[29]. Spouse and kin support as enabling resources lead to the gained resources and FWF (Voydanoff, 2005)[11]. The results show that family resources, such as household rewards provide a sense of pride and recognition which may then, generate positive psychological effects to FWF (Grzywacz& Marks, 2000; Voydanoff, 2005)[11,31]. Engaging in role-related activities (i.e. nonwork roles) may provide opportunities for employees to obtain role-specific resources or privileges that can be associated with enhanced functioning (Weer et al., 2009)[20]. Accordingly, the availability of various nonwork resources may bring primary sources of FWF (Grzywacz& Marks, 2000)[31]. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: ● H2: Nonwork-related resources are positively related to employees׳ FWF. » H2a: Spouse support is positively related to employees׳ FWF.2 MethodBased on the aforementioned discussion, it shows that having a supportive environment from either work or family may lead to the integration of work and family roles to originate work-family facilitation.2.1 Sample and ProceduresThe par t ic ipants cons is ted of 200 bank employees, their spouse and supervisors in Taipei, Kaohsiung, Tainan and Kinmen, concerning influences of both work and family on roles they play in daily life.Data were collected from 14 financial service organizations in both Taipei and Kaohsiung city since these companies are wide-spread in the first- and second-largest city in Taiwan to reflect the varieties of cities similar to previous samples from other studies. Moreover, the average survey number of each bank was five. In total, 200 surveys of each group were administered to these
112bank employee representatives with a cover letter presenting guaranteed confidentiality and explaining the purpose of the survey. Respondents were supplied reply envelopes and asked to return the survey to the researchers through both the mail as well as face-to-face methods. For the present study, only subsample of married bank employees were included (n=200). The reason to constrain the sample to married bank employees because of the specific focus on how both work and family domain impact on multiple roles within different domains. The 90 (45%) male bank employees included in the sample had a mean age of 39.74 year-old; 55% were college graduates. 163 (81.5%) bank employees work as non-management positions and worked an average of 10.4 hours per day. As for their spouse, result showed a mean age of 41.02 year-old. 165 (82.5%) work as full-time employees while 10 (5%) as part-time workers. On the average, spouse׳s estimation regarding bank employee take care of children 3.42 hours per day; 1.61hours per day of doing housework. The average numbers of hours per day these bank employees staying at home is 10.86 hours. The mean length of marriage was 12 years. 163 (81.5%) of the employees׳ spouse indicated 58 (29%) had youngest child at pre-school stage; 199 (99.5%) of the employees׳ spouse said 82 (41%) have two children; 119 (59.5%) live without elderly.2.2 MeasuresBoth WFF and FWF constructs were measured based on previous literatures combining with the revision in terms of the specific industry needs described before (Carlson et al., 2006; Grzywacz& Marks, 2000; Grzywacz& Bass, 2003)[18,30~31]. Respondents indicated the extent of agreement with the statements on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). An example item of WFF was, “Skills developed at work help me in my family life” ( α =0.82). An example of FWF was, “Values developed in my family make me a better employee” ( α =0.87). 2.2.1 Family supportive environment In this paper, we followed the perspective from Allen (2001)[23] that the bank employees were given a list of 14 family friendly benefits normally provided by organizations. This list was from (a) flexible work arrangements (FWA) (e.g. flextime) and (b) dependent care supports (DCS) (e.g. on-site child care center). Participants were presented with the list of benefits and checked if each benefit offered by their organization and if they currently use or had used in the past. The availability of organizational family supportive practices implies the values that the focal organizations emphasize. Moreover, the perceived availability also depict if the practices reach the consistency between the needs from employees and the organizations. Benefits that were not available or not used were coded as 0 and benefits that were available or were used were coded as 1. A total benefits availability score was computed by summing the number of benefits checked by the participant to demonstrate a greater number of benefits available, so does the applied benefits. A benefit availability score and benefit usage score for each of the two categories of benefits was computed.2.2.2 Supervisor supportSupervisor support was measured with 12 items (e.g. “My employees feel comfortable brining up personal issues with me.”)(α=0.84). The items were rated on a 5-point response scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. Higher scores indicated greater support from supervisor.2.2.3 Job autonomyAutonomy was measured by 7 items developed by Voydanoff (2004)[10]. An example item is "I am able to influence which specific tasks I am assigned to do" ( α =0.73).2.2.4 Spouse supportFollowing the perspectives that spouse support strongly correlates to positive spillover from family to work direction. It was assessed by 14 items; an example item is “the extent your spouse really cares about you” (α=0.89) (Grzywacz& Marks, 2000)[31].2.2.5 Control variablesThe control variables included gender, age, organizational tenure, education, spouse׳s employment
113Ting WU Work-family facilitation: An exploratory study of Taiwanese banking industrystatus (Aryee et al., 2005; Grzywacz& Marks, 2000; Karatepe&Bekteshi, 2008; Wayne et al., 2004)[12~14,31]. Gender was a dummy variable coded 1 for female. Age was reported by year of birth (Allen, 2001)[23]. Education was coded in 4 categories ranging from 1=lower vocational education or high school to 4=graduate school (van Steenbergen et al., 2007)[25]. Organizational tenure was reported in years and months.3 ResultsMeans, standard deviation, and correlations of all variables are presented in Table1 Individuals obtained more resources from workplace also responded a great extent of both WFF and FWF. Organizations encourage job autonomy may derive from a comprehensive friendly workplace with family supportive environment ( r =0.15, p <0.05), as well as supportive supervisor ( r =0.17, p <0.01). Supportive supervisors will positively influence spouse׳s support to the employee ( r =0.17, p <0.01) and the development of both WFF ( r =0.21, p <0.01) and FWF ( r =0.20, p <0.01).Also, there are inter-correlation between family resources and work-family facilitation. Spouse support may both positively correlated with both WFF ( r =0.22, p <0.01) and FWF ( r =0.29, p <0.01). In addition, there is positive correlation between WFF and FWF ( r =0.69, p <0.01). The co-existence influences exert between domains. For example, a supportive supervisor ( r =0.20, p <0.01) and job autonomy ( r =0.16, p <0.01) may have impact on the formation of FWF while a spouse support may lead to WFF ( r =0.30, p <0.01).On the basis of the demand-resource framework, individuals receiving resources, such as job autonomy and family supportiveworkplaces may generate adequate mechanisms to effectively manage with family responsibilities as well as daily chores. On the other hand, individuals accepting resources from family or spouse support may also help generate positive behavior and lessen the pressures in the workplace (Karatepe&Bekteshi, 2008; van Steenbergen et al., 2007)[12] [25]. Hypothesis 1 stated that family supportive environment, job autonomy, and supervisor support is positively related to work-family facilitation. Results suggest that job autonomy ( β =0.27, p <0.01) and supervisor support ( β =0.14, p <0.1) were significantly related to WFF. The results lent support to the Hypothesis 2 that spouse support positively affect FWF ( β =0.29, p <0.01).Table 1 Correlations for all variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10sex 0.45 0.50age 2.47 0.86 -0.03Ten 2.75 1.41 0.17* -0.00EDU 2.51 0.86 0.09 -0.43** -0.09SEmp 0.88 0.33 -0.30** 0.02 -0.13 0.01Auto 2.97 0.58 0.03 -0.07 -0.14 0.06 0.01FSE 3.01 0.43 -0.03 -0.06 -0.04 0.12 0.18* 0.15*SS 4.13 0.42 0.14 -0.06 0.02 0.09 -0.20** 0.17* 0.01ss 4.13 0.49 0.01 -0.06 -0.06 0.02 0.08 0.16* -0.06 0.17*WFF 3.76 0.54 0.04 0.01 0.02 -0.05 -0.16* 0.30** -0.01 0.21** 0.22**FWF 3.93 0.50 -0.02 -0.01 -0.05 -0.04 -0.11 0.16* -0.05 0.20** 0.29** 0.69**Notes: Sex & Age: employee's sex, age, tenure, education; SEmp: Spouse employment; Auto: Autonomy; FSE: Family supportive environment; SS: supervisor support; ss: Spouse support; *p<0.05. **p<0.01
114Table 2 Results of WFF, FWF and their antecedentsIndependentvariablesWFF FWFM1 M2 M1 M2Control variablesSex 0.01 -0.01 -0.04 -0.05Age -0.48 -0.02 -0.04 -0.02Ten -0.33 -0.01 -0.05 -0.02EDU -0.71 -0.71 -0.07 -0.06SEmp -0.17+ -0.15+ -0.13 -0.02+Step 2Auto 0.27**FSE -0.01SS 0.14+ss 0.29**R2 0.01 0.09 -0.01 0.10△R2 0.08** 0.11**F 1.16 4.22 0.82 3.97△F 2.75** 3.16**Notes: Sex & Age: employee׳s sex, age, tenure, education; SEmp: Spouse employment; Auto: Autonomy; FSE: Family supportive environment; SS: supervisor support; ss: Spouse support;*p<0.05. **p<0.014 DiscussionIn recent years, Taiwan has experienced fundamental structural transformation from labor-intensive to high-tech and service orientation and lead to rapid social modernization in work as well as life styles. Therefore, it has become more than ever exposed to a stressful working context, and more and more employees are caught between the interface of work and family sphere while family life is traditionally taken as highly valued in a Chinese Society (Lu, Gilmour, Kao, & Huang, 2006)[32]. Comparing to other occupations, professionals in Taiwan working across different industries confront with longer working hours, and these people are expected to put job before family to present their loyalty and commitment (Lu, et al., 2006)[32]. Given the increasing demand for professional talent, it is essential that organizations neither misunderstand nor underestimate the talents, skills and abilities of these professionals actively engaged in roles outside of work context.According to the prior sections of results, however, those work resources, including job autonomy family supportive environment and supervisors have limited influences on the three dimensions of WFF. Though it may imply a real lack of connection between the work resources variables and WFF sub-dimensions, it is also probable that the size of the relationship between these variables may be diluted by the lower-than-expected reliability of the criterion measures from those respondents. The results reflected individuals obtained experiences and opportunities in certain role (e.g. job autonomy and supportive supervisor) may have positive influence on other roles and further benefit to the role performance (i.e. WFF)(Grzywacz& Marks, 2000; Grzywacz& Butler, 2005)[17,31]. From prior empirical studies, Thomas and Ganster (1995)[33] suggested employees perceived more control over work may lower the feelings of negative effects from work-family interface because the process helps employees manage their time and skills effectively to further improve the functions of other domains, family responsibilities, for instance.The results support the linkage between job autonomy and WFF that the behaviors learnt from the workplace may cause positive and additive advantages toward individual׳s family life (Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Hanson, Hammer, & Colton, 2006)[2,34]. Organization with supportive leadership may influence the schedule and time management when facing dilemma at the same time. Thus, because of the direct support from supervisor, it reflects the messages to employees to adopt the available resources they currently have to help lessen the burdens they face at the workplace. Because of the influences from the explicit contextual power, employees received positive support from the supervisors may directly or indirectly change their ways of doing things at other stage or domains (Allen, 2001, Bhargava&Baral, 2009; Tompson, Beauvais, &Lyness, 1999)[2,23,35]. Social support includes the exchange of resources between two people to help the receiving part reach their goals. Employees receive support from family context (i.e.spouse support)may positively relate to two main aspects, including affect support (e.g., trust, love) and practical support (e.g., goods, money) (e.g.
115Ting WU Work-family facilitation: An exploratory study of Taiwanese banking industryHouse, 1981) [36]. The practical support, such as money and materials, suggestions, information for problem-solving and so on may serve as a better way to support employees to get through the difficulties within workplace. For example, practical support, including locations, places, money, recognition, and problem-solving may transfer directly from one role to another to improve performance in the receiving domain. In terms of the study results, one obtains support from his/her spouse, may impact their cognition and attitudes toward the values, perspectives, and ways of doing things in terms of their abilities and values in the daily life. What׳s more, The support from spouses, may serve as an important affective path to explain the positive emotions deriving from one role which in turn bring up higher performance in the second domain that further engender the positive affect in the second domain (Hanson et al., 2006)[34]. In consistent with findings in the prior literatures (e.g. Grzywacz& Marks, 2000)[31], spouse acting as one of the most important role in the family structure was significantly related to FWF (Aryee et al., 2005)[13]. Spouse support includes both practical (e.g. assistance and suggestions) and emotional sources of support may allow employees to spend more time working in the workplace and obtain more opportunities to develop and train themselves to upgrade their capabilities in the workplace. Countries, such as India, Mexico and Chinese societies offer support to individuals in a way not only care their house chores but also receiving help from elderly to look after their children (Aryee et al., 2005)[13].4.1 Limitation and implicationsThis current research offers an overview that may be practical for organizational practices as well as following research. Without looking at the one face of certain domains, management level people may be motivated to combine the advantages from both work and family domains (van Steenbergen et al., 2007)[25]. The awareness of the priorities deriving from individuals׳ distinctive backgrounds; and environment may also be emphasized since it may facilitate the positive outcomes and the synergies for both work and family domains. For instance, once employees learn ways to efficiently manage time at work, the time spent at home with complicated tasks may be lessened; in turn, employees may have less pressure and strains from family domain that affect their work performance. Significantly, the current study proposes that the experiences learning from multiple role-playing to reach the added positive results (i.e. WFF). WFFmay improve the well-beings at work, such as increasing work effectiveness, and helping behavior regarding colleagues and organizations (Grazywacz& Marks, 2000; Hanson, et al., 2006)[31,34]. Although this study tried to structure a model of WFF, it still has a number of limitations that needs to be addressed while addressing the results. There is a need to extend the scope to different outcomes relating to work-family facilitation, such as the interaction between the individuals and the external environment (i.e. contextual factors, such as customer relationship). Additionally, empirical studies applying different samples from various industries, organizations, and countries were suggested to reach more completed outcomes for further generalization. Moreover,all information was provided by the same respondent and the study may be subject to common method bias.Though this study provides important insights for work-family facilitation, future research are encouraged to adjust and limitations by adopting a larger scale longitudinal research design, including objective data from the organizational or government sources to develop a more integrated model and examine the applicability of the current scale by using different samples from various industries.Regarding FWF aspects, this study included spouse support as the family resources since some employees may not have children or grandparents at the same time. Future studies may apply multiple aspects from family or life domains to expand the opportunity for positive added values.This study focuses on the available resources either at work or from family not only to reach
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117Ting WU Work-family facilitation: An exploratory study of Taiwanese banking industry[29] Srivastava, S., Srivastava, U.R., Srivastava, A.K. (2009).Qualitative exploration into the phenomenon of work-family facilitation in Indian context. Indian Journal Social Science Researches, 6(1), 92-102.[30] Grzywacz, J.G.,& Bass, B.L. (2003). Work, family and mental health: Testing different models of work-family fit. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 248-261.[31] Grzywacz, J.G.,& Marks, N.F. (2000). Reconceptualizing the work-family interface: An ecological perspective on the correlates of positive and negative spillover between work and family.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 111-126.[32] Lu, L., Gilmour, R., Kao, S.F., &Huang, M.T. (2006). A cross-cultural study of work/family demands, work/family conflict and well-being: the Taiwanese vs. British. Career Development International, 11(1), 9-27.[33] Thomas, L.T., &Ganster, D.C. (1995). Impact of family-supportive work variables on work-family conflict and strain: A control perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(1), 6-15.[34] Hanson, G.C., Hammer, L.B., & Colton, C.L. (2006). Development and validation of a multidimensional scale of perceived work-family positive spillover.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11(3), 249-265.[35] Tompson. C.A., Beauvais, L.L., &Lyness, K.S. (1999).When work-family benefits are not enough: The influence of work-family culture on benefit utilisation, organisational attachment and work-family conflict.Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 392-415.[36] House, J.S. (1981). Work stress and social support. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.校园活动社會和文化研究所2014/2015學年第一學期 "外交官系列講座Ⅲ”一覽表序號 場次 日期 主題 主講者1 第一講 9月26日 葡澳長久夥伴關係葡萄牙駐澳門及香港總領事 維多爾•塞雷諾博士2 第二講 10月17日 中國外交縱橫 中華人民共和國駐冰島大使蘇格博士3 第三講 10月 31日 中國與南非——邁向新的全球互聯南非共和國駐中華人民共和國特命全權大使 蘭加博士4 第四講 11月21日 重新認識拉丁美洲與哥倫比亞中華人民共和國前駐哥倫比亞大使 吳長勝先生1 第五講 12月5日 印度、中國與世界 印度駐中華人民共和國大使康特先生社會和文化研究所2014/2015學年第一學期 "澳門社會"系列講座一覽表序號 場次 日期 主題 主講者1 第一場 9月11日 抗日期間的澳門師生及其文化影響 澳門資深教育工作者劉羨冰女士2 第二場 9月25日 澳門經濟近況及企業管治 澳門會計師公會會長何美華女士3 第三場 10月9日《粵澳合作框架協定》——推動澳門與廣東建立更緊密經貿關係澳門經濟建設協進會理事長楊道匡先生4 第四場 10月16日 善用專業、奮發自強 MTel電信公司董事長兼行政總裁徐德明先生5 第五場 10月 30日訴求、衝突與出路—從近年社會運動看澳門民眾訴求澳門特區立法會議員施家倫先生6 第六場 11月20日 淺析本澳醫療現況 澳門立法會議員黃潔貞女士7 第七場 12月4日 我…是怎樣成長,以及怎樣做…我 澳門房地產聯合商會吳在權會長
118第 8 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.8 No.22014 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30, 2014 TXOP對IEEE 802.11 WLANs節點緩衝區大小 設置方案的影響楊紹博,趙慶林*,馬治傑(澳門科技大學資訊科技學院,澳門)摘要: 通過設置節點緩衝區大小,可以達到最大化系統吞吐量和降低總延時的目的。已有的緩衝區設置方案(如eBDP、ALT算法)均是基於IEEE 802.11 DCF協議提出的,即獲得傳輸機會的節點每次只能發送一個數據包。最近的IEEE 802.11e EDCA協議提供了一個名為TXOP的新型機制,其允許獲得傳輸機會的節點一次可以發送多個數據包。本文關注TXOP對已有的緩衝區大小設置方案的影響。在本文中,我們首先回顧了現有DCF協議的緩衝區大小設置方案,然後概述了EDCA中的TXOP機制。緊接著,我們進行了大量的NS2模擬實驗,研究TXOP機制對現存的緩衝區大小設置方案的影響。實驗表明TXOP能提高現存方案的性能(比如:吞吐量),但是同時也導致了上行流延時的急劇增加,因此值得進一步研究。關鍵詞: IEEE 802.11;IEEE 802.11e;無線局域網;緩衝區;EDCA;服務品質Impact of TXOP on Node Buffer Sizing for IEEE 802.11 WLNsShaobo YANG, Qinglin ZHAO*, Zhijie MA( Faculty of Information Technology, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )bstractt: Appropriately sizing node buffer can maximize the system throughput while minimizing the total delay. Existing buffer sizing schemes (i.e., eBDP, ALT) are designed based on IEEE 802.11 DCF protocol where a node transmits one packet only for each transmission opportunity. The recent IEEE 802.11e EDCA protocol provides a new called TXOP mechanism which allows a node to transmit multiple packets after obtaining one transmission opportunity. This paper is concerned with the impact of the TXOP on the existing buffer sizing schemes. In this paper, we first overview the exiting buffer sizing schemes, and then outline the TXOP mechanism in EDCA. Next, we run extensive NS2 simulations to study the impact of TXOP on existing node buffer sizing schemes. The simulation results show that TXOP can improve the performance of the existing schemes (such as throughput), but it also leads to a remarkable increment in the uplink delay. How to reduce this uplink delay is worthy of further study.eyyordst: IEEE 802.11; IEEE 802.11e; WLAN; Buffer; EDCA; QoS收稿日期:2014-09-01;修訂日期:2014-09-24。項目:澳門科學技術發展基金081/2012/A3, 041/2012/A。*通訊作者:趙慶林,男,博士,副教授;研究方向:無線移動網絡;E-mail:qlzhao@must.edu.mo; Tel: 8897 23060 引言 隨著無綫通訊技術和計算機網絡的迅猛發展,人們對于移動信息服務的需求也在不斷的增加。傳統的文字和圖片服務已經無法滿足現實的需要,大量的音頻、視頻傳輸需求變得越來越多,用戶對網絡性能的要求也越來越高。緩衝區則是影響無綫網絡性能的重要因素之一。802.11[3] 和 802.11e[5] 是兩個 WLAN(無綫局
119楊紹博,等 TXOP對IEEE 802.11 WLANs節點緩衝區大小 設置方案的影響域網)中廣泛使用的標準。其中,基于 802.11 標準的 WLAN 只提供盡力而爲的服務,對 QoS(服務質量)幷沒有保障。而 IEEE 802.11e 標準則增加了對 QoS 的支持。目前已有針對基於 802.11 標準設置緩衝區大小的研究,比如文獻 [1]。然而,對基於 802.11e 標準的緩衝區設置方案研究還比較匱乏。本文首先回顧了已有 DCF 協議的緩衝區大小設置方案,然後指出了 DCF 和 EDCA 協議之間的不同,最後,我們通過大量的 NS2 模擬實驗來研究 EDCA 對現存的緩衝區大小設置方案的影響。1 802.11 DCF工作原理及現存的緩衝區設置方案本節將首先介紹 DCF 協議的工作原理,接著介紹 DCF 協議下的緩衝區設置方案。1.1 802.11 DCF工作原理圖 1 CSMA/CA基本訪問機制802.11 DCF 采用了 CSMA/CA 原理和指數退避算法來避免數據衝突,如圖 1 所示。網絡中的節點在競爭信道前,會先偵聽信道。如果信道在DIFS 時間內爲空閑,節點就開始進入 Back-off(退避)過程。如果信道忙,則計時器挂起直到信道變成空閑。如果信道空閑,則每經過一個 slot time(時隙),競爭信道中各節點的退避計數器减 1。當節點的退避記數器遞减到 0 時,節點立即發送數據。競爭失敗的節點會保持退避狀態繼續等待下一個 DIFS,幷把當前的CW (競爭窗口)加倍,重新開始競爭信道,直到發送成功或達到 maxCW(最大競爭窗口)。當重傳次數超過一定次數時,CW 會被重置爲 minCW (最小競爭窗口)。如仍有新的數據要發送,則重複該發送過程。1.2 DCF機制下緩衝區設置方案網絡中的節點在進行通訊的過程中,如果出現大量的數據包在短時間內到達網絡節點,而節點又無法立即對數據包進行處理的情况時,就會造成數據包排隊的現象。因此,數據包延時將會增加[6]。爲此,人們利用調整緩衝區大小的方法來避免這種現象的發生。本節我們將介紹 eBDP 和ALT 兩種緩衝區設置方案,幷分析其網絡性能。1.2.1 eBDP方案與傳統有綫網絡不同,由於 WLAN 中數據包的平均服務時間波動較大,所以平均服務時間需要被動態地計算。當信道中只有一個數據流時,每個數據包的平均服務時間 servT 可根據公式(1)計算。( 1) (1 ) ( ) ( )serv serv e sT k W T k W t t+ = − + − (1)其中, st 和 et 分別表示第 k+1 個的數據包到達隊列頭部的時刻和此數據包傳輸結束的時刻。( 1)servT k + 表示第 k+1 個數據包服務完成後的平均服務時間,它是對第 k 次的平均值和當前數據包服務時間的指數滑動平均。平滑參數 W 為一常數,其作用主要用來適應時間的變化和精確度間的平衡。eBDP 算法中的緩衝區大小 eBDPQ 可根據公式(2)計算。 max maxmin( , )eBDPeBDP servQ T T c Q= + (2)其中, servT 根據公式(1)計算。 maxT 爲隊列延時的目標最大值,1 servT 表示平均服務率,maxeBDPQ 爲緩衝區的最高上限,參數 c 的作用是適應幷調節短期服務率波動。1.2.2 ALT方案當無線信道中存在多個數據流時,eBDP 算法因無法利用統計複用的方法而不再適用。通過文獻 [1] 的研究可以發現,如果節點的緩衝區空閑時間過長,鏈路利用率就會下降。爲了提高鏈路利用率,可以通過將緩衝區增大,從而提高吞吐量,進而達到提高鏈路利用率的目的[7]。然而隨著緩衝區大小的不斷增大,緩衝區的空閑時間就會隨之减小,最終導致延遲的增加,所以又需要减小緩衝區,以便來降低延時。
120爲了適應多個數據流共享信道的情况,文獻 [1] 重新提出了全新的 ALT 算法。在 ALT 算法中,節點一旦獲得傳輸機會,就會立即發送數據包,從而盡可能的减少數據包在緩衝區的等待時間。首先,我們選定一個固定的時間間隔 T,然後周期性地去觀察它的空閑和繁忙狀况。用 ( )iT k 表示第 k 次觀察時 T 中的空閑時間 [8], ( )bT k 表示第 k 次觀察時 T 中的繁忙時間,所以他們滿足公式(3)。 ( ) ( )i bT T k T k= + (3)用 ( )Q k 表示第 k 次觀察周期的緩衝區大小,所以 ( 1)Q k + 可以根據公式(4)來計算。 ( 1) ( ) ( ) ( )i bQ k Q k aT k bT k+ = + − (4)其中 10, 1a b= = 被證明是最優的參數設置。ALT 算法實質就是在尋找 ( )iT k 和 ( )bT k 間的平衡。由公式可以看出:當 ( ) ( )i baT k bT k=時,第 k+1 次節點緩衝區大小和第 k 次節點緩衝區大小是相等的,即節點緩衝區大小保持不變。當( ) ( )i baT k bT k> 時,第 k+1 次節點緩衝區大小大于第 k 次節點緩衝區大小,節點緩衝區大小增加。當 ( ) ( )i baT k bT k< 時,第 k+1 次節點緩衝區大小小于第k次節點緩衝區大小,節點緩衝區大小减小。2 EDCA中TXOP機制我們知道,IEEE 802.11e EDCA 協議引入了優先級思想并有效的保證高優先級業務的QoS需求。在 EDCA 協議中,TXOP 作爲無綫信道接入的基本單元,使得獲得 TXOP 的節點可以在 TXOP Limit 時間內連續地發送多個數據包。所以,我們猜測 TXOP 可能會對緩衝區設置方案造成影響。爲此,我們進行了大量的模擬實驗,來分析 TXOP對 eBDP 算法和 ALT 算法的影響。2.1 EDCA簡介802.11e EDCA 通過引入不同的優先級來提供區分服務。EDCA 定義了 4 種 AC(訪問類型),每個 AC 均有自己獨立的信道競爭參數:AIFS(仲裁幀間間隔)、 min maxCW CW、 和 TXOP(傳輸機會)。與 DCF 中的 DIFS 不同,在 EDCA 中,不同的 AC 有不同長度的 AIFS。高優先級 AC 的 AIFS較小,同樣 minCW 和 maxCW 也較小。所以具有高優先級的 AC 可以較快的接入信道。獲得信道訪問權的 AC 將在 TXOP 時間內傳輸任意多個分組 [5]。2.2 TXOP工作機制在對實驗數據進行分析前,讓我們先來瞭解TXOP 機制的工作原理。對于無綫網絡,網絡中的各個節點在檢測到信道空閑時,發送的是 MAC 服務數據單元 MSDU(MAC Service Data Unit),DCF機制每次只允許發送一個 MSDU 數據單元,發送成功後節點失去信道,如果想要發送下一個數據就需要進行新一輪的信道競爭。而 EDCA 中的 TXOP機制則是讓獲得信道訪問權的節點在一定的時間(TXOP Limit)內發送多個 MSDU,而無需再次競爭信道,幷以 SIFS 的時間間隔來連續地傳輸多個數據,如圖 2 所示,當 TXOP Limit 爲零時,表示傳送 RTS/CTS 幀之後,只能發送一個數據幀。圖 2 EDCA中的TXOP3 TXOP對節點緩衝區設置的影響本節我們將采用 NS2 網絡模擬軟件對現存緩衝區設置方案(eBDP 算法和 ALT 算法)的性能進行仿真實驗。3.1 仿真設置圖 3 網絡數據流拓撲結構
123楊紹博,等 TXOP對IEEE 802.11 WLANs節點緩衝區大小 設置方案的影響圖 11 在ALT算法下,TXOP對上行流延時的影響4 結束語本論文研究了 TXOP 對現存緩衝區設置方案(即 eBDP 算法和 ALT 算法)性能的影響。 研究表明,TXOP 可以達到提高網絡吞吐量和降低丟包率的目的。但是,TXOP 會增大兩種算法中上行流的延時。今後,我們希望找到一種新的緩衝區設置方案,希望该新的緩衝區設置方案可以有效地將eBDP 算法和 ALT 算法相結合,使之能夠根據不同的網絡環境,來合理的動態調節節點的緩衝區大小,以便能达到提高網絡吞吐量、降低丟包率、同時减少上行流的延時等的目的。參 考 文 獻[1] Tianji Li, Douglas J. Leith,David Malone: Buffer sizing for 802.11-based networks [J]. IEEE/ACM Trans. Netw.19(1):156-169 (2011).[2] Kamran Jamshaid, Basem Shihada,LiXia, and Philip Levis: Buffer Sizing in 802.11 Wireless Mesh Networks[C]. Eighth IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad-Hoc and Sensor Systems, 2011.[3] IEEE P802.11. Standard for Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications[S]. 1997.[4] ANSI/IEEE Std 802.11, Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications[S], 1999 ed. (R2003), IEEE, 1999.[5] IEEE Std 802.11e, specific requirements Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications, Amendment 8: Medium Access Control (MAC) Quality of Service Enhancements[S], 2005.[6] G. Appenzeller, I. Keslassy, and N. McKeown, Sizing router buffers. in Proc. ACM SIGCOMM, 2004, pp. 281–292.K. Duffy, D. Malone, and D. Leith, Modeling the 802.11 Distributed Coordination Function in non-saturated conditions[J], IEEE Communications Letters, vol. 9, no. 8, pp. 715–717, 2005.[7] K. Kumaran, M. Mandjes, A.L. Stolyar.Convexity Properties of Loss and Overflow Functions.Operations Research Letters[J], vol. 31, no.2, pp.95-100, 2003.[8] R. Shorten, F. Wirth, and D. Leith.A Positive Systems Model of TCPLike Congestion Control: Asymptotic Results[J].IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 616–629, Jun. 2006.[9] A. Dhamdher and C. Dovrolis.Open Issues in Router Buffer Sizing[J]. In Computer Communication Review, Jan. 2006.[10] G. Vu-Brugier, R. Stanojevic, D. Leith, and R. Shorten,.A Critique of Recently Proposed Buffer-Sizing Strategies[J]. ACM Computer Communication Review, vol. 37. no. 1, Jan. 2007.[11] R. Stanojevic, C. Kellett, and R. Shorten. Adaptive Tuning of Drop-Tail Buffers for Reducing Queueing Delays[J]. IEEE Communications Letters,vol. 10, no. 7, pp 570–572, Jul. 2006.[12] C. Kellett, R. Shorten, and D. Leith.Sizing Internet Router Buffers,Active Queue Management, and the Lur’e Problem[C].in Proc. of IEEE CDC, 2006.大學建設澳門科技大學兩岸四地百强大學排名躍升至第57位 上海交通大學“世界一流大學研究中心”日前正式發佈了2014年“中國兩岸四地大學百強排名榜”,澳門科技大學從2013年第72位躍升至第57位,成為兩岸四地最年輕和發展最迅速的大學。兩岸四地百強高校的分佈是:大陸64所,臺灣27所,香港7所,澳門2所。兩岸四地大學排名的對象是中國大陸地區、臺灣地區、香港特別行政區和澳門特別行政區的高校中,以世界一流和國際知名為目標,並且面向兩岸四地招生的研究型大學。排名使用具有國際可比性的評價指標,包括人才培養、科學研究、師資品質和學校資源等方面。排名結果高度透明,除了提供各個學校的總得分外,還提供了每個單項指標的得分。
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