ContentsHumanities and ArtsGentleman's doctrines ……………………………………………………………………………Qiuyu, Yu (1)Management and TourismA Measurement Study of Perceived Service Value of Natural Sceneries Based on IPA Model:Take Dinghu Mountain as an Example ……………………………………… Juan TANG, Tao ZENG (19)The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010 ……………………………………………………………………………… Shiyong ZHAO (33)Chinese traditional culture, corporate culture construction, sustainable growth of enterprises: the theory of corporate culture to build a localized ………………… ShaoJie WANG, Shanshi LIU (44)The inverted u-shaped relationship between Abusive supervision and employee creativity:the moderating effect of Hope …………………………………………………………Liuyuan SUN (63)Research on User Acceptance of Hotel Website Based on TAM2─ An Empirical Study of 5-star Hotel Websites in Macau ……………………………………………… Juan TANG, Xiaochen LI (72)Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macau …………………………………… Meng ZHANG, Meisi WONG (82)Table Dealer’s Work Stress and Job Satisfaction in Macau Casino Based on the Work-Family Conflicts ………………………………………………… Jin Quan ZHOU, Shoal Ling ZHOU (91)Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention: A Case of College Students …………………………………… Sung Hee Park, Chi-Ming Hsieh (103)It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivation …………………………………… Eko Yi Liao (113)Information TechnologyA SURVEY OF BUFFER SIZING IN IEEE 802.11 WLANs ………………………………………………………Shaobo YANG, Qinglin ZHAO, Zhijie MA (123)MedicineThe Influence of Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease on Xu Shuwei’s Theory of Acupuncture and Moxibustion …………………………………………………………………… Min CHEN (128)Pedagogic ExperienceEnglish Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI ……………………………………………………………………… Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG (132)
1第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 君子之道余秋雨說明:二○○五年四月十二日下午,我應邀到美國華盛頓國會圖書館演講。圖書館根據當地華文讀者的要求,給我出了一個題目:《寫作的腳步》。意思很明白,要我著重講述歷險數萬公里邊走邊寫的體會。我覺得那些體會都已經寫在書裡了,不必重複,而我當時最想在國際場合講述的,是中華文化的集體人格。因此就與他們商量,把講題改成了《君子的腳步》。後來在哈佛、耶魯、馬裡蘭等大學巡迴演講,也是圍繞著這個課題。在哈佛演講後,我與該校幾十位退休的華裔教授座談了兩個晚上。他們一致認爲,以“君子之道"爲入口來講述中華文化,是一個很好的思路。波士頓森林別墅中的美好夜晚,大家一邊喝茶一邊暢談著“古之君子",真是愉快。這篇文章,就是我在那些演講後整理的部分書面資料。回想那天在國會圖書館演講時,一位副館長熱情地說,我是他們歷來邀請的演講者中第一位中國大陸學者。在我之前,只有一位高官去講過。因爲是第一位,圖書館在演講前舉行了一個隆重的儀式。那就是,由圖書館的亞洲部主任和另一位官員,推著一輛金屬架的運書車,繞場一周。車上,全是他們館藏的我的著作。運書車推過的通道兩邊,聽眾們排排起立,以目光迎送。這場面,讓我有點感動。運書車最後終於推到了我的面前。我一看,立即與同去的妻子交換了一個眼色。妻子輕笑了一下,便用手指竪放在唇前。這是因為,車上有很大一部分是盜版書,但妻子希望我不要當場說破。之前在美國的很多華文書店也看到過不少我的盜版書,還有一些署著我的名字卻無一字出於我手筆的書,應該叫僞版書。一看就知道,全都出自大陸。真不知道那些神通廣大的盜版集團如何打通了海外的管道,居然把美國的國會圖書館也給騙了。比盜版和偽版更嚴重的是,多數外國人對中國文化也處於普遍的誤讀狀態,其中包括不少學者。其實,造成這種情況的原因,首先是我們中國人自己的誤讀。這就像一個人,如果無法講清楚自己是誰,那麽,不管做什麽事,對人對己都會是隔閡重重。因此,古希臘神廟牆壁上刻的那句哲言,永遠讓人驚悚:“人啊,認識你自己!"我說過,歐洲文藝復興千言萬語,其實只是輕聲問了一聲:“我是誰?"此問一出,大家都從中世紀的長夜中蘇醒,霞光滿天。1 前論1.1 最後一級臺階文化有很多臺階,每一級都安頓著不同的項目。那麼,最後一級是什麼呢?當然,最後一級不是名校,不是博士,不是教授,不是學派,不是大獎,不是國粹,不是唐詩,不是羅浮宮,不是好萊塢……很多、很多“不是”。但是,它們每一項,都有資格找到自己的文化臺階,拂衣整冠,自成氣象。它們很可能把自己看成是最後目標,最高等級,但實際上都不是。而且,它們之間,也互不承認。世界各國的學者們,常常也在這麼多文化項目間比輕重,說是非。意見總是吵吵嚷嚷,直到聽到了一種聲音,情况才發生一點變化。這種聲音說,文化的終極成果,是人格(personality)。
2例如,中華文化的終極成果,是中國人的集體人格。復興中華文化,也就是尋找和優化中國人的集體人格。這也可以看作是文化的最後一級臺階。首先以現代學理指出這個臺階的,是瑞士心理學家榮格(Carl Gustav Jung,1875~1961)。他曾經追隨過佛洛伊德有關“無意識”、潜意識的研究,但又擺脫了其中的各種局限,認爲只有“集體無意識”即集體人格才有普遍意義。對此,學術界曾經有過這樣一個比喻:佛洛伊德找到了大海波濤下的暗礁,而榮格,則找到了暗礁下的海床。1.2 有故鄉的靈魂更重要的是,榮格指出,“集體人格”並不是形成於當代人們的有生之年。最早的種子,可能在“神話”中就播下了。每個古老的民族都有很多“大神話”,後面還會引發出很多“小神話”,這就是榮格所說的“夢”。神話和夢,都會以“原型”(archetype)、“原始意象”(primordial images)的方式成為一個民族的“自畫像”(self-portrait),反復出現在集體心理活動中。這一來,“集體人格”就具有了長期穩定的象徵意義。照榮格的一個漂亮說法,成了“有故鄉的靈魂”。順著這個思路,中國人的集體人格也是有“故鄉”的。那“故鄉”,首先是神話,例如“女媧補天”、“精衛塡海”、“夸父追日”、“嫦娥奔月”等等。每一個中國人的靈魂深處,都埋藏著這些遙遠的“故鄉”。當然,神話只是起點,“集體人格”的原型建立,是一個複雜的人類學工程。對於一般人來說,只須明白,文化的最後一級臺階,就是爲靈魂找到故鄉,或者說,找到有故鄉的靈魂。這個課題,連很多等級不低的學者也不明白。我想起一件往事。二十幾年前,我還在上海戲劇學院擔任院長,與一位喜歡讀書的頂頭上司汪道涵市長成了朋友,建立了一種“好書交換”關係,約定發現好書,簽名互贈。有一次,我送給他一部北京剛剛出版的古印度哲學《五十奧義書》,他立即回送我一部臺灣中正書局出版的《西方思想家論中國》。過幾天我告訴他,我讀了裡邊劉耀中先生寫的《中國與榮格》一文,對其中一段記述很感興趣。這段記述,介紹了榮格在自傳中寫到的接受中國學者胡適訪問的情景:他們談《易經》,胡適告訴榮格說,他不太相信《易經》,並說那該是一種魔術和符咒。榮格聽到後,急問他曾經嘗試過沒有,胡適點頭。榮格再問他,《易經》卦內的答案是不是真實的,對他有沒有幫助。這一連串的問題,使胡適很難受。榮格也開始意識到,中國當代學者已漸漸走向西方的科學境界,對他們自己的傳統文化有懷疑了。《西方思想家論中國》第 177 頁胡適認爲《易經》是一種魔術和符咒,用的是西方近代科學思維。但他不知道,此刻坐在他眼前的這位西方公認的一流學者,卻曾經深入研究過《易經》。我們不妨再讀一段劉先生的介紹:榮格爲威廉的《易經》譯本寫了十七頁的引言。榮格說,西方古代的科學與中國《易經》原則是共通的,但是與西方現代科學的因果律有很大的差別。因果律超越不過統計學,現代人比不上古代人的主觀智慧。因果律把人的主觀异化了,該是西方文明很大的毛病。榮格並且發現,中國道家有“物極必反"的基本法則,遠遠超過西方人的思想。他指出,西方往往被“自我中心觀"的魔鬼引導,而沿著所謂“高貴"的道路走向宗教經驗將帶來的碩果。於此,榮格觀察到,道家的“物極必反"法則西方可以採用,唯有靠此,在西方互相衝突的人格和他們忘記了的另一半才會團圓,西方人士
3余秋雨 君子之道的痛苦內戰才會結束。《西方思想家論中國》第 176~177 頁胡適比較榮格小十六歲,無論從年齡輩份上還是從學術輩份上都不能與榮格比肩。他顯然沒有讀過榮格爲《易經》寫的那十七頁引言,所以那天說得太草率了。榮格一聽就著急,而且後來還是不斷著急,一再“勸告中國文明絕對不要跟西方跑”。榮格在以上引文中論述到中國哲學時,作爲對照,提到了自己非常熟悉的“西方互相衝突的人格”。你看,人格,還是人格,他離不開這個命題。他指出,中國文化和西方文化的根本差異,正在於“人格”的不同,這是他的學術基點。汪道涵先生他們這代人受五四新文化運動的影響很深,因此比較能够理解胡適對於《易經》等中國古典的隔閡,很不喜歡當時已經重新探頭的“國粹”、“國學”等等概念,隱隱覺得那是改革開放的文化阻力。我向汪道涵先生解釋道,我也不喜歡“國粹”、“國學”等等低級復古主義的提法,認爲那是借用國家主義來實行排他主義,而且主要是排斥國內的其他藝術和學問;但是,從文化人類學的高度尋找民族生存的遠古基因,與我們的現代化努力並不牴牾。讓我高興的是,汪先生雖然不熟悉榮格,卻對弗雷澤(James George Frazer,1854~1941)比較瞭解,讀過《金枝》,這就使我們討論榮格有了基礎。1.3 孫中山的忠告榮格見了胡適後,發現中國當代學者已經不明白自己傳統文化中有些內容“遠遠超過西方人的思想”,不明白“西方互相衝突的人格”所造成的痛苦內戰只有靠中國哲學才能結束。其實,並不是所有的中國當代智者都是這樣。早在榮格見胡適之前很多年,中國最有現代思維的革命領袖孫中山在日本的一次演講中,已經觸及到西方文化和中國文化的差別,觀點居然非常靠近榮格而不是胡適。他還借此,警告了日本的文化選擇。一九二四年,孫中山在日本神戶的演講中說:西方的物質文明是科學文明,並最終發展爲武力文明來壓迫亞洲國家,這也就是中國自古以來所謂的“霸道"文化。而東方文明則是要遠遠超越它的“王道"文化。王道文化的本質就是道德和仁義。你們日本民族既得到了歐美的霸道文化,又擁有亞洲的王道文化,對於世界文化的未來,日本究竟是要成爲西方霸道的鷹犬,還是做東方王道的幹城,都需要由你們日本國民自己去詳審慎擇。後來的情況如何呢?七十多年之後,日本企業家稻盛和夫到中國天津演講,他在引述了孫中山上面這段話後坦陳:令人遺憾的是,日本不僅沒有聽從孫中山的這一忠告,反而一發不可收地走上了霸權主義的道路。《對話稻盛和夫》(四)第 85 頁孫中山把榮格所說的“西方互相衝突的文化”與中國以道德和仁義爲本質的“王道”文化一起放在日本面前,要他們“詳審慎擇”。這個思路,也就是把不同政治選擇歸因於文化選擇。然而,既然他提到一切都是“自古以來”的,那麽,要日本選擇“王道”文化也就幾乎不會成功,勸告也只是勸告罷了。王道、道德、仁義等等,大家都會說,但當這些文化理念全都沉澱爲人格,而且由悠久的歲月沉澱爲集體人格,別的人群要學,就不容易了。1.4 中國人的人格理想中國人的集體人格應該是什麼樣的呢?這個問題,既帶有歷史性、現實性,又帶有理想型。顯然,這種集體人格必然與其他民族很不一樣。我可以再借一個外國人來說明這個問題。這個人我說過多次,就是那位十六世紀到中國來的耶穌會傳教士利瑪竇。他對中國文化進行了數十年精深和全面的研究,很多方面已經一點兒也不差於中國文化人,但我們讀完長長的《利瑪竇中國剳記》(China in Sixteenth Century:The
4Journals of Mathew Ricci)就會發現,最後還是在人格上差了關鍵一步。那就是,他暗中固守的,仍然是西方的“聖徒人格”和“紳士人格”。與“聖徒”和“紳士”不同,中國文化的集體人格模式,是“君子”。中國文化的人格模式還有不少,其中衍伸最廣、重叠最多、滲透最密的,莫過於“君子”。這也可以說是一個龐大民族在自身早期文化整合中的“最大公約數”。“君子”,終於成了中國人最獨特的文化標識。世界上的其他民族,在集體人格上都有自己的文化標識。除了利瑪竇的“聖徒人格”和“紳士人格”外,還有“騎士人格”、“靈修人格”、“浪人人格”、“牛仔人格”等等。這些標識性的集體人格,互相之間有著巨大的區別,很難通過學習和摹仿全然溶合。這是因為,所有的集體人格皆如榮格所說,各有自己的“故鄉”。從神話開始,埋藏著一個遙遠而深沉的夢,積澱成了一種潜意識、無意識的“原型”。“君子”作爲一種集體人格的雛形古已有之,卻又經過儒家的選擇、闡釋、提升,結果就成了一種人格理想。儒家先是謙恭地維護了君子的人格原型,然後又鮮明地輸入了自己的人格設計。這種在原型和設計之間的平衡,貼合了多數中國人的文化基因和文化選擇,因此儒家也就取得了“獨尊”的地位。不少中國現代作家和學者喜歡用激烈的語氣抨擊中國人的集體人格,揭示醜惡的“國民性”。看似深刻,但與儒家一比,層次就低得多了。儒家大師如林,哪里會看不見集體人格的毛病?但是,從第一代儒學大師開始,就在淤泥中構建出了自己的理想設計。這種理想設計一旦産生,中國文化的許許多多亮點都向那裡滑動、集中、灌注、熔合。因此,“君子”兩字包羅萬象,非同小可。儒家學說的最簡捷概括,即可稱之爲“君子之道”。甚至,中國文化的鑰匙也在那裡。對中國文化而言,有了君子,什麽都有了;沒有君子,什麼都徒勞。這也就是說,人格在文化上,收納一切,沉澱一切,預示一切。任何文化,都是前人對後代的遺囑。最好的遺囑,莫過於理想的預示。後代應該成為什麼樣的人?中國文化由儒家作了理想性的回答:做個君子。做個君子,也就是做個最合格、最理想的中國人。我一直認為,中國文化沒有淪喪的最終原因,是君子未死,人格未潰。中國文化的延續,是君子人格的延續;中國文化的剛健,是君子人格的剛健;中國文化的缺憾,是君子人格的缺憾;中國文化的更新,是君子人格的更新。如果說,文化的最初蹤影,是人的痕跡,那麼,文化的最後結晶,是人的歸屬。1.5 “小人”的出現儒家在對“君子”進行闡述的時候,採取了一種極爲高明的理論技巧。那就是,不直接定義“君子”,只是反復描繪它的對立面。“君子”的對立面,就是“小人”。用一系列的否定,來完成一種肯定。這種理論技巧,也可稱之為“邊緣裁切法”,或曰“劃界確認法”。這種方法,在邏輯學上,是通過確認外延,來包圍內涵。因此,“小人”的出現,對“君子”特別重要。其實不僅在理論概念上是這樣,即使在生活實際中也是這樣。如果沒有小人,君子就缺少了對比,顯現不出來了。“小人”,在古代未必貶義,而是指向著一些低微的社會地位和生態群落。誠如俞樾在《群經平議》中所說:“古書言君子、小人,大都以位言,漢世說如此。後儒專以人品言君子、小人,非古義也。”但是,生態積澱人品。終於,這組對比變成了人品對比。我認爲,“後儒”的這種轉變,亦合“古儒”之意。
19第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例唐 娟,曾 韜(澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門)摘要: 顧客價值理論被認為是顧客忠誠與企業競爭優勢的源泉。本研究透過顧客價值視角,以國家重點風景名勝區—鼎湖山景區為案例, 剖析自然景區遊客服務感知價值維度, 提出其具8維度結構;並採用重要性—績效IPA模型,測評出鼎湖山景區服務感知價值“繼續保持",“急需改進",“暫緩考慮",“控制投入"四方面, 最後依據IPA分析結果為鼎湖山景區未來服務對策改善的重心提出合理化建議。關鍵詞: 顧客價值;鼎湖山;服務;維度;IPA模型A Measurement Study of Perceived Service Value of Natural Sceneries Based on IPA Model: Take Dinghu Mountain as an ExampleJuan TANG, Tao ZENG( Faculty of hospitality and tourism management,Macau University of Science and Technology, Macao, China )AAstract: Customer perceived value is considered as the source of customers’ loyalty and company competitive advantage. This paper discusses the inner dimensions of tourists’ perceived service value of nature tourist attractions from consumer perceived value theory and gets the result that it consist of 8 dimensions, based on an empirical study of a famous natural scenery in China—the Dinghu Mountain. The 38 items from 8 dimensions are divided into 4 categories by IPA model (Importance—Performance Analysis Model): maintaining present situation, improving immediately, considering later and controlling investment. According to IPA analysis result, the paper provides some suggestions for administrators of Dinghu Mountain so as to help them improve service measurement effectively in the future.eyyords: Customer value; Dinghu Mountain; Service; Dimension; IPA Model收稿日期:2013-03-22;修訂日期:2013-05-24。﹡通訊作者:唐娟,女,博士,助理教授,主要研究方向:旅遊市場營銷,旅遊文化。E-mail: jtang@must.edu.mo,Tel: 853-889723570 引言目前,隨著國內人們生活水準提高與各種新興休閒旅遊產業,如溫泉旅遊,節事旅遊等的快速發展,遊客旅遊觀念也發生變化,開始追求與享受自身在旅遊過程中的多層次感知體驗。然而,傳統旅遊景區中,大多自然風景區管理者過於依賴自身旅遊資源,忽視對遊客感知需求方面的服務對策,導致景區服務理念落後,發展出現滯後。基於上述情況,如何從遊客導向出發,讓遊客體驗到優質的價值,從而贏得遊客忠誠與企業競爭優勢,是當前自然景區亟需研究與解決的問題。顧客價值理論興起於 20 世紀 80 年代,被認為是顧客忠誠的根源[1]與企業競爭優勢的源
31唐娟 ,等 基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例採用焦點小組訪談,以研討會方式獲取旅遊者更真實的想法,從而開發出更為科學合理的量表;在數據分析時除了使用探索性因數分析以外,也可嘗試使用結構方程等驗證性因數分析方法,得出更為可靠的結果。(3)研究感知價值影響因素,探討遊客行為作用機制問題文章只對遊客感知價值進行調查研究,對遊客在遊覽前後的其他心理變化並沒有涉及。未來的研究中可以引入遊前動機,遊時體驗,遊後滿意度、忠誠度等因素,探討他們與感知價值之間的相互關係,進一步瞭解遊客行為作用機制的全面情況,為景區經營者更為準確地把握遊客需求心理提供依據。參 考 文 獻[1] Zeithaml, V. A. Consumer perception of price, quality and value: a means-end model and synthesis of evidence. Journal of Marketing, 1988, 52:2-22.[2] Woodruff, R. B. Customer value: The next source for competitive advantage. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 1997, 25(2): 139-153.[3] 黃穎華、黃福才. 旅遊者感知價值模型、測度與實證研究. 旅遊學刊,2007,22(8):42-47.[4] 隋麗娜,李穎科,程圩. 中西方文化遺產旅遊者感知價值差異研究,旅遊科學,2009,23(6):14-20.[5] 國家旅遊局規劃財務司. 2011年中國旅遊景區發展報告[R]. 北京:中國旅遊出版社,2012.[6] Gallarza, M. G., & Saura, G. I. Value dimensions, perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty: an investigation of university students’ travel behavior. Tourism Management, 2006, 27(3):437-452.[7] Jackson, B. B. Build customer relationship that Last. Harvard Business Review, 1985, 63(6):120-128.[8] Kolter, P. Marketing Management. Upper Saddle River: PRENTICE HALL, 2000.[9] Bojanic, D. C. Consumer perceptions of price, value and satisfaction in the hotel industry: An exploratory study. Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, 1996, 4(1):5-22.[10] Jayanti, R. K. & Ghosh, A. K. Service value determination: an integrative perspective. Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, 1996, 34(4):5-25.[11] Oh, H. Service quality, customer satisfaction, and customer value: A holistic perspective. Hospitality Management, 1999, 18:67-82.[12] Parasuraman, A. & Grewal, D. The impact of technology on the quality-value-loyalty chain: A research agenda. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 2000, 28(1):168-174.[13] Woodruff, R. B. & Gardial, S. F. Know your customer: New approaches to understanding customer value and satisfaction. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.[14] Duman, T. & Mattila, A. The role of affective factors on perceived value: an examination in an experiential service environment. Tourism Management, 2005, 26(3):311-323.[15] 李文兵,張宏梅. 古村落遊客感知價值概念模型與實證研究—以張谷英村為例. 旅遊科學,2010,24(2):55-63.[16] Holbrook, M. B., & Hirschman, E. C. The experiential aspects of consumption: consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. Journal of Consumer Research, 1982, 9(2):132-140.[17] 張濤、賈生華. 節事消費者感知價值的維度和測量研究. 旅遊學刊,2008,23(5):74-78.[18] Heskett, J. L., Sasser, W. E. & Schlesinger, L, A. 服務利潤鏈. (牛海鵬譯). 北京:華夏出版社,2001.[19] 白長虹. 西方的顧客價值研究及其實踐啟示. 南開管理評論,2001,2:51-55.[20] Holbrook, M. B. Customer value-a framework for analysis and research. Advances in Consumer Research, 1996, 23:138-142.[21] Jensen, Hansen, K. V. Consumer values among restaurant customers. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 2007, 26(3):603-622.[22] 馬淩,保繼剛. 感知價值視角下的傳統節慶旅遊體驗—以西雙版納傣族潑水節為例. 地理研究,2012,31(2):269-278.[23] Petrick, J. F. Development of a multi-dimensional scale for measuring the perceived value of a service. Journal of Leisure Research, 2002, 34(2) :119-134.[24] Sanchez, J., Callarisa, L. & Rodriguez, R. M. et al. Perceived value of the purchase of a tourism product. Tourism Management, 2006, 27(3): 394-409.[25] 程興火. 森林生態旅遊景區競爭優勢研究-基於顧客感知價值視角的分析. 北京:光明日報出版社,2009.[26] Sheth, J. N., Newman, B. I. & Gross, B. L. Why we buy what we buy: a theory of consumption value. Journal of Business Research, 1991, 22(2):159-170.[27] Martilla, J. A. & James, J. F. Importance-performance analysis. Journal of Marketing, 1997, 41(1):77-79.[28] 謝麗佳,郭英之. 基於IPA評價的會展旅遊特徵感知實證研究:以上海為例.旅遊學刊,2010,25(3):46-54.[29] Evans, M. R. & Chon, K. Formulating and evaluating tourism policy using importance-performance analysis. Hospitality Education and Research Journal, 1989, 13(1):203-213.[30] Almanza, B. A., Jaffe, W. & Lin, L. Use of the service attribute matrix to measure consumer satisfaction. Hospitality Research Journal, 1994, 17(2):63-75.[31] 宋子斌,安應民,鄭佩. 旅遊目的地形象之IPA分析—以西安居民對海南旅遊目的地形象感知為例. 旅遊學刊,2006,21(10):26-32.[32] 鍾櫟娜,董曉莉,邵雋. 基於IPA分析的中國旅遊景區網站發展研究. 旅遊學刊,2012,27(3):60-68.[33] 石定芳,楊曉霞,子濤. 基於IPA方法的喀斯特洞穴旅遊解說系統滿意度評價的實證研究—以重慶市芙蓉洞為例. 中國岩溶,2012,31(1):94-98.[34] Frochot, I. & Hughes, H. HISTOQUAL: The development of a historic houses assessment scale. Tourism Management, 2000, 21(2): 157-167.[35] Akama, J. S. & Kieti, D. M. Measuring tourist satisfaction with Kenya’s wildlife safari: a case study of Tsavo West National Park. Tourism Management, 2003, 24:73-81.
32[36] Maryam, M. K. Research note and report: Tourism development and dependency theory: mass tourism vs ecotourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 1997, 24(4):988-991.[37] 梁文娟,張培培,朱儉. 北京歡樂穀旅遊景區服務質量評析. 管理學家,2010:377-378.[38] Sweeney, J. C. & Soutar, G. N. Consumer perceived value: The development of a multiple item scale. Journal of Retailing, 2001, 77: 203-220.[39] Duman, T. A model of perceived value for leisure travel products [D]. Pennsylvania: State University of Pennsylvania, 2002.[40] 邱皓政. 量化研究與統計分析—SPSS(PASW)資料分析範例. 重慶:重慶大學出版社,2009.[41] 吳明隆. SPSS統計應用事務. 北京:科學出版社,2003.[42] 盧文岱. SPSS統計分析. 北京:電子工業出版社,2012.[43] 賴國毅,陳超. SPSS 17.0中文版常用功能與應用實例精講. 北京:電子工業出版社,2010.[44] Wang Yi-shun, Tang Tzung-I & Jeung-tai, et al. An instrument for measuring customer satisfaction toward web sites that market digital products and services. Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, 2001, 22:845-857.科研進展澳科大赴京交接神十航天搭載種子 促澳成為人參研究中心和產業基地澳門科技大學劉良校長一行於8月23日上午11時於北京航天城參加航天搭載種子交接儀式,以接收早前由神舟十號搭載的人參種子。中國航天基金會理事長張建啟中將和劉良校長分別代表搭載方和委託方進行了交接。是次交接儀式由中國航天基金會舉辦,中國航天基金會吳卓副理事長、承文副理事長、張玉江秘書長,人參研究機構代表澳門科技大學周華副教授、中國農業科學院特產研究所王英平副所長及肖盛元教授、吉林省撫松縣人參產業發展辦公室侯玉兵主任等共同出席儀式。交接儀式上,澳科大校長劉良講座教授代表大學對中國航天基金會表示感謝,同時也感謝中國農業科學院特產研究所、吉林省撫松縣人民政府的支持。他在致辭中指出,對植物的良種選育,航天搭載植物種子技術是一個非常重要和非常有效的手段。利用我國最高端的航天科學技術開展中醫藥科學研究,可進行高科技貴重中藥材航天育種研究,也可研究藥材種子在太空環境下的基因狀態與變化,從而更深入地認識中藥種質科學內涵。因此,我國航天科學技術與中醫藥科學研究的合作前景十分广阔。人參是最負盛名的中藥材,號稱“百藥之王",具有治療眾多疾病的臨床療效和日常保健功效。人參的種子特性與一般的植物種子差別很大,需要經過特殊後熟階段才能完成胚的分化,繼而形成胚根、胚軸、胚芽和子葉等,然後經播種而萌動出苗。因此,在後熟階段進行人工幹預,可成為選育優良人參種子的有效途徑。由於航天搭載時的特殊環境, 能夠對種子的基因以及生理發育產生顯著影響,故將人參種子後熟階段的特殊生理特徵與航天搭載相結合,有可能選育出高產、優效、抗病的人參優良品種。劉良表示,今天在這裡接收經過神州十號飛船15天太空之旅的人參種子,是十分珍貴的科研種子。澳門科技大學中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室、中國農業科學院特產研究所、深圳華大基因研究院、吉林省撫松縣人參產業辦公室,已經聯合組織專家小組,將利用這批最珍貴的人參種子,進行基因分析、品種選育、農學研究、化學分析、生物活性測試、產品研發等研究,希望取得突破性成果。這些工作將大力推動人參產業和科學研究的發展,也將有助於澳門成為人參研究中心和產業基地,促進澳門經濟適度多元发展。澳門特別行政區在中央政府的大力支持下,社會穩定,經濟繁榮,政通人和,呈現著美好的發展前景。 特區政府和社會各界特別關注和支持國家發展航天事業,並在澳門著力推廣航天科普教育,使廣大市民對國家航天科技的認識不斷加深。澳門科技大學還成立迄今全國高等院校中唯一的太空科學研究所,參與国家嫦娥探月數據分析與太空科學研究。近年來,澳門特區政府銳意發展高等教育和科學研究,包括大力發展中醫藥教育、科研和產業,力求建設具國際一流水準的中藥質量與創新藥物研究中心。澳門科技大學作為澳門唯一提供中醫藥高等教育的學府,已經建立了中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室,從世界一流學府和研究機構引進了大批研究人員,配備了最先端的中藥化學分析和生物活性評價研究設備,具備了從事中醫藥高科技研究的能力。劉良表示,本次神十搭載人參種子的基因分析和基因育種等研究,將是我國貴重中藥材高科技研究領域新的里程牌,希望今後能有機會與中國航天基金會進一步合作,充分利用最先端的航天科技,拓展傳統中醫藥的高科技研究,促進我國中醫藥事業和產業發展。
33第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 **Received 4 April, 2012; Revised 12 June 2012; Revised the second time on 1 November 2012, revised third time on June 9, 2013.* Shiyong Zhao, Ph.D. in Economics, Assistant Professor of Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology. Email: syzhao@must.edu.mo, Tel: (853) 8897-2860. The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010Shiyong ZHAO( Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China)AAstract: This paper attempts to examine the effects of ownership and size on profitability of Chinese listed banks. Based on an unbalanced bank-level panel data set consisting of 16 listed banks in China over 1998-2010 and regressed with fixed effect models, we find that ownership structure does not have an economically significant effect on bank profitability, while asset size has a statistically and economically significant and positive effect on bank profitability.These effects stem from the fact that private investors are still not allowed to open banks in China. The significant size effect of China's banking sector explains why almost all banks want to grow larger, serve large customers and finance large government infrastructure projects. To let banks serve small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and rural areas, the government should reduce, if not break, the State sector's banking monopoly.eyyords: Bank size; Listed banks; Ownership structure; Profitability股權結構、規模經濟與中國上市銀行績效:1998~2010趙世勇(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 本文利用中國大陸十六家上市銀行1998~2010年的面板數據,重點研究了股權結構和規模等因素對中國上市銀行績效(贏利能力)的影響。研究發現,國有股權比重對中國上市銀行的績效有微弱的負效應,資產規模對上市銀行有顯著的正效應,這意味着中國的上市銀行存在明顯的規模經濟,規模對銀行績效的影響效果超過股權結構。這個發現解釋了爲什麽中國的商業銀行都在努力做大,也解釋了爲什麽中國的商業銀行(特别是上市銀行)不願意服務中小企業和農村地區。要改變這種狀况,應該打破銀行業的壟斷,開放銀行業給私人投資者,使中小型銀行得以成立并成長。關鍵詞: 規模經濟;上市銀行;股權結構;贏利能力0 IntroductionThis paper attempts to test the effects of ownership and size on profitability of Chinese listed banks. Since the commercialization reform of Chinese banks, and especially the listing of some banks on the stock exchanges, great changes have taken place in China’s banking sector. With nonperforming assets of state-owned banks being removed, and strategic investors introduced, ownership of banks is more
34diversified, and of course almost all banks have grown larger. By the end of 2010, there are sixteen banks in China that have been listed on the stock market (domestic and/or overseas). Considering data availability and the fact that listed banks are more comparable, we only analyze the sixteen listed banks in this paper. We are interested in the effect of ownership on bank profitability, because property rights theory suggests that a firm’s property rights arrangement or ownership structure determines its efficiency and thus performance. The rationale is that ownership or property rights are the most fundamental institutional arrangement, institutional arrangement determines incentive mechanism, incentive mechanism determines human behavior, and human behavior determines economic performance (Cheung, 2002)[1]. Specifically, given market structure, private enterprises tend to outperform their public counterparts, because private ownership provides stronger incentive to managers and employees. The sixteen listed banks in China have quite different ownership structure, so a natural idea is to test whether ownership structure is a key determinant of bank profitability under the current market structure in China.Given the market structure, and given the ownership structure, microeconomic theory suggests that in many industrial production processes, the larger the firm, the lower the average cost will be. That is, industrial production tends to exhibit significant economies of scale over relevant range of output. Does the effect of economies of scale also exist in the banking industry? We use the evidence from the sixteen listed banks to test it. The sixteen listed banks also have different sizes, which is commonly measured by total assets. So our second idea it to test whether size is a key determinant of profitability of listed banks in China. Previous studies show that there is no conclusive relationship between bank ownership and profitability, such as Molyneux and Thornton (1992)[2], and Aburime (2008)[3], among others. Molyneux and Thornton (1992)[2] were the first to explore thoroughly the determinants of bank profitability on a set of countries. They used a sample of 18 European countries during the period 1986-1989, and found a significant positive relationship between ROE and government ownership and the level of interest rates and bank concentration in each country. Aburime (2008)[3] suggested that the composition and spread of ownership h-ad no significant effect on bank profitability in Nigeria, by using 98 commercial and merchant banks in 478 observations over the period 1989-2004. While some cross national research on bank performance find that ownership structure has a significant impact on bank performance (Grigorian and Manole, 2002) [4]. Researches on Chinese banks, however, arrived at different conclusions. Using a dataset covering fifteen Chinese commercial banks over 1996-2002, Liu et al. (2005)[5] concluded that state shares had a significantly negative effect on bank profitability. Zhao and Yang (2009)[6], using a panel dataset covering 2001-2007, also reported a negative relationship between state shares and bank profitability. Gu (2005)[7] studied the determinants of profitability of commercial banks in China during 1998-2003, and found that the profit margins of state-owned commercial banks were much lower than that of non-state-owned shareholding banks in China. She argued that policy burdens (say, redundant workers) and egalitarianism of state-owned banks reduced their profitability. A positive relationship between bank size and bank profitability could be expected if there is significant economies of scale (Molyneux and Thornton, 1992[2]; Bikker and Hu, 2002[8]; Goddard et al., 2004[9]), but researches failed to reach unambiguous conclusions. Boyd and Runkle (1993)[10] found that there was a negative relationship between size and profitability of American banks in the early 1990s. Zhao and Xiang (2010)[11] reported that from 1993 to 2002, large banks and small (community) banks in the U.S. achieved quite comparable profit margins (ROA). Other researchers, however, have found that only marginal cost savings can be achieved by increasing the size of the banking firm (Berger et
35Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010al., 1987[12]; Miller and Noulas, 1997[13]; Athanasoglou et al., 2008[14]). In essence, the impact of size on bank performance remains inconclusive. Previous studies do not offer indisputable results on the effects of ownership and size on bank profitability. That is because institutional environments in which banks are operating are quite different in various countries or regions. So the effects of the same variable on bank profitability in different countries may differ. Even in the same country, the effects of one variable on bank profitability during different periods may also differ, since a country’s institutions (institutional environment and institutional arrangement) may have changed dramatically even within a relatively short period of time, such as China since 1978, or even since 1990s. Nobody denies that institutional environment affects banks’ risk taking behavior and performance (Houston et al., 2010) [15]. The study tries to test the effects of both ownership structure and bank size on profitability of listed banks in China. Most of the previous studies on Chinese banks focused on only one of these two explanatory variables, or mainly focused on the relationship between market structure and bank performance (see Zhao et al., 2001[16]; Qin and Ouyang, 2001[17]). Moreover, most previous studies on this topic used data that is prior to 2005 or even before 2000, while most listed banks in China were listed after 2005. And after being listed, their ownership structure and governance mechanism have greatly changed, which in turn must have affected their profitability. Our paper attempts to reveal the most updated information from the most updated data. Moreover, we also controlled for many other variables that may affect bank profitability, such as liquidity ratio, capital adequacy ratio, loan-deposit ratio, bad loan ratio, loan share of the largest borrower, and loan share of the top 10 borrowers, which were generally ignored by many of the previous studies. We put forward two hypotheses as follows from the above arguments. Hypothesis I: Everything else being equal, state share will have a negative effect on bank profitability. Hypothesis II: Everything else being equal, size will have a positive effect on bank profitability. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 1 reports the data and methodology used in this paper. Section 2 provides the regression results and related explanations. Section 3 concludes the paper with some policy implications. 1 Data and Methodology1.1 The Data and VariaAlesBy the end of 2010, there are altogether sixteen listed commercial banks in China. Selected basic information on the sixteen listed banks in 2010 is presented in Table 1. All the data are from the annual reports of each bank, which can be easily found from their official websites, since they have obligation to disclose their information to the public. The data of most banks can be traced back several years before they were listed. Some banks can be traced back to as early as 1998, such as China Minsheng Bank, while some banks can only be traced back to 2005, such as China Construction Bank. So the dataset from the panel is unbalanced, but that does not hamper our regressions, since panel data regressions do not require a strongly balanced panel.The aim of the study is to test the effects of bank ownership and bank size on bank profitability. So the first step is to define ownership structure. Most commercial banks in China had been wholly-owned by the state. After they were reformed and listed on the stock market, their ownership becomes much more diversified and dispersed. So a natural idea is to use the state share as an indicator of ownership structure of the banks. Using information from the annual reports of the listed banks, we define state share to be the percentage of shares owned by the state (government) and state-owned legal persons. State-owned legal persons are usually large-sized state-owned enterprises (SOEs). After the commercialization reform of Chinese banks, and especially after their listing on the stock market, the general trend of their ownership structure change is that state shares have been declining and
36the ownership structure has become more diversified. For example, before they were listed, the “Big Four” 1state-owned banks were almost 100 percent state owned; but by the end of 2010, state shares in “Big Four” had dropped to 57-83 percent, and ten out of the sixteen listed banks are no longer dominantly owned by the state. That represents a dramatic change compared with that of ten years ago.Since we are going to examine the effect of bank size on bank profitability, i.e. test the effect of economies of scale in the banking sector, we need to define scale or size of banks. A commonly used measure of bank size is value of total assets. That is, when we say a bank is large, we mean it has a large 1. The so-called “Big Four” refer to the four largest commercial banks in China, i.e., Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC), Bank of China, China Construction Bank (CCB), and Agricultural Bank of China (ABC). asset size. Of course, we could use other indicators to measure bank size, such as number of employees or value of gross or net profits, but they are less commonly used than asset size. Notwithstanding, we have good reason to believe that these indicators are highly (positively) correlated. In this paper, by convention, we use asset size to represent bank size.Up to 2010, the largest bank in China is Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC), which has total assets of RMB 13.46 trillion. Assets of the second, third, and fourth largest bank in China all exceed RMB 10 trillion. Following the “Big Four,” assets of the fifth to the twelfth largest bank in China range between RMB 1 trillion and RMB 4 trillion. Each of the rest four listed banks has an asset size below RMB 1 trillion. Of the sixteen listed banks, the smallest bank is Bank of Nanjing, with an asset size of TaAle 1. Basic Information on the sixteen Listed Commercial Banks in China, 2010Name Var. 1 Var. 2 Var. 3 Var. 4 Var. 5 Var. 6 Var. 7 Var. 8Bank 1 13458.62 161.65 397,339 70.80% 40.68 1.20% 22.79% 1.08%Bank 2 10810.32 135.03 313,867 57.03% 43.02 1.25% 22.61% 1.14%Bank 3 10459.87 104.42 279,301 67.83% 37.39 1.00% 18.87% 1.10%Bank 4 10337.41 94.91 444,447 83.13% 21.35 0.92% 22.49% 2.03%Bank 5 3951.59 39.04 85,290 32.36% 45.78 0.99% 20.08% 1.12%Bank 6 2402.51 25.77 43,089 35.30% 59.80 1.07% 21.75% 0.68%Bank 7 2191.41 25.28 28,081 45.49% 90.03 1.15% 23.27% 0.51%Bank 8 2081.31 21.51 33,552 63.01% 64.11 1.03% 19.24% 0.68%Bank 9 1849.67 18.52 29,214 28.89% 63.40 1.00% 24.64% 0.42%Bank 10 1823.74 17.58 30,931 0.00% 56.84 0.96% 18.29% 0.69%Bank 11 1483.95 12.79 22,267 64.04% 57.44 0.86% 20.99% 0.75%Bank 12 1040.23 5.99 14,304 35.99% 41.87 0.58% 18.25% 1.18%Bank 13 733.21 6.80 6,455 19.51% 105.39 0.93% 17.00% 0.69%Bank 14 727.61 6.28 16,450 0.00% 38.19 0.86% 23.22% 0.58%Bank 15 263.27 2.32 4,057 17.14% 57.23 0.88% 20.53% 0.69%Bank 16 221.49 2.31 2,926 29.08% 78.98 1.04% 17.21% 0.97%Source: Data are from 2010 annual report of each bank. Var. 1: Total Assets (RMB billion). Var. 2: Net profits (RMB billion)Var. 3: Number of employees (persons) Var. 4: Shares of state and state-owned entities (%)Var. 5: Net profit per employee (RMB10, 000) Var. 6: Net profit over total assets, ROA (%)Var. 7: Weighted average ROE (%) Var. 8: Ratio of bad loansBank 1: Industrial and Commercial Bank (ICBC) Bank 2: China Construction Bank (CCB) Bank 3: Bank of China (BOC) Bank 4: Agricultural Bank of China (ABC) Bank 5: Communication Bank of China Bank 6: China Merchants Bank Bank 7: Shanghai Pudong Development Bank Bank 8: China CITIC Bank Bank 9: Industrial Bank Bank 10: China Minsheng BankBank 11: China Everbright Bank Bank 12: Huaxia Bank Bank 13: Bank of Beijing Bank 14: Shenzhen Development Bank Bank 15: Bank of Ningbo Bank 16: Bank of Nanjing
37Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010RMB 221 billion. So of the sixteen listed commercial banks, the asset size of the largest bank (ICBC) is more than 60 times of the smallest (Bank of Nanjing). If we count the number of employees as the indicator of bank size, the ranking is almost the same. The number of employees of ICBC is more than 130 times of Bank of Nanjing.Next we define bank profitability, the dependent variable in the fol lowing regressions. Bank profitability, as the name itself implies, means the ability of banks to make profits. It should not be measured only by output, say, total profits or net profits; it is best measured by a ratio, a benefit-cost relationship, because no profit is earned without any cost. In the literature, bank profitability is typically measured by “return on assets” (ROA) and/or “return on equity” (ROE). In this paper, we use three indicators to measure bank profitability, including ROA and ROE.2 Please note that profitability only indicates the ability to make money, the variable itself says nothing about why it can make money or how it makes money.The first indicator of profitability is called “net profit per person,” which is defined by “net profit divided by total number of employees.” The second is ROA, and the third is ROE, which is called “weighted average ROE.” 3All these indicators are either directly reported by the banks in their annual reports, or can be easily calculated based on their definitions. All three indicators are related but different. All of them can measure bank profitability, but from different perspectives.We can have a glimpse of the sixteen listed banks on their profitability. For net profit per person, the “Big Four” banks do not have an advantage, which can be explained by historical reasons, say, redundant workers under traditional systems. In 2010, Bank of Beijing has the highest value of net profit per person, 2. In the literature, economic value-added (EVA) and net interest margin (NIM) are also used to measure bank performance, but they are not as commonly used as ROA and ROE. 3. For the formula of calculating “weighted average ROE,” please refer to a Notice issued by China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC) in 2001, http://finance.sina.com.cn/g/34625.html.which is RMB 1.05 million, while the lowest is Agricultural Bank of China (ABC), which had been traditionally serving the rural areas. Incidentally, ABC is the last bank of the “Big Four” to be listed on the stock market. For ROA and ROE, the difference among the banks is much less dramatic. If we rank ROA, the highest is China Construction Bank (CCB), which is 1.25 percent. The Industrial Bank is the best performed if ranked with ROE; its ROE reaches nearly 15 percent in 2010. Besides ownership structure and size, we still need to control for other variables to measure the effects of ownership structure and size on bank profitability reliably. These control variables are percentage of loan by the largest debtor, percentage of loan by the top 10 debtors, liquidity ratio, loan-deposit ratio, bad loan ratio, and capital adequacy ratio. All these data are reported in the annual reports of listed banks. The names, definitions, and descriptive statistics of all variables are presented in Table 2.1.2 The Model and MethodologyWe will apply panel data analyses in the empirical study. The advantages of using panel data are obvious. First, panel data can provide us with more observations. Since there are only sixteen listed banks in China up to now, if we do not use panel data, we would not have enough observations for regression. Second, panel data can effectively control the heterogeneity of individual banks, since the banks have quite different backgrounds and characteristics. Third, econometrically, panel data can provide more information, more variation, more degrees of freedom, and less collinearity (Wang, 2008)[17]. Given the panel data, we still have three alternatives when choosing an appropriate model to use. That is, we could choose among pooled OLS model, fixed effect (FE) model, and random effect (RE) model. When choosing between pooled OLS and FE models, we use Wald test. The Wald test result shows that FE model is more appropriate. When choosing between pooled OLS and RE models, we use B-P test and LR test, both tests show that RE model is more appropriate. When choosing between FE and
38RE models, we use Hausman test. The Hausman test supports the FE model. Sixteen (banks) is not a large number, so the heterogeneity among them is less likely random. We will use FE model to test the following equation: (1)Here, profitability is measured by the three different definitions explained above (so we have three specific models); the meanings of other variables are listed in Table 2.Before the regressions, we have to conduct some diagnostic tests on multi-collinearity and heterogeneity among cross-sections. The first is collinearity between the explanatory variables. People may have good reason to suspect a collinearity relation between bank ownership and bank size, because large banks are traditionally owned by the state in China.This is really a problem if we use just cross-sectional data. As mentioned above, panel data can mitigate the collinearity problem; this is from the perspective of econometric methodology. If we examine the data carefully, we will find that after the banks are listed on the stock market, the state shares in the large banks have been declining, while the asset size of all banks has been increasing. Even if we view a cross section, say in 2010, some banks are very large, but their state shares are not very high. For example, CCB is the second largest bank in China, but its state share is only 57 percent. Some banks are not very large, but their state shares are very high. For example, CITIC Bank and Everbright Bank are much smaller than the “Big Four,” but their state shares are quite high - more than 65 percent.The second problem is possible heteroscedasticity among the cross-sections. After checking the models, we find that there do exist heteroscedasticity. To solve this problem and possible cross-sectional correlation problem, we will use regressions reporting Driscoll-Table 2. Variables: Names, Definitions, and Descriptive Statistics, 1998-2010Variable Name Meanings of Variables Mean Std. Dev. Min MaxROA Return on Assets (%) 0.78 0.343 0.13 1.55ROE Weighted Return on Equity (%) 18.30 6.298 4.32 42.78Profit_per_person Net Profit Per Person 33.24 22.123 4.32 42.78State_ownership Fraction of State Ownership (%) 40.40 28.340 0 100Total_asset Value of Total Assets 20408 30009 253 134586Net_profit Net Profit 179.32 310.66 1.70 1616.54Employees Number of Employees 79291 137727 689 489425Top_1 % of loan by the Largest Debtor 6.33 4.75 1.03 38.16Top_10 % of loan by Top 10 Debtors 40.59 23.86 15.70 165.06Liquidity_ratio Liquidity Ratio (%) 46.79 13.24 25.02 83.29Loan_deposit_ratio Loan-Deposit Ratio (%) 64.67 7.40 46.72 79.96Bad_loan_ratio Bad Loan Ratio (%) 3.93 4.99 0.33 26.73Capital_adeq_ratio Capital Adequacy Ratio (%) 11.18 4.02 -1.47 30.67Note: ROA=Net Profit divided by the Mean of Beginning and Closing Balances of Total Assets. ROE weighted is calculated according to The Information Disclosure and Compilation Rule No. 9 – Calculation and Disclosure of Return on Equity and Earnings per Share (revised in 2010), formulated by China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC). Percentage of Loan by the Largest Debtor = Loan borrowed by the Largest Debtor divided by Net Capital. Percentage of Loan by Top 10 Debtors = Loan borrowed by the Largest 10 Debtors divided by Net Capital. Liquidity Ratio = Balance of Liquid Assets divided by Balance of Liabilities. Loan-Deposit Ratio = Balance of Loan divided by Balance of Deposits (Balance of deposits does not include deposits by governments and outward remittance). Bad Loan Ratio = Balance of Bad Loan divided by Total Loans of all Debtors. Net Profit per Person is in unit of RMB 10,000. Total Assets and Net Profit are in units of RMB 100 million. All other variables are in percentages.
39Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010Kraay standard errors, 4which are more robust if there are heteroscedasticity and cross-sectional correlation problems (Driscoll and Kraay, 1998[19]).Because the pane l da ta we use has the characteristic of N>T (the number of banks is greater than the number of years), and most banks have less than 10 years of data (on average, each bank has only 8.25 years of data). So the problems of serial correlation and panel unit root can be reasonably ignored (Wang, 2008) [17].2 Regression and ExplanationTable 3 presents the regression results. First, let’s look at the effects of ownership structure. From the regression results, share of state ownership has a statistically significant and negative impact on net profit per person and ROE, but economically very insignificant. The results show that if the state ownership rises by 1 percent, net profit per person will drop by 0.0065 percent, and ROE will drop by 0.09 percent. These effects can almost be negligible. The variable of state ownership does not have any statistically significant effect on ROA. In sum, we can conclude that ownership structure is not a key determinant of profitability of Chinese listed banks. That is, the evidence does not support our first hypothesis. This result is somewhat surprising, because it is not consistent with people’s intuition, nor does it accord with theoretical prediction. Both people’s intuition and economic theory (especially property rights theory) suggest that private organizations tend to provide with managers and employees stronger incentive than public ones. It is fair to assume that people in private organizations work harder than those who work in public ones. So it seems that we have good reason to believe that private banks outperform their public counterparts. Banks with lower state shares (or higher private shares) should have higher profit margins. This effect should be both economically and statistically significant.4. For the specific Stata commands and related discussions please refer to Stata Journal, 2007, vol.3, pp. 281-312.The regression results, however, do not provide sufficient evidence to support this common insight. This does not necessarily imply that the data or theory is wrong. It may just imply that ownership is not a key determinant of bank profitability in today’s China. The banking industry is quite different from manufacturing industries. The banking industry is highly regulated compared with manufacturing. Specifically, in China, interest rates (especially deposit interest rates) and reserve-deposit ratio are determined by the People’s Bank of China (PBOC)5, China’s central bank; at the same time, the lower limit of capital adequacy ratio and upper limit of bad loan ratio are specified by China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC), China’s banking regulatory authority. These regulations are applied to all banks. So commercial banks, no matter they are state-owned or privately owned, have little room to maneuver. This is an important reason why ownership structure does not significantly affect bank profitability.This result can also be explained from the perspective of market structure. As we know, since the commercialization reform of banks, especially after China’s entry into the WTO, the banking industry in China has become increasingly competitive. Nevertheless, compared with the manufacturing sector, the banking industry as a whole still holds a monopoly position, in the sense that private investors are not allowed to open a bank. That is why there are numerous so-called “underground private banks” (illegal) in southeast China, especially in Zhejiang Province.6 Under this condition and given that interest rates are not determined by the market but set by the government, the demand for banking services (mainly loans) from other sectors of the economy is far more than the supply of them. Therefore, compared with the industrial sector, it is far easier for banks to make 5. The People’s Bank of China determines all deposit interest rates, but only sets a benchmark interest rate of loans for commercial banks to follow. Commercial banks can vary interest rates of loans within a reasonable range. 6. In March 2012, the Chinese government announced a pilot project in to reform the financial sector in Wenzhou, an eastern coastal city in Zhejiang province with a tradition of entrepreneurship.
40profit in China.7 This represents a mismatch between the industrial structure and financial structure (Lin et al., 2009[20]). Under this kind of market structure, profit of banks results not so much from incentive and efficiency, as it is from their license.The market structure of China’s banking industry can also help to explain the dramatically rapid growth of existing commercial banks in China. Of the top 25 banks that grow most rapidly in the world ranked by the U.K. magazine The Banker (2011)[21], 15 Chinese banks are included.8 During the past three years, profit of Chinese banks has grown by 95 percent. China’s banking profit has accounted for more than 20 percent of the whole world. This is partly explained by the monopolized banking industry, and partly explained by the rapid economic growth of China during the past decade.The above result may suggest that there should be some other factors to explain the variation of bank profitability. Regarding the effect of bank size on profitability, the empirical findings in all the three models indicate that bank size has a statistically significant and positive impact on bank profitability. That is to say, data strongly support economies of scale effect in the banking industry. Regressions results reveal that, on average, when total asset increases by 1 percent, net profit per person will increase by 0.48 percentage points, ROA will rise by 0.2 percentage points, and ROE will rise by 4.23 percentage points. All these estimates are highly statistically significant at 1 percent level. That is, our second hypothesis is strongly confirmed. 7. As Chinese premier Wen Jiabao said, “I think it has been too easy, quite frankly, for our banks to make profits. The reason is that a small number of large banks are in a monopolistic position. It is only from them, and nowhere else, that companies get the loans they need.” Reflecting on the fat profits of banks, Hong Qi, president of China Minsheng Banking Corp, even said at a forum in 2011 that the sector’s profit was so high but profit for industrial companies was so low that he sometimes felt upset to talk about his bank’s profit. Minsheng’s annual report, published in March 2012, showed a surge in profit of more than 58 percent in 2011. For details, please refer to China Daily, April 5, 2012.8. Bank of Jiangsu in Jiangsu province, Bank of Jining in Shandong province, and Chongqing Rural Commercial Bank in Chongqing Municipality ranked No.2, No.3, and No.4 respectively in terms of growth rate. There are other several banks whose growth rates exceeded 100% in 2011 (The Banker, 2011)[21]. This effect of strong economies of scale is relatively easy to understand and explain. Given the shortage of banking services in China, it is not difficult for a bank to find a customer. For any commercial bank, to grant a loan of RMB 1 million, and another loan of RMB 1 billion, the costs are very close – the bank will use almost the same number of persons, and undergo the same processes, but the benefits are 1000 times different. The idea of economies of scale was first proposed to describe industrial production, but it is most appropriate to characterize the banking sector.Undoubtedly, large banks enjoy advantage of economies of scale. For example, ICBC is the largest commercial bank in China, and its profit level was also the highest in 2010 (gross profit was $32.5 billion). CCB is the second largest bank in China, and small wonder its profit level was the second largest in the world (gross profit was $26.4 billion). These are not pure coincidence. Economies of scale must have played a vital role. For example, in 2010, the single largest loan of ICBC was RMB 21.7 billion, while the single largest loan of Bank of Nanjing, the smallest listed bank in China, was only RMB 590 million. If we assume that the costs of a single loan of the two banks are the same, and the interest rates are the same,9 then for the single loan, the benefit of ICBC is more than 36 times of Bank of Nanjing! Thus the effect of economies of scale is very significant in the banking industry. Regressions also show that the percentage of loan borrowed by the single largest debtor and the top ten debtors do not produce any significant effects on bank profitability. That is because these two percent levels are strictly controlled and regulated by CBRC, and out of risk aversion, most listed banks don’t want to “put all eggs in one basket.”10 In contrast, size of assets is not regulated and constrained by any authority, so effect of economies of scale in the banking industry is more reflected by their size of 9. Due to the monopolistic position of the entire banking sector in China, and due to the strong bargaining power of the large banks in China, they don’t have to lower the lending interest rates to find customers. So this assumption makes sense in China. 10. The author is grateful to Professor Han Chaohua of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences for offering this insight.
41Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010assets.Moreover, in China, large banks also have more opportunities to cooperate with governments at various levels.11 Chinese governments, central and local, still control most of the key areas of the national economy such as petroleum, telecom, and railway, etc. To stimulate the economy after the world financial crisis occurred in 2007-2008, Chinese governments have invested heavily in infrastructure construction in recent years, such as highways, railways, and airports.12 These large construction projects, which need a large sum of money, can only be financed by large banks. In an interview with an urban commercial bank leader by the author of this paper, the bank leader said the local government had intended to cooperate 11. For instance, the construction of high-speed railroad between Beijing and Shanghai was financed by Bank of China, which was coordinated by Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Railway of China (Zhao, 2010, p.85)[21]. 12. In 2011, RMB700 billion was invested to build high-speed rail in China. In 2012, an investment of RMB500 billion will be made to build new high-speed tracks (Data source: China Daily, April 5, 2012, page 2). It is easy to understand that these huge projects must be financed b large banks. with the local commercial bank in building the city’s subway system. The local commercial bank, however, was too small to be able to finance it. So the local government had to turn to ICBC (Zhao, 2011)[22].Given the strong economies of scale effect in the banking industry, no bank in China can afford not to become larger, especially relatively smaller listed banks, they face more pressure to become larger. And given the monopoly position of the entire banking industry (private investors are not allowed to open banks), existing banks have no difficulty in finding customers to grant loans provided they have enough capital (deposits). So not only small and medium-sized banks want to grow larger, but large banks want to become even larger.13The situation is quite different from banks in developed countries, which are operating in much 13. On 5 January 2011, Agricultural Bank of China announced that it would issue RMB50 billion of subordinated bonds. On 17-19 May 2011, Bank of China issued RMB32 billion of subordinated bonds. China Merchants Bank and China CITIC Bank both announced to issue new A+H stocks, worth RMB60 billion and RMB26 billion respectively. Source: official website of each bank.Table 3. Regression Results: Determinants of Profitability of Chinese Listed BanksRegressor Model (1)Dependent Var.: Net Profit Per PersonModel (2)Dependent Var.:ROAModel (3)Dependent Var.:ROEState_ownership-0.0065**(0.0025)-0.0014(0.0010)-0.0882**(0.0364)Total_asset0.4820***(0.0685)0.2001***(0.0346)4.2336***(1.2224)Top_1-0.0160(0.0106)-0.0018(0.0056)0.2794(0.2134)Top_100.0026(0.0029)0.0015(0.0017)-0.0609(0.0548)Liquidity_ratio0.0069**(0.0024)0.0032***(0.0008)0.2615***(0.0584)Loan_deposit_ratio0.0117*(0.0060)0.0064**(0.0025)0.2762***(0.0754)Capital_adeq_ratio0.0492**(0.0183)0.0412***(0.0111)-0.0002(0.2445)Bad_loan_ratio-0.0209(0.0191)0.0040(0.0081)1.0037***(0.1687)Constant-2.2571***(0.6031)2.0016***(0.2828)-48.2648***(12.6222)Observations N=132 N=132 N=132Within R-squared 0.7164 0.5342 0.1997F-value 652.95 155.12 170.81Model specification Fixed Effect Fixed Effect Fixed EffectNote: ***, **, and * stand for statistically significant at 10%, 5%, and 1%, respectively. Figures in parentheses are Driscoll-Kraay standard errors of the estimates. In the regression equations, total assets is in unit of RMB trillion, other regressors are in units of percentage. In the regressions, net profit per person and total asset are in logarithm.
42more competitive markets. As reported by Staikouras and Wood (2003)[23], in Europe, medium-sized banks have the highest profit margins, and then small banks, and last large banks. Sinkey (1992)[24] also reported an inverse U-shaped (parabola-shaped) relation between bank profitability and bank size in the U.S. If competition in the banking sector is intense enough (private investors are allowed to open banks), then competition among large banks will drive down their profit margins. Because large banks compete for large customers to realize the benefit of economies of scale, then large customers would have a better bargaining position to drive down loan interest rates that large banks could charge. Chinese banking industry is still far from that situation.Several control variables, say, liquidity ratio, loan-deposit ratio, and capital adequacy ratio, also show significantly positive effect on profitability of listed banks; these effects, however, are economically very insignificant. Bad loan ratio does not produce any significant effect on net profit per person and ROA, but significantly positive effect on ROE. All these variables are balances between rate of return and risk; they are “double-sided sword.” Theoretically, the higher the risk taken by a bank, the higher will be the rate of return. The accumulation of risk, say bad loans, may also erode the profit of a bank.3 ConclusionBy using an unbalanced bank level panel data, this study seeks to test the effect of ownership structure and size on bank profitability in China during the period 1998-2010. The empirical findings from this study suggest that ownership structure does not have any economically significant effect on bank profitability, while bank size has both statistically and economically significant and positive effect on bank profitability. That is to say, there exists strong “economies of scale” in Chinese listed banks. This helps to explain why all Chinese banks are striving to become larger. This also explains why no large banks are really willing to serve small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs),14 nor are they really willing to serve the rural areas.The findings of this paper reflect a fundamental problem in the economic structure of today’s China. Compared with the industrial manufacturing sector, the banking sector is monopolized, in the sense that no private investors are allowed to open a bank. At the given interest rates, which are controlled by the central banks, the demand for loans far exceeds the supply of it. So almost all banks, state owned or privately owned, make profits far more easily than the competitive manufacturing industry. Moreover, although the government (central bank) determines interest rates, it does not control the size of each loan, so large banks can reap more benefits from economies of scale than smaller banks.The findings of this study also offer some policy relevance. That is, to let the banks serve SMEs and farmers, the government should open the banking industry and allow small private banks to emerge and develop. That may seem radical for China today, as a compromising step, Chinese government may legalize some of the “underground” private banks in Southeast China’s Zhejiang province, especially in Wenzhou, allow them to operate under the “sunshine.” Those “underground” thus illegal private banks are just like weeds, which have strong vitality. Just like a famous Chinese poem goes, “Even a praise fire cannot destroy the grass; it grows again when the spring breeze blows.” So it is better to legalize them than to wipe them out; they cannot be wiped out because of the huge market demand. One limitation of this paper is the possible endogeneity problem of some explanatory variables in the empirical models. It remains uncertain whether profitability will affect total asset, bad-loan-ratio and capital-adequacy-ratio, etc. It is fair to assume that such impacts are marginal and negligible considering that these variables are more heavily influenced by government policies and market conditions. Even so, 14. Economists and the public have long complained about a lack of progress in reform of the State-dominated banking and financial industry and of inadequate service for the country’s large number of small and medium-sized enterprises.
43Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010we hope to address this problem in future studies. References [1] Cheung S. Economic explanation III: choice of institutions, Hong Kong: Arcadia Press, 2002. [2] Molyneux P., Thornton, J. Determinants of European bank profitability: a note. Journal of Banking and Finance, 1992, 16(6): 1173-1178.[3] Aburime, T. Impact of ownership structure on bank profitability in Nigeria. Journal of Global Economy, 2008, 4(3): 169-182.[4] Grigorian D, Manole V. Determinants of commercial bank performance in transition: an application of data envelope analysis (IMF Working Paper #146). International Monetary Fund, Washington DC, 2005. [5] Liu H., Wei W., Ouyang, J. A research on China’s banking performance based on market, ownership, and capital. Studies of International Finance, 2005 5(1): 62-67. [6] Zhao R., Yang Y. Empirical analysis of the impact of capital structure on China’s commercial banks profitability. Journal of Shanxi Finance and Economics University, 2009, 31(6): 85-92. [7] Gu X. A study on the profitability of China’s state-owned commercial banks, Ph.D. Dissertation, East China Normal University, 2005.[8] Bikker J., Hu H. Cyclical patterns in profits, provisioning and lending of banks and procyclicality of the new Basel capital requirements. BNL Quarterly Review, 2002, 221(1): 143-175. [9] Goddard J., Molyneux, P., Wilson, J. Dynamic of growth and profitability in banking. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 2004, 36(6): 1069-1090.[10] Boyd J., Runkle D. Size and performance of banking firms: testing the predictions of theory. Journal of Monetary Economics, 1993, 31(1): 47-67.[11] Zhao S., Xiang L. Advantages and performance of American community banks. Economic Perspectives, 2010, 6(1): 129-134. [12] Berger A., Hanweck, G., Humphrey D. Competitive viability in banking: scale scope and product mix economies. Journal of Monetary Economics, 1987, 20(3): 501-520. [13] Miller S., Noulas A. Portfolio mix and large bank profitability in the USA. Applied Economics, 1997, 29(4): 505-512.[14] Athanasoglou P., Brissimis S., Delis, M. Bank specific, industry specific and macroeconomic determinants of bank profitability. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, 2008, 18(2): 121-136.[15] Houston J., Lin C., Ma Y.. Creditor rights, information sharing, and bank risk taking. Journal of Financial Economics, 2010, 96: 485-512. [16] Zhao X., Jiang Z., Zhou J. An empirical study on the relationship between market structure and performance of China’s banking industry. Journal of Financial Research, 2001, 3(1): 59-67. [17] Qin W., Ouyang J. Market structure, efficiency and performance of China’s commercial banks. Economics Science, 2001, 4(1): 34-45.[18] Wang Z. Panel Data Model and Its Application in Economics, Beijing: Economic Science Press, 2008.[19] Driscoll J., Kraay A. Consistent covariance matrix estimation with spatially dependent panel data. Review of Economics and Statistics, 1998, 80(4): 549-560.[20] Lin Y., Sun X., Jiang Y. Toward a theory of optimal financial structure in economic development. Economic Research Journal, 2009, 8(1): 4-17.[21] The Banker. Top 1000 banks, available from www.thebanker.com, 2011.[22] Zhao S. The Transformation of China’s Financial Market: The Government, the Firm, and the Financial Institutions, Macao: Macao University of Science and Technology Press, 2010.[23] Staikouras C., Wood G. The determinants of bank profitability in Europe: Paper presented to the European Applied Business Research Conference, Venice, 9-13 June 2003.[24] Sinkey J. Jr. Commercial Bank Financial Management in the Financial Services Industry, New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1992.校園文化《外交官系列講座I》第二講 ——中國駐巴西大使李金章主講“中國和拉美國家展望”由澳門基金會贊助,澳門科技大學舉辦的《外交官系列講座I》第二講,於10月12日下午在澳門科技大學N101室舉行。本次講座邀請到原中華人民共和國外交部副部長、中華人民共和國駐巴西大使李金章先生前來演講。李金章大使,自1976年起,前後擔任中華人民共和國駐尼加拉瓜共和國大使館一秘、駐古巴共和國大使館參贊、外交部拉美司司長。2001年,出任中國駐墨西哥大使。兩年後回國,擔任部長助理。2006年,升任中華人民共和國外交部副部長。2012年起,擔任中華人民共和國駐巴西大使。在講座上,李金章大使為同學們介紹了巴西社會、文化、經濟等方面的現狀和特點,分析了巴西在社會經濟發展中所存在的問題。李金章大使指出,中國和巴西作為經貿合作夥伴國以及金磚五國的成員國,兩國還需要進一步深化合作,尤其是在基礎設施建設方面,巴西亟需中國企業的加入和合作。李金章大使在最後的學生問答環節中鼓勵學生以輕鬆、包容、開放、平等及多角度的態度看待外國文化,擴展文化視野及國際觀,在加強專業知識學習的同時,也要多接觸和瞭解外國文化知識。
44第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論王少傑1,2,劉善仕2(1. 華南理工大學工商管理學院,廣州;2. 廣東湛江師範學院,湛江)摘要: 以往研究中國企業文化建設問題,理論界多以西方的企業文化理論來談論中國企業文化建設,研究成果主要體現為研究者的企業文化的理性思辨結晶。而關於中國傳統文化如何進入企業文化建設的視野,理論界的研究同樣仍然以純理論研究為主,鮮有通過具體的案例分析去推演中國傳統文化與企業文化建設的理論範式。本研究通過紮根一家應用傳統文化進行企業文化建設的典型企業,得出一個有別于現有主流企業文化理論的企業文化建設模型,在這個個案模型的基礎上,我們演化出中國企業進行企業文化建設的基本規律。研究的成果是對中國傳統文化與現代企業文化建設如何耦合的一個理論創新,是對現有企業文化理論的一個補充。同時,本研究的成果對於中國企業全面走向國際經濟社會的過程中,需要著力注意的企業文化本土化問題有一定的參考價值。關鍵詞: 企業文化;中國傳統文化;中國企業文化;企業文化建設 Chinese traditional culture, corporate culture construction, sustainaAle groyth of enterprises: the theory of corporate culture to Auild a localizedShaoJie WANG1, 2, Shanshi LIU2( 1. South China University of Technology Faculty of Business Administration, Guangzhou, China ) ( 2. Guangdong Zhanjiang Normal University, Zhanjiang, China )AAstract: In previous studies the building of enterprise culture in China, theorists and more to the Western theory of corporate culture to talk about the cultural construction of Chinese enterprises, research results mainly for rational debate crystallization of the researcher's corporate culture. About traditional Chinese culture, how to get into the field of view of the building of enterprise culture, the research field in the same still pure research-based, little theoretical paradigm through specific case analysis to deduce the traditional Chinese culture and corporate culture construction. In this study, by application of traditional cultural construction of corporate culture rooted a typical enterprise, come to a different from the existing mainstream theory of corporate culture construction of corporate culture model, we evolved Chinese enterprise corporate culture, in this case the model based on the construction of the basic law. The outcome of the study is a theoretical innovation, coupled how the construction of the Chinese traditional culture and modern corporate culture is a supplement to the existing corporate culture theory. The same time, the results of this study for Chinese enterprises towards a comprehensive international economic and social process, the need to focus attention to the localization of corporate culture has a certain reference value.eyyords: Corporate culture of traditional; Chinese culture; Corporate culture; Corporate culture construction收稿日期:2012-07-27;修訂日期:2013-03-08。本文受中央高校基本科研業務費面上專案編號2013XMS05的資助王少傑:華南理工大學工商管理學院博士後,湛江師範學院教師,從事企業管理研究。 E-mail:wangsj2288@163.com;Tel:18620079190
57王少傑,等 中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論為明顯(謝洪明,2006)[70]。所以,強勢企業文化構建的一個關鍵點在於如何在企業文化建設的鏈條中構建一個心理傳導機制,通過這種機制使文化與員工的行為切合。無限極公司的實證研究告訴我們,強勢企業文化是通過如下模型而實現的。圖5 強勢企業文化形成模型文化心理學研究表明,文化能夠塑造或者影響人的知覺。企業文化對企業發展的影響最終要通過員工的行為來體現,而對員工行為影響的最好方式就是把文化移植到生活中,使文化生活化,這樣企業文化就在“隨風潛入夜、潤物細無聲”的境界下,完成對員工行為的影響。為什麼生活化的環境中能使員工更好的接受企業文化?一項文化心理學研究表明,在面對一個重要的知覺物件時,生活在集體主義文化(如中國人)中的人能更好地結合情境資訊,而生活在個體主義文化 (歐美人)中的人更傾向於忽略情境資訊。這些實驗研究結果表明文化信念能夠影響視知覺(Kitayama S,2003)[4],為此,企業文化通過生活化的環節,把員工置身於生活化的文化環境中,員工工作過程中,耳濡目染接觸到的視覺物件大多是與企業文化有關聯的資訊,通過在這樣文化生活化環境中“浸泡”過的員工,企業文化對其產生影響是不言而喻的。中國員工是在有悠久集體主義傳統的國家成長起來的,有關研究表明:一旦文化特質的適應性形成,負責存儲和傳遞文化能力的認知神經結構在遺傳選擇的作用下會得到進一步的“提煉”。為此,這種文化特質在遺傳選擇的進化過程導致了心理和神經過程的文化差異,而這種心理和神經過程在文化特質的遺傳過程中起到內生表型的作用(Aylor S E,2006)[71]。這種內生表型的作用進一步通過遺傳的方式進行代際延續,把文化特質傳遞給下一代,使某些顯性的文化特質在特定的群體中固化。經遺傳學研究表明:人類基因具有明顯的文化特質差異性,主要是由於一個特定基因的等位元基因頻率的文化特質差異,會在多個進化過程中存在,如自然選擇、遺傳漂變(Green A E,2008)[72]。所以,集體主義的因素對於中國員工來說,是根植在其基因中的文化資訊,擁有這樣文化基因的員工進行企業文化薰陶,營造一個生活化的集體化的文化環境應該是最為便捷、有效的途徑。另外一項研究則更為生動的證明這中文化特質在現實生活中的存在:一項文化心理學研究表明,在面對一個重要的知覺物件時,生活在集體主義文化中的人能更好的抓住情境資訊;而生活在個體主義文化中的人更傾向於忽視情境資訊(Kitayama S, 2003)[73]。這就更說明對中國員工進行企業文化傳播時,營造一個能被其心裡容易接受的環境是多麼的重要,而生活化的環境顯然是人們最為樂於、輕鬆接受環境。強勢的企業文化只有在這樣的環境具備的條件下,才能形成,強勢的影響力才能更好的體現。如果沒有這樣一些情景資訊反復刺激員工的認知,那麼對於擁有集體主義基因的中國員工來說,顯然是一件困難的事。根據 Markus 的觀點,不同文化背景下往往會形成不同結構的自我概念。集體主義文化背景中的個體傾向于形成互倚型的自我概念(interdependentself);而個人主義文化背景下的個體往往會形成獨立型的自我(independentself)。這些不同的自我概念又會進一步對認知活動產生不同的影響作用(楊紅升,2007)[24]。在集體主義傳統下成長起來的中國員工的自我概念顯然是互倚型的,本案例企業通過為員工營造一個和諧的集體生活環境,在這樣的生活背景下,員工會更易認可、接受公司文化。比如無限極公司實施
61王少傑,等 中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論上,推演出企業文化建設模型,這個模型與現有的企業文化理論相比,我們的貢獻在於:第一、找到中國企業文化建設與中國傳統文化之間的邏輯關係;第二、我們得出一個新的動態企業文化模型,彌補了現有企業文化理論把活的企業文化人為的僵化,或人為的預設一種思維路徑去研究企業探討企業文化的思維路徑,使本研究的成果對中國企業管理實踐更具有指導意義;此外,本研究關於中國傳統文化與現代企業文化建設的耦合、中國的傳統文化如何在企業文化建設中造就強勢企業文化、強勢企業文化的保障機制、強勢的企業文化推動企業績效增長的理論模型的構建,這有助於中國本土企業在進行企業文化建設過程,避免照搬國外企業文化而誤入企業文化建設的歧途,構建出符合中國員工思維、習慣的本土化的企業文化,從而推動企業的發展;最後,在研究方法上,我們用規範的紮根理論研究流程,對中國企業文化建設進行了深入的研究,這是我們在中國企業文化研究方法方面的一個貢獻。因為目前關於企業文化研究的中外文獻就研究方法來看,主要通過研究者的思辨分析或引入定量研究的思路,開發測量表進行研究,但這些研究一方面過於主觀化,另一方面定量研究儘管可計量,但對中國企業文化研究來說,在我們沒有開發出符合中國實際的企業文化量表的前提下,通過引進外國的量表進行本主題研究,顯然存在測量的準確性問題。本研究的紮根研究則是完全通過觀察中國人的言行,分析這些言行的基礎上而得出的企業文化理論,這個理論更符合中國企業的實際,也更能被中國員工接受。本研究的不足:本研究以一個案例為樣本進行深入研究,這在代表性方面略顯不足。本研究的成果是在研究個案基礎上得出的,對其他企業的企業文化建設有沒有可行性的指導,我們沒有驗證,這有待我們進一步在企業文化建設的實踐中去檢驗這個理論模型。未來理論研究展望:在這個問題上,未來的研究可以在若干個案例背景下進行紮根研究,對模型的構成要素進行反復驗證、完善模型。此外,對本研究主題設計一個符合中國人思維習慣的科學的企業文化量表,就此進行一個量化的研究,這樣可以找到更多的樣本,獲取更多的資訊,通過多樣本對模型進行驗證、改進。參 考 文 獻[1] Hofstede G. Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001.[2] Triandis H C. Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1995.[3] Munafo M R, Durrant C, Lewis G, Flint J. Gene? environment interactions at the serotonin transporter locus. Biological Psychiatry, 2009, 65(3): 211-219.[4] Kitayama S, Dufy S, Kawamura T, Larsen J T. Per- ceiving an object and its context in different cultures: A cultural look at new look. Psychological Science, 2003, 14: 201-206.[5] S E, Way B M, Welch W T, Hilmert C J, Lehman B J, Eisenberger N I. Early family environment, current adversity, the serotonin transporter polymorphism, and depressive symptomatology. Biological Psychiatry, 2006, 60: 671-676.[6] Green A E, Munafo`M, DeYoung C G, Fossella J, Fan J, Gray J R. Using genetic data in cognitive neuroscience: From growing pains to genuine insights. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2008, 9: 710-720.[7] Kitayama S, Dufy S, Kawamura T, Larsen J T. Per- ceiving an object and its context in different cultures: A cultural look at new look. Psychological Science, 2003, 14: 201-206.[8] Tsai J L. Ideal affect: Cultural causes and behavioral consequences. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2007, 2: 242-259.[9] Peterst,Watermanrh. 追求卓越[M]. 北京:中央編譯出版社,2003:66,11213.[10] Denisondr. Corporate culture and organizational effectiveness [M] .New York : John Wiley & Sons , 1990: 5-210.[11] Kotterjp, Heskettjl. Corporatecultureandperformance[M]. NewYork: FreePress, 1992: 16, 21, 19, 21, 35, 31, 40, 50, 47, 25, 58.[12] Collins J,Porras J. 基業長青[M]. 北京:中信出版社,2002:114.[13] Soupata L. Managing Culture for Competitive Advantage at United Parcel Service[J]. Journal of Organizational Excellence, 2001, 20( 3) : 19-26.[14] Kotter J P, Heskett J L. Corporate Culture and Performance[M]. New York: Free Press, 1992.[15] Barney J B. Organizational Culture: Can It Be a Source of Sustained Competitive Advantage[J]. Academy of Management Review, 1986, (11): 656-665.[16] Gordon G G, DiTomaso N. Predicting Corporate Performance from Organizational Culture[J]. Journal of Management Studies, 1992(29): 783-798.[17] Barney J B. Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage[J]. Journal of Management, 1991, 17: 99-120.[18] Richard N Farmer, BarryM Richman. Comparative Management and Economic Progress[M]. Homewood: Richard D.Irwin, 1965: 401-405.[19] Kotter and Heskell. Corporate Culture and Performance, New York: The Free Press, 1992: 23-24.
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63第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 員工希望對辱虐管理——員工創新的曲線調節作用孫柳苑(吉林大學珠海學院,珠海)摘要: 根據社會啟動理論,本次研究將探求辱虐管理影響員工創新行為的機制。基於從一家中國製造企業獲得的樣本資料,本次研究將探討如下幾個問題:(1)辱虐管理與員工創新行為存在倒U關係,(2)希望將對辱虐管理與員工創新行為之間的倒U關係有顯著調節效應。本次研究將從新的視角研究辱虐管理。關鍵詞: 辱虐管理;員工創新行為;希望The inverted u-shaped relationship Aetyeen AAusive supervision and employee creativity: the moderating effect of HopeLiuyuan SUN( Jinlin University Zhuhai College, Zhuhai, China )AAstract: Drawing upon social activation theory, this study is to propose and test a model of the mechanisms through which abusive supervision affects employees’ creativity. Based on two-wave survey data from a Chinese manufacturing firm, we propose that (1) there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between abusive supervision and employee creativity, (2) Hope moderates the inverted U-shaped relationship between abusive supervision and employee creativity. This study provides new insights into the research on abusive supervision.eyyords: Abusive supervision; Creativity; Hope 收稿日期:2013-03-05;修訂日期:2013-04-29。孫柳苑,女,博士,吉林大學珠海學院教師,主要研究方向:人力資源。E-mail:liuyuan1013@hotmail.com 電話:138256062960 引言如何提升企業的自主創新能力,成為擺在中國企業家和管理者面前的重要戰略議題。員工創新是企業創新的源泉,獲得核心技術的關鍵,競爭中生存成長的根基。近年來越來越多的學者從組織環境入手,分析組織環境的特性如何作用於員工的創新[1]。在組織環境的研究中,學者們都強調了領導行為對員工的創新能夠產生實質性影響作用[2]。但絕大多數學者遵循西方經典的社會交換理論以考察領導行為的作用效果,這些研究關注的是領導積極行為對員工創新的直接作用,例如變革型領導(transformational leadership)、授權型領導(empowering leadership)、服務型領導(servant leadership)[3~5]。領導壞行為對員工創新的影響這一黑箱仍未打開。實際上創新行為這種行為對負面領導行為更加敏感。無論是領導者、領導行為,還是領導效果都包含兩方面的內容即積極與消極的方面。近些年來,隨著領導者和領導行為等負面新聞的出現,學術界開始從新的視角來研究領導問題,並將其定
64義之為“破壞型領導”(destructive leadership)。Einarsen 等(2003)[6] 指出研究和預測破壞型領導行為比提升領導行為的積極效應還要重要。破壞型領導是一系列負面領導行為的統稱,這些行為包括辱虐管理(abusive supervision)、暴君領導(Tyrannical supervision)、欺淩(bully)、出軌(derail)、毒性領導(toxic leaders)等等。辱虐管理作為一種破壞型領導行為普遍地存在於組織管理中,它會對組織和員工產生一系列的影響。員工可能因此感到沮喪、憂慮、壓力或對工作不滿[7~8],甚至有的員工會通過破壞型越軌行為例如偷盜、延遲工作和浪費資源來報復領導[9]。上述的研究證實了辱虐管理對組織和員工的直接負面影響,但忽略了員工是否採取某些積極行為降低辱虐管理的破壞效應。 本文的貢獻在於(1)運用了社會啟動理論(Social activation theory)探求破壞型領導行為辱虐管理對於員工創新這種積極行為的影響機制。(2)創造性地探求了領導行為與員工創新的倒 U 型關係。由此本文將開拓領導與員工創新研究的新方向。(3)剖析員工希望這一變數對於辱虐管理及員工創新關係的調節作用,探究了員工對於改善企業管理者壞行為的貢獻,對於人力資源管理有一定的實踐啟示。 1 理論背景及假設1.1 理論背景倒 U 曲線最先是由美國著名經濟學家、1971年諾貝爾經濟學獎得主西蒙·庫茲涅茨提出來的 [10]。他通過對 18 個國家經濟增長與收入差距實證資料的分析,得出“收入分配不平等的長期趨勢是在前工業文明向工業文明過渡的經濟增長早期階段迅速擴大,然後在增長的後期階段逐漸縮小。”表現在圖形上是一條先向上彎曲後向下彎曲的曲線,形似顛倒過來的 U,故人們將其稱之為“倒U 曲線。在研究方法上,倒 U 曲線關係是指兩個變數首先是正相關的,但是到了一個點之後兩個變數的關係開始轉為負相關關係[11]。創新是指在特定領域中,員工針對組織的產品、實踐、服務或程式產生一些新穎、實效的想法,並運用這些想法生產新的產品,提供新服務[12~13]。本文採用啟動理論(Social activation theory)探求破壞型領導行為辱虐管理對於員工創新這種積極行為的影響機制。社會啟動理論指出人的行為受到某些驅動力的[14]。外部因素例如環境的複雜性、環境的變化、不確定性,內部因素例如人的思想都可以驅動人的不同行為[14~15]。但是這些驅動力有一個標準控制點,超過或者低於某個點都會使人產生壓力。Ursin 和 Eriksen(2004) [16] 從神經生理學的角度深入了對社會啟動理論的研究,並據此提出了社會啟動理論的分支理論——壓力認知啟動理論(cognitive activation theory of stress)。壓力本身就是一種驅動力。壓力在產生的初期並不會給人造成太大的威脅。壓力的應對行為取決於對結果的認知期盼。這種期盼分為積極樂觀的、消極的。當人對於結果的期盼是積極樂觀時,應對行為就是處理問題。當人對於結果的期盼是消極時,其應對行為就是絕望、無助。壓力認知啟動理論給予我們的啟示是:面對壓力時,人們會採取不同的應對行為,這種行為可能是積極的也可能是消極的。一些學者已經運用社會啟動理論來進行倒 U 型關係的實證研究,例如任務績效、滿意度、驅動調節行為的頻率[17]。適當的驅動力可以提升員工的績效水準,但是過高或過低的驅動力都有可能降低人對於環境的敏感性[18]、大腦皮層的反應效率[19]及人體的效能[20]。社會啟動理論也被學者用來解釋壓力與創新倒 U 型關係 [21~23]。當壓力適中時,人最具有創新力。因為適中的壓力會激發人的主觀能動性創新、創造性地解決問題[24]。適中的壓力不但能增強驅動力使人體興奮,還能提供認知刺激,從而激發人的創造性思維,激勵個體尋求問題解決方案[25~28]。直面壓力並尋找解決問題策略很有可能成為創新的源泉[29]。但是當壓力超過一定限度時,人可能產生絕望和無助的情緒[16],或者使人的個體產生認知障礙[30],從而停止他們的創新行為及放棄對於問題
69孫柳苑 員工希望對辱虐管理——員工創新的曲線調節作用(2)員工希望值對辱虐管理與員工創新行為之間的倒 U 關係起調節作用,當員工希望值高時,倒U 關係更為顯著。本文對於文獻研究有如下貢獻:(1)辱虐管理與某些結果變數存在曲線關係。面對辱虐管理時,有些員工會傾向運用積極方式打破僵局。當他們的努力無效時,他們才會停止這種積極行為,(2)本文創新性的研究了辱虐管理與員工創新的關係,辱虐管理程度較低時,員工更趨向于採取積極行為。(3)本文進一步證實了辱虐管理對於不同個體的影響存在著差異。一些因素會影響員工採取不同的應對行為。本研究顯示員工的希望是一個很好的調節因素。同時本研究對於壓力認知應對模型有一定的貢獻,員工在面對壓力時,不同的員工特質會影響他們對壓力的認知及其應對。本文對於組織管理實踐有如下貢獻:(1)本文的研究結果對於組織來說猶如一記警鐘,辱虐管理將最終降低企業的創新績效,並可能帶來其他危害結果,因此辱虐管理應當儘量避免。員工的價值更多地體現在其富有創造力的思想行為上,員工創新是提高企業生存能力和競爭優勢的關鍵因素。組織領導者應當認識到辱虐管理給組織帶來的消極影響,通過對其直接下屬的調查,採用匿名調查和間接測量的方式可獲取管理者是否有辱虐下屬的行為以及嚴重程度的資訊,這有助於甄別辱虐管理或者帶有辱虐管理傾向的管理者,從而及時防範辱虐管理消極影響的產生和擴大。(2)辱虐行為不是依靠某個員工或者主管能解決的問題,組織應當承擔一定的責任,從而最終避免辱虐行為的發生。例如組織可以應當加強對管理者的培訓,提高他們管理水準,這些將有助於降低辱虐管理的發生率。(3)本研究顯示員工希望值可以調節辱虐管理與創新的關係。因此在企業人力資源管理實踐中,可以通過提高員工對組織的希望,增強員工對組織的情感,肯定員工對組織的貢獻來激勵員工的創新行為。領導者在平時的工作中要注意自己的行為對下屬自我概念的影響,另外,組織也要注意培養員工高的組織自尊,為下屬營造一種“我對於組織是重要的,有價值的”、“在組織中我是受到信任和受賞識”的積極氛圍,從而使員工有較強的動機去表達自己的想法和建議。(4)由於員工個體的差異會引致不同的應對管理者的方式。因此管理者要明晰下屬的個體特徵,針對不同員工進行管理,從而幫助其更好地適應組織環境,在組織中發揮才幹。(5)管理者應當幫助員工更好的處理各種壓力源,從而降低辱虐管理在組織的負面影響。同時組織應該開展針對員工的工作理念、價值觀、心理健康、法制知識以及與領導相處的技巧等的專門培訓,一方面提高他們及時發現問題、反映問題的認知判斷能力,另一方面也提高他們應對領導辱虐行為的能力和技巧。4.2 研究局限與未來研究方向本研究具有一定局限性,這些在未來研究中可以做適當補充研究。(1)測量工具的局限性,本研究使用的量表均來自西方學者的成熟研究,實際上辱虐管理、建言行為等在不同的文化背景下有不同的表現形式,因此後續研究可以考慮在中國文化背景下開發量表測量。(2)研究樣本的局限性,本研究樣本來源於廣東大型制造型企業,雖然這樣能夠較好地控制行業以及地域等因素對研究結論的影響,提升研究的內部信度,但是也在一定程度上抑制了研究的外部效度,後續研究可以針對不同行業和區域進行實證研究以進一步驗證本研究的結論。(3)本研究沒有研究辱虐管理與員工行為的互動關係。如果員工採取積極行為應對辱虐管理,辱虐管理者是否用同樣積極的行為回報員工是本研究沒有探討的領域。未來研究可以探討這種相互影響機制。(4)本研究所做調查只是針對在職員工和主管。我們沒有聯繫那些因為不滿辱虐管理者而離職的員工,因此研究樣本具有局限性。(5)本研究沒有探討組織的某些可能影響因素,而只是把員工個人希望值作為研究的調節因素。因此未來的研究可以探索組織對於辱虐管理,甚至社會因素對於辱虐管理及員工應對行為的影響和調節機制。
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72第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 基于TAM2的高星級酒店網站用戶接受度研究——以澳門五星級酒店網站爲案例唐 娟,李曉晨(澳門科技大學酒店與旅游管理學院,澳門)摘要: 越來越多的酒店開始運用信息交流技術,網站是重要的技術之一。 一個高品質的網站可以給酒店業吸引更多的線上客戶。本研究主要以酒店網站品質作為測量變量,並以澳門五星級酒店網站為研究對象,來研究用戶的接受度。本研究採用結構方程模型來分析資料,分析結果支持了提出的九個假設並給酒店管理者提供了合理化建議。關鍵詞: 酒店網站質量;技術接受模型; 結構方程模型Research on User Acceptance of Hotel WeAsite Based on TAM2 ─ An Empirical Study of 5-star Hotel Websites in MacauJuan TANG, Xiaochen LI( Macau University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau, China )AAstract: Numerous hotels have adopted Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as a way to cope with rapid changing environments and website. A high-quality website can attract and retain online customers in the highly competitive hospitality industry. This study provides a domain-specific, integrative approach in evaluating the hotel website quality and antecedents of user acceptance for hotels. This research investigated the websites of 5-star hotel in Macau, set up and identified corresponding TAM2 model proposed hypotheses were proposed. This research adopted SEM to testify those the results proved out the entire nine proposed hypotheses were supported and certain managerial suggestions were offered.eyyords: ICTs; Hotel Website Quality; TAM2; SEM收稿日期:2013-09-12;修訂日期:2013-10-03。﹡通訊作者:唐娟,女,博士,助理教授,主要研究方向:旅游市场营销,旅游文化E-mail: jtang@must.edu.mo,Tel: 853-889723570 引言爲了加强競爭力和贏得更多顧客的青睞,越來越多的酒店採用信息交流技術(ICT)來應對千變萬化的市場環境。客房預訂系統、采購和庫存系統、無綫互聯網、電子郵件、以及酒店網站等ICT 技術在整個整個行業都已廣泛實施應用 [1]。在競爭激烈的酒店業,開發和維護一個高質量的網站成爲獲得和留住綫上客戶的關鍵[2]。越來越多的自由行旅客喜歡自己預訂酒店[3],其中有些人會選擇在線預訂酒店,成為酒店網站的潛在客戶,所以“在線預訂”將成為旅遊業的一個重要應用[4]。如今大量的第三方代理網站占取了酒店網絡營銷的份額,爲了减少對第三方分銷商的依賴,酒店應該建設和優化官網來堅固他們的在綫營銷體系。技術接受模型(TAM)是研究解釋和預測人
73唐娟,等 基于TAM2的高星級酒店網站用戶接受度研究們對資訊技術接受程度的基礎理論,後續研究不斷加以拓展和驗證,形成了更為完善並且操作性強的實用模型。許多學者把網站質量作為外部變量,運用 TAM 來研究網站質量和用戶接受 [5~8]。在許多產業的網站領域研究中發揮了巨大的作用。然後酒店領域,特別是澳門酒店領域的研究則相對薄弱。通過對數據庫的搜索,有關澳門酒店網站研究的文獻資源很少,尤其是澳門大型酒店網站在研究上仍處於起步狀態。五星級酒店是澳門當前酒店領域的代表性業態,同時也和澳門的博彩經濟密切關聯。因此,本文將著重於突破該領域的研究現狀,以選定的六個澳門五星級酒店(集團)網站為研究對象,採用結構方程模型(SEM)分析數據,並給酒店管理者提出一些合理化建議。這不僅為 TAM 模型在酒店網站研究領域中的理論驗證添磚加瓦,也為澳門本土酒店在其網站建設的優化和市場細分等實踐意義上有一定的指導價值。1 文献综述1.1 TAM模型的演變及相關研究技術接受模型是由 Fishbein 與 Ajzen [9] 通過理性行為模型(TRA)在技術接受度研究中演化而來的,是一個用於解釋個體行為的普適模型,也是研究使用著對一項新技術接受度的常用理論模型之一[10]。TAM 在已被廣泛運用於很多有關接受度的研究中,比如信息技術[11~13]、線上社區[14]、學習訓練[15~16]、網上購物[17~18]、航空企業網站[19]以及旅遊和酒店業中的旅行或酒店預訂[20~21]、前臺辦公系統[22]等等。經典的 TAM 提出了外部變量是影響內部感知、態度以及意向的基礎[23]。Davis[23] 等在 TRA 的基礎上提出內部感知分爲感知有用性(PU)和感知易用性(PEOU)兩種,兩種感知影響了用戶的態度(AT),進一步影響著用戶使用新技術的意向(BI)以及最終行為(AU), 此理論還提出感知易用性對感知有用性有著至關重要的影響。感知有用性表示一項技術的有用程度,就是使用該技術可以提高用戶的工作績效,而感知易用性則是指該技術的易用程度,就是使用該技術不需要多費精力就可以輕鬆地達到目的[24~25]。在此之後也有很多相關模型的出現,Venkatesh 與 FredD. Davis[26] 的技術接受擴展模型(the Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model, 簡 稱 TAM2)、Venkatesh et al.[27] 的技術接受和使用統一模型(the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, 簡 稱 UTAUT) 、Venkatesh 和Bala[28] 的技術接受模型 3(Technology Acceptance Model 3, 簡稱 TAM3)等等。它們在信息技術的接受和使用研究中得到了廣泛的應用。筆者根據文獻閱讀總結了這些模型的關係:TAM 是一個簡約的經典模型, 它爲後續研究提供了重要基礎; TAM2 通過擴展 TAM, 根據系統的特性和外部環境的因素,捨弃了原來的“attitude toward using”,探討了感知有用性和感知易用性决定因素的來源, 成爲 UTAUT 和 TAM3 模型提供了重要支撑理論; UTAUT 是在綜合包括 TAM 和 TAM2 模型在內的八個模型基礎上提出的整合與改進模型,爲後續研究提供了擴展空間; TAM3 是對 TAM2 的進一步擴充和延伸, 又融入了其他模型的因素, 提出了信息技術接受和使用决定因素的綜合模型。這些模型從始致終圍繞著一根主綫而展開,那就是使用意向决定使用行爲[29]。本文意在探討用戶瀏覽酒店網站後是否有考慮通過酒店網站購買酒店產品的行為意向,TAM2最為適用。因此本文採用 TAM2 模型(圖 1),並去掉最後的“Actual System Use”,僅探討用戶的行為意向。圖1 TAM2 模型(資料來源:Venkates 與 Davis, 2000[26])
79唐娟,等 基于TAM2的高星級酒店網站用戶接受度研究路徑值以及其顯著度。上一章節中提出的九條假設都成立。結果顯示網站質量的三個維度都對 PU有直接影響,並通過 PEOU 對 PU 有間接影響。網站質量通過 PU 和 PEOU 對用戶的 BI 有間接影響。圖3 測量模型及路徑值(資料來源:本研究自行整理)4 研究結論4.1 結論與建議(1)TAM2 模型適用于研究澳門高星級酒店網站本模型的擬合指標和路徑值都表明 TAM 模型適用于研究澳門高星級酒店網站,幷且九個假設都成立。(2)感知有用性相比感知易用性對用戶行爲意向的影響更爲顯著本研究結果表明感知有用性相比感知易用性對用戶行爲意向的影響更爲顯著,這與之前許多學者[72]的研究結果都是一致的,這說明酒店網站用起來越方便,給用戶帶來的有用程度也越高,建議酒店管理者加强對此方面網站的建設。(3)服務質量是影響使用者行爲意向最顯著的維度數據結果顯示,服務質量不僅是酒店網站質量的組成成分之一,也是對用戶接受度影響最顯著的維度,越來越多的用戶在滿足酒店網站提供的資訊的同時,更加關注酒店網站提供的服務。事實上,酒店網站的交互性不僅僅指建立顧客與酒店之間的交流平臺,顧客與顧客之間的交流也是非常重要的,酒店網站在跟進服務、個性服務以及回應時間方面也應做出加强。與此同時,酒店也應加強線下服務,與線上服務相互呼應,給使用者提供更加貼心的服務體驗。(4)添加具有當地特色的資訊服務澳門是個獨具特色的多元化旅遊城市,不僅擁有娛樂場,眾多的世界文化遺產也是不容錯過的旅游體驗,許多高星級酒店還會承辦大型的會展和娛樂活動。酒店網站可以提供這些具有當地特色的相關資訊或鏈接,讓用戶對酒店乃至整個澳門都有更加深入的瞭解。(5)多做調查研究做到知彼知己酒店管理者應在線上或者線下多做調查研究,瞭解不同顧客類型的需求差異,及時彌補自身不足及做好市場細分,為顧客提供更好消費環境的同時增加酒店利潤。做到知彼知己才能共得雙贏。4.2 研究局限及展望(1)優化研究範圍與增加調查時間,增強研究結果的適用價值與準確性受限於研究時間、成本等因素,本研究只對六個澳門五星級酒店網站進行了調查與研究,在樣本的采集、結論等方面均具有一定的局限性。未來研究可以將研究範圍擴大,選取更多的五星級酒店網站或不同級別酒店網站爲對象,各級別酒店研究結果之間是否具有或差異,以求拓展研究結論的應用範圍,更深入地理解用戶對酒店網站的真實體驗。在以後更為充裕的研究資源支撐下,筆者將力圖將潛在顧客和現實顧客做更精確的細分,探求不同顧客類型之間的關係及差異。(2)豐富研究分析方法,增加研究的科學性與合理性研究通過文獻回顧與專家訪談修正得出初始量表,在以後的研究中可以采取更深入的訪談方法,如德爾菲法,以獲取專家更深入的看法採用焦點小組訪談,以研討會方式獲取旅游者更真實
80的想法,從而開發出更爲科學合理的量表;此次研究采用李克特五分制量表,導致有些問項的差异性不够顯著,在以後的研究中將采用李克特七分制量表;在數據分析時可以增加 ANOVA 方差分析來研究不同特徵的受訪者在行爲意向表現上的差异性等。後續之研究中,筆者將嘗試較爲新穎的理論模型(例如 UTAUT、UTAUT 等)並予以驗證。(3)添加變量,使研究模型更加準確豐富在以後的研究中,我們可以在模型中嘗試添加更多的變量,例如風險感知、用戶特點、旅游政策法規等,找出更多因素對用戶的行爲意向有顯著的影響因素。參 考 文 獻[1] Ham, S., Kim, W. G., & Jong, S. Effect of Information Technology on performance in upscale hotels. Information Journal of Hospitality Management, 2005, 24 (2): 281-294.[2] Jeong, M., Oh, H. & Gregoire, M. Conceptualizing website quality and its consequences in the lodging industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 2003, 22: 161-175.[3] Cho, W., & Olsen, M. D. A case study approach to understanding the impact of information technology on competitive advantage in the lodging industry. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 1998, 22(4): 376-394.[4] Law, R., & Hsu, C. H. Importance of hotel website dimensions and attributes: perceptions of online browsers and online purchasers. 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82第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 Received 24 Sep. 2013; Revised 10 Oct. 2013.Corresponding author: Zhang Meng, Ph.D, assistant professor, specializing in human geography. E-mail: mzhang@must.edu.mo Value Perception, Threat Ayareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in MacauMeng ZHANG1, Meisi WONG2( 1. Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China; ) ( 2. School of Continuing Studies, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: Conservation is a fundamental aspect of heritage management, especially management of world heritages, which bear unique and universal values for mankind. People in local communities play a vital role in such initiatives, so it is meaningful to learn their attitudes towards world heritages and their motivation to conserve them. This current empirical study selected Macau, where a world heritage is situated, as the study area, and mainly performed a quantitative questionnaire survey on local university students. The principal component analysis identified three factors which can represent the responding students' value perception of the world heritage, namely, cultural value, social value and economic value, based on which, the cluster analysis categorized the students into three types, namely, cultural type, economic type and negative type. According to the findings, local students demonstrate high-level perception of the values of their own world heritage, with certain degree of disparity, in contrast, room still exists for improvement with regard to awareness of threats it is faced with and willingness to protect it, which are only at a modest level. Finally, efforts to enhance heritage education were called for and other recommendations of managerial implications were also proposed accordingly.eyyords: World heritage; Value; Protection; Macau; University students澳門大學生世界遺產價值認知、威脅感知與保護意願調查張 萌1,黃美斯2(1. 澳門科技大學酒店與旅游管理學院,澳門;2. 澳門科技大學持續教育學院,澳門)摘要: 保育,是世界遺産管理各項議題中的第一要務,而遺產所在地的社區居民在其中發揮著關鍵的作用。本文將世界遺產所在地澳門作為研究區域,對當地大學生進行定量的問卷調查,通過主成分分析將其對澳門世界文化遺產——澳門歷史城區的價值認知歸納為文化價值、社會價值與經濟價值三個因素;並在此基礎上利用聚類分析將受訪大學生劃分為文化型、經濟型與否定型三個群組。研究發現,澳門大學生對其世界遺產的價值普遍具有高度的認知,並且伴隨著一定的差異性。而其對遺產所面臨威脅的感知以及對遺產的保護意願仍存在提升的空間。文章最後為澳門青年學生世界遺産教育提出了具有針對性的對策建議。關鍵詞: 世界遺產;價值;保護;澳門;大學生
83Meng ZHANG, et al. Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macau0 IntroductionCurrently, the endeavors to conserve heritages, especially world heritages are highly advocated and well documented worldwide. Anyway, there is a lack of research on the role of local communities in this regard, and their views of world heritages have rarely been studied[1]. This is a gap that must be filled, as encouraging participation of local people in the preservation of their heritage is part of the mission of world heritage sites (WHSs)[2]. Since the last two decades, public involvement has become a worldwide issue as the bottom-up approach has spread across the field of heritage conservation and city planning[3], and the need to involve a broader range of stakeholders in heritage decisions to achieve sustainable practice has been recognized[4]. Among people in different age groups, the young people are normally better educated about heritage issues and hold the society's future in their hands. Attitudes of young people appear to be crucial as they will ultimately play a direct part in providing knowledge based solutions to problems related to heritages. In this light, the UNESCO published “World Heritage in Young Hands: An Educational Resource Kit for Teachers” to inspire and reinforce young people's commitment to preserve our heritage, and to help close the gap between school and society by offering stimulating activities which promote involvement in the community[5]. Do the young actually develop ties to their heritage? This research performed an empirical study of Macau, investigating the local university students' understanding of the values embodied in their world heritage, the threats facing it and their intention to protect these heritage resources.1 Theoretical FrameyorkThe concepts of value, threat and protection are introduced, echoing the classical division of the types of world heritage conservation indicators: those of pressure (threats to the asset), those of state (universal values, authenticity and integrity) and those of response (management and public use of the asset)[6].1.1 Heritage ValueIt is one of the major arguments of this research that perceived values justify and motivate the protection efforts for world heritage. The consideration behind a typical conservation decision normally reveals many different, sometimes divergent values: the artistic and aesthetic values of an old building, as well as the historical values of its associations, plus the economic values tied up in its use, and so on. In short, values are an important, determining factor in the current practices and future prospects of the conservation field[7], in other words, values are something that is put into a place as a heritage to make it worth protecting[8]. Specifically for world heritages, the values must be universal and outstanding, the best representative and can be acknowledged as general or worldwide[9].In effect, however, it is not easy to define values of a heritage site, and the difficulty is compounded by the mixture of intrinsic values judged by the objective approach and the subjective values defined by people by the relativistic approach[6]. Economically, the total value of cultural heritage resources is considered to integrate both its use value and non-use value. Use value refers to the benefits from the users' direct use of facilities or services belonging to a heritage site, whilst non-use value is derived from the intangible or abstract valuation of the resources, including option value, existence value, and bequest value. Option value indicates a future use value, while existence value relates to the fact that an individual may benefit from the resource through his/her belief in the continuity of its existence. Bequest value is related to the concept of taking responsibility of keeping the resource intact for our future descendants[10]. Experts go further to extend such categorization, classifying heritage values into individual ones versus collective ones, and private versus public ones. An underlying theme is a further distinction between those values that are included in an economic analysis of heritage and those that might lie beyond a strictly financial calculus[11].Subsequently, such a further distinction exists
84between economic and cultural values[12]. The social-cultural values of cultural heritage can be summarized as aesthetic value, spiritual value, social value, historical value, symbolic value, etc.[7]. In detail, they refer to the provision of cultural, aesthetic and spiritual satisfaction both individually and collectively, the importance as a source of memory and inspiration, and the contribution to national and local community identity, which is fundamental for sense of place and social cohesion[13]. The economic value of cultural heritage can be defined as the amount of welfare that heritage generates for society[14], especially in the form of increased employment and income[15]. What deserves special mention is heritage tourism. Regarding tourism, some researchers admit that heritage is regarded as one of the most significant and fastest growing components of tourism[16].1.2 ThreatsIn principle, UNESCO places equal emphasis on the conservation and the use of WHSs. In other words, the policy of UNESCO is to keep WHSs in a good condition for future generations and making them available to the public as much as possible[1]. Heritage is the contemporary use of the past[17], and in reality, the elderly nature of the built heritage makes them constantly vulnerable to some degree of deprivation and decay[18]. Many heritage sites around the world which preserve mankind's history have been demolished due to a variety of factors such as war, natural disaster, overuse, and weather[10]. Commercial activities may also damage historic resources, through physical damage caused by tourist use or through commoditization, trivialization and standardization[19]. It is in light of this situation that when laying down the objectives of the world heritage conservation indicators in 2007, the UNESCO/WHC highlighted the importance of “identifying the threats”[20]. It is meaningful because the deterioration or even destruction of heritage resources could also be harmful to the survival of our identity, our nations and our planet[5]. Among all the existent or potential threats, those caused by tourism initiative are currently most noticeable. The relationship between tourism and heritage management, especially cultural heritage management, is dialectic[21]. From the negative side, excessive visitation and seasonal variation in visitor numbers leading to site degradation are in conflict with the initial goal of the World Heritage Convention, and challenges the sustainability of those sites[22]. What's more, cultural values may be commercialized and corrupted due to the “tourismification” of heritage sites[23~24] - the degradation of cultural values will in turn negatively influence tourism values, forming a vicious circle[25]. These will eventually result in irreversible physical and social damage, not only to such sites but also to the communities surrounding them[5].1.3 Heritage Protection / EducationThe implications of being internationally recognized as a world heritage site also mean an international accountability[26], so most contemporary societies are very keen on the preservation and conservation of their heritage[27], to maintain and enhance the outstanding universal value, the conditions of integrity and/or authenticity at the time of the declaration. The value of these heritages as a capital stock is what makes them worthy of conservation[28]. Such recognition has given rise to an urgent question: Are the cultural significance values well identified, understood, clearly stated and disseminated at all level among the stakeholders especially the local community?[18]. This calls for the awareness that conservation can no longer be based on the object's intrinsic quality. It must be founded on our ability to recognize its aesthetic, historic, scientific, social values etc., or rather, it is the community that must recognize these values, upon which its own cultural identity can be built[29], and from which its economic benefits can be derived. The logic relationship between people's attitude and behavior towards world heritages seems to be self-evident, but are rarely examined by empirical studies. Anyway, theories and findings from environmental education studies can neatly lend relevant references. According to environmental psychology and human
85Meng ZHANG, et al. Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macaugeography, the perception of a space is a key factor in understanding human behavior within that space, as opposed to only its attributes[30~31]. Likewise, the social psychology theories have argued that the change in the behavior will not happen on its own, but requires changes in knowledge and attitude. Hence, it is believed that this notion is at the heart of government policy making and that proper knowledge would have tangible effect on behavior[32]. Eawert and Galloway (2004) believe that one of the more noteworthy areas of interaction between human and the natural environment is environmental attitudes[33]. To achieve behavioral changes associated with a particular issue, at first, it requires changing in individual's attitude towards the same issue. For this reason, achieving human attitudes (e.g. environmental attitudes) and exploring individual cognition is essential in the research of environmental behavior[34]. In order that young people may participate effectively in environmental conservation, they need to be aware of the issues and challenges at stake, and have the means to act accordingly[5]. Hence, to familiarize students with world heritage conservation and encourage them to actively participate in the lifelong process of heritage preservation, world heritage education will enable young people to reflect on and discuss the meaning and value of heritage, the techniques required to manage world heritage, the advantages and threats of mass tourism to world heritage, and so on[5]. Drawing on the categories of environmental education objectives proposed by UNESCO, the cause-effect relationship between key variables can be summarized by Figure 1[35].Fig. 1 Environmental Education Paradigm2 Study Area and MethodologyThe fusion of different cultures had brought Macau a large number of world-class heritages that characterize the urban landscape. As the signature of these relics and resources, The Historic Centre of Macao is a collection of over twenty locations on the Macau peninsula that witness the unique assimilation and co-existence of Chinese and Portuguese cultures in Macau, a former Portuguese colony. It represents the architectural legacies of the city's cultural heritage, including monuments such as urban squares, streetscapes, churches and temples. In the year 2005, the Historic Centre of Macao was inscribed by UNESCO as a world cultural heritage, making it the 31st designated world heritage site in China, which symbolized the most authoritative international recognition of Macau's cultural heritages. It was described by UNESCO as: “with its historic street, residential, religious and public Portuguese and Chinese buildings, the historic centre of Macao provides a unique testimony to the meeting of aesthetic, cultural, architectural and technological influences from East and West,” and “...it bears witness to one of the earliest and longest-lasting encounters between China and the West, based on the vibrancy of international trade”[36]. In the year 2006, Macau Tourist Office launched the slogan “A World of Difference, The Difference is Macau” to establish the image of Macau as a cultural heritage tourism destination, and for this, won the gold award for its initiatives in cultural heritage tourism from the Pacific Asia Travel Association in 2007. In the aspect of preservation, Macau government spares no efforts either, and the drafting of Cultural Heritage Protection Law is just one example. Besides, such non-for-profit and non-governmental organizations as Macau World Heritage Promotion Association and Macau Heritage Ambassadors Association were established, to publicize the value of heritages in Macau and to promote cultural heritage tourism of Macau, while the issue of sustainable use of heritage resources through preservation still remains on the top agenda.
86In this study, the combination of methods, both quantitative and qualitative, was employed. On-site field observation activities were conducted to record the real dangers threatening this world heritage; a workshop with local experts was initiated to know the common channels through which the public, especially the university students can make contribution to world heritage preservation; a questionnaire survey was performed to examine local university students' value perception, threat awareness, protection willingness of their world heritage; semi-structured in-depth interviews were held to dig more information relevant to the topic. Prior to data collection from questionnaire survey, consultations with experts were held and a pilot study was conducted with fifty local university students to assess face and content validity. Based on the feedback, minor adjustments were made to the questionnaire. In this formal self-administered questionnaire, ahead of the questions, a brief introduction to the Historic Centre of Macao, the world heritage site, was presented, considering respondents must clearly understand the characteristics of the object they are being asked to value[37], but emotive language use or the implication that a world heritage was accepted as highly valuable were avoided. The subsequence of the questionnaire was divided into four parts. The first part dealt with the respondents' perception of the values embodied in their world heritage, composed of sixteen items which were summarized from the literature collation. The second part dealt with the respondents' awareness of the threats facing their world heritage, composed of six items which were summarized from both the literature collation and field survey. Items in the first two parts were both five-point Likert scaled. The third part dealt with the respondents' willingness to protect their world heritage, composed of three items, and questions in this part was inspired from interviews with local experts in the field of cultural heritage conservation and promotion. The fourth part dealt with the respondents' personal information, as well as their actual relationship with their world heritage. Participants of the survey were year 2 to year 4 students from Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management and School of Continuing Studies, Macau University of Science and Technology, who held either a Macau permanent resident identity card or a Macau non-permanent resident identity card, and whose student ID cards were different than those of non-local students. A stratified sampling approach was adopted, in an attempt to sample students evenly of years of enrollment and different majors, tourism or others, while also including a balanced mixture of birthplaces, Macau or elsewhere. Altogether 600 questionnaires were disseminated, and 555 valid ones were collected, accounting for 92.5% of the total.3 Result3.1 Descriptive AnalysisIn the descriptive analysis, responding university students demonstrated high recognition of all values of Macau world heritage in general, among which, the item “document of Macau history” was scored highest (4.26); the lowest-scored item “enhancement of citizens' cohesion” was also scored relatively high (3.39). As for awareness of threats to their world heritage, students also exhibited high level of agreement, with “over-capacity visitation” the highest, as is shown in Table 1. The willingness to protect Macau world heritage is presented in Table 2.TaAle 1 Ayareness of Threats to Macau World HeritageItem Mean Std. DeviationPhysical damage to architectures 3.79 0.771Pollution to surrounding environment 3.87 0.821Over-capacity visitation 4.03 0.889Excessive commercialization 3.80 0.851Loss of cultural authenticity 3.60 0.853Inadequate preservation effort 3.49 0.9143.2 Factor AnalysisConsidering the correlat ion between the variables, factor analysis by SPSS 17.0 was performed for heritage value perception, to reveal the essence of the study objects in a more differentiating and holistic
87Meng ZHANG, et al. Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macau TaAle 2 Willingness to Protect Macau World HeritageProportion of donation to monthly disposable incomePercentNumber of times of monthly participation in heritage conservation activitiesPercentWillingness to join a heritage conservation associationPercent0 16.9 0 29.7 Strongly disagree 4.10 + ~ 0.1% 28.8 Once 46.7 Disagree 12.10.1% + ~ 0.5% 25.2 Twice 17.7 Neutral 56.80.5% + ~ 1% 20.7 Thrice 2.9 Agree 23.21% + 8.3 Thrice + 3.1 Strongly agree 3.8Total 100 Total 100 Total 100TaAle 3 Factor Analysis Result of World Heritage Value PerceptionFactor/Variable Loading Mean SD individual/cumulative variance(%) Cronbach's ΑCultural Value1) Document of Macau history 0.781 4.26 0.75322.817/22.817 0.8282) Embodiment of diverse culture 0.750 4.21 0.7273) Singular scenic beauty 0.585 3.83 0.7654) Outstanding educational function 0.482 3.82 0.8405) Extraordinary research value 0.619 3.98 0.8066) Living evidence for the future generations 0.654 4.12 0.8017) Practical cultural utility 0.651 4.12 0.8118) Symbol of the city's existence 0.502 4.20 0.899Social Value9) Enhancement of sense of belongingness 0.763 3.63 0.86717.306/40.123 0.79210) Enhancement of citizens' cohesion 0.842 3.39 0.84011) Enhancement of citizen's identification 0.778 3.54 0.879Economic Value12) Promotion of international reputation 0.604 4.18 0.77614.541/54.664 0.77813) Tourism landmark and attraction 0.726 4.22 0.80914) Diversification of economy 0.710 3.87 0.88415) Sustainable growth of economy 0.776 3.75 0.84116) Creation of employment opportunities 0.568 3.50 0.930KMO=0.870, p<0.01TaAle 4 Result of Cluster AnalysisFactorClusterCultural Type Economic Type Negative Type Cultural value 0.35018 -0.09568 -1.89055Social value 0.72882 -0.76917 0.29975Economic value -0.07637 0.28112 -1.52102Cluster size 260 260 35Percentage of respondents 46.85% 46.85% 6.3%
88manner and to simplify the further analysis. Principal component factors with an eigenvalue of one or greater were rotated by the Varimax analysis. Bertlett's test of sphericity and the calculation of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) statistics indicated if the data were suitable for the identification of orthogonal factor dimensions. A total of sixteen variables, all with loadings equal to or greater than 0.40, were respectively incorporated into three factor groupings which explained 55% of the total variance, as is shown in Table 3. In examining the internal consistency, Cronbach's alpha was assessed and verified the appropriateness of the classification.3.3 Cluster AnalysisAshworth (1996, 1998) highlighted the point that different individuals perceive and encounter heritage spaces in different ways based on their own cultural backgrounds[38~39], and it is one of the main aims of the current study to identify different types of Macau university students who can be described by their different understanding of the value of their world heritage. A cluster analysis was employed in order to categorize the responding students based on their assessment of the three factor groups. To achieve desirable effect, approximately 10 percent of the samples were selected at random for hierarchical clustering with Ward's Method and Squared Euclidean Distance. Judging from the Dendrogram, it was most appropriate to divide all the samples into three types, so in the following K-Means clustering analysis, the number of clusters was determined as three. The results were presented in Table 4.It can be seen from the final cluster center, among the three clusters, the first one highly agrees on the cultural and social value of Macau world heritage. These two kinds of value can be summarized as cultural value, by the dichotomy between “cultural value vs. economic value”, so the first cluster was named “Cultural type”. The second cluster holds a highly positive attitude towards the economic value of Macau world heritage, so was named “Economic type”. The first two clusters represented the mainstream of Macau university students, accounting for 93.7% of the total respondents. Although with different emphasis, their assessment of all values of Macau world heritage was generally positive, in other words, they have strong perception of such values. The third cluster was named “Negative type”, because their recognition of all values of Macau world heritage was generally low, with over half of the items scored below 3 on average. This cluster only represented 6.3% of the respondents. It was learnt with examination into the information of the students that in each type, only less than ten percent of the total have joint an association related to Macau world heritage, and the major channels through which they acquire knowledge about Macau world heritage are school, TV and radio, and Internet. In terms of religious belief, Christians demonstrate much stronger awareness of cultural values of Macau world heritage among all types. Most world heritages are going through an evolution in which their utility declines while aesthetic function increases simultaneously[40]. In contrast, Historic Centre of Macao, especially the Christian and papistical churches, although strictly protected for their paramount historic and cultural significance, are still serving the public in their daily life in modern society, so these converts naturally hold them in higher regard. From the angle of the place of their birth and current life, it was shown that university students who were born and brought up in Macau and those are now living in Macau Peninsula, where the historic center is located, surprisingly demonstrate a lower cognition of the cultural values but a higher cognition of the economic values than others who were born, brought up or are living elsewhere. The possible reason is that they have been too familiar with their homeland to retain any curiosity or attraction towards it, to a degree that they have become indifferent to its historic, cultural and aesthetic values. Meanwhile, these students and their family have more opportunities to participate in and benefit from the development of cultural heritages, especially operation of heritage tourism, so they have more direct understanding of the function of Macau world heritage to boost tourism and economy.
89Meng ZHANG, et al. Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macau4 Discussion and RecommendationUnexpectedly, despite high recognition of world heritage value, motivation to contribute to the conservation of the world heritage is only at a modest level. Possible reasons can be inferred from McKenzie's (1999) argument on Fostering Sustainable Behavior, that there are three explanations for people not engaging in an activity: (1) People do not know about the activity or its benefits; (2) People who know about the activity may perceive that there are significant barriers associated with engaging in it, and (3) While people may feel that there no significant barriers to carrying out the activity, they may perceive that it is easier and more beneficial to continue with their present behavior[41]. This conclusion was also echoed by the interview with ten local university students in Macau in this study, and this is why education is crucial in the attempt to overcome these impediments to heritage conservation efforts by increasing the students' interest and intention to carry out heritage conservation activities, making it more convenient for them to do these activities and providing more information about such activity so that the students can see the benefits of world heritage conservation and are motivated to participate. A gap be tween the l eve l o f in t e res t i n conservation and the actual level of conservation[1] is always found and discussed; likewise, this study discovered knowing something is important does not necessarily mean that people will be ready to protect it. Local university students in Macau have high level value perception of their world heritage in general, but obvious unevenness also exists. To instruct and inspire the students to have a deeper understanding of the social-cultural values of the world heritage, alongside the economic ones especially in fostering tourism, and to know that priority should be given to conservation, rather than development in world heritage management agenda, will be the key issue to strengthening the conservation efforts for world heritage. The young students of today will be the backbone of Macau of tomorrow, and they are also holding the future of the world heritage in their hands. The precondition for cognition lies in direct contact and encounter, so besides heritage education courses and lectures, universities should also show students around the world heritage on a regular basis, combing the informative interpretation and participatory and innovative experiential activities, to enhance their love of their fellow citizens and their passion for world heritage conservation. World heritage education can be implemented through such channels as microblog, animation and comics which are favored by the youth and should be conducted through exchange with the rest of the world, capitalizing on the advantage of Macau as an open and internationalized city. Such issues as nurturing of talents and input of capital, which are closely related with world heritage education, can only be facilitated by the guarantee of law. The Macau SAR Government should formulate regulations to indicate the glorious obligation of local people to learn from and protect their world heritage, and to motivate the young students to make contribution to conservation and preservation of their world heritage and diverse cultures. References [1] Takamitsu J, 2011. The impact of world heritage site designation on local communities: A case study of Ogimachi, Shirakawa–mura, Japan. Tourism Management, 32: 288-296. [2] UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2010. World Heritage. Available from: http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=160. [3] Sirisrisak T, 2009. Conservation of Bangkok old town. Habitat International, 33 (4): 405-411.[4] Torre M, 2002. Assessing the Values of Cultural Heritage, The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles.[5] UNESCO, 2002. World Heritage in Young Hands: An Educational Resource Kit for Teachers.[6] Silvio M Z & Lucia T F H, 2011. Measuring urban heritage conservation: theory and structure (part 1). Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development, 1(2): 96-108.[7] Torre M, 2000. Values and Heritage Conservation. The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles.[8] Dann N & Cantell T, 2007. Maintenance in conservation. In Forsyth, M (edit.) Understanding historic building conservation. Blackwell publishing. Oxford.[9] Shuhana S, Ahmad B S. & Rohayah C A, 2012. Urban landscape factors that influenced the character of George Town, Penang UNESCO World Heritage Site. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 50:238-253.[10] Kim S S, Wong K K F & Cho M, 2007. Assessing the economic value
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New Society Publishers, Canada.學術動態大中華地區旅遊款待管理體驗式學習圓桌會議在科大舉行 酒店與旅遊管理管理學院於10月21日舉辦了大中華地區旅遊款待管理體驗式學習圓桌會議。 會議圍繞如何在款待和旅遊領域進行體驗式學習的主題進行了深入的研討。參與討論的嘉賓有麥希國教授(澳門科技大學), Brain King教授(香港理工大學),蘇小恩博士(澳門大學),鄭妙嫻女士(澳門理工學院),黃業堅博士(澳門旅遊學院),吳武忠教授(臺灣國立高雄餐旅大學),劉大可教授(北京第二外國語學院)等。與會各嘉賓均同意將共同成立一聯盟,以期在體驗式學習方面有進一步的合作,並共同組織參與由澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院主辦的體驗式學習會議,會議初步預期在明年5月份舉行。
91第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 基於工作-家庭衝突的澳門博莊工作壓力、工作滿意度分析周金泉,周少玲(澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門)摘要: 本文旨在探討澳門博彩業莊荷工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突的現況,並比較個人背景對工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突的影響,從而使工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突在工作滿意度上所顯示的差異情況。透過考察莊荷工作-家庭衝突對工作壓力與工作滿意度之間的關係,分析影響工作滿意度的原因。文章對澳門娛樂場發放的589份問卷分析後發現,莊荷的工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突不會因性別、學歷及工作年資有顯著的差異之分,工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突多產生在35歲以下。研究結論支持了提出的假設,提醒博彩業界要注重年輕博彩莊荷的工作壓力與家庭衝突問題,提升其工作滿意度。關鍵詞: 澳門; 莊荷; 工作家庭衝突;工作壓力;工作滿意度TaAle Dealer’s Work Stress and JoA Satisfaction in Macau Casino Based on the Work-Family ConflictsJin Quan ZHOU, Shoal Ling ZHOU( Faculty of Hospitability and Truism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: Table dealer’s work stress and job satisfaction in Macau are deeply discuss in the paper, according to individuals background of each work family conflicts and work stress, to find the differentia between the job satisfaction, work stress and work-family conflicts. The reasons of effect of job satisfaction can be analyzed by the investigation on the relationship between the work stress and job satisfaction on the work-family conflicts. According to the analysis of 589 questionnaire get from the Macau Casinos, the evident can be found that there is significant difference for staffs under 35 years old between work stress and work-family conflicts, but for their gender, education and seniority. All hypotheses are supported by the findings to minder for the gambling management to focus on the issue of work family conflicts and work stress for the reason of improvement of the young staff’s job satisfaction.eyyords: Macau; Table Dealer; Work-Family Conflict; Work Stress; Job Satisfaction收稿日期:2013-08-22;修訂日期:2013-09-23。澳門科技大學科研項目《基於產業生命週期的澳門博彩產業發展戰略研究》基金資助;項目號:0244。*通訊作者:周金泉,男,博士,澳門科技大學,助理教授,主要研究方向:旅遊管理、博彩管理。 Email: jqzhou@must.edu.mo, Tel: 88982925。0 引言澳門地區的經濟因博彩業帶動作飛躍式的發展,隨著澳門經濟強勢增長,對人力資源數量和品質需求也越來越高。博彩服務所提供的產品中最重要的是員工的禮貌及服務等無形產品,所有員工的素質可說是服務性行業經營者成功的重要關鍵因素(Lewies, 1989)[1]。在博彩業中,服務人員與顧客互動的服務傳遞過程,將直接影響客
100在西方管理的企業中,需要注意合理的輪更,如何減低莊荷的工作壓力,將成為博企經營者及管理人員首要改善的要務。5.2 研究建議提高莊荷的工作滿意方面,適宜作整體性的觀察。除了外在滿意指薪資、升遷機會等等,內在滿意則是指福利、與顧客、管理層與同事之間的相處及工作環境等方面的滿足外,還需得到社會人士對莊荷的工作的認同。原因在於報章上刊登很多負面的新聞,如賭博犯罪等,均對莊荷形象受損 , 一定程度上降低了莊荷對滿意度的認知。建議博企方面,為企業及莊荷建立正面的健康形象,如建立義工團、負責任博彩及支助弱勢團體等。莊荷只有得到社會的認同,在工作上獲得非貨幣性及貨幣性的滿足後,進而對組織有更好的向心力及忠誠度,就能提高員工對組織滿意度,相對地工作滿意度也隨之而提高。由於經濟、社會、家庭等不同的壓力導致莊荷其本身的工作壓力日益嚴重,建議組織若能對莊荷實施完整的職前訓練或服務期間的在職訓練,聘請專家學者或資深經理人教導專業的工作技能及有效的實務經驗,使其能在工作處理上能更得心應手,提升工作的績效及自身對工作上的滿足,亦有助於工作滿意度提升。莊荷對在工作特性及工作環境所產生的生理壓力及心理壓力的負面情緒認知程度越高則其所感受的工作壓力也就越高,通常可藉由工作環境的改善、工作內容的調整,如工作崗位變換以促進其工作動機與工作滿足感,因此,建議考慮莊荷需求實施工作崗位多元化,並安排多樣化壓力因應方式的教育訓練課程,相信能夠幫助莊荷在面對壓力時,能做更適當的調整,在個人壓力調適和情緒引導之下,確實也能夠今人們當中表現得更好。莊荷的工作環境與輪更值班外,面對無理的賭客也不少,加上假日的工作壓力沉重,進而導致莊荷於下班後將情緒帶回家,引致工作與家庭的衝突產生,而衝突所產生的後果往往會讓莊荷引發生理及心理上的情緒低落,進而影響工作滿意度,若工作與家庭衝突的調解員能適時介入並給予輔導,使莊荷回復工作心情,更能專心地投入工作,提高工作滿意度。本研究有意義的發現在於,不同於以往的研究結論,女性莊荷在工作 - 家庭衝突壓力下,其工作滿意度高於男性;青年莊荷的工作 - 家庭衝突下的壓力感超過了年長的年齡階段的莊荷,雖然本文前面部分已經從不同視角進行了分析,但是需要從澳門女性職員、青年員工的工作結構、組織支援和社會支援角度去發現其原因。5.3 局限性與研究展望本研究就莊荷工作家庭衝突與工作壓力、滿意度開展探索性研究,建立了這個模型並通過了實證檢驗,但受主觀條件的限制,研究存在一些局限。在樣本選取上,澳門 34 家娛樂場分屬六家博彩公司,各家公司的管理側重不同,特別是中西兩種管理模式的差別,組織支援與社會支援對於澳門博彩員工與負責人博彩的策略將會進一步影響員工的工作壓力與工作滿意度。本文的局限表現為,論文是屬於靜態研究,缺乏時間維度上的序列的考察,後續研究正在進行中。另外,本文採用研究量表大部分為來自其他行業,對於博彩行業,還可以進一步發展更為適切的研究量表。此外,本研究的結論表明,年經莊荷壓力過大以及女性壓力並不明顯於男性,這與許多研究結論不同,後續研究將會從這兩個視角展開。當然組織中員工壓力與工作滿意度的仲介影響因素的研究可以是從多個方面進行的。致 謝感謝匿名評審專家為本文的改進和完善提供的建設性意見。參 考 文 獻[1] Lewies, R. C. (1989). Hospitality marketing: The internal approach. The Cornell Hospitality and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 30, 41-45.[2] Chi S. S., & Zheng G. (2009). Drivers of job satisfaction as related to
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103第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 Received 21 Oct. 2012; Revised 25 maych. 2012.Dr. Sung Hee Park is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Macau University of Science and Technology. E-mail: parksh@must.edu.mo, Tel: +853 6388 2472Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf Ay Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College StudentsSung Hee Park1, Chi-Ming Hsieh2( 1. Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China ) ( 2. Department of Tourism, Recreation and Leisure Studies National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan )AAstract: The purpose of this study is to examine potential market segments of disc golf between beliefs and participation intention among college students by employing a CHAID analysis. Data were collected through non-probability in-class convenience sampling approach. A sub-sample of 457 respondents was used to develop a decision tree in the Exhaustive CHAID. The results indicated that three key predictors of participation intention to disc golf according to their beliefs (fun/ enjoyable activity, an activity that involves drug use, and an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/self-improvement/ achievement) and identified four mutually exclusive segments which had different levels of intend to participate in disc golf. MANOVA and one-way ANOVAs were conducted to examine significant differences among segments. Suggestions are made based on findings from the study.eyyords: Segmentation; Disc Golf; Potential Market; Beliefs; CHAID以信念與參與意圖區隔飛盤高爾夫之潛在市場 ——以大學生為例朴聖姬1,謝奇明2(1. 澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門;2. 國立東華大學觀光暨休閒遊憩學系,台灣)摘要: 本研究旨在藉由卡方自動交互效應(CHAID)分析大學生的信念與參與意圖,以檢視飛盤高爾夫活動之潛在市場區隔。抽樣上選擇以非機率便利抽樣法調查在校大學生以蒐集資料。並以回收之457份有效樣本為基礎進而以CHAID發展決策樹。研究結果顯示大學生進行飛盤高爾夫的參與意圖主要有三個關鍵因子乃依據他們的信念而來(1.樂趣/趣味性的活動、2.活動及涉藥物使用、3. 活動涉及到自我挑戰、自我突破、與成就感等機會),此外,本研究亦辨識出四個不同的市場區隔,其區隔源於不同層次之飛盤高爾夫參與意圖,最後並使用多因子與單因子變異數分析以檢視不同區隔之顯著差異。依據上述分析結果做成具體建議以供未來相關研究進行之基礎。關鍵詞: 區隔;飛盤高爾夫;潛在市場;信念;自動互助檢視法
1040 IntroductionDisc golf, known as Frisbee golf or folf, is one of fast growing activities in the outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism in U.S. Disc golf is relatively new activity in which individual players throw a flying disc at a target, using rules similar to traditional golf, and it improves a combination of physical and mental abilities. According to the Professional Disc Golf Association[1], disc golf has more than 40000 members grown at a rate of 12~15% annually, with nearly 3000 courses in the U.S. and more than 3000 globally. Detailed growth information in number of disc golf courses in the United States is described in Figure 1. Disc golf is played in more than 40 countries, primarily in North America, Central and Western Europe, Japan, New Zealand and Australia. This activity can be played by anyone of any age or gender and players can match their pace to their capabilities, making the sport a lifetime activity. Along with the physical aspects of the game, many courses are in park settings which add its own associated psychological and physical benefits as well as administrative and community advantages[2]. In addition, disc golf courses provide intimacy with nature in which many courses are a part of the landscape and designed with the terrain and natural obstacles[3]. Altymer identifies advantages of disc golf: 1) disc golf courses have low installation costs and low landscape maintenance requirement; 2) disc golf can be a profit center, which is especially attractive for parks facing budget cuts; and 3) high use of disc golf courses can help decrease park vandalism[4].Figure 1. Groyth in NumAer of Disc Golf Courses[1]Almost every states and many city parks in the United States have a dis golf course facility, and likely along with each, a following of disc golfers. However, despite the growth in disc golf, disc golf does not have as much participation as other sports[5]. Most Americans have never played disc golf or possibly have never heard of this activity. To understand why people get involved in a sport or activity, it is important to identify people's beliefs and attitudes toward the activity.Variables that link to attributes and represent the information about characteristics or qualities of an object are called beliefs which are the fundamental component of a human being's conceptual structure[6]. Beliefs about favorable attributes toward an object will lead to a positive attitude, and vice versa. Knowledge of how these beliefs affect people's intention to participate or not participate in disc golf can help in developing effective strategies for promoting this activity.The purpose of this study is to examine important attributes of people's beliefs about disc golf that affect intention to participate in playing disc golf. In addition to identify potential market segments of disc golf based on the interactions of beliefs and participation intention among college students by employing a Chi-squared Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) analysis[7]. The main objectives of this research are: 1) to understand main attributes of beliefs that influence the inclination to participate in disc golf; 2) to identify potential market segments about disc golf; and 3) to explore significant differences among derived segments in their perception of individual and community benefits about disc golf.1 Literature Revieys1.1 Natural-Based RecreationNatural-based recreation is defined as leisure time activities conducted outdoors in natural settings or involving in some direct way elements of nature[8]. It can provide economic benefits to communities and recreation activities that enhance a quality of life[9~10]. According to the outdoor foundation (2012), a total of 141.1 million Americans, nearly half of the
105Sung Hee Park, et al Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College StudentsU.S. population, enjoyed various forms of outdoor recreation in 2011. A number of research has been conducted to find the reason why people engage in outdoor recreation[11~13]. In the U.S. adults participate in outdoor activities because of getting exercise whereas youth indicates spending time with family and friends[14]. Outdoor recreation activities provide a variety of opportunities to participants, such as socializing, exercising, relaxing, excitement, learning, and enjoying nature [15]. Driver et al. categorize the benefits of natural-based recreation activities which are personal growth, physical health benefits, psychological well-being, social integration, social outcomes of sports, and social change[2]. Especially, physical health benefits and psychological benefits are identified as two major types of impacts of individual sport and physical activity involvement. 1.2 Previous Study of Disc golfKennedy identified six approaches to generating income based on disc golf, such as sales of discs, apparel and snacks, and from green fees, disc rental, and fees for reserving the course, shelter or toilet facilities, and explained a tournament that could help to build a sense of community[15~16]. Siniscalchi & Pierskalla demonstrated the individual and community benefits of playing disc golf, which might be primary motivations for people to play it[3]. While, other research examined characteristics and developing phenomenon of disc golf that reveal the growing importance and lack of understanding about disc golf [17-18]. Haley examined conflict between disc golfers and other recreation activity participants in urban parks in Calgary, Canada[19]. Based on on-site and telephone surveys, the author indicated that improving disc golf planning and management can reduce recreational conflicts. However, there are many questions related to disc golf market still remained and is need for more research about disc golf market required.1.3 CHAID-Based Decision TreeThe Chi-squared Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) is an exploratory method for segmenting a population into two or more exclusive and exhaustive subgroups by maximizing the significant of the chi-square, based on categories of the best predictor of the dependent variable[7]. Segments obtained from CHAID analysis are different from cluster type models because the CHAID method, which is derived to be predictive of a criterion variable, is defined by combinations of predictor variables[20]. CHAID technique depends on interactions among the independent variables, finding those that explain the greatest differences within the dependent variable.Marketers can identify the key influencers or significant drivers in certain markets using CHAID analysis, which results in a treelike diagram commonly called a decision tree. Decision trees have several advantages in a data mining environment [21]. They are non-parametric and make no assumptions about the underlying probability distribution therefore suited for exploratory knowledge discovery. Moreover, decision trees are efficient and superior to non-linear covariate effects and higher-order interactions thus CHAID-based decision tree can provide a more detailed analysis that uncovered potential or niche markets with specific characteristics, behaviors and attitudes. There are several market segmentation studies using by CHAID-based decision tree. Croes uses CHAID to identify the characteristics of visitors that contributed to their choice of a type of accommodation and thus to market differentiation in Aruba[22]. Park examines the performing arts market by identifying and profiling performing arts consumers[23]. Gan et al. analyzes Singapore's credit cardholders in search of variations among demographics and card usage patterns as well as cardholders' perceptions regarding credit card ownership and use[24]. Hsu and Kang employ CHAID to identify market segments among international travelers to Hong Kong, based on traveler characteristics[25].2 Research Method2.1 Instrument DevelopmentA review of the extant literature provides the
106foundation for the development of item statements in the questionnaire, containing multiple-choice and rating-scale questions. This study used Fishbein and Ajzen's variable definitions to identify the attributes of belief dimensions and the theoretical relations linking beliefs to behavior[6]. To understand people's intention, a close examination of their beliefs and attitudes is vital, as these factors must correlate closely with one another to be a reliable predictor of behavior. A research model in this study is presented in Figure 2. This study applied Siniscalchi and Pierskalla's personal and community benefits of disc golf[3] and Haley's study about belief indicators of disc golf[19]. Figure 2. Research ModelThe questionnaire was designed with five sections, including 1) involvement in sports activities; 2) awareness and participation in disc golf; 3) beliefs and the perceived benefits of disc golf; 4) future intention to participate in disc golf; and 5) demographics. To address the purpose of this study, a number of specific variables of beliefs, the perceived benefits about disc golf, and demographic were selected and used for the analyses. Appendix A presents the questionnaire of the survey.The first section was designed to ask whether respondents participate in sports activities. The second section asked three questions to respondents about their involvement in disc golf and how they became aware of disc golf. The category for the variables was dichotomous (1=yes and 2=no). The third section examined the beliefs of respondents about disc golf and its benefits. A series of ten attributes of beliefs about disc golf using a five-point Likert type scale (1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree) is: 1) a fun/enjoyable activity; 2) an activity that involves drug use; 3) a social activity (opportunities to be with friends, family, and meet people); 4) an expensive activity; 5) a relaxing and stress relieving activity; 6) a competitive activity; 7) an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/self improvement/achievement; 8) an activity that involves exercise/physical fitness; 9) an easy-to-start/learn/play activity; and 10) an activity that involves drinking. Two items of individual benefits: (if you participate in disc golf you can) 1) enjoy nature, the outdoors, and fresh air; and 2) escape your daily routine; and two items of community benefits: (A community can be improved because a disc golf course) 1) provides positive recreation opportunities for community residents; and 2) brings extra revenue to a community of playing disc golf were assessed with 1 being strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree. The fourth section asked a question of future intention to participate in disc golf with a five-point Likert type scale. The last section included two demographic questions which included in this study referred to gender and citizenship.2.2 Data Collection and SelectionThis study used non-probabili ty in-class convenience sampling approach which helped reduce research time and cost, and enabled collection of a large amount of data in a limited time period. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2008), 18- to 24-year-olds and 25- to 34-year-olds comprised the largest groups of attendees at sports events, and had the highest participation rates in exercise programs, playing sports, and engaging in outdoor activities. College students are a subset of this population. Siniscalchi mentioned that 40% of disc golf players are less than 30 years old[17]. These demographic profiles imply that college students are a potential target population for disc golf research. To collect data, requests for distributing survey instruments to groups of students were emailed to several faculties who had enrolled students greater than 100 in the class and courses tended to have a diversity of students across colleges in Spring and Summer semester of 2009. After receiving final approval for the study, a
107Sung Hee Park, et al Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College Studentstotal of 508 self-administered questionnaires were distributed and collected from the college students in the 8 different classes at a large University in the Midwestern United States during April-June, 2009. Finally, a total of 470 valid questionnaires (92.5%) were included. For the CHAID analysis, a sub-sample of 457 respondents who completed the information of participation intention to disc golf within next 12 months, and their beliefs about disc golf was selected and re-categorized into two groups. The future participation intention to disc golf (yes = 31.7%, no = 68.3%) utilized as a dependent variable and ten attributes of beliefs were used as predictors (1 = disagree, 2 = agree).2.3 Data analysisA series of belief attributes were analyzed to determine if splitting the sample led to a statistically significant effect on the future intention to participate in disc golf. T-tests were used to compare their beliefs and future intention to participate in disc golf between male and female students. Moreover, the Exhaustive CHAID was selected over the original CHAID algorithm because it had a better chance of finding optimal association between dependent variable and predictors. A series of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and were employed to identify significant differences on the perception of individual and community benefits of participating in disc golf. The data was analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences for Windows and Answer Tree 3.1.3 Results3.1 Respondent information The sample consisted of more females (54.3%) than male (43.2%). Almost all the respondents (94.7%) were U.S. citizens, and of U.S. citizens, 72.4% were Caucasian/white. Of the international students, 46.2% were Asian. The majority of the respondents (84.1%) indicated they exercised or engaged in at least one sports activity. Of the respondents, slightly more than half (53.5%) had heard of disc golf or frisbee golf before. Moreover, the female group who had not heard of disc golf was much higher than the male group. A higher percent of males (41%) played disc golf than females (17.6%). The percentage of regular male players (8.4%) was much higher than regular female players (1.6%). In sum, disc golf participation between different genders, males tended to be involved more in disc golf than females.3.2 T-tests resultT-tests revealed several statistically significant differences (p<0.05) between male and female students in their responses regarding the attributes of beliefs and the intention to participate in disc golf. Male students had stronger beliefs that disc golf was a fun/enjoyable activity, an activity that involved drug use, a social activity (opportunities to be with friends, family, and meet people), and an activity that involved drinking while female students had a higher belief about disc golf that was an activity involved exercise physical fitness. Furthermore, male students had a higher intend to participate in disc golf in the future than female students.3.3 Exhaustive CHAID resultThe decision tree resulting from the Exhaustive CHAID analysis identified significant predictors of beliefs about disc golf participation consisting of 4 levels and containing six nodes. Furthermore, four mutually exclusive groups were segmented into a total of four terminal nodes according to their index scores that showed greater and less than 100% which represented the proportion of respondents who had higher future intention to participate in disc golf in the overall sample. The results indicated that three key predictors of participation intention to disc golf according to their beliefs: Disc golf was 1) ‘a fun/ enjoyable activity (Χ²=48.06, Bonferroni adjusted p value <0.001)'; 2) ‘an activity that involves drug use (Χ²=11.01, Bonferroni adjusted p value <0.001)'; and 3) ‘an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/self-improvement/ achievement (Χ²=17.67, Bonferroni adjusted p value <0.001)'.Decision tree for participation intention to disc
108golf is presented in Figure 3. The root node at the top of the decision tree represents the sample of 457 college students, who were divided into two categories. There were more respondents who did not intend to participate in disc golf in the future (n=312, 68.3%) than respondents who intended to participate (n=145, 31.7%) in the sample. Figure 3. Decision Tree for Participation Intention to Disc GolfThe root node was split, based on whether disc golf was a fun enjoyable activity. College students who agreed with this activity (44.4%) showed higher intention to participation in disc golf. This group was further divided into two categories, based on whether disc golf was an activity that involves drug use. Students who agreed with drug use (67.4%) showed the highest intention to participate in disc golf. On the other hand, people who did not agree with drug use (40%) split on whether disc golf was an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement. Students who agreed with this belief (42.4%) had higher intention to participate in disc golf than people who did not agree (31.7%). The resultant four segments were subsequently ranked according to their index scores. An index score of more than 100% shows that the corresponding node has a higher than expected proportion of people with a certain characteristic or behavior. The four segments were summarized with respect to their size and intention to participate in disc golf in the future in Table 1.The most likely to participate in disc golf segment was: 1) college students who agreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity and an activity that involved drug use (segment 1); and the second most likely to participate in disc golf segment was: 2) college students who agreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity and an activity that involved opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement but disagreed disc golf was an activity that involved drug use (segment 2). On the other hand, segments which were less likely to participate TaAle 1. Gain Summary Ay Percentage DistriAution of the CHAID Analysis Node SegmentNo. of respondents(n)% of all the respondents(%)No. of respondents who have intention to participate in disc golf(n)% of respondents who have intention to participate in disc golfa(%)% of rate of respondents who have intention to participate in disc golf in the node(%)Index score(%)a4 1 43 9.4 29 20.0 67.4 212.6b5 2 160 35.0 78 53.8 48.7 153.66 3 65 14.2 12 8.3 18.5 58.21 4 189 41.4 26 17.9 13.8 43.4a Proportion of respondent rates who intend to participate in disc golf in the node compared to the overall sample.b 212.6% = 67.4% (the rate of participation intention to disc golf in Node 4). / 31.7% (the rate of participation intention to disc golf in the overall sample).
109Sung Hee Park, et al Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College Studentsin disc golf in the future were: 3) college students who agreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity but disagreed disc golf was an activity that involved drug use nor opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement (segment 3); and 4) college students who disagreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity (segment 4).3.4 Perception of individual and community Aen-efitsResults of the MANOVA in Table 2 indicated that significant differences among the four segments in the perceptions of individual and community benefits of disc golf participation were found at p < .001. The results of a one-way ANOVA also showed that two individual benefit attributes and one community benefit attribute contributed differently to each segment. However, there was no significant difference in perception of ‘whether a disc golf course brings extra revenue to a community' among the segments. Regardless of the segment, individual benefits were highly rated than community benefits while participating in disc golf by the respondents. Specifically, ‘you can enjoy nature, the outdoors and fresh air if you participate in disc golf' was the highest among the four measurements, with an aggregate mean of 4.22 on a 5-point scale, followed by ‘you can escape your daily routine if you participate in disc golf' (M=4.0). However, ‘a community can be improved because a disc golf course brings extra revenue to a community' showed the lowest mean score of 3.14. Results of Tukey's HSD post_hoc tests showed that college students in segment 1 who agreed disc golf was a fun enjoyable activity which involved drug showed the highest means on the two personal benefit attributes, followed by those in segment 2 who agreed disc golf was a fun enjoyable activity which did not involve drug use but involved opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement while, students in segment 4 who disagreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity indicated the lowest means. Thus, the belief of ‘disc golf is a fun/ enjoyable activity' was strongly related to positive perceptions of personal benefits while participating in disc golf. With regards to perception of community benefits, segments 1 and 2 who had stronger intention to participate in disc golf in the future rated the two community benefit attributes higher than segments 3 and 4 who had less intention to participation in disc golf.4 ConclusionsThis study helps outdoor recreation managers and promoters understand a detailed knowledge of participating in disc golf. Specifically, the study illustrated how potential market of disc golf can be segmented among the college students based on the interactions of their beliefs and intention to participate in disc golf, by using the CHAID method. Fun and enjoyable, involves drug use, and involves opportunity for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement are the key beliefs about disc golf for college students to Table 2. Perception of Individual and Community Benefits among SegmentsPerception of disc golf participation(1-5 ratings, 5 being the most positive) Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4 FIndividual benefit: enjoy nature, the outdoor and fresh air(Overall M = 4.22)4.5a 4.4a 4.4a 3.9b 24.7***Individual benefit: escape your daily routine(Overall M = 4.00)4.3a 4.2a 4.1a 3.7b 15.3***Community benefit: provides positive recreation opportunities for community residents(Overall M = 3.83)4.1 a 4.1 a 3.8b 3.6b 19.4***Community benefit: brings extra revenue to a community(Overall M = 3.14)3.2 3.2 2.9 3.2 2.03n.s.Aggregate means by segment 4.02 3.98 3.8 3.6Wilkes' lambda = 0.793, F = 8.78, p<0.001***p < 0.001, n.s.: not significant a-bTukey's HSD test: Means in the same row followed by the same superscript were significantly different at p < 0.05
110increase their intention to participate in disc golf.Ajzen and Fishbein 's model explain the relationships among beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior[6]. The beliefs and attitudes are seen as influencing people's behavior, and the intention is the probability dimension that links attitude and behavior. This study explores the theoretical relations linking beliefs to behavior intention and identifies four potential market segments. Therefore, beliefs about disc golf and intention to participate can be the most important variables to separate potential disc golf market of college students and their future behavior such as attending and playing disc golf of each segment are predicted according to the findings. The segments 1 and 2 included the college students who were more likely to participate in disc golf in the future, and thus can be identified as actionable segments[25]. These segments commonly believed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity. If one can figure out these underlying characteristics of fun and enjoyable, they could be used to help promote disc golf by developing different target marketing strategies that highlighted those characteristics.On the other hand, segments 3 and 4 showed less intention to participate in disc golf in the future. They did not think disc golf was neither fun/enjoyable, nor an activity that opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement. It seems that they do not know disc golf well. Therefore, promoters and organizers should emphasize this activity on the positive ideas for both physical and mental benefits and provide more opportunities to play disc golf near their resident area such as in community colleges, universities and recreational parks. Using various media can help increase attention of those who have never participated in disc golf before. While participating in disc golf, college students in all the segments shows higher perceptions of personal benefits than community benefits. Thus, promoters need to focus on the positive images of playing disc golf that personal as well as community benefits can be acquired by supporting for disc golf courses in communities and make sure the facility has a low impact on the natural environment. D r u g u s e i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a n e g a t i v e characteristic related to disc golf because this activity originally developed with the hippy culture in which drug use was one stereotype in the 1960s. However, segment 1 which had the highest intend to participate to disc golf believed disc golf was not only fun and enjoyable, but involved drug use. Thus, an effort to remove and replace the negative idea of playing disc golf with drug use must be needed for the college students. In addition, the gender differences affect students' belief about disc golf and their participation intention. To increase participation of college students in disc golf, promoters should provide an image of fun and social activity for male while exercise physical fitness for female students.This study extends the knowledge of potential market of disc golf among college students. The more the students have positive beliefs or are involved in disc golf, the higher their intention to play in the future. This study confirms the relationship between beliefs and future intention. However, it is important to find that not every beliefs impact behavioral intention equally. Some beliefs are stronger indicators for intention and behavior than others. Furthermore, college students can be predicted to participate in disc golf based on each segments. This information is vital for disc golf promoters and outdoor recreation managers to plan and build facilities and services. Although many students are still not familiar with disc golf, it is a growing activity based on the increasing number of courses and tournaments. This study can provide the primary managerial implications to disc golf administer and promoters.References [1] Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA). (2012). http://www.pdga.com.[2] Driver, B. L., Brown, P. J. and Peterson, G. L. (1991). Benefits of leisure. PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.[3] Siniscalchi, J. and Pierskalla, D. (2005). Flying saucers: Disc golf can bring personal and community benefits to rural America. Parks & Recreation, 40 (1), 42-47.
111Sung Hee Park, et al Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College Students[4] Altymer, D. (1996). Disc golf fever: Will your park catch it. Parks & Recreation, 31(8), 48-51. [5] Fullerton, S. (2006). The foundation of sports marketing. Sports Marketing. Retrieved from http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/007312821x/349858/sample_ch01.pdf[6] Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.[7] Kass, G. V. (1980). An exploratory technique for investigating large quantities of categorical data. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Applied Statistics, 29(2), 119-127.[8] Cordell, H. K. (2008). The lastest on trends in nature-based outdoor recreation. Forest History Today, (spring, 2008), 4-10.[9] Nelson, C., & Stynes, D. (2003). 2003-2007 Michigan comprehensive outdoor recreation plan. Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of Natural Resources.[10] Stynes, D. (2002). Michigan golf tourists-economic impacts. East Lansing, MI: Department of Park, Recreation, and Tourism Resources, Michigan State University. [11] Walker, G. J., Deng, J., & Dieser, R. B. (2001). Ethnicity, acculturation, self-construal, and motivations for ourdoor recreation. Leisure Sciences, 23(4), 263-283.[12] Walker, G. J., Hull, R. B., & Roggenbuck, J. W. (1998). On-site optimal experiences and off-site benefits. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(4), 453-471.[13] Manfredo, M. J., Driver, B. l., & Tarrant, M. A. (1996). Measuring leisure motivation: A meta-analysis of the recreation experience preference scales. Journal of Leisure Research, 28, 188-213.[14] Outdoor Foundation (2012). Outdoor recreation participation report 2012. Retrieved from http://www.outdoorfoundation.org/pdf/ResearchParticipation2012.pdf.[15] Wisnom, M. S. (1999). Relationships between benefits sought, recreation activities, and group characteristics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University.[16] Kennedy, C. (2007). Making space for the DISC jockey. Parks & Recreation, 42(1), 34-37. [17] Siniscalchi, J. (2004). The personal and community benefits of disc golf to rural America (and beyond), PDGA internal documents. Retrieved from http://www.pdga.com/documents/BenefitsOfDiscGolf-Siniscalchi_.pdf [18] Benson, Jerome Edward II. (2000). Toward a valid disc golf course design algorithm: using landscape ecology and geographic information systems (GIS) to assess recreation facilities' sites. Stephen F. Austin State University, TX.[19] Haley, H. (2002). Exploring emerging recreation and its planning challenges: The case of disc golf in Calgary. CAN., The University of Calgary, Calgary.[20] Magidson, J. (1994). The CHAID approach to segmentation modeling: chi-squared automactic interaction detection. In R.P. Bagozzi (Ed.), In advanced methods of marketing. research (pp. 118-159). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.[21] Bakken, S. K. (2005). Use of chi-squared automatic interaction detector in the prediction of vocational rehabilitation outcomes among veterans with substance use disorders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.[22] Croes , H. (2008) . Accommodat ion por t fo l io and market differentiation: the case of Aruba. Tourism Review, 56(2), 185-197.[23] Park, S. H. (2010). An analysis of the performing arts consumer: developing market segments by using chi-squared automatic interaction detection (CHAID). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University.[24] Gan, L. L., Maysami, R. C. and Koh, H. C. (2008). Singapore credit cardholders: ownership, usage patterns, and perceptions. Journal of Services Marketing, 22(4), 267-279. [25] Hsu, C. H. and Kang, S. K. (2007). CHAID-based segmentation: international visitors' trip characteristics and perceptions. Journal of Travel Research, 46(2), 207-216.[26] Chen, J. S. (2003). Market segmentation by tourists' sentiments. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(1), 178-193.Appendix A: Survey InstrumentSection 1: This section asks questions about your involvement in sports activitiesQ1. Do you exercise or engage in any sports activity? □ No □ YesSection 2: This section asks about your awareness and participation in disc golfQ2. Have you ever heard of disc golf (FrisAee golf)? □ No (If no, skip to Section 3) □ YesQ3. Do you play disc golf? □ Yes □ No Q4. Which of the folloying statements most closely applies to you? (check one) □ I have heard of disc golf, but haven't played it □ I have played disc golf before, but do not play regularly □ I have played disc golf before and play disc golf regularlySection 3: This section asks about your beliefs and the perceived benefits of disc golfFor each sentence completion statement below, put an V in the box indicating your level of agreement:
112Q5. Disc golf is…Strongly Disagree Disagree Not Sure AgreeStrongly Agree1. a fun/ enjoyable activity2. an activity that involves drug use3. a social activity (opportunities to be with friends, family, and meet people)4. an expensive activity5. a relaxing and stress relieving activity6. a competitive activity7. an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/self improvement/achievement8. an activity that involves exercise/ physical fitness9. an easy-to-start/ learn/ play activity10. an activity that involves drinkingQ6. If you participate in disc golf, you canStrongly Disagree Disagree Not Sure AgreeStrongly Agree1. enjoy nature, the outdoors, and fresh air?2. escape your daily routine?Q7. A community can Ae improved Aecause a disc golf courseStrongly Disagree Disagree Not Sure AgreeStrongly Agree1. provides positive recreation opportunities for community residents?2. brings extra revenue to a community?Section 4: This section asks about your future intention to participate in disc golfQ8. Will you play disc golf (at least once) in the future? □ Definitely will not □ Probably will not □ Not Sure □ Probably will □ Definitely willSection 5: This section asks about yourself for data analysis purposesQ9. What is your gender? □ Male □ FemaleQ10. What are your citizenship and race/ethnicity? (check one)□ U.S. Citizen □ International Student□ African American/ Black □ African□ Asian/Asian American □ Asian□ Caucasian/White □ European□ Hispanic/Latino □ Oceanian□ Native American/Inuit/Aleutian □ North American□ Native Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander □ South American□ Other □ Other□ Prefer not to answer □ Prefer not to answer
113第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 Received 6 Dec. 2013; Revised 27 Dec. 2013.Eko Yi Liao, Female, PhD, Assistant Professor, Research area: organizational behavior & human resource management, Email: yliao@must.edu.mo, Tel: 1981 8897It is All aAout Procrastination: Stress and MotivationEko Yi Liao( Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: Procrastination becomes a general concern in the contemporary society, where almost everyone commits to a certain level of procrastination in their daily work or life. Yet the knowledge system about procrastination remains incomplete and open to new evidence and theoretical perspectives. This study investigated the phenomena of college student’s procrastination behaviors. Specifically, it adopts the theory of stress coping to develop the research model, indicating that perceived stress is the critical predictor of such avoiding or delaying behaviors. In addition, a motivation theory helps to identify the individual difference that affects this stress-procrastination relationship, which is student’s goal orientation. Data from Critique Interview Techniques with eight college students and survey among 203 college students were collected and analyzed. Results and findings show support to the proposed model and hypotheses. Theoretical as well as practical implications were discussed accordingly.eyyords: Procrastination; Perceived stress; Goal orientation研究拖延症:壓力和動力廖 逸(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 拖延症在當代社會逐漸成爲一個成爲廣受關注的問題,而每個人在工作或生活中或多或少都存在拖延的情况。但現今關于拖延症的知識體系仍不完善,有待理論的支撑和實證研究的支持。本研究目的是瞭解大學生的拖延症情况,運用壓力管理理論和激勵理論中的目標創建理論提出研究模型和研究問題。本研究認爲個體感受到的壓力會直接影響其拖延行爲,幷且個體的目標創建和實踐情况會影響這個“壓力-拖延"的關係。通過對大學生的訪談及問卷調查,數據分析結果初步支持本研究提出的理論模型。研究意義及未來的研究方向也一幷進行了討論。關鍵詞: 拖延;壓力;動力0 IntroductionIndividuals in current society are facing more challenges, such as multitasking, interacting with other individuals in different social activities, keeping up with several deadlines at the same time. When individuals do not acquire sufficient or systematic personal skills (e.g., time management skills) to deal with (e.g., prioritize, make timetables, and fulfill various expectations) these challenges, problems
114happen. Procrastination, one critical personal failure in the above-mentioned area, significantly interferes with one’s work and life[29]. Specifically, procrastination is defined as a lack of self-regulatory delay or a failure in those work tasks and life issues[28]. This destructive behavior seriously decreases individual’s work effectiveness, functional social interactions, may even cause other mental or physical dysfunctions. When it comes to academic performance (e.g., examination scores, class attendance, participation in team work/projects, etc.), procrastination poses an even severe threat to students. The reasons are that teenagers or young adults are at the life stage of gradually forming their persistent work/life habits and styles, which once settled will be relatively difficult to transfer or eliminate. Thus, students’ procrastination is found as a prevalent yet destructive phenomenon.However, the current knowledge system on students’ procrastination remains incomplete and unsystematic in three major ways. First, how procrastination is developed still needs investigation and clarification. While some scholars regard procrastination as a negative form of personality trait[7,13~14], other researchers, with more theoretical and practical support, treat it as a self-regulatory failure or a destructive individual delaying phenomenon[28]. This study follows the “behavioral track” that investigating procrastination as a dysfunctional behavior. In this line of research, scholars focus more on attitudinal or situational predictors (e.g., satisfaction perception, fairness perception), other types of antecedents are in need of adding to the big picture. Then, the questions raised are: Does an individual’s procrastination level remain stable across life stages? If yes, how can we prevent such long-term personal delaying “habit”? If no, what are the situational or individual predictors of procrastination? In addition, with the specificity of their life stage, teenage and young-adult students are influenced particularly strongly when acquiring the procrastination trait or committing to related behaviors.Second, current knowledge about the personal and interpersonal determinants of students’ procrastination leaves large gaps for theoretical and empirical research investigation[29]. Even if individual’s procrastination level is determined to some extent by biological characteristics or personality traits, there are external factors or cognitive factors that can substantially increase or decrease the degree of procrastination. Unfortunately, what are the cognitive antecedents that affect students’ procrastination, which in turn deteriorate their academic performance, are in need of theoretical investigation and empirical evidence.Third and most important, how can educators gain better understanding of student’s procrastination, and in turn facilitate student’s adjustment to a lower level of procrastination is one important question to school instructors and educators. As noted before, young adult students, especially college students, are a special group of individuals. They are entering the stage of stabilizing their working or life strategies and orientations, yet are also flexible and open to new experiences and powerful influence. To this end, then, educators are with the responsibility to be aware of and response to those external factors of student’s procrastination, not only for the sake of academic performance, but also for the purpose of a positive and influential education that can achieve long-term effect on student’s life and career development.Thus, to bridge these research gaps and provide practical educating strategies, this study focus on discovering the reasons contributing to college students’ procrastination, and connecting its findings with educator’s responsibilities and awareness. Specifically, this empirical study adopts the Krohne’s avoidance coping theory and Goal orientation theory to propose a research model, where perceived stress level influence the degree of student’s procrastination, and goal orientation functioning as a buffering effect in this relationship. Semi-interview data collected with Critical Incident Interview Techniques (CIT) through eight students, and survey data using questionnaires from over two hundred college students showed support to the research model and hypotheses. Practical implications for both college students and educators are presented based on the findings and
115Eko Yi Liao It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivationresults of the study.1 The Behavioral Perspective of ProcrastinationResearch on procrastination can be traced back to a few centuries ago, where scholars discovered the existence of certain behaviors which include voluntarily delay or avoid tasks. The very first few perspectives on procrastination was relating procrastination to sin - “to procrastinate is to sin”. However, with more and more qualitative and quantitative research focusing on this area, scholars started to view procrastination from different angles. A longitudinal empirical study found that the degree of individual’s procrastination remain relatively stable with a period of ten years, thus it concluded that procrastination can be treated as a personality trait[7,17~18]. In addition, Lay and colleagues conducted a series of studies discovering the trait perspective on procrastination, which is described as “the predisposition to engage in dilatory behavior”[20~21]. The trait procrastination has been investigated in relation to Big Five Personality Model, individual emotions and moods (e.g., anxiety), attitudes and mental abilities (e.g., time management).Another branch of procrastination research focuses on the behavioral aspect of procrastination, regarding it as a “self-regulatory failure”[27~29]. This line of research regards procrastination as a dysfunctional behavior of individuals, which include an intended avoiding or delaying action on starting or finishing tasks[4,9]. Solomon and Rothblum (1984) in their investigation in the frequency of student’s procrastination-related behaviors argue that procrastination is “the act of needlessly delaying tasks to the point of experiencing subjective discomfort”, which upgrades the range of procrastination to the set of delaying behaviors that go beyond poor time management or study skills. With the behavioral perspective, procrastination are found to be an increasingly popular phenomena, because of the emergence of more and more deadlines, multi-tasks, working with different people in different situations. Accordingly, people are more curious about what actually causes procrastination level to vary, and what the controllable and uncontrollable factors throughout this process are.The nomological network of procrastination as a behavior is not complete or systematic because of two reasons. First, there is a need to conduct further and more empirical studies focusing on the underpinnings of procrastination in order to contribute to a broad picture of how procrastination functions in different context. For example, motivation related reasons have not been introduced to the procrastination research, leaving a gap of understanding the motives behind such behaviors[29]. Second, the relationships between procrastination and its correlates still need to gather more empirical evidence and theoretical integration. Although various correlates (predictors as well as consequences) have been studied relating to procrastination, conflicting findings have been discovered. For example, some personality traits are found significantly related to procrastination in certain studies, while no relationship or marginal relationship were indicated in other studies. To this end, further field studies can help to add more empirical investigation in this area.2 Theoretical Background and Hypotheses Development2.1 Stress and ProcrastinationIn response to the above mentioned research gaps in procrastination, this study focus on investigating the procrastination phenomena of college students. Students are likely to display procrastination behavior in their academic studies, teamwork, or dealing with other life/study issues. The major stream of procrastination research focuses on discovering the predicting role of dispositional aspects (e.g., big-5 personalities, etc.)[1]. Less is known about how individual perceptions, especially negative feelings and emotions, will influence one’s procrastination level. Thus, what individual factors constitute the critical influences on students’ procrastination remains an important yet not-much-investigated question. This study argues that the degree of procrastination can be
116explained by the severeness of perceived stress. Also, this relationship will be buffered by the student’s goal orientation. To provide theoretical underpinnings of how college students adopt different levels of procrastination and the mechanisms of how this antecedent-behavior relationship is influenced with individual difference, this study uses the Krohne’s avoidance coping theory[17~19] and Goal orientation theory[3,6]. Stress is defined as the “a state of mental tension and worry caused by problems in life, work, etc.” from Merriam-Webster dictionary. Stress can cause individuals negative emotions such as depression[23~24], and different directions and levels of consequent behaviors such as alarm reaction, stage of resistance, stage of exhaustion[26] (general adaptation syndrome, Selye, 1956). With its critical influence on individuals, researchers are dedicated to discover the different coping strategies and its related outcome behaviors.Individual’s percept ion of s t ress i s one unavoidable yet critical influence in affecting procrastination behaviors for a few reasons. First, as discussed before, contemporary society engenders varied “deadlines” to individuals, becoming the driving force of pressure perception and may easily cause distraction during the process. Second, although it is unavoidable, it will gain benefits for both schools and students if we build a knowledge system of relating student’s stress to their procrastination. The reason is that both of them can take into consideration of mechanisms to minimize related stress feelings in order to prevent procrastination.In proposing the stress coping strategies, Krohne argues that individuals tend to adopt either vigilant or cognitive avoidance method to cope with perceived stress[17~18]. Cognitive avoidance refers to individuals stress resolution of “averting attention from stress-related information”, which indicates a relatively negative form of dealing with stressful perceptions. This avoidance strategy is useful in understanding the influence of stressful feelings on college students’ adoption of procrastination in two ways. First, college students are facing various but different degree of stress related to both course load and life events. With the academic requirements of taking different courses, completing assignments and course projects, preparation for quizzes and exams, students have no choice but to accomplish as much of these academic tasks as they can to assure of an “academic survive” in college/university. Also, same as adults, they also encounter and undergo troublesome or difficult life events, performing as another source of stressors. To search for an outlet of the two sources of strains, students tend to avoid sticking up to their study plans, or delaying certain tasks as a relief and buffer from the intenseness.Second, college students often have a more flexible timetable then working individuals[2], and are at the life stage where different levels of changes can happen frequently. Students only contribute a certain portion of their time on classes and school activities, leaving them relatively more free time to spend based on individual willingness. Thus, they have their distinctiveness in comparing to other groups of adults, where stress may function differently to their procrastination level. They will be more likely and more able to follow Krohne’s “avoidance” route of dealing with stress. For example, if there is choice to be made between a difficult course project and a dinner gathering, students may opt to avoid the stressful assignment and choose a more entertaining activity. Thus, it is proposed that with increased perceived stress, college students are likely to commit to higher level of procrastination.Hypothesis 1. Perceived stress level is positively related to students’ procrastination.2.2 The Role of Goal OrientationSince scholarly research on procrastination have not gathered sufficient theoretical and empirical studies both on antecedents and moderat ing mechanisms[22] , more investigation in related topics will be able to provide further information to procrastination literature. Hypothesis 1 focuses on discovering the predicting role of stress in students’ procrastination. Then, the next question comes: will this stress-
117Eko Yi Liao It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivationprocrastination relationship hold for all types of students? In other words, are there any buffering factors or individual differences which distort the relationship? Previous procrastination studies have not much discovered the individual moderating constructs, leaving much space for research investigation. To this end, this study tries to discover students’ differences in goal orientation and investigate how this individual difference may affect the stress-procrastination relationship.Specifically, Goal orientation theory[3,6] is adopted as the underlying theory for this buffering effect. Goal orientation theory is one of the most critical motivation theories and has been adopted largely in explaining students’ involvement and engagement in school and learning activities[15]. It describes how and why people are motivated by objectives achievement, and how goal achievement functioning as a personal state or trait that guides and affect individual’s behaviors. Although there may be different types of goal orientation, this study follows the general goal orientation mechanisms to understand how students are motivated by their goal settlement and whether their behaviors are consistent with the set goals or not will influence their procrastination.It is proposed that if a student is highly goal oriented, he/she would be better motivated toward their academic tasks, which will help minimizing any distractions during the task-fulfillment process. In this way, highly goal-oriented students will be less likely to commit dysfunctional delaying behaviors such as procrastination.Hypothesis 2a. Student’s goal orientation is negatively related to his/her procrastination behavior.Also, it is argued that the degree to which students are clearly aware of their goals and keep their behaviors sticking to the goals closely, will moderate the relationship between stress and procrastination. First, when students have established goals and regard it an essential achievement to accomplish the goals, they are more directed at those appropriate behaviors toward goal achievement. They are less likely to be distracted by outside attractions such as entertainment facilities, social activities, or trivia personal issues because they are concentrated on fulfilling their goals. Second, when students spend most part of their effort and energy in fulfilling their planned goals, they are less likely to be drawn back by stressful feelings or intimidated by difficulties and troublesomeness. In addition, with established step-by-step and detailed plans closely connected to their goals, students can hardly find excuses for task postponement or wondering around and wasting those absolutely free time slots. Thus, it is proposed that when students are highly goal oriented, the stress-procrastination relationship will be weaker; when students are less goal-oriented, the stress-procrastination relationship will be even stronger:Hypothesis 2b. Student’s goal orientation will moderate the stress-procrastination relationship, in such a way that the relationship becomes stronger when a student is less goal-oriented, and the relationship becomes weaker when a student is highly goal-oriented.3 Methodology3.1 Participants and ProceduresThe data collection for this study includes two parts: for the first part, 8 students participated in the semi-interviews using CIT to provide detailed information and incidences about procrastination as an exploration of the topic; for the second part, 203 college students participated in the survey data collection. Participation is on a voluntary basis. Participants were informed that the content of their answers is for academic research only and they were assured of anonymity and confidentiality. CIT[10] was used to conduct semi-interviews with 8 undergraduate students for this study. CIT is considered to be a useful method in studying complex or new phenomenon[30]. This method can provide more detailed information of the events/incidents provided by the participants, and could help minimize the errors compared to having to summarize across different incidents[25].
118For CIT, participants were asked to describe a specific incident when they have procrastination behavior in their daily study or life. Procrastination was described to them as “delay on course assignment or projects”, “always catching up with deadlines”, “voluntarily postpone things that should be done on time”, and so on. Then the students were asked to think of whether they were under any stressful events or feel any pressure during or before the incidents.Then, for the major data collection, of the 203 participants, 58% were male and 42% were female. The average age of the interviewees was 21. They are majorly in their third year (52%) or the fourth year (46%) of undergraduate programs. They were asked to rate from 1 to 5 on several questions relating to stress, procrastination, and goal orientation.As the interview schedule and the questionnaire were originally written in English, the author translated it into Chinese. Another bilingual researcher back translated the questions to ensure conceptual consistency. The two researchers discussed and agreed upon the final version. 3.2 Measures3.2.1 Procrastination.Lay’s[20] 20-item procrastination scale which was developed for student populations was adopt to measure student’s procrastination behaviors. A sample item is “I often find myself performing tasks that I had intended to do days before”. Participants were required to rate on a 5-point Likert type scale (from 1= strongly disagree to 5= strongly agree) to indicate their agreement on the items. The confident alpha value for procrastination was 0.86.3.2.2 Perceived stress.Cohen and Will iamson’s (1988) 10-i tem Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) was adopt to measure student’s perception of stress. A sample item was “In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly?”[5] Participants were required to rate on a 5-point scale (from 1= Never to 5= Very Often). The confident alpha value for procrastination was 0.82.3.2.3 Goal orientation.The 7-item goal orientation was adopt to measure student’s awareness of their goals and the degree to which their behaviors sticking to the goals and plans. A sample item is “If I set goals, I take action to reach them.” The first five items are 5-point Likert type scale (from 1= strongly disagree to 5= strongly agree), while the last two items measure the frequency of their behaviors (from 1= none of the time to 5= all of the time). The confident alpha value for procrastination was 0.83.4 Analyses and ResultsBoth qualitative and quantitative analyses were used to test the hypotheses and the proposed model. The qualitative data were the procrastinations incidences provided by participants. The aim is to enable researchers gather first-hand and detailed information about the process of stress leading to procrastination, and its related emotions in the incident. The quantitative data are the ratings of 203 participants on the scales of all the variables of interest.Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was adopted to test the measurement model to see whether all the variables are distinguished from each other, based on the ratings of students. Five indices were reported for each testing model. Following Hu and Bentler’s(1999) recommendation, the combination of incremental fit indices (IFI, TLI, and CFI) and absolute fit indices (RMSEA and SRMR) was used in this study[11]. This combination was adopted because it was shown to minimize the influence of Type I and Type II errors in different conditions[11]. A value of 0.95 or higher for IFI, TLI, and CFI, a value of 0.06 or lower for RMSEA, and a value of 0.08 or lower for SRMR, are suggested as good fit of the model (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The proposed model was compared with a series of models, including the null model, the two 2-factor models (one with combined stress and procrastination, and the other one with combined goal orientation and procrastination), and one 1-factor model (combined all factors). The results (Table 1) show that the proposed model received a significantly
119Eko Yi Liao It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivationbetter fit in all indices (TLI = 0.97, CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.03) then all alternative models. Also, results show that the students are able to distinguish all the studied variables.Table 2 contains the means, standard deviations, and a correlation matrix of all the studied variables (gender, age, grade, region, procrastination, perceived stress, and goal orientation). The hierarchical multiple regression was used to test the research model and hypotheses. The four control variables (gender, age, grade, and region) were input in step 1, and then the z score of stress and z score of goal orientation were added in step 2. Last, the interaction term (created by the product of z score of stress and z score of goal orientation) were created and added in the model. The results of the moderation analyses were presented in Table 3.From the results, we can tell that the relationship between stress and procrastination was significant (β= 0.15, p < 0.05), showing full support to Hypothesis Table 1 Results of Confirmatory Factor AnalysesModel Factors χ2 df Δχ2 RMSEA CFI TLINull model 1108.29 465Baseline model 3-factor model 1052.59 435 55.7** 0.03 0.98 0.97Model 1 2-factor model (1) (combing stress and procrastination) 1169.85 453 117.26** 0.08 0.89 0.89Model 22-factor model (2) (combining goal orientation and procrastination)1169.20 453 116.61** 0.08 0.88 0.89Model 3 1-factor model (combining all factors). 1458.20 454 405.61** 0.12 0.83 0.83** p <0.01TaAle 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations gender age grade region Procrastination Goal Orientation stressGendera 1 Ageb -0.13 1 Gradec -0.12 0.30** 1 Regiond 0.20* -0.35** -0.61** 1 Procrastination -0.04 -0.114 0.01 -0.07 (0.86) Goal Orientation 0.14 -0.07 -0.04 0.05 -0.35** (0.83) Stress 0.06 0.00 0.15 -0.19* 0.19* -0.16* (0.82)Mean 0.56 21 3.5 0.61 2.8 3.9 2.9SD 0.51 1.4 0.51 0.49 0.58 0.78 0.59Note. N=203.(a) 0 = male, 1 = female. (b) higher value represents higher age. (c) value ranges from 1 to 4. (d) 0 = Macau, 1 = Mainland.*p< 0.05. ** p <0.01.TaAle 3 Summary of Moderated Regression AnalysesVariableProcrastinationβ Δ R2 95% CI FStep 1 Gender -0.05 (-0.22,0.12) Age -0.05 (-0.10,0.00) Grade -0.01 (-0.21,0.19) Region 0.12 0.09 (-0.37,0.01) 3.67Step 2 Goal orientation (A1) -0.30** (-0.39,-0.21) Stress (A2) 0.15* 0.04* (0.01, 0.14) 9.4**Step 3 A1*A2 -0.32** 0.12** (-0.46,-0.22) 28.8***p<0.05. ** p <0.01.
1201. The relationship between goal orientation and procrastination is also as expected (β= 0.30, p < 0.01), showing support to Hypothesis 2a. Then, the moderator effect was also found significant and in the same direction as we predicted (β= -0.32, p < 0.01). Thus, Hypothesis 2b was also supported.To further show the moderator effect of goal orientation, a plot figure was created (Figure 1). The sample was classified into two groups based on the goal orientation score (high goal orientation and low goal orientation). It also supports the hypotheses, where perceived stress level was significantly and positively related to procrastination, and the relationship tend to be weaker when the goal orientation value is high.5 DiscussionThis empirical study aims at bridging the research gaps in procrastination behavior of college students. Specifically, it tries to investigate the predicting role of perceived stress on student’s voluntary delaying, and the moderating role of goal orientation. As discussed before, everyone commits to procrastination to a certain level, and this delaying behavior poses a serious threat in our work and life productivity. Furthermore, college students are a specific group of individuals, who are at the critical stage of their life and need to adjust to a set of positive working and living habits. Thus, learning the antecedents of college students’ procrastination is of particular importance. To this point, results and findings of this study support that when students perceive a higher level of stress, they are more likely to commit to procrastination behaviors. Then, if the students are highly oriented to their goal achievement, the stress-procrastination relationship will be buffered.The findings contribute to the procrastination literature. First, it uses a motivation theory to investigate the underpinnings of procrastination, which was suggested as necessary steps in gaining systematic knowledge about procrastination[29]. Many previous procrastination literatures overlooked the influence of negative cognitive perceptions, preventing the development of theoretical argument and empirical investigation in this perception-procrastination relationship. Adopting the theoretical perspectives Figure 1 Plot of significant Stress * Goal Orientation interaction
121Eko Yi Liao It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivationof the combination of a stress coping theory and a motivation theory, this study provides a new perspective in predicting and treating procrastination phenomena. It argues that when students are highly stressed, they are less likely to concentrate on those academic tasks, and are less capable of spending effort to stick to their regular or rational time management plans. The reasons are that they are more distracted by the stressful events, and the accompanied negative emotions and moods prevent them from keeping up with their original timetables. Yet, student’s goal orientation level will buffer this relationship, in the way that when students are highly conscious about their goals and highly committed to their goal achievement, they are less likely to be affected by perceived stress and in turn adopt procrastination. Goal achievement motivates the students to build up rational and positive views on life events and academic requirements, allowing them to be guided by set goals, rather than being influenced by cognitive perceptions.Second, it discovers one critical predictor of students’ procrastination, which is the perceived stress level. Previous procrastination literature focus more on the role of self-regulation skills, such as time management skills and self-determination, leaving a question of how other variables which are less stable will influence the procrastination. Such investigation on how “flexible” factors affect one’s procrastination has certain advantages. For example, it becomes clear and workable to identify those “changeable” factors once an individual feels the need to improve his/her delaying behavior. Also, with understanding of these less stable antecedents (i.e., perceived stress), researchers and educators will be able to develop coping strategies and resolutions toward procrastination.6 Practical Implications for EducatorsWhile focusing on improving student’s academic performance, college educators are also responsible in assisting students to adjust to a set of positive cognitive status and forming constructive behavioral habits and practices. Thus, when students face the problem of lacking motivations to keep up with academic plans, or experiencing overload pressure and losing internal commitment to study, educators will be encountering the dilemma of whether to increase academic requirements or not. On one hand, increasing requirements seem to be a reasonable choice to alert students. On the other hand, such behavior may further deteriorate students’ intrinsic motivation.To this dilemma, findings of this study suggest that educators are suggested to consider the critical role of goal orientation. One solution to engage students better with their academic timetable is to develop courses or short-term training program to help students realize their life and study goals, set up related plans, and teach relevant knowledge of achieving the goals. In this way, even for stressful period during an academic semester such as examination period, students have the abilities to make better use of their time management skills and decrease procrastination behaviors.7 ConclusionDealing with student’s procrastination can be a tricky problem: how to balance their requirement of “freedom” and educator’s concern of too much freedom leading to less motivation. Findings of this study suggest that, when perception of stress increases, student’s procrastination level also increases. Also, if students are highly goal oriented, they will be less influenced by the stress-procrastination relationship. This study provides preliminary findings on how to incorporate procrastination behaviors with motivation theory, offering research opportunities for future studies. Future research can further investigate the role of intrinsic motivation in predicting and dealing with procrastination, especially for students. References [1] Akerlof, G. A. (1991). Procrastination and obedience. The American Economic Review, 81(2), 1-19.[2] Akinsola, M. K., Tella, A., & Tella, A. (2007). Correlates of
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123第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 IEEE 802.11無線局域網節點緩衝區大小設置綜述楊紹博,趙慶林*,馬治傑(澳門科技大學資訊科技學院,澳門)摘要: 隨著無線通訊技術和計算機網絡的迅猛發展,人們對於移動信息服務的需求也在不斷地增加。這就吸引了人們對802.11無線局域網在提供移動信息服務性能方面的大量關注。緩衝區是影響無線網絡性能的重要因素之一。本文首先對當前廣泛使用的802.11無線局域網節點緩衝區大小設置方案進行綜述,然後提出新的觀點和研究方向。關鍵詞: 無線局域網;緩衝區;基礎架構A SURVEY OF BUFFER SIZING IN IEEE 802.11 WLANsShaobo YANG, Qinglin ZHAO*, Zhijie MA( Faculty of Information Technology,Macau University of Science and Technology,Macao,China )AAstract: With the rapid development of wireless communication and computer networks, people's demand for mobile information services is constantly increasing. This attracts a great deal of attention on the performance of 802.11 based WLAN that can provide mobile information services. The buffer size is one of the important factors affecting the system performance. This paper first gives a comprehensive survey on the state-of-the-art node buffer sizing technologies in 802.11 WLANs, and then proposes new research directions.eyyords: WLAN; Buffer; Infrastructure收稿日期:2013-04-04;修訂日期:2013-09-26。項目:澳門科學技術發展基金037/2010/A*通訊作者:趙慶林,男,博士,副教授; 研究方向: 無線移動網絡; E-mail: qlzhao@must.edu.mo; Tel: 8897 23060 引言隨著無線通訊技術和計算機網絡的迅猛發展,人們對於移動信息服務的需求也在不斷的增加。傳統的文字和圖片服務已經無法滿足現實的需求,大量的音頻、視頻傳輸需求變得越來越多,用戶對網絡性能的要求也越來越高。緩衝區是影響無線網絡性能的重要因素之一,因此如何合理地設置緩存區大小是一個非常值得研究的問題。WLAN(無線局域網)有兩個廣泛使用的標準,分別爲 802.11 和 802.11e。基於 802.11 標準的WLAN 只提供盡力而為的服務,對 QoS(服務質量)並沒有保障。IEEE 802.11e 標準的提出,正是為了增加 802.11 標準對 QoS 的支持。目前已有對802.11 緩衝區性能的研究,比如文獻 [1~3]。然而對 802.11e 緩衝區性能的研究還比較缺乏。本文的主要工作是分析總結了已有的節點緩衝區設置方案。并在此基礎上,我們提出在802.11e EDCA 網絡中研究節點緩衝區大小設置的方案。本文後續內容現安排如下:首先對 802.11 無綫網絡進行簡單介紹,然後介紹緩衝區在 802.11 WLAN 中的設置方案,最後提出本文的研究展望。
127楊紹博,等 IEEE 802.11無線局域網節點緩衝區大小設置綜述研究在無基礎架構下緩衝區設置方案。因為有基礎架構網絡與無基礎架構網絡的拓撲結構不同,所以有基礎架構下的緩衝區設置方案不一定適用於無基礎架構網絡。研究 802.11e EDCA 機制下緩衝區大小設置方案。因為在 802.11 中,節點每次只能發送一個分組,而在 802.11e 中節點可以在 TXOP 時間內連續發送多個分組,所以已有的 802.11 緩衝區設置方案可能不再適用於 802.11e 網絡。參 考 文 獻[1] Tianji Li, Douglas J. Leith,David Malone: Buffer sizing for 802.11-based networks. IEEE/ACM Trans. Netw.19(1):156-169 (2011)[2] D. Malone,P. Clifford, D.J. Leith:On Buffer Sizing for Voice in 802.11 WLANs. IEEE Communications Letters, 10(10): 700–703 (2006).[3] Kamran Jamshaid, Basem Shihada,LiXia, and Philip Levis: Buffer Sizing in 802.11 Wireless Mesh Networks.2011 Eighth IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad-Hoc and Sensor Systems, pp. 272-281 (2011). 學術動態澳門科技大學舉辦國際認證培訓由國際學院舉辦的“參加工程專業認證(美國ABET)的前期準備工作”培訓課程,於7月31日至8月4日順利完成。來自黑龍江工程學院和哈爾濱工程大學代表八個專業(電腦科學與技術、電氣與資訊工程、材料與化學工程、動力與能源工程、機電工程、汽車與交通工程、測繪工程、土木工程)的院長、副院長、系主任、教務處處長以及教學品質管制與評估中心主任和國際合作與交流處等行政管理職能部門等29人參加這個為期五天的培訓。香港理工大學工程學院機械工程學系的張鎮順教授、香港城市大學協理副校長程星博士、澳門科技大學資訊科技院長蔡亞從教授、澳門科技大學國際學院院長孫建榮教授擔任培訓班的講課,培訓內容包括澳大利亞工程專業認證、香港工程師協會工程(HKIE)專業認證、認證中的學生學習:美國高校的做法,以及美國ABET工程專業認證。高等教育品質保障體系中的認證主要有兩大目標:保障社會的利益,幫助院校提高品質。院校認證(Institutional Accreditation)與專業認證(Specialized/Programmatic Accreditation)是國際上高等教育品質保障體系中的主要兩種認證類型,前者是對整個大學進行品質的認證,後者對大學中一個專業進行認證,執行認證的通常是由學科組織和行業為主的認證機構。作為品質保障體系的一種類型,美國高等教育的認證已經有百餘年歷史,其六大區域高等教育認證委員會分別擔任對美國境內大學的院校認證,近年來,已經有不少國家的大學申請參與美國的院校認證;而專業認證則由不同的專業認證機構對大學中不同專業進行認證。這次培訓中涉及到的工程教育專業認證有三個國家地區的專業認證機構:澳洲(Engineers Australia),美國(ABET)和香港(HKIE),其中,美國ABET的工程教育專業認證從其歷史、專業參與數量、以及參與代表面等影響最大。中國目前已經成為華盛頓協定(The Washington Accord)的預備成員之一,在正式成為該協定協會會員之後,擁有世界上工程教育本科畢業生人數之最的內地院校各工程專業就有資格申請參加華盛頓協定協會會員國或地區任何一家工程專業認證的資格。參加並通過工程專業認證是保證畢業生具備獲得註冊工程師資格的前提。 這次培訓旨在提供工程專業認證前期準備工作的相關資訊,使專業的課程設置、教學管理與實施、學生學習品質評估等各項工作與工程專業認證的標準有一定的契合度。為完善本澳高等教育體制,推動本澳高等院校教育素質持續提升,特區政府已經有序開展有關高等教育制度法律的修訂工作,當中包括設立高等教育評鑑制度。評鑑制度將規範高等院校及高等教育課程需接受評審,推動院校不斷自我完善,持續提升教學和科研素質。大學把不斷提高教育品質作為大學發展的重要內涵,這次舉辦的工程教育專業認證培訓班也是大學不斷借鑒國際高等教育品質保障體系的渠道之一。
128第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 《傷寒雜病論》中針灸學思想對許叔微針灸學說的影響陳 敏(澳門科技大學中醫藥學院,澳門)摘要: 為探討許叔微針灸學說的理論來源及其與仲景針灸學說的關係,本文對比研究了《傷寒雜病論》及許叔微相關著作中針灸學的內容,發現許氏著作中很多針灸學觀點均是對《傷寒雜病論》中“陽證用針"、“陰證用灸"、“針治傷寒"、“灸補腎陽"及“針灸藥合用"等針灸學思想的繼承與發展。我們認為,許叔微針灸學說主要來源於《傷寒雜病論》中的針灸學思想,許氏對其進行了較好的繼承與發展,也值得我們進一步發掘整理。關鍵詞: 《傷寒雜病論》;針;灸;許叔微;影響The Influence of Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease on Xu Shuwei’s Theory of Acupuncture and MoxiAustionMin CHEN( Faculty of Chinese Medicine,Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China )AAstract: In purpose of discovering the theoretical origin of Xu Shuwei’s theory of acupuncture and moxibustion and the relationship with that of Zhang Zhongjing, the study made a comparison between the content of Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease and the related documentaries of Xu Shuwei. It is found that Xu’s perspectives on acupuncture and moxibustion showed an inheritance and development of thoughts from the masterpiece, such as “acupuncture for yang syndrome”, “moxibustion for yin syndrome”, “acupuncture curing exogenous febrile diseases”, “moxibustion strengthening kidney’s yang”, “combined therapy with acupuncture, moxibustion and herbal medicine”, etc. We concluded that Xu Shuwei’s theory of acupuncture and Moxibustion was mainly based on the related thoughts from Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease, from which Xu inherited and developed well. Both thoughts of acupuncture and moxibustion are worth further discovery and research.eyyords: Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease; Acupuncture; Moxibustion; Xu Shuwei; Effects收稿日期:2013-10-07;修訂日期:2013-10-24。通訊作者:陈敏,男,博士研究生,助理教授,主要研究方向:针灸与中医经典的结合, E-mail: mchen@must.edu.mo,Tel: 0853-634247480 引言張仲景是一位藥物與針灸並重的醫家,在他的的不朽之作《傷寒雜病論》的自序中,所稱“越人入虢之診”,就是針藥並用的先例。此書中直接與針灸有關的條文達 69條,應用的穴位有風池、風府、期門、巨闕、大椎、肺俞、肝俞、勞宮、關元 9 個,而後世醫家根據他的論述,還補充了足三裡、太溪、氣海、中極、中脘、百會等穴。他的針灸思想仍是遵循辨證論治的原則,針灸的基本方法是因勢利導,用針刺祛邪,溫灸扶正;他還善於用灸法回陽救逆,辨治厥證。仲景還對
132第 7 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.12013 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2013 收稿日期:2012-10-29;修訂日期:2013-05-21。楊明儀,女,博士,副教授,澳門理工學院。主要研究方向:英語教學。E-mail:myyoung@ipm.edu.mo Tel:85993349English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG( Macao Polytechnic Institute School of Business, Macao, China )AAstract: This study took a structural equation modelling (SEM) approach to test the English learning pattern of business undergraduates studying at the Macao Polytechnic Institute. A questionnaire adapted from the Course Experience Questionnaire, the Study Process Questionnaire and the Out-of-Class English Use Questionnaire was administered with 287 students, testing 10 variables including learning approaches, course experience, out-of-class English use, exam grade and student satisfaction. Results of SEM analysis showed that (1) the hypothesized model fitted the theoretical learning model proposed by Biggs[1]; (2) similar to the author's previous study with MUST students[2], out-of-class English use had a positive effect on deep learning approach and English grade; (3) surface learning approach, inappropriate assessment and workload had negative effects on English grade; and (4) course experience variables such as appropriate workload and clear goal had direct effects on student satisfaction. Based on the findings, it was concluded that in regions like Macao, where English is used mainly in the workplace, it is important for teachers to ensure that the workload of an English course appropriately aligns with the objectives of an academic programme and demands of the job market, satisfying the needs of their students.eyyords: English use; Learning approach; Student satisfaction; Workload; Assessment英語使用、學習方法、考試成績與學生滿意度:以澳門理工學院為例楊明儀(澳門理工學院管理科學高等學校,澳門)摘要: 本研究通過結構方程模型分析,測試澳門理工學院管理專業本科生的英語學習模式,利用課堂經驗問卷、學習方法問卷、課外英語使用問卷對287名學生進行了調查,測試學習方法、課堂經驗、課外英語使用、考試成績及學生滿意度等十個變量。結構方程模型分析發現(1)本研究的測試模型符合Biggs[1]的學習理論模型;(2)正如作者以前對澳科大學生進行的研究結果一樣[2],課外英語使用對深層學習方法及英語考試成績產生正值效應;(3)表面學習方法、不恰當工作量及評核對英語考試成績產生負值效應;(4)恰當工作量、清晰目標等課堂經驗變量對學生滿意度產生直接正值效應。基於上述結果,本研究得出結論:由於英語主要在澳門的職場使用,教師應該確保英語學科工作量與本科課程及職場要求一致,以滿足學生的需要。關鍵詞: 英語使用;學習方法;學生滿意度;工作量;評核
133Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI 0 IntroductionIn an earlier issue of JMUST, the author[2] studied the learning approaches and out-of-class English use of undergraduates studying at MUST. The statistical results showed a significant, positive correlation between deep learning approach and out-of-class English use, providing some evidence that students might develop a real interest in learning English if they go beyond the classroom to use English in daily life. Since the data were collected from one tertiary institute, and there were significant differences between Macao-born and Mainland-born Chinese students, it was suggested that similar studies should be conducted in other tertiary institutes for confirmation. This paper describes a study that took a further step by using a theoretical model of learning to examine the variables that affect academic attainment and course satisfaction of English learners in the Macao Polytechnic Institute. The findings could be of interest to educators and researchers who strive to develop more suitable English courses to meet the needs of students.1 Literature Reviey1.1 Theoretical Model of LearningThe theoretical model on which this study was tested is the 3P model proposed by Biggs[1]. This model views the learning process as an interacting system of three stages: presage, process and product. As the term suggests, presage factors are those exist before the time of learning: the personal characteristics of students ( e.g. prior knowledge, academic ability, personality ) and the features of the teaching context ( e.g. teaching methods, workload and institutional procedures ). Process factors are about the approaches students adopt during the learning process. A surface approach is regarded as reproducing information to fulfil the minimal requirements while a deep learning approach involves comparing and applying ideas to strive for better understanding. Product factors are the learning outcomes such as assessment scores, students' satisfaction with a course as well as their perceptions of skill development ( Figure 1 ). During the course of learning, the relationship of the variables appears to be a linear one. As indicated by the bold arrows in the model, the students' prior knowledge and perceptions of the learning environment affect their choice of learning approaches which influences the learning outcomes. However, over time, the components in the model may affect each other. For example, the learning outcomes of a subject students took in the previous academic year may affect their choice of learning strategies and their perception of the institution next academic year. 1.2 Previous StudiesThe f ind ings o f s tud ie s examin ing the relationship between presage and process factors have been mixed. In an early study to understand the effects of students' perceived learning environment on their Figure 1 The 3P model of teaching and learning proposed Ay Biggs
134use of learning approaches, Entwistle and Ramsden[3] designed and administered the Course Perceptions Questionnaire ( CPQ ) with a large sample of university students of various majors. Factor analysis showed that students' perceptions of a heavy academic workload associated strongly with surface approach to learning. Yet other factors of perceived learning environment did not associate with deep approach to learning. Crawford et al.[4] used modified versions of the Study Process Questionnaire ( SPQ ) and the Course Experience Questionnaire ( CEQ ) to survey 300 first year science and engineering undergraduates taking mathematics as a subject. They found that students' perception of good teaching and clear goals associated with a deep approach while inappropriate assessment and workload associated with a surface approach of learning. Such findings were supported in later studies[5~6].The impact of presage and process factors on their product counterparts was also of research interest. Diseth[7] conducted a survey with psychology undergraduates. Confirmatory factor analysis on the data collected by CEQ indicated that students' negative perception of teaching quality and workload led to the use of a surface approach, which in turn resulted in low exam grade. Ironically, the structural model showed negative, direct effects of both deep and surface learning approaches on exam grade. Such results might be related to the assessment methods of different courses, as Trigwell and Prosser's[8] study with nursing students showed an association of deep approach with qualitative testing and surface approach with quantitative testing. Duff[9] also found that business students took a surface approach to rote-learning tests and a deep approach to critical thinking tests. Factors affecting students' course satisfaction were studied by Baek and Shin[10] using the Student Course Satisfaction Scale with Korean undergraduates. They found that student's satisfaction in courses might associate with a number of factors including active student participation, small class size and higher expectation on exam grade. However, a similar study with Norwegian undergraduates showed insignificant relationship between exam grade and satisfaction[11]. Taking a structural equation modelling approach, Lizzio et al.[6] found that the strongest predictor of course satisfaction was a learning environment which involved good teaching with clear goals. In summary, although much research has been done to date, the findings are inconsistent, partly because of the use of various research instruments, and partly due to the analysis methods. Consequently, the big picture of learning might have been overlooked. More studies, especially those which take a structural equation modelling approach using standardized research instruments, need to be conducted to ascertain the relationship of presage, process and product factors in learning of various subjects. 1.3 The Present StudyThe present study was the first attempt in the published literature to develop a structural modelling equation approach to examine the relationship of presage ( out-of-class English use and course experience ), process ( learning approaches ), and product ( English grade and student satisfaction ) factors among Macao business undergraduates taking English as a subject. The results of this study could be useful to researchers in this field and could provide useful information to educators responsible for planning curriculum in English education at the tertiary level.2 Method 2.1 Research QuestionsThe relationship of learning approaches, out-of-class English use, exam grade and student satisfaction was the focus of this study. It intended to answer the following research questions: ● Did the hypothesized structural model fit the 3P model? ● What roles did presage and process factors play in students' learning outcomes, as reflected in their exam grades? ● What roles did presage and process factors play in student satisfaction?
135Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI 2.2 Research SettingMacao Polytechnic Inst i tute ( MPI ) is a government-run tertiary institute recognised by the Macao government. Established in 1991, MPI offers English-medium and Chinese ( Cantonese )-medium academic programmes to meet the needs of the students. In the 2010/2011 academic year, there were 2,651 students ( 85% local, 15% from Mainland China or overseas ) pursuing their bachelor's degrees at six schools [12]. This research project targeted 450 local students who took English courses from lower intermediate to advanced levels in the School of Business. These English courses were offered every semester to help first year to fourth year business undergraduates improve their written and spoken communication skills in academic as well as business contexts. 2.3 Research InstrumentThe instrument of this study was a paper-based questionnaire which contained four parts. Part One asked students for their personal particulars such as gender, place of birth, age group and English exam grade in the previous semester. Part Two asked students about their out-of-class English use ( 4 items ). Part Three was the Course Experience Questionnaire ( 24 items ) while Part Four was the Revised Two-factor Study Process Questionnaire ( 20 items ). Students' out-of-class English use was measured by four items designed by the author. These items measured students' perceived frequency of English use in listening ( radio, TV programmes ), reading ( newspapers, websites ) , speaking ( speeches, conversing in English with others ) and writing ( emails, letters, instant messaging ). Students responded to each item on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 ( 'never' ), to 5 ( 'very often' ).Students' course experience was measured by an adapted version of the 24-item Course Experience Questionnaire ( CEQ24 ). This form was developed in consultation with the Australian Department of Employment, Education and Training ( DEET ) and has been used by the Graduate Careers Council of Australia ( GCCA ) in the national survey of graduates from 1993 onwards [13]. The subscales 'good teaching', 'appropriate workload' and 'generic skills' consist of 6 items each while the subscales 'clear goals' and 'appropriate assessment' comprise 4 items each. The last item, 'Overall, I am satisfied with the quality of this course', measures student's overall satisfaction of the course. The original items were adapted to specify English course experience. For example, the statement 'This course has helped me to develop my problem-solving skills’ became ‘This English course has helped me to develop my problem-solving skills'. Students were instructed to indicate how they actually perceived the English course they took in the previous semester on a scale ranging from 1 ( 'definitely disagree' ) to 5 ( 'definitely agree' ). Students' approaches to learning were measured by an adapted version of the 20-item Revised Two-factor Study Process Questionnaire ( R-SPQ-2F ). A surface approach ( 10 items ) is defined as the use of reproductive learning focused on the bare essentials of content in order to minimally meet course requirements. A deep approach ( 10 items ) is defined as the use of meaningful learning with content interrelated with previous relevant knowledge in order to attain competence and satisfy personal interest. The scores were derived for each student using the scoring procedures prescribed by the instrument's manual [1,14]. Again, the original items were adapted to emphasize English learning approaches. For example, the statement 'I find that at times studying gives me a feeling of deep personal satisfaction' became 'I find that at times studying English gives me a feeling of deep personal satisfaction'. Students responded to the statement on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 ( 'never true of me' ) to 5 ( 'always true of me' ). The ten variables to be analyzed in this study are presented in Table 1.2.4 ProceduresThe questionnaire was first piloted with 33 students from the target group one month before the main study was conducted. With the light of the students' responses, some questionnaire items on out-of-class English use were rephrased. Reliability check
136was performed on the pilot data using SPSS Statistics 17.0. The Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient of the new 4-item variable out-of-class English use was 0.80, while the reliability coefficients of CEQ24 and R-SPQ-2F were 0.84 and 0.58 respectively. All reliability coefficients fell within the satisfactory range.The main survey was conducted during normal class time. The tutors from 28 English classes were informed about the purposes of this research in advance. With their consent, hard copies of the questionnaire were prepared for their classes. The tutors administered the questionnaire with their students during the break of a regular class period. The questionnaire stated clearly that the general purpose for the research was to investigate into the relationship between students' English learning approach and their English course experience and that the data would be used for research purposes only. The students responded to the questionnaire individually and anonymously. A student representative collected the completed questionnaire forms, placed them into an addressed envelope, and then returned to the researcher via the internal mail system. 2.5 Data AnalysisTo allow for a direct testing of the relationship among all ten variables, this study took a structural equation modelling ( SEM ) approach to data analysis. TaAle 1 The ten variaAles in this studyStage Variable DescriptionPresageOut-of-class English Use Frequency of English use outside the classroom.Appropriate AssessmentStudents' perception of how suitable their performance is evaluated in the English classroom.Appropriate Workload Students' perception of how suitable the amount of work is assigned to the English courses. Clear Goal Students' perception of how clear the objectives of the English course are presented.Generic Skills The process skills such as written communication, problem-solving and ability to plan one's own work.Good Teaching Students' perception of how well their teachers do in the English classroom.ProcessDeep Approach Intrinsic motivation, using strategies to optimize learning.Surface Approach Extrinsic motivation, using strategies to gain qualifications at minimum standard.ProductExam Grade Students' final grade (A to F) of the English course they took in the previous semester.Course SatisfactionStudent's perceived overall satisfaction of the English course they took in the previous semester.Figure 2 Proposed Research Model
137Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI SEM is a powerful statistical methodology which allows researchers to take a confirmatory approach to the analysis of a structural theory. The hypothesized model can be tested statistically in a simultaneous analysis of the entire system of variables to determine the extent to which it is consistent with the data. This methodology is popular among researchers and is suitable for non-experimental research[15]. Figure 2 shows the proposed research model to be tested in the present study.3 Results3.1 Descriptive StatisticsA tota l of 287 ( 137 male , 150 female ) students returned properly completed copies of the questionnaire, which constituted the basis of the analyses to be reported. It was noted that those students who were absent on the day of data collection did not complete the questionnaire. Therefore, those students who took part in this study might not have been properly representative of the full range of academic behaviours; regular absentees might have been under-represented. Any inferences drawn from the present data might therefore need to be guarded. The descriptive statistics of the variables analyzed in this study were calculated by SPSS Statistics 17.0. The Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficients of the presage and process variables were within the satisfactory range ( Table 2 ). 3.2 The Hypothesized Model vs The 3P ModelDid the hypothesized structural model fit the 3P model? To answer the first research question, an overall test of the model using Amos 18.0 was performed on the data. Various goodness-of-fit tests were performed on the proposed structural model to determine if the pattern of variances and covariances in the data was consistent with the 3P model. Using the recommendations in the literature, a good fit is generally indicated by a non-significant result in chi-square test, with root mean square residual ( RMR ) less than 0.08, goodness of fit index ( GFI ), normed fit index ( NFI ) and comparative fit index ( CFI ) greater than 0.95[16], and root mean square error of approximation ( RMSEA ) less than 0.05[17].In this study, the model chi-square test assessing the overall fit of the hypothesized model yielded a non-significant result ( Chi-square = 34.814, N = 288, df = 25, p = 0.092 ). The model-implied covariance matrix did not differ from the observed covariance matrix. Measures of model fit indicated a good fit ( RMR = 0.020, GFI = 0.977, NFI = 0.953, CFI = 0.986, RMSEA = 0.037 ). Therefore, the hypothesized structural model did fit the 3P model. Figure 3 shows the model of best-fit, including significant standardised regression coefficients and covariances.TaAle 2 The descriptive statistics of the variaAles analyzed in this study ( N = 287 )Stage Variable Label No. of survey items Mean S.D. Cronbach's AlphaPresageOut-of-class English Use ENG 4 3.06 0.73 0.70Appropriate Assessment AA 3 3.26 0.65 0.50Appropriate Workload AW 4 3.43 0.62 0.69Clear Goal CG 4 3.38 0.53 0.65Generic Skills GS 6 3.30 0.56 0.81Good Teaching GT 6 3.56 0.48 0.71ProcessDeep Approach D 10 3.00 0.58 0.84Surface Approach S 10 2.61 0.60 0.80ProductExam Grade GRADE 1 3.57 0.74 --Course Satisfaction SAT 1 2.40 0.71 --
138Figure 3 Structural model shoying relationships of out-of-class English use, course experience, learning approaches, English exam grades and student satisfaction ( ** p <0.001; * p <0.05. )To assess the extent of influence that each variable had on other variables, the standardized total effects, direct and indirect effects associated with each of the variables were examined. A coefficient linking one variable to another in the research model represents the direct effect that a variable has, as a predictor, on a target variable. An indirect effect reflects the impact a variable has on a target variable through its effect on other intervening variables in the model. A total effect on a target variable is the sum of the respective direct and indirect effects. Using the recommendations from Cohen[18], standardized estimates with values less than 0.1 are considered small, those with less than 0.3 are medium, values with 0.5 or more are considered large. As shown in Table 3, the variables in this model had medium direct effects and small indirect effects on the target variables. For example, surface approach to learning ( S ) was predicted by out-of-class English use ( ENG ), appropriate assessment ( AA ) and appropriate workload ( AW ), resulting in an R2 of 0.219. This means that together these three variables explained 21.9% of the variance in surface approach to learning in this model.TaAle 3 Standardized direct, indirect, and total effects of the research modelTarget Variables VariablesStandardized EstimatesDirect Indirect TotalS ( R2 = 0.219 )ENG -0.263 - -0.263AA -0.258 - -0.258AW -0.200 - 0200D ( R2 = 0.224 )ENG 0.395 - 0.395AW 0.143 - 0.143GS 0.175 - 0.175Grade ( R2 = 0.146 )ENG 0.177 0.047 0.224AA - 0.046 0.046AW 0.184 0.036 0.220S -0.180 - -0.180SAT ( R2 = 0.347 )AW 0.211 - 0.211CG 0.200 - 0.200GS 0.405 - 0.4053.3 Effects of Presage and Process Factors on GradeWhat roles did presage and process factors play in students' learning outcomes, as reflected in their exam grades? In this model, four variables, namely out-of-class English use, appropriate assessment, appropriate workload and surface approach, had direct and indirect effects on grade. Together, they accounted for 14.6% of the total variance of students' English exam grades ( Table 3 ). The most dominant determinant of grade was out-of-class English use, with medium total ( 0.224 ) and direct effects ( 0.177 ) as well as a small indirect effect ( 0.047 ), mainly through the use of deep ( 0.395 ) and surface ( -0.263 ) approaches to learning. These results indicate that at the presage stage, student factors such as their out-of-class English use affect the learning approaches they take at the process stage. Those students who use English outside the classroom more frequently might take a deep approach to English learning. In contrast, those who use English less frequently in daily life are likely to take a surface approach in their English classroom, which increases their chances of getting a lower grade. The second most dominant determinant of grade was appropriate workload, with medium total ( 0.220 ) and direct effects ( 0.184 ), and a small indirect effect ( 0.036 ), mainly through the use of deep ( 0.143 )
139Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI and surface ( -0.200 ) approaches ( Table 3 ). This was followed by surface approach, with a medium direct effect ( -0.180 ). The last determinant of grade was appropriate assessment, which had a small indirect effect ( 0.046 ). It was noted that appropriate assessment and appropriate workload are covariant variables ( Figure 3 ). A possible interpretation of the above results is that at the presage stage, teaching context factors such as inappropriate workload and assessment of an English course would probably lead to students' use of a surface approach to learning, resulting in low exam grades.3.4 Effects of Presage and Process Factors on SatisfactionWhat roles did presage and process factors play in student satisfaction? Three teaching context variables were predictors of satisfaction. Together, these variables accounted for 34.7% of the variance in student satisfaction in this model. Among them, generic skills had a dominant, direct effect of 0.405 on student satisfaction. This was followed by appropriate workload and clear goal, with medium direct effects of 0.211 and 0.200 respectively ( Table 3 ). It was noted, in this model, that neither out-of-class English use nor learning approaches had any significant effects on satisfaction. These results indicate that teaching context factors like the generic skills of communication, teamwork and problem solving, appropriate workload with clear objectives of an English course might influence students' level of satisfaction in learning English in the classroom. 4 ConclusionsThis study has examined the suitability of the 3P model of teaching and learning to explain the English learning behaviours among business undergraduates in a tertiary institute in Macao. Taking a structural equation modelling approach, this study tested the overall goodness-of-fit of the hypothesized model with the 3P model and found statistical evidence in our sample. This means that there were predictive relationships among the presage ( students' out-of-class English use and course experience ), process ( students' learning approaches ) and product ( students' English exam grade and satisfaction ) stages of English learning. These findings are consistent with previous findings of similar studies[6,7]. Regarding the factors that affect students' grades, the most important element was the student factor: students' out-of-class English use. The structural model of this study showed that out-of-class English use had both direct and indirect effects on students' grades. The direct impact of English use on exam grade is obvious: as authentic radio recordings and business news articles were used as testing materials in this research setting, frequent use of English would be an advantage. The indirect impact of English use on exam grade is interesting: the less frequently students use English, the higher chances they would take a surface approach in the English classroom. The mere hope of reproducing what were taught in class and passing exams resulted in their low achievement in English subjects. The positive association of out-of-class English use with deep approach echoes the author's previous study with MUST students[2]. The findings are also consistent with previous ones regarding the negative relationship of surface approach and academic achievement [3,13,19], and the impact of student factors on attainment [6,10]. Another important factor for grade was the teaching context factor appropriate workload. Those students who perceived their workload to be excessive had a tendency to get lower grades. There was also an indirect effect of workload and assessment on grade. Those students who thought the English course contained heavy workload and assessment were more likely to employ a surface learning approach, resulting in lower grades in English. These direct and indirect relationships of workload, learning approach and achievement were also found in previous studies with mathematics students[4], Hong Kong undergraduates enrolled in different programmes[5], and psychology students[7]. Two interesting issues should be discussed here. First, the present model unveiled some significant, though relatively weak covariance of out-of-class
140English use and students' positive perception of their workload. It is likely that those students who use English more frequently are equipped with higher ability to cope with the coursework assigned by their teachers. Second, students' grades were not predicted by deep approach to learning. This finding further shows that using deep strategies in learning might arouse students' interest in a subject, but it might not necessarily improve their grades. In fact, previous works obtained contradictory results: some yielded positive effects of deep approach on grade[6,20] while others found very weak, negative effects[7]. Regarding the factors that affect students' satisfaction, this study found that teaching context factors like appropriate workload, clear goal and generic skills were predictors. These findings supported the speculations of Baek and Shin[10]: when students take a course in order to improve their competence in that area or wish to acquire basic concepts of the topic, they might show higher ratings in course satisfaction. Consistent with previous findings [7,9], this model did not show any significant covariance between exam grade and satisfaction. A possible interpretation was that when students have learned the knowledge as expected, they were satisfied, regardless of what grade they would get.The finding that appropriate workload was the most important variable that affect process and product factors implies that managing students' perceptions of workload can help them adopt effective learning approaches and improve learning outcomes. When designing an English course, teachers should ensure alignment of course materials, teaching activities and assessment with learning objectives of the English course and the academic programme. Take the English teaching context of Macao as an example, for a business English course within a marketing programme, a writing task of a short business report on promotion of Macao tourism is more relevant than that of a long essay on mid century trading in Asia. Early in the course, teachers can explicitly clarify the learning objectives, expected learning outcomes and related assessment tasks of the course, and make sure students understand what, why and how they are tested. All tasks should be given clear instructions and marking standards. More importantly, teachers should emphasize that the generic skills students learn from an English course can be applied to other courses. For example, students' oral presentation skills can help them prepare for presentations of their final year projects. During the course and towards the end of the course, teachers can ask student for feedback on workload so that timely adjustments can be made. If students know the efforts they make in an English course will pay off, they will have a more positive perception on their workload, higher course satisfaction and better academic achievement.The results of this study supported the author's early study that using English outside the classroom can boost students' interest in learning English in class. Given the fact that English is not frequently used in daily life in Macao, teachers may emphasize how English is used for international and professional communications in the community. For example, as there is full coverage of the internet and mobile networks in Macao, students could write and read English messages and blogs to communicate with their friends around the world. Besides, teachers could invite employers and employees of hotels, casinos and government departments to give talks on how English is used in the work place, so that students would have a better understanding of the English language requirements on the job market and be willing to go beyond the classroom to practice English communication. Cer ta in ly the s tudy might have severa l shortcomings, which could be overcome in future research. Firstly, those students who did not attend their English classes on the day of data collection were not included in the sample. The possible relationship between these students' absence and their satisfaction was not investigated. Nevertheless, there was no evidence of absenteeism among these students, and the response rate of this study was about 60%, which was a fairly high rate. Another limitation of this study was that the data were collected solely
141Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI through self-reported questionnaire. While this method is popular due to its operational advantage, the data thus collected might reflect the overestimated or underestimated behaviours of the students. It is suggested that self-reported questionnaire might be triangulated with follow-ups such as individual or group interviews, which might allow students to provide more detailed information about their out-of-class English learning and course satisfaction.Given the unique learning environment of Macao, this study collected data from students of one academic department of one tertiary institution. The conclusions thus drawn could not be generalized to all students studying in the tertiary institutions of Macao. Further research with students of different institutions is needed to examine whether or not students' out-of-class English use could positively improve their intrinsic motivation of English learning and academic achievement in English. Only with the joint efforts of researchers could we fully unveil the secrets of motivating Macao students to learn English more effectively.AcknoyledgementThis work was a Macao Polytechnic Institute funded research project ( code: RP/ESCE-3/2008 ).References [1] Biggs, J. Student approaches to learning and studying. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1987. [2] Young, M. Y. C. Learning approach and English use: The case of MUST. Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology, 2(2): 116-124, 2008.[3] Entwistle, N., & Ramsden, P. Understanding student learning. London: Croom Helm, 1983.[4] Crawford, K., Gordon, S., Nicholas, J., & Prosser, M. Qualitatively different experiences of learning mathematics at university. Learning and Instruction, 8(5): 455-468, 1998.[5] Kember, D., & Leung, D. Y. P. Influences upon students' perceptions of workload. Educational Psychology, 18(3): 293-307, 1998.[6] Lizzio, A., Wilson, K., & Simons, R. University students' perceptions of the learning environment and academic outcomes: implications for theory and practice. Studies in Higher Education, 27(1): 27-52, 2002.[7] Diseth, A. Approaches to learning, course experience and examination grade among undergraduate psychology students: testing of mediator effects and construct validity. Studies in Higher Education, 32(3): 373-388, 2007.[8] Trigwell, K., & Prosser, M. Relating approaches to study and quality of learning outcomes at the course level. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 61(3): 265-275, 1991. [9] Duff, A. Quality of Learning on an MBA programme: the impact of approaches to learning on academic performance. Educational Psychology, 23(2): 127-139, 2003.[10] Baek, S.-G., & Shin, H.-J. Multilevel analysis of the effects of student and course characteristics on satisfaction in undergraduate liberal arts courses. Asia Pacific Education Review, 9(4): 475-486, 2008.[11] Diseth, A. Personality and approaches to learning as predictors of academic achievement. European Journal of Personality, 17(1): 143-155, 2003.[12] Tertiary Education Services Office. Data of higher education in Macao: Numbers of staff and students for the academic Year 2010/2011. Macao: Tertiary Education Services Office, 2011. [13] Wilson, K.L., Lizzio, A., & Ramsden, P. The development, validation and application of the Course Experience Questionnaire. Studies in Higher Education, 22(1): 33-53, 1997.[14] Biggs, J., Kember, D., & Leung, D. Y. P. The Revised Two-factor study process questionnaire: R-SPQ-2F. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(1): 148-149, 2001.[15] Byrne, B. M. Structural equations modelling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications and programming (2nd ed.). New York, London: Routledge, 2010. [16] Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternations. Structural Equation Modelling, 6(1): 1-55, 1999.[17] Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Testing structural equation models (K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long Eds., pp. 136-162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993.[18] Cohen, J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988.[19] Entwistle, N., Tait, H., & McCune, V. Patterns of response to and approaches to studying inventory across contrasting groups and contexts. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 15(1): 33-48, 2000.國際交流知名旅遊學者Edith Szivas教授到訪酒店與旅遊管理學院 2013年10月7日至12日,應麥希國院長之邀,世界著名旅遊研究專家Edith Szivas教授訪問了酒店與旅遊管理學院。Edith Szivas教授曾任英國著名公立大學薩裡大學酒店與旅遊博士課程負責人與阿聯酋酒店管理學院教授,現爲世界旅遊組織顧問,主要從事旅遊課程質素認證方面的工作。訪問期間,Edith Szivas教授不僅爲學院博士課程的發展建言獻策,更是爲全院師生帶來了一場關於審視迪拜旅遊業中的中國客源市場的精彩講座。
142 2013,7(2)校園文化澳科大圖書館成為國家科技圖書文獻中心的合作館促進科技文獻資訊資源的廣泛利用,進一步推進兩地文獻保障工作的交流與開展,科大圖書館與國家科技圖書文獻中心於2013年10月18日上午,舉行了「國家科技圖書文獻中心澳門合作館」簽約儀式。國家科技圖書文獻中心(National Science and Technology library, 簡稱NSTL)是經國務院領導批准成立的一個基於網絡環境的科技資訊資源服務機構,是國家科技資訊資源戰略儲備基地,年度經費達數億人民幣。因此,NSTL是我國收集外文印本科技文獻資源最多的,面向全國提供服務的科技文獻資訊機構。擁有印本外文文獻25000多種,其中外文期刊17000多種,外文會議錄等8000多種,居國內首位。同時擁有海量的電子科技資訊文獻。NSTL為擴展兩岸四地的服務,首選澳門科技大學為其澳門地區合作館,對科大圖書館的科技文獻服務能力是一個極大的提升。儀式前,劉良校長、姜志宏協理副校長、戴龍基館長接待來澳出席簽約儀式的NSTL中心主任袁海波先生,NSTL網絡系統建設部主任胡鐵軍先生以及NSTL服務組組長蔡志勇先生。袁海波主任授予科大圖書館 “國家科技圖書文獻中心合作館”的牌匾。儀式上,戴龍基館長和袁海波主任簽訂了雙方合作協議。姜志宏協理副校長和袁海波主任共同啟動了服務正式開通的儀式。澳門大學圖書館、澳門理工學院圖書館、澳門旅遊學院多媒體圖書館、鏡湖醫院圖書館、鏡湖護理學院圖書館、澳門政策研究室的同仁應邀參加了簽約儀式。隨後,蔡志勇先生對科大圖書館參考組館員以及與會的澳門其他圖書館的館員,進行了NSTL資源和服務的使用培訓和問題解答。科大圖書館是中國國家圖書館、北京大學圖書館、中國教育部高校社科人文文獻中心(CASHL)、中國高等教育文獻保障系統(CALIS)、香港中文大學圖書館及臺灣大學圖書館等多家圖書館或文獻保障機構在澳門地區的合作館,並且與兩岸四地眾多著名圖書館開展了館際合作與資源共建共用計劃。NSTL與科大圖書館的合作落實,標誌著科大圖書館又得一有力合作夥伴,意味著科大圖書館的文獻傳遞服務水準可以更上一層次。校園文化王憲主講《臺灣問題和兩岸關係》由澳門基金會贊助,澳門科技大學社會和文化研究所於10月31日舉辦“澳門社會”系列講座,邀請海峽兩岸關係協會駐澳門特別行政區辦事處王憲主任主講“臺灣問題和兩岸關係”。張曙光常務副校長出席了講座並向王憲贈送紀念品。在講座上,王憲深入淺出地分析了臺灣問題的由來,兩岸關係的發展情況,希望年青人多瞭解台灣、兩岸關係的的過去、現在,更主動地關心和推動兩岸關係的良性發展。兩岸三通,ECFA等重要協議的落實,大大加強了彼此間的交往,增進了互信。王憲指出,臺灣問題不單是一個統一的問題,亦是一個捍衛民族尊嚴的問題。中華民族復興的一個重要指標是實現中國的完全統一。臺灣是中國的一部份,這一點是十分明確的,但兩岸統一至今仍未解決,有著複雜的國際、國內因素。兩岸關係需要和平發展,堅持一個中國,促進兩岸同胞的交流。王憲表示,“澳門模式”為兩岸關係的發展作出了重要的貢獻,澳門是“一國兩制”成功的典範,澳門一直在兩岸關係的發展過程中扮演著重要的平台和橋樑角色。澳門明天更美好,平台作用便會更大。最後,王憲希望年青人能多瞭解兩岸關係的歷史,為促進國家和平統一出一分力。