• 目 次【人文與藝術】君子之道 ………………………………………………………………………… 余秋雨(1)【管理與旅遊】基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例 ……………………………………………………………………… 唐 娟,曾 韜(19)股權結構、規模經濟與中國上市銀行績效:1998~2010 ………………… 趙世勇(33)中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長:構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論 …………………………………………………… 王少傑,劉善仕(44)員工希望對辱虐管理——員工創新的曲線調節作用 ……………………… 孫柳苑(63)基于TAM2的高星級酒店網站用戶接受度研究——以澳門五星級酒店網站爲案例 ……………………………………………………………………… 唐 娟,李曉晨(72)澳門大學生世界遺產價值認知、威脅感知與保護意願調查 …… 張 萌,黃美斯(82)基於工作-家庭衝突的澳門博莊工作壓力、工作滿意度分析 …… 周金泉,周少玲(91)以信念與參與意圖區隔飛盤高爾夫之潛在市場 ——以大學生為例 ……………………………………………………………………… 朴聖姬,謝奇明(103)研究拖延症:壓力和動力 …………………………………………………… 廖 逸(113)【資訊科技】IEEE 802.11無線局域網節點緩衝區大小設置綜述 …………………………………………………………… 楊紹博,趙慶林,馬治傑(123)【醫藥學】《傷寒雜病論》中針灸學思想對許叔微針灸學說的影響 ………………… 陳 敏(128)【教育改革與教學研究】英語使用、學習方法、考試成績與學生滿意度:以澳門理工學院為例 ………………………………………………………………………………… 楊明儀(132)【信息短文】科研進展 ………………………………………………………………………… (32,102)校園文化 …………………………………………………………………… (43,71,142)學術動態 ………………………………………………………………………… (90,127)國際交流 ……………………………………………………………………………… (141)
  • ContentsHumanities and ArtsGentleman's doctrines ……………………………………………………………………………Qiuyu, Yu (1)Management and TourismA Measurement Study of Perceived Service Value of Natural Sceneries Based on IPA Model:Take Dinghu Mountain as an Example ……………………………………… Juan TANG, Tao ZENG (19)The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010 ……………………………………………………………………………… Shiyong ZHAO (33)Chinese traditional culture, corporate culture construction, sustainable growth of enterprises: the theory of corporate culture to build a localized ………………… ShaoJie WANG, Shanshi LIU (44)The inverted u-shaped relationship between Abusive supervision and employee creativity:the moderating effect of Hope …………………………………………………………Liuyuan SUN (63)Research on User Acceptance of Hotel Website Based on TAM2─ An Empirical Study of 5-star Hotel Websites in Macau ……………………………………………… Juan TANG, Xiaochen LI (72)Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macau …………………………………… Meng ZHANG, Meisi WONG (82)Table Dealer’s Work Stress and Job Satisfaction in Macau Casino Based on the Work-Family Conflicts ………………………………………………… Jin Quan ZHOU, Shoal Ling ZHOU (91)Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention: A Case of College Students …………………………………… Sung Hee Park, Chi-Ming Hsieh (103)It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivation …………………………………… Eko Yi Liao (113)Information TechnologyA SURVEY OF BUFFER SIZING IN IEEE 802.11 WLANs ………………………………………………………Shaobo YANG, Qinglin ZHAO, Zhijie MA (123)MedicineThe Influence of Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease on Xu Shuwei’s Theory of Acupuncture and Moxibustion …………………………………………………………………… Min CHEN (128)Pedagogic ExperienceEnglish Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI ……………………………………………………………………… Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG (132)
  • 1第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 君子之道余秋雨說明:二○○五年四月十二日下午,我應邀到美國華盛頓國會圖書館演講。圖書館根據當地華文讀者的要求,給我出了一個題目:《寫作的腳步》。意思很明白,要我著重講述歷險數萬公里邊走邊寫的體會。我覺得那些體會都已經寫在書裡了,不必重複,而我當時最想在國際場合講述的,是中華文化的集體人格。因此就與他們商量,把講題改成了《君子的腳步》。後來在哈佛、耶魯、馬裡蘭等大學巡迴演講,也是圍繞著這個課題。在哈佛演講後,我與該校幾十位退休的華裔教授座談了兩個晚上。他們一致認爲,以“君子之道"爲入口來講述中華文化,是一個很好的思路。波士頓森林別墅中的美好夜晚,大家一邊喝茶一邊暢談著“古之君子",真是愉快。這篇文章,就是我在那些演講後整理的部分書面資料。回想那天在國會圖書館演講時,一位副館長熱情地說,我是他們歷來邀請的演講者中第一位中國大陸學者。在我之前,只有一位高官去講過。因爲是第一位,圖書館在演講前舉行了一個隆重的儀式。那就是,由圖書館的亞洲部主任和另一位官員,推著一輛金屬架的運書車,繞場一周。車上,全是他們館藏的我的著作。運書車推過的通道兩邊,聽眾們排排起立,以目光迎送。這場面,讓我有點感動。運書車最後終於推到了我的面前。我一看,立即與同去的妻子交換了一個眼色。妻子輕笑了一下,便用手指竪放在唇前。這是因為,車上有很大一部分是盜版書,但妻子希望我不要當場說破。之前在美國的很多華文書店也看到過不少我的盜版書,還有一些署著我的名字卻無一字出於我手筆的書,應該叫僞版書。一看就知道,全都出自大陸。真不知道那些神通廣大的盜版集團如何打通了海外的管道,居然把美國的國會圖書館也給騙了。比盜版和偽版更嚴重的是,多數外國人對中國文化也處於普遍的誤讀狀態,其中包括不少學者。其實,造成這種情況的原因,首先是我們中國人自己的誤讀。這就像一個人,如果無法講清楚自己是誰,那麽,不管做什麽事,對人對己都會是隔閡重重。因此,古希臘神廟牆壁上刻的那句哲言,永遠讓人驚悚:“人啊,認識你自己!"我說過,歐洲文藝復興千言萬語,其實只是輕聲問了一聲:“我是誰?"此問一出,大家都從中世紀的長夜中蘇醒,霞光滿天。1 前論1.1 最後一級臺階文化有很多臺階,每一級都安頓著不同的項目。那麼,最後一級是什麼呢?當然,最後一級不是名校,不是博士,不是教授,不是學派,不是大獎,不是國粹,不是唐詩,不是羅浮宮,不是好萊塢……很多、很多“不是”。但是,它們每一項,都有資格找到自己的文化臺階,拂衣整冠,自成氣象。它們很可能把自己看成是最後目標,最高等級,但實際上都不是。而且,它們之間,也互不承認。世界各國的學者們,常常也在這麼多文化項目間比輕重,說是非。意見總是吵吵嚷嚷,直到聽到了一種聲音,情况才發生一點變化。這種聲音說,文化的終極成果,是人格(personality)。
  • 2例如,中華文化的終極成果,是中國人的集體人格。復興中華文化,也就是尋找和優化中國人的集體人格。這也可以看作是文化的最後一級臺階。首先以現代學理指出這個臺階的,是瑞士心理學家榮格(Carl Gustav Jung,1875~1961)。他曾經追隨過佛洛伊德有關“無意識”、潜意識的研究,但又擺脫了其中的各種局限,認爲只有“集體無意識”即集體人格才有普遍意義。對此,學術界曾經有過這樣一個比喻:佛洛伊德找到了大海波濤下的暗礁,而榮格,則找到了暗礁下的海床。1.2 有故鄉的靈魂更重要的是,榮格指出,“集體人格”並不是形成於當代人們的有生之年。最早的種子,可能在“神話”中就播下了。每個古老的民族都有很多“大神話”,後面還會引發出很多“小神話”,這就是榮格所說的“夢”。神話和夢,都會以“原型”(archetype)、“原始意象”(primordial images)的方式成為一個民族的“自畫像”(self-portrait),反復出現在集體心理活動中。這一來,“集體人格”就具有了長期穩定的象徵意義。照榮格的一個漂亮說法,成了“有故鄉的靈魂”。順著這個思路,中國人的集體人格也是有“故鄉”的。那“故鄉”,首先是神話,例如“女媧補天”、“精衛塡海”、“夸父追日”、“嫦娥奔月”等等。每一個中國人的靈魂深處,都埋藏著這些遙遠的“故鄉”。當然,神話只是起點,“集體人格”的原型建立,是一個複雜的人類學工程。對於一般人來說,只須明白,文化的最後一級臺階,就是爲靈魂找到故鄉,或者說,找到有故鄉的靈魂。這個課題,連很多等級不低的學者也不明白。我想起一件往事。二十幾年前,我還在上海戲劇學院擔任院長,與一位喜歡讀書的頂頭上司汪道涵市長成了朋友,建立了一種“好書交換”關係,約定發現好書,簽名互贈。有一次,我送給他一部北京剛剛出版的古印度哲學《五十奧義書》,他立即回送我一部臺灣中正書局出版的《西方思想家論中國》。過幾天我告訴他,我讀了裡邊劉耀中先生寫的《中國與榮格》一文,對其中一段記述很感興趣。這段記述,介紹了榮格在自傳中寫到的接受中國學者胡適訪問的情景:他們談《易經》,胡適告訴榮格說,他不太相信《易經》,並說那該是一種魔術和符咒。榮格聽到後,急問他曾經嘗試過沒有,胡適點頭。榮格再問他,《易經》卦內的答案是不是真實的,對他有沒有幫助。這一連串的問題,使胡適很難受。榮格也開始意識到,中國當代學者已漸漸走向西方的科學境界,對他們自己的傳統文化有懷疑了。《西方思想家論中國》第 177 頁胡適認爲《易經》是一種魔術和符咒,用的是西方近代科學思維。但他不知道,此刻坐在他眼前的這位西方公認的一流學者,卻曾經深入研究過《易經》。我們不妨再讀一段劉先生的介紹:榮格爲威廉的《易經》譯本寫了十七頁的引言。榮格說,西方古代的科學與中國《易經》原則是共通的,但是與西方現代科學的因果律有很大的差別。因果律超越不過統計學,現代人比不上古代人的主觀智慧。因果律把人的主觀异化了,該是西方文明很大的毛病。榮格並且發現,中國道家有“物極必反"的基本法則,遠遠超過西方人的思想。他指出,西方往往被“自我中心觀"的魔鬼引導,而沿著所謂“高貴"的道路走向宗教經驗將帶來的碩果。於此,榮格觀察到,道家的“物極必反"法則西方可以採用,唯有靠此,在西方互相衝突的人格和他們忘記了的另一半才會團圓,西方人士
  • 3余秋雨  君子之道的痛苦內戰才會結束。《西方思想家論中國》第 176~177 頁胡適比較榮格小十六歲,無論從年齡輩份上還是從學術輩份上都不能與榮格比肩。他顯然沒有讀過榮格爲《易經》寫的那十七頁引言,所以那天說得太草率了。榮格一聽就著急,而且後來還是不斷著急,一再“勸告中國文明絕對不要跟西方跑”。榮格在以上引文中論述到中國哲學時,作爲對照,提到了自己非常熟悉的“西方互相衝突的人格”。你看,人格,還是人格,他離不開這個命題。他指出,中國文化和西方文化的根本差異,正在於“人格”的不同,這是他的學術基點。汪道涵先生他們這代人受五四新文化運動的影響很深,因此比較能够理解胡適對於《易經》等中國古典的隔閡,很不喜歡當時已經重新探頭的“國粹”、“國學”等等概念,隱隱覺得那是改革開放的文化阻力。我向汪道涵先生解釋道,我也不喜歡“國粹”、“國學”等等低級復古主義的提法,認爲那是借用國家主義來實行排他主義,而且主要是排斥國內的其他藝術和學問;但是,從文化人類學的高度尋找民族生存的遠古基因,與我們的現代化努力並不牴牾。讓我高興的是,汪先生雖然不熟悉榮格,卻對弗雷澤(James George Frazer,1854~1941)比較瞭解,讀過《金枝》,這就使我們討論榮格有了基礎。1.3 孫中山的忠告榮格見了胡適後,發現中國當代學者已經不明白自己傳統文化中有些內容“遠遠超過西方人的思想”,不明白“西方互相衝突的人格”所造成的痛苦內戰只有靠中國哲學才能結束。其實,並不是所有的中國當代智者都是這樣。早在榮格見胡適之前很多年,中國最有現代思維的革命領袖孫中山在日本的一次演講中,已經觸及到西方文化和中國文化的差別,觀點居然非常靠近榮格而不是胡適。他還借此,警告了日本的文化選擇。一九二四年,孫中山在日本神戶的演講中說:西方的物質文明是科學文明,並最終發展爲武力文明來壓迫亞洲國家,這也就是中國自古以來所謂的“霸道"文化。而東方文明則是要遠遠超越它的“王道"文化。王道文化的本質就是道德和仁義。你們日本民族既得到了歐美的霸道文化,又擁有亞洲的王道文化,對於世界文化的未來,日本究竟是要成爲西方霸道的鷹犬,還是做東方王道的幹城,都需要由你們日本國民自己去詳審慎擇。後來的情況如何呢?七十多年之後,日本企業家稻盛和夫到中國天津演講,他在引述了孫中山上面這段話後坦陳:令人遺憾的是,日本不僅沒有聽從孫中山的這一忠告,反而一發不可收地走上了霸權主義的道路。《對話稻盛和夫》(四)第 85 頁孫中山把榮格所說的“西方互相衝突的文化”與中國以道德和仁義爲本質的“王道”文化一起放在日本面前,要他們“詳審慎擇”。這個思路,也就是把不同政治選擇歸因於文化選擇。然而,既然他提到一切都是“自古以來”的,那麽,要日本選擇“王道”文化也就幾乎不會成功,勸告也只是勸告罷了。王道、道德、仁義等等,大家都會說,但當這些文化理念全都沉澱爲人格,而且由悠久的歲月沉澱爲集體人格,別的人群要學,就不容易了。1.4 中國人的人格理想中國人的集體人格應該是什麼樣的呢?這個問題,既帶有歷史性、現實性,又帶有理想型。顯然,這種集體人格必然與其他民族很不一樣。我可以再借一個外國人來說明這個問題。這個人我說過多次,就是那位十六世紀到中國來的耶穌會傳教士利瑪竇。他對中國文化進行了數十年精深和全面的研究,很多方面已經一點兒也不差於中國文化人,但我們讀完長長的《利瑪竇中國剳記》(China in Sixteenth Century:The
  • 4Journals of Mathew Ricci)就會發現,最後還是在人格上差了關鍵一步。那就是,他暗中固守的,仍然是西方的“聖徒人格”和“紳士人格”。與“聖徒”和“紳士”不同,中國文化的集體人格模式,是“君子”。中國文化的人格模式還有不少,其中衍伸最廣、重叠最多、滲透最密的,莫過於“君子”。這也可以說是一個龐大民族在自身早期文化整合中的“最大公約數”。“君子”,終於成了中國人最獨特的文化標識。世界上的其他民族,在集體人格上都有自己的文化標識。除了利瑪竇的“聖徒人格”和“紳士人格”外,還有“騎士人格”、“靈修人格”、“浪人人格”、“牛仔人格”等等。這些標識性的集體人格,互相之間有著巨大的區別,很難通過學習和摹仿全然溶合。這是因為,所有的集體人格皆如榮格所說,各有自己的“故鄉”。從神話開始,埋藏著一個遙遠而深沉的夢,積澱成了一種潜意識、無意識的“原型”。“君子”作爲一種集體人格的雛形古已有之,卻又經過儒家的選擇、闡釋、提升,結果就成了一種人格理想。儒家先是謙恭地維護了君子的人格原型,然後又鮮明地輸入了自己的人格設計。這種在原型和設計之間的平衡,貼合了多數中國人的文化基因和文化選擇,因此儒家也就取得了“獨尊”的地位。不少中國現代作家和學者喜歡用激烈的語氣抨擊中國人的集體人格,揭示醜惡的“國民性”。看似深刻,但與儒家一比,層次就低得多了。儒家大師如林,哪里會看不見集體人格的毛病?但是,從第一代儒學大師開始,就在淤泥中構建出了自己的理想設計。這種理想設計一旦産生,中國文化的許許多多亮點都向那裡滑動、集中、灌注、熔合。因此,“君子”兩字包羅萬象,非同小可。儒家學說的最簡捷概括,即可稱之爲“君子之道”。甚至,中國文化的鑰匙也在那裡。對中國文化而言,有了君子,什麽都有了;沒有君子,什麼都徒勞。這也就是說,人格在文化上,收納一切,沉澱一切,預示一切。任何文化,都是前人對後代的遺囑。最好的遺囑,莫過於理想的預示。後代應該成為什麼樣的人?中國文化由儒家作了理想性的回答:做個君子。做個君子,也就是做個最合格、最理想的中國人。我一直認為,中國文化沒有淪喪的最終原因,是君子未死,人格未潰。中國文化的延續,是君子人格的延續;中國文化的剛健,是君子人格的剛健;中國文化的缺憾,是君子人格的缺憾;中國文化的更新,是君子人格的更新。如果說,文化的最初蹤影,是人的痕跡,那麼,文化的最後結晶,是人的歸屬。1.5 “小人”的出現儒家在對“君子”進行闡述的時候,採取了一種極爲高明的理論技巧。那就是,不直接定義“君子”,只是反復描繪它的對立面。“君子”的對立面,就是“小人”。用一系列的否定,來完成一種肯定。這種理論技巧,也可稱之為“邊緣裁切法”,或曰“劃界確認法”。這種方法,在邏輯學上,是通過確認外延,來包圍內涵。因此,“小人”的出現,對“君子”特別重要。其實不僅在理論概念上是這樣,即使在生活實際中也是這樣。如果沒有小人,君子就缺少了對比,顯現不出來了。“小人”,在古代未必貶義,而是指向著一些低微的社會地位和生態群落。誠如俞樾在《群經平議》中所說:“古書言君子、小人,大都以位言,漢世說如此。後儒專以人品言君子、小人,非古義也。”但是,生態積澱人品。終於,這組對比變成了人品對比。我認爲,“後儒”的這種轉變,亦合“古儒”之意。
  • 5余秋雨  君子之道君子和小人的劃分,使君子這一人格理想更堅硬了。在漢語中,“人格”之“格”,是由一系列拒絕、擺脫、否决來實現的。在君子邊上緊緊貼著一個小人,就是提醒君子必須時時行使推拒權、切割權,這使君子有了自立的框範。君子和小人的劃分,並不一定出現在不同人群之間。同一群人,甚至,同一個人,也會有君子成分和小人成分的較量。我說過,連我們自己身上,也潛伏著不少君子和小人的暗鬥。這也就構成了我們自己的近距離選擇。唐代吳兢在《貞觀政要‧教戒太子諸王》中說:君子、小人本無常。行善事則為君子,行惡事即為小人。《貞觀政要》第 129 頁這就說得很清楚了,其間的區分不在於兩個穩定的族群,而在於與我們內心的一念之差,我們行爲的一步進退。我覺得這種思想,與薩特(Jean-Paul Sartre,1905 ~ 1980)存在主義哲學中有關“由選擇决定人的本質”的論述頗爲相近,卻又早了薩特那麽多年。儒家讓君子和小人相鄰咫尺,其實也爲人們提供了自我修煉長途中的一個個岔道,讓大家在岔道口一次次選擇,然後,才說得上誰是君子。君子,是選擇的結果。小人,是儒家故意設定的錯誤答案。設定錯誤答案的目的,不是爲了讓你選錯,而是爲了讓你選對。1.6 有效遺囑儒家對後世的遺囑——做君子,不做小人,有沒有傳下來呢?傳下來了。而且,傳得眾人皆知。只要是中國人,即使不通文墨,也樂於被人稱爲君子,而絕不願意被人看作小人。如此普及千年,如此深入人心,實在是一種文化奇跡。由此,儒家的遺囑,也就變成了整個中國文化的主要遺囑。這一現象傳達了一個奧秘,那就是,最重要、最有效的遺囑,總是與做人有關。回想一下,孔子本來是有完整的計劃的,“修身、齊家、治國、平天下”,但一輩子下來,治國、平天下的目的不僅自己沒有達到,而且講給別人聽也等於對牛彈琴。十餘年辛苦奔波於一個個政治集團之間,都沒有效果。回來一看,親人的離世使“齊家”也成了一種自嘲。最後,他唯一能抓住的,只有修身,也就是讓自己做個什麽樣的人。因此,他真正實踐了的遺囑,可讓別人信賴的遺囑,也只有這一條。“修身”本是他計劃的起點,沒想到,起點變成了終點。不錯,做人,是永恆的起點,也是永恆的終點。因爲與人人有關,所以能够代代感應,成爲有效遺囑。一定有人不贊成,認為君子之道流傳那麼久,產生真正完美君子的比例並不高。因此,不能認爲“有效”。這種觀點,把理想人格的設計和引導當作了“應時配方”。其實,人類歷史上任何民族的理想人格設計,都不具備“即時打造、批量生產”的功能。君子之道也一樣,這是一種永不止息的人格動員,使多數社會成員經常發覺自己與君子的差距,然後產生“見賢思齊”、“景行行止”的嚮往,而不是在當下急著搭建一個所謂“君子國”。過程比終點重要,鍛鑄人格的過程不應該中斷,而一個匆促搭建的“君子國”,肯定名不副實。2 本論既然君子之道是中國文化的主要遺囑,那麼,古人心中的君子應該是什麼樣的呢?這是我多年來特別想做的一件事,那就是為今天的年輕讀者介紹君子之道的簡單輪廓。不要看不起簡單,請相信,任何祖先遺囑都不會艱深複雜。艱深複雜了,一定不是最重要的遺囑,也不值得繼承。我選出的君子之道,有這樣九項:一 君子懷德;二 君子之德風;
  • 6三 君子成人之美;四 君子周而不比;五 君子坦蕩蕩;六 君子中庸;七 君子有禮;八 君子不器;九 君子知恥。下面我一點點解釋。2.1 君子懷德如果要把君子的品行簡縮成一個字,那個字應該是“德”。因此,“君子懷德”,是君子之道的起點。德是什麼?說來話長,主要是指“利人、利他、利天下”的社會責任。“利天下”是孟子說的,在《孟子 ‧ 盡心》中有“摩頂放踵利天下”的說法,意思是只要對天下有利,不惜渾身傷殘。當然,這是太高的標準,一般人達不到,因此還是回過頭去,聽聽孔子有關“君子懷德”的普遍性論述。孔子說:君子懷德,小人懷土;君子懷刑,小人懷惠。《論語•裡仁》 這裡所說的君子、小人,就主要是指地位,而不是人品。對這句話的注釋,還是朱熹《四書章句集注》做得最好。朱熹是這樣注的:懷,思念也。懷德,謂存其固有之善。懷土,謂溺其所處之安。懷刑,謂畏法。懷惠,謂貪利。君子、小人趣向不同,公私之間而已關。按照朱熹的說法,君子、小人的差別,根子上是公、私之間的差別。以公共利益爲主要思念趣向,便是君子;以私自利益爲主要思念趣向,則是小人。因爲這裡所說的小人是指普通百姓,所以“懷土”、“懷惠”也是合理的,算不上惡。但是,即使是普通百姓,如果永遠地思念立足的自家鄉土而不去守護天良大善,永遠地思念私利恩惠而不去關顧社會規範(懷刑),那也就不是君子情懷。朱熹把“德”定義爲面向公共利益的“固有之善”,這就體現了他對人本性的理解。在他看來,人的本性中都存在著“利人、利他、利天下”的善根,而且是固有的,與生俱來的,古已有之的,因此也是穩定潛藏的。君子的責任,就是發掘自己的“固有之善”,肯定他人的“固有之善”,由此構成德的基礎。孔子把“德”和“土”並列爲一個對立概念,這是現代人不容易理解的。對於這個問題,儒家經典《禮記 ‧ 大學》中有一個很有意思的論述,對君子心目中的輕重關係作了一個排列。在這個排列中,第一是德,第二是人,第三是土,第四是財。結論是,德是本,財為末。原文如下:君子先慎乎德。有德此有人,有人此有土,有土此有財,有財此有用。德者,本也;財者,末也。《大學》第十章 這段話,如果用我的語言方式來說,就會是這樣:作爲君子,放在人生最前面的必須是道德。有了道德,才會有真正的人;有了人,才會有腳下的土地;有了土地,才會産生財物;有了財物,才能有所享用。因此,道德是本,財物是末。還有一種說法更徹底,根本不讓它們以平立的方式排先後,而是確認道德與財物之間是一種承載關係。那就是《周易》裡的那句千古名言:君子以厚德載物。《周易•象傳》 “厚德載物”可以有兩種解釋,那就是把“厚”看成動詞,還是形容詞。如果看成動詞,意思就是:先要培植、加重德性,然後可以承載萬物;如果看成形容詞,意思就是:只有以厚重、穩固的道德為基座,才能承載萬物。這兩種意思,沒有什麽差別,那就是構成了
  • 7余秋雨  君子之道“德”和“物”的主、屬關係,厚、薄關係。歷來也有很多富豪行善,可惜他們往往是“厚物載德”,也就是厚積大量財物,然後浮現一些善行。他們的居所裡,很可能也挂著“厚德載物”的牌匾,但在行動上卻輕重顛倒了。輕重顛倒還算好,更要防範的是本末倒置。如果本末倒置,將會如何?《潜夫論》認爲,“無德而賄豐,禍之胎也。”那麼,為什麼人們常常在“德”和“物”的問題上輕重顛倒、本末倒置呢?因為,一般人總會把土地和財物的佔有看成是一種力量,直到今天還是這樣。因此荀子說了八個字:君子以德,小人以力。《荀子•富國第十》  這是在說立身之本。君子立身於德,小人立身於力。即使君子擁有了力,那也要以德爲歸,以力弘德。總之,德是主宰,主宰著財,主宰著物,主宰著力。西方近代社會,主要著眼於力。我國當代很多人片面地摹訪,又變本加厲,把德和力的關係顛倒了。他們崇尚“成功”,甚至從童年開始,就永遠地彌漫著“輸贏”的符咒,一直貫穿終身。他們所說的“成功”和“贏”,也就是荀子所警惕的“力”。按照儒家哲學,這是一條背離君子之道的不歸路。不妨設想一下,多少年後,我們居住的城市和街道,擁擠著一個更比一個“成功”的“力士”,摩肩接踵,氣宇軒昂,我們還敢繼續住下去嗎?我們真正企盼的,究竟是什麼?在中國古代經典中,德,還有一些鄰近概念,譬如仁、義等等。這些概念是有差异的,我在這裡不作精細辨析了,只把它們當作“君子懷德”這一基本命題的衍伸。它們都用近似的內涵說明了一個公理:良好的品行,是君子之魂,也是天下之盼。對此,孟子照例說得特別深刻。他一再把君子逼到人之為人的最後底線,認為人與禽獸的區別就在於仁義道德,因此真正的君子不惜“捨生取義”。對於這種思路,程頤解釋道:君子所以异於禽獸者,以有仁義之性也。《二程遺書》卷二十五 孔子對“仁”的定義是“仁者愛人”。於是,以後人們說到“仁”,總是包含著愛。例如《鹽鐵論》所說“仁者,愛之效也”;《淮南子》所說“仁莫大於愛人”等等。至於“義”,孔子更是斬釘截鐵地提出“君子喻於義,小人喻於利”(《論語 ‧ 裡仁》)。他所說的“喻”,意為“明曉”、“懂得”、“瞭解”。那麼,什麼是義?大致是指由道德出發的社會正道。相比之下,“仁”較軟而“義”較硬,正如《揚子法言‧君子》所說:君子於仁也柔,於義也剛。《揚子法言•君子》十二 一柔一剛,合成道德,然後合成君子。對於這個問題,唐朝的魏徵作了簡明的概括,他在《十漸不克終疏》中說:君子之懷,蹈仁義而弘大德;小人之性,好讒佞以為身謀。這種劃分,早在屈原的作品中就已經出現,而到了唐代這麽一個諸般生命力一起勃發的時代,對文化品性的重新裁劃就顯得更加重要了。因此,屈原的個人評判變成了一種社會共識。例如,“好讒佞”這三個字,顯然已經成為中國文化法典中的大惡條款。把這三個字翻譯成現代話,句子會長一點,就是“習慣於用謠言毀人,熱衷於以媚態奉迎”。這種人當然應該判定為小人。與之相反,君子的本質也展現出來了,“蹈仁義而弘大德。”2.2 君子之德風在說了“君子懷德”之後,立即跟上“君子之德風”,有一種緊密的邏輯理由。儘管,這幾個字對當代讀者來說已經比較陌生。來源,是孔子在《論語‧顏淵》中的一段話:君子之德風,小人之德草,草上之風,必偃。
  • 8可以這樣翻譯:君子的道德像風,民眾的道德像草。風吹向草,草就隨風傾伏。這一論述,指出了君子的德行必須像風一樣影響大衆。孔子在這裡所說的“小人”,仍然是指社會地位上的小民。因爲有了他的這個說法,小民也經常被稱作“草民”。把民眾比之為草,並非貶損。草,這種依附大地的廣泛存在,一旦生根就難於挪移,一切動靜、榮枯,只能依憑外在力量。風,就是讓草進入動態的外在力量。但是,風來自何方,卻是一個問題。孔子主張,左右民眾動態的風,應該是道德之風,君子之風。這個觀點又引伸出了另一番意義:凡是道德,便應成風;凡是君子,便應成風。社會上,不管是風尚、風氣、風範,還是風潮、風俗、風情,這些“風”的起點,都應該包含“君子之德”。這一來,既涉及了社會走向,又涉及了君子職責。在社會走向上,儒家反對放任。孔子所說“小人懷土”,正是指出了普通民衆的草根性、狹隘性、黯昧性、佔據性。對他們,君子必須把自己高貴的生命能量變成風氣,進行傳播和梳理。一個君子,如果自認為具有仁義大德,卻默而不語,不作傳播,那麼,他對社會的仁義何在?對民眾的大德何在?仁義大德是一種有對象的“他向行爲”,關及的對象越多,就越有價值。所以荀子說:“仁者好告示人”(《荀子 ‧ 榮辱第四》)。在儒家看來,不“告示人”的仁德,就不是真正的仁德。儒家的這一思想,如果用現代話語來表達,那就是:崇尚精英主義,否定民粹主義;主張道德傳揚 ,反對君子自閉。遺憾的是,歷代總有不少官僚玩弄“民瘼”、“民情”、“鄉願”等概念,利用民衆的草根性、狹隘性、黯昧性、佔據性來賺取“官聲”,實際上是在斫伐公衆倫理。儒家要求用道德之風來吹拂草,這些人卻借草揚風,結果只能沙塵滿天,使得一個個君子埋在草叢之中灰頭土臉。這一來,連很多具有社會責任感的君子,也已經很難相信道德之風的生命力了。是啊,在那麽多上下幹擾中,君子的道德之風還能吹得遠嗎?對於這個問題,《尚書》的回答氣象非凡:惟德動天,無遠弗屆。《尚書•虞夏書》 《尚書》認為,道德本是天意,不必尋找它能夠傳播開去的具體原因。只須立德,便能動天,一旦動天,天下盡歸。這一古老的話語,乍一聽帶有開天闢地時代不容爭議的霸氣,卻能讓我們聯想到德國十八世紀哲學家康德(Immanuel Kant,1724 ~ 1804)關於道德是“第一命令”、是“天律”的論述。從天上回到地下,道德能够廣泛傳播,還由於人心。人心之中埋有固有之善,往往缺少召集。就像我們經常在自然灾害的現場看到的那樣,一旦面對傷殘對象,許多素昧平生的人立即同時伸出援手。這才發現,人與人之間的道德居所並不遙遠,而是非常鄰近。那又要讓人想起孔子的名言了:德不孤,必有鄰。《論語•裡仁》 在這一點上,孔子是“道德樂觀主義者”。他相信普遍人性,隨之相信天下君子不會孤獨。他把《尚書》所說的“動天”,與“動心”連在一起了,又把“動心”看作是一種密集的集體現象。孔子的這個說法非常溫暖,使很多弘德行善的君子即使一時感到孤獨,也會保持信心。他們漸漸明白,即使是荒僻的村舍,即使是陌生的街市,都可能是道德載體。一時孤獨了,一定別有原因,而不能歸因於自己對德的承擔。道德不會孤獨,那麼,承擔者也不會孤獨。
  • 9余秋雨  君子之道老子與孔子不同,並不是“道德樂觀主義者”,而且也不希望真正有德之人過於自得(“上德不德,是以有德”)。但是,即便是他,也認爲不斷地積累道德就能無往不勝。他說:積重德則無不克。《老子》五十九章 墨家不喜歡儒家宣講道德的方式,但在實踐行爲上,卻是樹立了令人感動的大德形象。他們的“德風”,往往以群體性的俠義壯舉來傳揚,令人振奮。總之,積極傳揚仁義大德,是中國文化對於君子品行的一個重要共識。2.3 君子成人之美這句話,淺顯易懂,傳播廣泛,已成爲中國民間判別君子的一個通俗標準。當然,這個通俗標準並不淺顯。話是孔子說的,整句如下:君子成人之美,不成人之惡。小人反是。《論語•顏淵》 “美”的概念,在人類古代常常與“善”交溶在一起,很難明晰分開。到了孔子的時代,已經有“盡善盡美”的說法,這就意味著“美”已經可以與“善”並立,具有某種獨立性了。但是,孔子在這句話中,爲“美”設定的對立面是“惡”而不是“醜”,因此又與“善”近義,大致是“好事”的意思。“成人之美”,也就是促成別人的好事。這裡的“人”,並不僅僅是指家人、友人、認識的人,而是範圍極大,廣闊無邊。孟子在《公孫醜》中所說的“君子莫大乎與人為善”,以及後來唐代《貞觀政要》中所說的“君子揚人之善,小人許人之惡”,等等,都讓人聯想到孔子“成人之美”的說法。而且這些說法確實也可以看成是“同義聯璧”。但是細細辨析,這裡的“美”和“善”還是有區別的。例如救窮、賑災、治病、搶險,只能說是“與人爲善”,而不便說是“成人之美”。“成人之美”更多的是指促成良緣、介紹益友、消解誤會、幫助合作等等。總之,“成人之美”更多地是指錦上添花的正面建設,而且具有一定的形式享受。這裡也體現了“君子”與“好人”的微妙差別。“好人”必然會“與人爲善”,但“君子”除了“與人爲善”之外,還會“成人之美”。在災難面前,“君子”與“好人”做著同樣的事,但在無災的日子裡,“君子”更會尋找正面意義的形式享受。為此,他們比“好人”似乎更高雅一點。接下來,還應該辨析一下這個命題的對立面:“成人之惡”。“成人之惡”的“成”有三種可能——第一種可能,惡已開始,幫其完成。例如,爲毆人者提供木棍,爲造謠者圓了謊言;第二種可能,惡未開始,從頭醸成。例如,慫恿少年吸毒,挑撥夫妻反目;第三種可能,攻善為惡,偽造而成。這主要是指用謠言、誹謗等手法佔汙他人,大體上與《貞觀政要》所說的“訐人之惡”相近。這裡的“訐”,讀音為“劫”,意思也差不多。三個“成”,哪一個是“成人之惡”中的“成”?我覺得,都是。與這三個“成”字相對應,那個“人”字也就有了三種含義。如前所述,為“半惡之人”、“被惡之人”、“非惡之人”,結果,都成了“惡人”。因此“成人之惡”是一項多方位的負面社會工程。如此仔細地辨析了“成人之惡”,那麽,我們也就能進一步對“成人之美”理解得更深入一點了。“成人之美”也是一項多方位的社會工程,只不過都是正面的。大體上也分為三種可能——一 使未成之美儘量完成;二 使未起之美開始起步;三 化非美爲美,也就讓對方由黑暗轉向光明,由汙淖攀上堤岸。“成人之美”和“與人爲善”,都具有明顯的“給予”主動,都體現爲一種帶有大丈夫氣質的積極行爲。
  • 10“給他人的,只是好心”;“見到善事,即伸援手”;“除了兼愛,還是兼愛”……,這些美意,實在是人類世界的光明面。一個人,究竟是“成人之美”還是“成人之惡”,這種極端性的是非選擇,顯現在日常生活中,很可能是非常細微的。例如,這邊在中傷一個無辜者,你知道真相而沉默,那就是成人之惡;那邊在舉行一個婚禮,你素昧平生卻投去一個祝賀目光,那就是成人之美……這麽說來,任何人在任何時刻都有選擇做君子的機會,那是一種“水滴石穿”的修煉。不必等待,不必積累,君子之道就在一切人的腳下。而且,就在當下。既然滲透到了日常生活中,那麽,如何在細微事件中快速評判善惡是非呢?孔子相信,評判的標尺就藏在我們自己的心底。那就是,自己不想碰到的一切,絕不要強加到別人身上去。這個標尺很簡捷,也容易把握,因此,幾乎所有的中國人都知道下面八個字:己所不欲,勿施於人。《論語•顏淵》 這就為“成人之美”、“與人爲善”找到了每一個人都可以自行把握的內心依據。西方文化正如孫中山先生指出的,習慣於把自己的理念通過很霸道的方式强加在別人頭上;而中國文化則認爲,天倫大道藏在每個人的心底,只要將心比心就可以了。2.4 君子周而不比原文見《論語‧為政》。孔子說:君子周而不比,小人比而不周。“周”和“比”的意思,與現代語文有較大的距離了,因此需要做一些解釋。這兩個字,到朱熹時代就已經不容易解釋。朱熹注釋道,“周,普遍也。比,偏黨也。”當代學者李澤厚根據朱熹的注解,在《論語今讀》中作了這樣的翻譯:“君子普遍厚待人們,而不偏袒阿私;小人偏袒阿私,而不普遍厚待。”這樣的翻譯,雖然準確卻有點累,李澤厚先生自己也感覺到了,因此他在翻譯之後立即感慨孔子原句的“言簡意賅”、“便於傳誦”。其實,我倒是傾向於坊間一種更簡單的翻譯:君子團結而不勾結,小人勾結而不團結。兩個“結”字,很好記,也大致合乎原意。因爲徵用了現代常用語,聽起來還有一點幽默。不管怎麽翻譯,一看就知道,這是在說君子應該如何處理人際關係的問題了。其實,前面幾項都已涉及人際關係。但是,無論是“懷德”、“德風”,還是“成人之美”,講的都是大原則。明白了大原則,卻不見得能具體處理。有很多君子,心地善良,卻怎麼也不能安頓身邊人事。因此,君子之道要對人際關係另作深論。“周而不比”的“周”,是指周全、平衡、完整;而作爲對立面的“比”,是指粘連、勾搭、偏仄。對很多人來說,後者比前者更有吸引力,這是為什麼?這事說來話長。人們進入群體,常常因生疏而產生一種不安全感,自然會著急地物色幾個朋友,這很正常。但是,接下來就有鴻溝了:有些人會把這個過程當作過渡,朋友的隊伍漸漸擴大,自己的思路也愈加周全,這就在人際關係上成了君子;但也會有不少人把自己的朋友圈當作小小的“利益共同體”,與圈子之外的多數人明明暗暗地比較、對峙。時間一長,必然延伸成一系列窺探、算計和防範。顯然,這就成了小人行跡。這麽說來,“周而不比”和“比而不周”之間的差別,開始並不是大善大惡、大是大非的分野。但是,這種差別一旦加固和發展,就會變成兩種截然不同的人格系統。在人際關係中的小人行跡,最明顯地表現爲爭奪和爭吵。這應該引起君子們的警惕,因為不少君子由於觀點鮮明,剛正不阿,也容易發生爭吵。一吵,弄不好,一下子就滑到小人行跡中去了。那麽,爲了避免爭吵,君子能不能離群索居,隔絕人世?不能,完全離開群體也就無所謂君子
  • 11余秋雨  君子之道了。孔子只是要求他們,入群而不裂群。因此,他及時地說了這段話:君子矜而不爭,群而不黨。《論語•衛靈公》 這次李澤厚先生就翻譯得很好了:“君子嚴正而不爭奪,合群而不偏袒。”作為老友,如果要我稍稍改動一下文字,我會把“爭奪”改成“爭執”,把“偏袒”改成“偏執”。兩個“執”,有點韻味,又比較有趣,而且意思也不錯。那就改成了這樣一句:“君子嚴正而不爭執,合群而不偏執。”孔子所說的這個“矜”字,原來介乎褒貶之間,翻譯較難,用當今的口頭語,可解釋爲“派頭”、“腔調”、“範兒”之類,在表情上稍稍有點作態。端得出這樣的表情,總不會是“和事佬”,免不了要對看不慣的東西說幾句重話吧?但孔子說,君子再有派頭,也不爭執。這句話的另一番意思是,即使與世無爭,也要有派頭。那就是不能顯得窩囊、潦倒,像孔乙己。是君子,必須要有幾分“矜”,講一點格調。“群而不黨”,如果用現代的口語,不妨這樣說:可以成群結隊,不可結黨營私。甚至還可以換一種更通俗的說法:可以熱熱鬧鬧,不可打打鬧鬧。“黨”這個字,在中國古代語文中是指背離普遍、完整、兼愛,趨向抱團、分裂、互損,與君子風範相悖。更麻煩的是,只要結黨營私,小團體裡邊的關係也會日趨惡劣。表面上都是同門同幫,暗底裡沒有一處和睦。這種情況可稱之為“同而不和”。與之相反,值得信賴的關係,只求心心相和,不求處處相同,可稱之爲“和而不同”。這兩種關係,何屬君子,何屬小人,十分清楚,因此孔子總結道:君子和而不同,小人同而不和。《論語•子路》 這句話也描繪了一個有趣的形象對比:君子,是一個個不同的人;相反,小人,一個個都十分相似。因此,人們在世間,看到種種不同,反而可以安心;看到太多的相同,卻應分外小心。由此,我們已經涉及到了君子和小人的整體氣貌。2.5 君子坦蕩蕩這就是整體氣貌了。從上面的分析可以知道,在人際關係中,小人要比君子勞累得多。小人的勞累至少有以下幾個方面。第一,小人要“結黨營私”,必須製造敵人,窺探對手,敏感一切信息,終日戰戰兢兢;第二,小人要“成人之惡”,必須尋找惡的潛因,惡的可能。隨之,還要尋找善的裂紋,美的瘢痕;第三,不管是“結黨營私”還是“成人之惡”,都必須藏藏掖掖,遮遮掩掩,塗塗抹抹,費盡心機;第四,如前所說,即便在自己的小團體內,他們也在彼此暗比,互相提防。比了,防了,又要表現爲沒比,沒防,在嘻哈擁抱中僞裝成生死莫逆、肝膽相照,這該多勞累啊。這麽多勞累加在一起,真會使任何一個人的快樂被掃蕩,輕鬆被剝奪,人格被扭曲。結果如何,可想而知。人們歷來只恨小人天天志得意滿,卻不知他們夜夜心慌意亂。君子當然也勞累,但性質完全不同。君子要行仁、踐義、利天下,即便縮小範圍,也要關顧到周圍所有的人,達到“周”的標準,能不勞累嗎?只不過,這種勞累,敞亮通達,無須逃避質疑的目光,無須填堵已露的破綻,無須躲閃明亮的天光。這一來,勞累也就减去了一大半。剩下的,全是藍天白雲下的坦然暢然。正是對面這種區別,孔子說話了:君子坦蕩蕩,小人長戚戚。《論語•述而》 這句話,在中國非常普及。它糾正了民間所謂“做好事受罪,做壞事痛快”的習慣性誤解,指出究竟是“受罪”還是“痛快”,需要從心境
  • 12上尋找答案。答案,與民間的誤解正恰相反。小人很想掩蓋“戚戚”,因此總是誇張地表演出驕傲、驕橫、驕慢、驕躁。什麽都能表演,唯獨不能表演坦然泰然。這正如,變質的食品可以用各種強烈的調料來包裹,唯獨不能坦白地展示真材實味。這個意思,孔子用另一句話來表明:君子泰而不驕,小人驕而不泰。《論語•子路》 在這裡,“泰”,就是“坦蕩蕩”;而“驕”,就是爲了掩蓋“戚戚”而作出的誇張表演。“泰”、“坦蕩蕩”,都是因為自己心底乾淨,無愧無疚,沒有什麼好耽憂的,更沒有什麼好害怕的。這樣的君子,無論進入什麼情形都安然自得,即《禮記 ‧ 中庸》所說的“君子無入而不自得焉”,“上不怨天,下不尤人”,真是一種自由境界。由此孔子得出了又一個重要結論:“君子不憂不懼。”為什麼能夠不憂不懼?理由是:“內省不疚,夫何憂何懼?”這個重要結論,出現在《論語 ‧ 顔淵》裡,讓人欣喜地感受到一種因光明磊落而産生的爽朗和豪邁。當然,君子也會有憂慮的,那就是在面對更高的精神目標的時候。例如,孔子所說的“君子憂道不憂貧(《論語 ‧ 衛靈公》);孟子所說的“君子有終身之憂,無一日之患”(《孟子 ‧ 離婁下》)。也就是說,君子對每天的得失,可以全然不憂不懼,但對大道的沉浮,卻抱有一輩子的耽憂。孔子、孟子所描述的這種君子形象,似乎只是一種理想。但是,我們只要閉目一想,中國歷史上確實出現過大批德行高尚又無所畏懼的君子,世代傳誦,成爲中華民族的精神支撐。由此可見,這樣的君子不僅可敬可仰,而且可觸可摸。孔孟教言,並非虛設。2.6 君子中庸中庸,是儒家設定的思維杠杆。但是,他們又把這種思維杠杆看成是君子應有的美德,並且頒布了一個判別基準:君子中庸,小人反中庸。《禮記•中庸》 孔子甚至不無激動地說:中庸之為德也,其至矣乎!《論語•雍也》 這就把中庸說成了最高道德。“中”是指避開兩頭的極端而權衡出一個中間值;“庸”,是指一種尋常實用的穩定狀態。這明明屬於方法論的範疇,怎麼會成為一種最高道德呢?主要原因,與文明的艱難歷程有關。人類在開始拓植文明之後的很長時間,艱險的環境危及生存,不得不處處運用過度之力。面對荒昧,面對野蠻,面對邪惡,若不超常用力,怎麽能够活下來?終於,活下來了,那又必定加倍地動用重力、暴力、武力進行自衛和懲罰。既然一切都以超常的形態出現,當然又會引發更加超常的報復。時間一長,以暴易暴,成了人類生活的第一規則,幾乎誰也免不了。連不少仁慈的宗教,也發動了一次次宗教戰爭。强大、威武、雄蠻,變爲多數權勢者和庇蔭者的人格企盼,也成爲大家的生存方略。在這種情况下,誰都不敢承認,卻又不能不承認,人類正由越演越烈的殺伐程式走向自毀自滅。一切都起之於過度用力,又以道義的藉口讓那些過度之力走向了極端主義。極端主義,聽起來好像是一個現代命題,其實在遙遠的古代已經是一個廣泛滲透的意識形態。明白了這麽一個整體背景,我們也就明白,孔子爲什麽要把中庸思想說成是最高道德了。他很明白,如果種種極端不受控制,人類的灾難必將無窮無盡;那麽,靠什麽來控制極端呢?一定不是另一種極端方式,而只能是中庸。中庸思想要求,“執其兩端,用其中於民。”(《禮記 ‧ 中庸》)“執”,是指執行和掌控,那也就是說,把兩端掌控住了,只取用兩端之間的“中”,才可能有利於萬民。這個“中”,就
  • 13余秋雨  君子之道是處於中間部位的一個合適支點。這個支點不同於兩端,卻又照顧著兩端,牽制著兩端,使兩端不要“懸崖滑落”。因此,這個“中”,不僅避免了兩端的禍害,而且也挽救了兩端,所以成了最高道德。孔子對這種思維的概括是四個字:“允執厥中”。這裡邊的“厥”字,在古文中是代詞,與“其”字同義,因此這四個字也可以說成“允執其中”。允,是指公允、實在。連在一起,就是好好地執行中庸之道。孔子坦陳,這個說法不是他自己發明的,而只是在復述古代堯帝對舜帝的囑咐。那天,堯對舜說:咨!爾舜!天之歷數在爾躬,允執厥中,四海困窮,天祿永終。《論語•堯曰》翻譯一下,大體是:咳,你,舜啊!上天的命數已經落到你身上,好好地執行中庸之道吧。要是四海困窮,你的天命也就永遠終結了。那麼,舜是怎麼做的呢?他的做法,就是上文提到的“執其兩端,用其中於民”,完全沒有辜負堯的囑咐。你看,堯、舜,以及中華文明的其他創建者,都把上天命數、四海生機都與中庸思想緊緊相連,可見其重要。“允執厥中”這四個字,我們還能在《尚書》中看到:人心惟危,道心惟微,惟精惟一,允執厥中。《尚書•大禹謨》 用通俗一點的話來說就是:人心崩潰,大道難見,唯一可行的,是好好地執行中庸之道。這也就是說,産生“人心惟危,道心惟微”的困局,全是因爲脫離中道,走了極端。把中庸看成是至高無上的天理、天命、天道,這與“天人合一”的基本思維有關。中華文明的基礎是農耕文明,緊緊地依賴著四季循環、日月陰晴,因此很清楚一切極端主義都不符合天道。夏日炎熱到極端必起秋風,冬天寒冷到極端即來春天,構成一個否定極端主義的生態循環圈。《周易》用一貫神秘的語氣宣布:剛中而應,大亨以正,天之命也。《周易•彖傳》 一“中”一“正”,實爲天命,不該違背。現代社會有一個重大誤會,常常以為中庸是平庸,激烈是高尚。進一步,又把中庸者看成是小人,把激烈者看成是君子。但是,偉大的古代哲人告訴我們,事情正好相反。那些在兩個懸崖之間低頭為普遍民眾找一條可行之路的,一定是君子;相反,那些在懸崖頂端手舞足蹈、大喊大叫、裝扮勇猛的,一定是小人。所以又可回到我們這一論述的起點:“君子中庸,小人反中庸。”這句話的另一種說法是:“小人極端,君子反極端。”環視全人類,這種中庸思想,或者說這種從屬於君子之道的中庸之道,為中華民族所獨有。國外也有“取中間值”的方法論,但不像中華民族那樣,把中庸奉為至高,不可或缺。中國的古代哲人把中庸看成是存亡的關鍵,而事實證明,中華文明確實成了人類古文明中唯一沒有中斷或湮滅的幸存者。據我本人對各大古文明遺址的實地考察、對比、研究,確認中庸之道是中華文明長壽的最重要原因。正是這種堅守中間態、尋常態、隨和態的彈性存在,使中華文明避過了無數次斷裂和崩塌。相比之下,直到今天,世界上很多國家和民族,不管經濟情况如何,都喜歡炫耀極端。要讓他們瞭解中庸,執行中庸實在非常困難。2.7 君子有禮君子的種種思想品德,需要形之於約定俗稱的行為規範,這便是禮。由禮構成儀式,便是禮儀。
  • 14精神需要賦形,人格需要可感,君子需要姿態。這不僅僅是一個“從裡到外”的過程,而且也能産生“從外到裡”的回饋。那就是說,當外形一旦建立,長期身體力行,又可以反過來加固精神,提升人格。對外來說,“君子之德風”,君子的品德需要傳播。在傳播管道稀少、文本教育缺乏的古代,有效傳播的主要媒介,就是君子本身的行為方式。因此,君子的禮儀,具有空間和時間上的擴展使命。正因為這樣,歷代君子沒有不講究禮儀的。中國也由此而被稱為“禮儀之邦”。普普通通的人,有禮上身,就顯出高貴。而這種高貴是有對象的,既尊敬人,又傳染人。這個意思,就是《左傳》上的一段話:君子貴其身而後能及人,是以有禮。《左傳•昭公二十五年》 正是這段話的首尾四字,組成了這小節的標題。也有說得更強烈的。在某些哲人看來,有沒有禮,不僅是君子和小人的區別,而且是人和禽獸的區別。例如:凡人之所以貴於禽獸者,亦有禮也。《晏子春秋•內篇第一》 說得有點過份,但我明白其中意氣。看了生活中太多無禮的惡相,不得不氣忿地駡一句:一個人如果無禮,簡直就是禽獸。換一種語氣說,更能讓人接受。也是《左傳》裡的話,雖也斬釘截鐵,倒是聽得入耳:禮,人之幹也。無禮,無以立。《左傳•昭公七年》 把禮比喻成一個人站立起來的軀幹,這種說法很有文學性,我喜歡。擴而大之,《左傳》還進一步認為,當禮變成一種集體儀式,也有可能為一個邦國的軀幹:禮,國之幹也。《左傳•僖公十一年》 這讓我們聯想到現在各國的國慶禮儀和大型國際性盛典的開幕儀式。即使沒有重大典儀,國民之禮,也是國之軀幹。但是,這還是講大了。君子之道中的禮,主要是指個人在日常生活中的行為規範。任何行爲規範,都會表達某種意向。那麽,究竟是什麽意向在中國人的日常禮儀中最常見、最重要呢?一是“敬”,二是“讓”。先說“敬”。孟子說:“有禮者敬人”(《孟子‧離婁下》);墨子說:“禮,敬也”(《墨子 ‧ 經上》)。這就表明,一個有禮的君子,他的全部動作都會表達對他人的尊敬。敬,是高看他人一眼,而不是西方式的平視。中國幾千年都受控於家族倫理和官場倫理,到今天仍然如此,所以習慣於把恭敬交付給長輩、親友、上級、官員。但是,君子之敬,並不是家族倫理和官場倫理的附屬品,它具有一定的獨立性。一個君子,如果對偶然相遇的陌生人也表示出尊敬,那麽,這種尊敬也就獨具價值。因此,我常常在彼此陌生的公共空間發現真君子。一旦發現,就會駐足良久,凝神注視。正是他們對陌生人的尊敬,換來了我對他們的尊敬。在這裡,互敬成為一種互饋關係,雙向流動。公共空間的無限魅力,也由此而生。這種互饋關係,孟子說得最明白:敬人者,人恒敬之。《孟子•離婁下》 再說“讓”。簡單說來,那就是後退一步,讓人先走;那就是讓出佳位,留給旁人;那就是一旦互堵,立即退讓;那就是分利不勻,率先放棄……。這一切,都不是故意表演,做給人看,而是在內心就想處處謙讓,由心賦形。還是孟子說的:辭讓之心,禮之端也。《孟子•公孫醜上》 
  • 15余秋雨  君子之道所謂“禮之端”,就是禮的起點。為什麼辭讓能成為起點?因為世界太擁擠,欲望太密集,紛爭太容易。唯有後退一步,才會給他人留出空間。敬,也從後退一步開始。辭讓,是對自己的節制。一人的節制也能作出榜樣,防止他人的種種不節制。這是《禮記》說過的意思:禮者,因人之情而為之節文,以為民坊者也。《禮記•坊記》 這個“坊”字,古時候與“防”相通。這句話用我的語氣來說是這樣的:什麼是禮?對人的性情加以節制,從而對民間作出防範性的示範。說得有點繞。一切還是要回到孔子。在孔子看來,為什麼要禮?為什麼要敬?為什麼要讓?都是爲了一個目的:和。君子之責,無非是求人和、世和、心和。他用簡潔的六個字來概括:禮之用,和為貴。《論語•學而》 那也就形成了一個邏輯程式:行為上的“敬”、“讓”,構成個人之“禮”,然後達成人間之“和”。揭示了結論,我還要作一個重要補充:君子有了禮,才會有風度,才會有魅力,才會美。正是謙恭辭讓之禮,使君子神采無限。這是中華民族理想人格的最佳標識,也是東方人文美學的最佳歸結。現代很多人在這一點上誤會了,以爲人格魅力在於寸步不讓,在於銳目緊逼,在於氣勢淩人。其實,正好相反。為此,我很讚賞荀子把“禮”和“美”連在一起的做法。他在《禮論》裡爲“禮”下了一個定義,說是“達愛敬之文而滋成行義之美者也。”這個定義告訴我們,在設計禮的時候,不管是個人之禮還是集體禮儀,都必須文,必須美。再謙恭,再辭讓,如果以拉拉扯扯、推推搡搡、大呼小叫、卑躬屈膝、裝腔作勢的方式呈現出來,也不是我們所要的禮。君子之禮,與美同在。2.8 君子不器這四個字,出自孔子之口,見之於《論語 ‧爲政》。意思很簡潔:君子不是器具。當然不是。但爲什麽還要特別拿出來强調呢?因為世間之人,常常成為器具。一旦成爲器具,孔子就要把他們開除出君子隊伍。這個命題有點艱深,但在剛剛說過禮儀之後,可以借著那個話題找到一個比較通俗的入口。禮儀雖然非常重要,但是如果人們成了禮儀的器具,只知像器具一樣做出刻板的體態和手勢,只知重複著完全一樣的話語和笑容,那麽,這就成了“器具之禮”,而不是君子之禮。因為,君子不器。禮儀只是一例,由人變器的事情,到處可以看到。我們應該見過不少這樣的教師,年年月月用完全一樣的語句和口氣復述著同一本陳舊的教科書。雖然毅力可以稱道,但未免太“器”了,因爲他們讓多彩的生命變成了複製之器。我們應該見過更多刻板的官員,他們在會議上重複著上司的文書,在辦公時扮演著自己的官職,連下班回到家裡還不把架子放下來。那也“器”了,把活生生的血肉之軀,僵化成了官僚體系中的一個構件。德國哲學家黑格爾(Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel,1770 ~ 1831)認為人世間最重要的是“這一個”,亦即獨立生命的自我把持,因為人的生命不可重複。法國哲學家柏格森(Henri Bergson,1859 ~ 1941)認爲生命的真實在於衝動和延綿,而機器化的行爲只是喜劇嘲笑的對象。他們的種種理論,都與兩千五百年前的中國哲學“君子不器”遙相呼應。黑格爾和柏格森是在目睹歐洲工業化、機器化所産生的弊病後作出論述的,而中國古代提出“君子不器”卻沒有這種背景,因此更爲難能可貴,更像聖哲天語。中國古代文字的優點是凝練,缺點是多義。
  • 16例如這個“器”字,概括了多少現象,卻也可能歧義叢生。器具、器物、器皿,等等,表明了它的物化方向,但如果是器識、器宇、器質呢?顯然又從物化轉向了生命。老子所說的“大器晚成”,比喻大材須精雕,偉人須等待。也就是說,老子所說的“器”是一個可以慢慢增長和優化的活體。既然是活體,就與孔子所防範的非活體“器”,有方向上的差異。孔子所不喜歡的“器”,永遠成不了老子所說的“器”。因此,他們兩位其實都在倡導活體。“君子不器”,在當代思維中又可引伸爲“抵抗人的異化”、“防止全面工具化”等等。人,總是要找回自己。即便什麽時候機器人大幅度地替代了真人的工作,對人的堅守還會持續。機器人再精巧,也不能成為君子。這是中國文化在人格意義的最終節操,可能會堅守到最後。這把事情說遠了。如果放到日常生活中,“君子不器”的教言主要會給我們兩方面的幫助:第一,儘量不要成為器物的奴隸。管子所說的“君子使物,不爲物使”(《管子‧內業》),說明了君子對於器物的主動性。環視四周,現在有很多人過度追求器物之盛,其實早已遠遠超過生命的實際需要,這就使自己成了器物的奴隸。他們成天收藏、拼比著奢侈器物,琳琅滿目,乍看是生命的擴充,其實是生命的奴化。而且,奴化了的生命還要伺候那麽多冷若冰霜的“主人”。須知,哪怕是積器如山,堆物成城,也比不過你簡囊遠行的身影。第二,儘量不要使自己變成器物。這比成為器物的奴隸更為嚴重,其實也更為普遍。這種異化過程,在開始的時候還很難自覺。當你在某一職業、頭銜、角色上粘住了,僵化了,風化了,那就要當心。因為異化過程已經開始,與君子的活體漸行漸遠。班固在《漢書》中說:“君子直而不挺”(《漢書‧蓋寬饒傳》)。我幾次讀到,都會為那個“挺”字啞然失笑。君子需要正直,當然不錯,但再往前走一步,“挺”了,那就帶有了刻意表演的成分。一直“挺”下去,就漸漸從有機體變成了無機體,最後變成了一種造型和雕塑。造型和雕塑是“器”,不是人。由此我產生一個有趣的聯想。當今中國文化傳媒界一直有一批數量不小的“大批判孑遺”,人稱“偽鬥士”,老是在整人毀人、造謠誹謗、誣陷無辜。我知道他們中有不少人早就想收手不幹,而且越來越産生了法律上的耽憂,但他們還是“挺”在哪里。為什麼?爲的是想成爲新時代的“匕首、投槍、迫擊炮”。他們不明白的是,那些都是“器”,而且大多是“兇器”。無論是不做器物的奴隸,還是不做器物本身,有一個最簡單的防身術,那就是堅持做一個平常人,一個有體溫、有彈性、不極端、不作態的平常人。這又與前面所說的“君子中庸”聯繫一起了,可謂:君子因中庸而不器。2.9 君子知恥有人說,君子之道也是“知恥之道”。因為,君子是最有恥感的人,而小人則沒有恥感。為此,也有人把中國的“恥感文化”與西方的“罪感文化”作對比,覺得“恥感文化”更倚重於個人的內心自覺,更有人格意義。不錯,孔子在《論語‧子路》裡說過,君子,包括“士”,必須“行己有恥”。也就是時時要以羞恥感對自己的行為進行“道義底線”上的反省和警惕。但我們在分寸上應該懂得,孔子在這裡所說的“耻”,與我們現在所說“可耻”、“無耻”相比,範圍要寬泛得多。例如,看到自己沒有做好的地方,也叫“有恥”。恥的問題,孟子講得最深入。首先要介紹一句他的近似於“繞口令”的話:人不可以無恥。無恥之恥,無恥矣。《孟子•盡心上》 前半句很明確,也容易記,但後半句在講什麼?我想用現代口語做一個遊戲性的解釋。這後半句的大意是:一個人沒有恥感,就很可恥。如果知道了這一點,那就不算無耻了。改成與原句一樣的句序,可說成:
  • 17余秋雨  君子之道爲無耻感到羞耻,那就不再耻了。當然,我的這種闡釋與許多“古注”都不一樣,這不要緊,我只在乎文字直覺。孟子的言語常有一種故意的“拗勁”,力之所至,打到了我。我在《中國文脉》一書中把他的文學地位排到了孔子之前,即與此有關。孟子用一個纏轉的短句表明,耻不耻的問題是人們心間的一個旋渦,幽暗而又易變,必須由自己清晰把握,拔出旋渦。接著我們來讀讀孟子的另一番“恥論”:恥之於人大矣。為機變之巧者,無所用恥焉。不恥不若人,何若人有。《孟子•盡心上》 我的意譯是:羞恥,對人來說是大事。玩弄機謀的人不會羞恥,因為用不上。他們比不上別人,卻不羞恥,那又怎麼會趕上別人。這就在羞耻的問題上引出了小人,而且說到了小人沒有羞耻感的原因。由此,也就從反面觸及了正面,讓人可以推斷出君子的耻感文化。至少有三條:以羞恥感陪伴人生,把它當作大事;以羞恥感防範暗事,例如玩弄機謀;以羞恥感作為動力,由此趕上別人。孟子的論述,從最終底綫上對君子之道進行了“反向包抄”。立足人性敏感處,由負而正,守護住了儒家道義的心理邊界。你看,他又說了:“羞惡之心,義之端也。”(《孟子 ‧ 公孫醜上》)這就把羞耻當作了道義的起點。把起點設在對立面,在理論上,既奇峭,又高明。如此說來,耻,成了一個鏡面。由於它的往返觀照,君子之道就會更自知、更自守。敢於接受這個鏡面,是一種勇敢。知恥近乎勇。《禮記•中庸》 知耻,是放弃掩蓋,放弃麻木,雖還未改,已靠近勇敢。如果由此再進一步,那就是勇敢的完成狀態。以上所說的羞耻感,都涉道義大事,符合“耻之於人大矣”的原則。但是,在實際生活中,人們常常不分大小高低,在不該羞恥處感到羞恥,在應該羞恥處卻漠然無羞。因此,並不是一切羞恥感都屬於君子。君子恰恰應該幫人們分清,什麼該羞恥,什麼不該羞恥。既然小人沒有羞恥感,那麼多數錯亂地投放羞恥感的人,便是介乎君子、小人之間的可塑人群。他們經常爲貧困而羞耻,爲陋室而羞耻,爲低位而羞耻,爲失學而羞耻,爲缺少某種知識而羞耻,爲不得不請教他人而羞耻,爲遭受誹謗而羞耻,爲强加的汙名而羞耻……。太多太多的羞耻,使世間多少人以手遮掩,以淚洗面,不知所措。其實,這一切都不值得羞恥。在這方面,孔子循循善誘,發佈了很多令人溫暖的教言。即便在最具體的知識問題上,他也說了人人都知道的四個字:不恥下問。《論語‧公冶長》 意思很明白:即使向地位比自己低的人請教,也不以爲耻。這麽一來,在耻感的課題上,“不耻”,也成了君子的一個行爲原則。因此,真正的君子極為謹慎,又極為自由。謹慎在“有恥”上,自由在“不恥”上。“耻”和“不耻”這兩個相反的概念,組成了儒家的“耻學”。對此,具有總結性意義的,是荀子。我想比較完整地引用他的一段話,作為這個問題的歸結。他說:君子耻不修,不耻見汙;恥不信,不恥不見信;恥不能,不恥不見用。是以不誘於譽,不恐於誹,率道而行,端然正己,不爲物傾倒,夫是之謂誠君子。《荀子•非十二子》 
  • 18這段以“恥”和“不恥”為起點的論述,歷久彌新。我自己在人生歷程中也深有所感,經常默誦於心。因此,我要用今天的語言譯釋一遍:君子之耻,耻在自己不修,不耻別人汙陷;恥在自己失信,不恥別人不信;恥在自己無能,不恥別人不用。因此,不為榮譽所誘,不爲誹謗所嚇,遵循大道而行,莊嚴端正自己,不因外物傾側,這才稱得上真正的君子。“恥”和“不恥”,是君子人格的封底閥門。如果這個閥門開漏,君子人格將蕩然無存;如果這個閥門依然存在,哪怕鏽跡斑斑,君子人格還會生生不息。3 尾語好,既然已經摸過了封底閥門,那麽,我們對君子之道的輪廓性描述,也可以暫告結束了。當然,如果以高層學術研究的完整性來要求,這個課題還留下了很多重要的項目。例如,諸子百家對君子之道的不同意見,君子之道在以後兩千多年演變的過程,君子之道的負面變形和消極後果,君子之道與中國歷史上的聖人、大丈夫、覺者、至人、禪者等人格模型的異同,以及君子之道的國際認知和未來處境,等等。我所開列的這些研究項目,學術價值都不低,可以寫出一部部專著,相信會有很多學者各顯其能,各盡其責。我自己的興趣焦點,只在以文化人類學的立場探索中華民族的集體人格,並從歷史的選擇、大地的沉澱中,權衡是非輕重。我還故意把自己的讀者,劃定在文化學術圈外的普通民眾。這種劃定,當然也與文化人類學有關。因爲我堅信,與普世社會的真實互動,哪怕是淺語輕言,也超過那些小圈子裡的唇焦舌燥。探索中華民族的集體人格,這件事我很早就開始做了。比較拿得出手的成果,就是十餘年前我對“小人”的系統研究。那篇歸結性的文章《歷史的暗角》,不僅在中國大陸,而且在臺灣、香港、馬來西亞和歐美華文圈也産生了出乎意料的重大反響,可見只要是中國人,都會對自己心中的集體人格極爲敏感。我研究小人,不是目的,目的在君子。那麽多年過去,直到今天,終於可以擱筆搓手,告訴讀者,我把事情的另一半也做了。做一件事花了那麽多年,並不奇怪。探索中華民族集體人格,不僅要大量閱讀古今書籍,而且要深入觀察身邊人群,還要到世界各國進行橫向對比。正面、反面都這樣做,自然要耗費漫長的時間。不管做得好不好,對我自己來說,也算已經完成。一個人生命有限,對自己的要求不能太多太高。估計有很多年輕的讀者並沒有讀過我研究小人的文章。因此我要向他們建議,如果時間寬裕,可找來一讀,作爲對照。那篇文章的標題已改為《大地小人》,是我的《中國文脈》一書的結尾篇目。因為我認為,文脈之根,在於人格。感謝大家隨著我的目光,在君子、小人的背後追踪了那麽久。追蹤之後一定不會有太多的抱怨,因為終於發現,我們是在追蹤自己,追蹤中國。癸巳年盛夏於京華
  • 19第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例唐 娟,曾 韜(澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門)摘要: 顧客價值理論被認為是顧客忠誠與企業競爭優勢的源泉。本研究透過顧客價值視角,以國家重點風景名勝區—鼎湖山景區為案例, 剖析自然景區遊客服務感知價值維度, 提出其具8維度結構;並採用重要性—績效IPA模型,測評出鼎湖山景區服務感知價值“繼續保持",“急需改進",“暫緩考慮",“控制投入"四方面, 最後依據IPA分析結果為鼎湖山景區未來服務對策改善的重心提出合理化建議。關鍵詞: 顧客價值;鼎湖山;服務;維度;IPA模型A Measurement Study of Perceived Service Value of Natural Sceneries Based on IPA Model: Take Dinghu Mountain as an ExampleJuan TANG, Tao ZENG( Faculty of hospitality and tourism management,Macau University of Science and Technology, Macao, China )AAstract: Customer perceived value is considered as the source of customers’ loyalty and company competitive advantage. This paper discusses the inner dimensions of tourists’ perceived service value of nature tourist attractions from consumer perceived value theory and gets the result that it consist of 8 dimensions, based on an empirical study of a famous natural scenery in China—the Dinghu Mountain. The 38 items from 8 dimensions are divided into 4 categories by IPA model (Importance—Performance Analysis Model): maintaining present situation, improving immediately, considering later and controlling investment. According to IPA analysis result, the paper provides some suggestions for administrators of Dinghu Mountain so as to help them improve service measurement effectively in the future.eyyords: Customer value; Dinghu Mountain; Service; Dimension; IPA Model收稿日期:2013-03-22;修訂日期:2013-05-24。﹡通訊作者:唐娟,女,博士,助理教授,主要研究方向:旅遊市場營銷,旅遊文化。E-mail: jtang@must.edu.mo,Tel: 853-889723570 引言目前,隨著國內人們生活水準提高與各種新興休閒旅遊產業,如溫泉旅遊,節事旅遊等的快速發展,遊客旅遊觀念也發生變化,開始追求與享受自身在旅遊過程中的多層次感知體驗。然而,傳統旅遊景區中,大多自然風景區管理者過於依賴自身旅遊資源,忽視對遊客感知需求方面的服務對策,導致景區服務理念落後,發展出現滯後。基於上述情況,如何從遊客導向出發,讓遊客體驗到優質的價值,從而贏得遊客忠誠與企業競爭優勢,是當前自然景區亟需研究與解決的問題。顧客價值理論興起於 20 世紀 80 年代,被認為是顧客忠誠的根源[1]與企業競爭優勢的源
  • 20泉[2~3],現已成為行銷學界關注的焦點[4]。然而,國內學界對遊客感知價值研究起步較晚,研究對象主要集中在如生態旅遊,古村落旅遊,節事旅遊,購物旅遊等休閒旅遊領域上,對旅遊業中的主體—自然景區[5]的遊客感知價值研究較少涉及,理論上仍存在不少空白,極需研究,故探討與測評自然景區服務感知價值,在現實與理論上均具重要意義。基於上述,本研究以國家重點風景名勝區—鼎湖山景區為案例,通過實證研究剖析自然景區遊客服務感知價值內在維度,並採用重要性—績效分析模型(IPA)研究方法對自然景區服務感知價值維度與項目進行評價與討論。一方面探討顧客價值內涵,以期拓展顧客價值理論應用領域,同時為自然景區遊客感知價值提升,景區吸引力增大提供理論指引;另一方面有依據地為鼎湖山景區未來的服務對策改善的重心與資源配置的優化提出合理化建議,並為鼎湖山景區管理者更好地把握遊客心理,作出更有效服務對策提供參考建議。1 文獻綜述1.1 顧客價值概念相關研究在消費者行為研究視角中,顧客價值可以理解為顧客感知價值[6],主要可從得失角度進行定義,又分為得失比較觀與得失綜合評價觀。得失比較觀中,Jackson[7] 認為,價值是感知到的利益與價格之間的比率。國際行銷學大師 Kotler[8] 從顧客讓渡價值的角度描述了顧客價值的定義,他認為顧客價值是總顧客價值與總顧客成本之差。得失綜合評價觀代表人物為 Zeithamal[1],她定義感知價值為:顧客基於感知到的所得與感知到的所失對產品效用的綜合評價。顧客價值得失觀得到Bojanic[9],Jayanti & Ghosh[10],Oh[11],Parasuraman & Grewal[12] 與 Woodruff & Gardial[13] 等學者的認同,據此提出顧客服務感知價值為:顧客在感知利益與感知損失比較的基礎上對所獲服務的效用的評價。顧客是消費者的統稱,景區消費者可稱為遊客,因此目前學者主要利用顧客感知價值理論並結合旅遊行業特點,對遊客感知價值進行定義。Duman and Mattila[14] 認為,遊客感知價值是遊客將投入在旅遊上的時間,金錢與獲得的旅遊經歷相比較的結果。黃穎華與黃福才[3]認為遊客感知價值是旅遊者以其在旅遊時間過程中形成的消費經驗,知識和偏好,對整個旅遊消費過程中產品屬性及其表現與其投入,在契合其欲望和期望的程度方面的綜合評價。李文兵與張宏梅[15]指出遊客感知價值是遊客在感知利得與利失的基礎上對旅遊產品或旅遊服務在一定的旅遊情景中滿足其旅遊需要程度的總體評價。旅遊業屬服務業,遊客在景區消費的主要為景區提供之服務,因此結合遊客感知價值定義與服務感知價值概念,可以理解遊客服務感知價值為:遊客在體驗景區提供的旅遊服務時,對感知到的利益與感知到的成本進行權衡後,對景區的旅遊服務效用的總體評價。1.2 感知價值維度相關研究目前感知價值維度研究主要分為三個視角[16~17]:理性視角、關係視角與體驗視角。由於關係視角主要應用於商務市場研究,因此本文主要對理性視角與體驗視角進行相關回顧。理性視角認為感知價值主要由感知所得與感知所失兩類正負維度構成。消費品市場感知價值研究中,Kotler[8] 指出顧客價值包含顧客總價值與顧客總成本兩類正負維度,顧客總價值包括產品價值、功能價值、人員價值、形象價值等。顧客總成本主要包括貨幣成本、時間成本、體力成本、精力成本等。Zeithamal[1] 把感知所得分為兩個層次,低層次維度為產品內在屬性(品質)與產品外在屬性(包裝);高層次維度為產品抽象價值(企業形象);感知所失分為貨幣成本(購買價格)和非貨幣成本(精力,時間或風險)。服務行業方面,Heskeet,Sasser and Schlesinger [18] 得出服務感知價值的四個維度:服務效用、服務質量、服務價格與獲得服務成本。服務效用取決於服務任務的大小及其對顧客的重要程度,服務質量主要從服務
  • 21唐娟 ,等  基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例的可靠性、反應性、權威性、體貼性以及有形證據等幾個方面來衡量,服務價格指服務貨幣支出,獲得服務的成本是指顧客付出的除價格之外的其他成本,如時間、精力等。白長虹[19]參考西方顧客價值研究成果,認為服務企業顧客感知價值維度包括服務品質、價值、系統組織學習和顧客關係。理性視角雖然對感知價值正負維度進行了比較具體的細分,但對消費中情感層面的重視程度不夠[17]。體驗視角十分關注產品的實用性與享樂效用,重視消費者的情感體驗。Holbrook[20] 指出顧客價值是一種互動,相對且具偏好性的體驗。他把顧客價值從內在 / 外在、自我 / 他人、主動 / 被動三個方面分為效率、卓越、地位、尊敬、娛樂、美感、倫理與心靈 8 個維度。服務感知價值維度相關研究,Jensen and Hansen[21] 透過體驗視角得出 5 個關於飲食消費價值維度:卓越、和諧、情感刺激、得到承認與環境價值。馬淩與保繼剛[22]發現節慶旅遊感知價值具有文化認知價值、享樂價值、社交價值、服務價值、經濟便利價值、情景價值與功能價值 7 個維度。體驗視角注重顧客享樂感知,因此更準確地分析出顧客的正面感知價值。然而,此視角中感知價值的負面維度如感知價格、感知風險等皆受到了一定的忽視[17],因此本研究擬將理性視角與體驗視角結合進行研究,以期更全面準確地剖析遊客服務感知價值。1.3 遊客服務感知價值測評相關研究Petrick[23] 通過對加勒比海兩條相隔 3 星期的不同遊船線路的旅遊者的服務感知價值調查,得到遊客服務感知價值 5 個維度:服務質量、情感反映、貨幣價格、行為價格和名譽聲望,並構建了旅遊服務顧客感知價值量表—SERV-PERVAL量表,為體驗類產品顧客感知價值提供了重要啟示[4]。Sanchez 等學者 [24] 開發出旅行社遊客整體感知價值量表—GLOVAL 量表,量表維度結構為:旅行社功能價值,服務人員職業水準,包價旅遊品質,價格,情感價值與社會價值。黃穎華與黃福才[3]用旅遊者感知價值量表—TOUR-PERVAL量表調查赴港遊客,得出遊客服務感知價值具有感知旅遊質量、感知經濟成本、情感價值、社會價值及感知非貨幣成本 5 個維度。程興火 [25] 構建了森林生態景區遊客的 FECOSAVAL 量表,量表中包含服務價值、功能價值、特色價值、品牌價值、教育價值、情感價值、感知成本、環境價值 8個維度。表 1 均較理性地關注到遊客在消費過程中感知所得與所失,也考慮到遊客在體驗景區服務中聲譽社交、情感享樂等因素,具有較好的實用性與借鑒意義,但也有其局限之處。首先,SERV-PERVAL,GLOVAL,TOUR-PERVAL 量 表 沒 有考慮到認知價值因素,Sheth[26] 等學者指出認知價值為產品具有引起顧客好奇心、提供新奇感、或滿足顧客對知識追求的能力,應納入顧客感知價值維度。自然風景區大多擁有悠久的歷史、豐富的文化遺產或獨有的地貌、生態以及民俗文化特色,遊客能通過遊覽瞭解、導遊講解或感受氛圍等方式獲得原來生活中沒有的知識與經驗,感受當地獨有的民俗文化氛圍。因此,認知價值應成表1 國內外遊客服務感知價值測量量表維度總結PetrickSERV-PERVAL量表SanchezGLOVAL量表黃穎華TOUR-PERVAL量表程興火FECOSSAVAL量表測量維度服務質量 √ √(功能價值) √ √(功能價值)享樂/情感價值 √ √ √ √社會價值 √(聲譽價值) √ √ √(品牌價值)認知價值 無 無 無 √(教育價值)貨幣價值 √ √(價格) √ √非貨幣價值 √ √ 無 無(資料來源:本研究自行整理)
  • 22為景區服務感知價值維度之一。其次,4 個量表均忽視旅遊方面的審美要素,而旅遊經濟很大程度屬於眼球經濟,遊客在欣賞自然景區中的優美風景、民俗特色建築等審美要素時獲得愉悅的感知。Gallarza and Saura[6] 對大學生旅遊調查中指出旅遊感知價值應包括審美價值,基於上述,審美價值也應納入遊客服務感知價值維度。通過對表 1 遊客服務感知價值測評量表維度的比較與補充,得出自然風景區服務感知價值 7 個初始維度:服務質量、情感價值、審美價值、認知價值、聲譽價值、貨幣價格與行為成本。1.4 旅遊研究中IPA分析方法的應用Martilla and James[27] 於 1977 年 提 出 IPA(Importance-Performance Analysis)——產品重要性與績效評價方法。IPA 方法建立在服務品質特徵的重要性和績效對比基礎上,並常被應用在辨識商標、產品、服務等的優勢與劣勢,是一個廣受歡迎的管理工具[28]。IPA 方格圖共分為四個象限,第Ⅰ象限是重要性和績效都高的區域,是“繼續保持成果的方面”;第Ⅱ象限是重要性高而績效低的區域,被稱作“急需要改進的方面”;第Ⅲ象限是重要性和績效都低的區域,所以稱為“不做重點考慮的方面”;第Ⅳ象限是重要性低但績效高的區域,被叫做“可能浪費資源的方面”。因此,根據 IPA 方格圖可以比較準確地判斷出调查對象中哪些要素需要重點保持,哪些維度需要加強改善,哪些維度不列入重點考慮之列。國外旅遊研究中,Evans and Chon[29] 基於 IPA分析對美國東岸兩個旅遊目的地的旅遊政策進行規劃與評估。Almanza[30] 等採用 IPA 方法評價消費者對大學食堂服務的滿意度,並指出研究中基於IPA 建立的模型是一個有效的消費者滿意度檢測工具。國內代表性研究包括:宋子斌等學者[31]運用IPA 分析法探討西安居民對海南旅遊目的地的形象感知,拓展了 IPA 分析法在國內旅遊學中的應用領域;謝麗佳與郭英之[28]對上海會展旅遊特徵感知進行 IPA 分析研究;鍾櫟娜等人 [32] 通過 IPA方法分析中國旅遊景區網站發展過程中與旅遊者期望一致或不符的變化,進一步論述了中國旅遊景區網站未來的改進方向;石定芳等學者[33]採用IPA 方格圖分析世界自然遺產地遊客對解說系統的滿意度,並提出相關的規劃與建設意見。2 研究設計2.1 研究對象嶺南四大名山之首—鼎湖山為首批國家重點風景名勝區,景區林壑幽深,泉溪淙淙,鼎湖山又被中外學者譽為“北回歸線上的綠寶石”,為中國首個自然保護區,同時又是中國第一批加入聯合國科教文組織的世界生物圈保護區,具有較大研究價值。目前,鼎湖山景區服務行銷理念已逐步滯後,發展緩慢,其情況在同類景區中具有典型性,因此,以鼎湖山景區為例研究自然風景區服務感知價值,具有一定意義。2.2 問卷設計與樣本確定本研究在中外相關文獻回顧的基礎上並結合鼎湖山景區實際情況,總結出自然風景區服務感知價值維度與問項。為進一步修改與調整問卷問項,使問卷更加通順易懂,更具針對性與科學性,為大規模的正式調查打好良好基礎以及為數據分析的有效性提供保障,筆者邀請 12 位學界與業界專家進行深入訪談。12 位學者與專家意見主要集中在:(1)對部分問項文字表述提出修改意見,使問項語言更為簡潔準確,語義表達更為完整;(2)指出個別項目,如服務質量維度中問項:景區具備現代化服務設施,由於受訪對象對現代化理解各有不同,可能會得到不準確的數據,應予以刪除;(3)需增加或合併部分問項,如增加“景區購物方便”更能體現出服務便捷性,初始問項中“景區能確實完整地提供承諾的服務”與 “景區能及時提供承諾的服務”語義重複,應該合併為“景區能及時完整地提供承諾的服務”等。通過對專家意見進行歸納、總結、分析,筆者對量表部分問項進行了修改,合併、刪除了一些問項,並增加了新的問項,確立了自然景區服務感知價值 7 個維度與 43 項相關問項(見表 2)。
  • 23唐娟 ,等  基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例表2 自然風景區服務感知價值測量問項維度 問項 理論依據服務品質服務有形能力1. 景區環境整潔參考Frochot等[34]; Akama等[35];Maryam[36]及專家修改意見2. 景區服務及設施足夠(石凳、衛生間等)3. 景區標誌清晰並指示明確4. 工作人員儀容及外表整潔服務承諾能力5. 景區能及時完整地提供承諾的服務參考Akama等[35];Maryam[36]梁文娟等[37];程興火[25]及專家修改意見6. 服務出現錯誤能盡力補救更正7. 遊客遇到困難時工作人員樂意幫助服務快捷能力8. 工作人員能及時處理遊客投訴參考Akama等[35];Maryam[36]及專家修改意見9. 遊客等候時間短(等車、候船)10. 景區交通工具快捷方便11. 景區購物方便服務保證能力12. 工作人員熟悉業務,很少出現錯誤參考Akama等[35];Maryam[36];梁文娟等[37]及專家修改意見13. 景區導遊能提供專業的解說14. 景區標牌解說內容準確詳實15. 工作人員熱情禮貌,對遊客尊重16. 景區旅遊線路設計合理服務關懷能力17. 工作人員能及時滿足遊客特殊需求參考Akama等[35]Maryam[36];及專家修改意見18. 工作人員能給予遊客關心19. 景區營業時間便利20. 景區停車場佈局合理,方便遊客情感價值21. 到此旅遊讓我心情愉快參考Holbrook[20];Sweeney等[38]Petrick[23];隋麗娜[4];張濤等[17];Duman[39];馬淩等[22]及專家修改意見22. 到此旅遊讓我身心放鬆23. 到此旅遊讓我很開心24. 到此旅遊讓我有新奇體驗25. 到此旅遊我感到很休閒認知價值26. 在遊覽時能學到新的(地理、生物、歷史等)知識參考Sheth等[26],程興火[26];李文兵等[15];馬淩等[22]及專家修改意見27. 在遊覽時能體驗到獨特的文化28. 通過此次旅遊開闊了眼界29. 遊覽景區文物古跡時,領略到景區深厚的文化底蘊審美價值30. 景區自然生態風光優美 Akama等[35];Maryam[36];Gallarza等 [6];張濤等[17];馬淩等[22]及專家修改意見31. 景區人造景觀設計賞心悅目(如古寺、涼亭等)32. 景區人造景觀與自然景觀和諧聲譽價值33. 旅遊景區知名度高參考Petrick等[23];程興火[25]及專家修改意見34. 我很早就聽說過該景區35. 身邊很多人都知道該景區36. 身邊很多人對該景區評價很高貨幣價格37. 景區門票價格划算參考Kotler[8];Sweeney等[38];Petrick[23];李文兵等[15];馬淩等[22]及專家修改意見38. 景區遊樂項目價格划算(如蝴蝶穀探險、寶鼎園等)39. 景區產品(購物、用餐等)價格划算40. 景區交通工具價格划算行為成本41. 遊覽景區所花的時間值得 Zeithamal[1];Kotler[8];Holbrook等 [20];Petrick[23];李文兵[15];馬淩等[22]及專家修改意見42. 遊覽景區消耗的體力值得43. 購買服務時付出的精力值得(資料來源:本研究自行整理)
  • 24本研究所涉及的調查人群為前往鼎湖山的各類型遊客,採用了方便抽樣的方法展開調研。調查時間為 2012 年 9 月~ 11 月,於鼎湖山景區門口向遊客派發問卷,遵循以下原則:調查前先確認受訪者已基本完成鼎湖山景區遊覽活動,調查時現場發放並回收,以便能隨時對受訪者予以解釋,並保證問卷的回收率與填答結果的可靠性。大規模調研共發放問卷 460 份,回收問卷 452 份,回收率 98.3%,有效問卷 437 份,有效問卷率 95%。3 資料分析本研究採用 SPSS18.0 軟件分析資料,分析步驟主要有:(1)探索性因數分析,對問卷維度與問項進行篩選;(2)問卷維度、問項重要性與表現性均值對比與配對樣本 T 檢驗,檢驗重要性與表現性之間是否有顯著差異;(3)IPA 分析,利用 IPA 模型展示鼎湖山景區服務上“急需改進”、“繼續保持”、“暫緩考慮”、“可能浪費”四方面。3.1 探索性因數分析本研究對 437 份問卷進行因數分析,首先檢驗總量表 KMO 值,結果顯示 KMO 值為 0.934,Bartlett 球形度檢驗定為卡方值為 12227.398,顯著性為 0.000,參考邱皓政觀點 [40],總量表非常適合做因數分析。探索性因數分析採用主成分方法萃取維度,通過了兩次方差最大的正交旋轉法來解釋維度。參考邱皓政[40]關於因數分析問項篩選的標準,低於 0.45 的因數負荷量屬於低於“普通”的狀況,解釋不到 20%的觀察變項變異量,因此把低於 0.45作為刪除問項的標準。因數旋轉過程先後刪除了4 個因數負荷量低於 0.45 的問項(第 19 項 景區營業時間便利;第 20 項 景區停車場位置方便合理;第 24 項 到此旅遊讓我有新奇體驗;第 26 項 在遊覽時能學到新的知識)。同時,第一次旋轉後第 1 項“景區環境整潔”獨立成 1 個維度,吳明隆[41]指出共同成分所包含的指標個數都不少於3 個,因此刪除該項。旋轉結果得出 8 個特徵值大於 1 的維度,對量表總變異量的解釋累積達到68.743%,表示 8 個維度能解釋量表變量 68.743%的變異,因數分析篩選出的問項能較好地被服務感知價值 8 個維度所解釋。因數分析結果與原來初定的問項有一處變化:服務品質中的 3 個問項(遊客等候時間短、景區交通工具快捷方便、景區購物方便)新生成一個維度,根據內容可以命名為“便利價值”,其他問項則按最初的假設會聚得較好。自然風景區服務感知價值各維度信度係數 Cronbach's α 係數在 0.776 到 0.937 之間,參考盧文岱[42],賴國毅與陳超[43]提出的量表信度標準,量表具備良好的信度;Wang Yi-shun[44] 等學者提出項目總體相關係數低於 0.4 時可以考慮刪除,結果顯示 8 維度項目總體相關係數均高於 0.5,表示 8 個維度內部關聯性較高,同時因數負荷量在0.504 到 0.865 之間,量表擁有較高構念效度(分析結果見表 3)。資料分析結果顯示,自然風景區服務感知價值包含服務品質、便利價值、情感價值、認知價值、審美價值、聲譽價值、貨幣價格與行為成本 8 個維度。因數分析結果中,服務質量、情感價值、聲譽價值、貨幣價格、行為成本與 Petrick[24],Sanchez 等學者 [25] 的遊客服務感知價值研究結果相符,同時,可能由於上述學者量表中還未能考慮到對遊客視覺與精神享受及獲取知識方面感知的考慮,本研究假設的審美價值與認知價值維度通過了數據檢驗,較好地彌補了此局限,也進一步揭示了自然風景區提升遊客感知價值,不能偏離其核心審美吸引力的範疇;因數旋轉過程中新生成的“便利價值”維度,代表遊客對自然景區服務效率的感知,與 Gallarza and Saura[24] 的觀點“遊客感知價值中包含效率價值”符合。因此數據分析得出的自然風景區服務感知價值維度均具一定的理論與實踐意義。3.2 重要性與表現性對比與配對樣本T檢驗本研究將自然風景區服務感知價值維度與問項重要性與表現性的得分均值進行對比與配對樣本 T 檢驗,以瞭解鼎湖山遊客對景區服務各方面的期望與實際感知的差距,並驗證重要性與表現性之間是否有顯著差異(見表 4)。
  • 25唐娟 ,等  基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例表3 探索性因數分析與信度檢驗結果維度 問項 因數負荷量 項目總體相關性 α信度係數服務質量1. 景區服務設備及設施足夠 0.504 0.5680.9372. 景區標誌清晰並指示明確 0.621 0.5783. 工作人員儀容及外表整潔 0.737 0.7254. 景區能及時完整地提供承諾的服務 0.704 0.7595. 服務出現錯誤能盡力補救更正 0.676 0.7046. 遊客遇到困難工作人員樂意幫助 0.707 0.7407. 工作人員能及時處理遊客投訴 0.697 0.7498. 工作人員熟悉業務,很少出現錯誤 0.619 0.7279. 景區導遊能提供專業的解說 0.599 0.72410. 景區標牌解說內容準確詳實 0.58 0.69211. 工作人員熱情禮貌,對遊客尊重 0.69 0.68412. 景區旅遊線路設計合理 0.573 0.70913. 工作人員能及時滿足遊客特殊需求 0.58 0.70214. 工作人員能給予遊客關心 0.609 0.679便利價值15. 遊客等候時間短(如等車、候船等) 0.710 0.6370.77616. 景區交通工具快捷方便 0.734 0.61717. 景區購物方便 0.564 0.591情感價值18. 到此旅遊讓我心情愉快 0.829 0.7660.85419. 到此旅遊讓我身心放鬆 0.865 0.72920. 到此旅遊讓我很開心 0.780 0.71321. 到此旅遊我感到很休閒 0.595 0.581認知價值22. 在遊覽時能體驗到獨特的文化 0.541 0.7640.86523. 通過此次旅遊開闊了眼界 0.598 0.80424. 遊覽景區文物古跡時,領略到深厚的文化底蘊 0.610 0.665審美價值25. 景區自然風光優美 0.774 0.5910.78626. 景區人造景觀賞心悅目 0.734 0.65627. 景區人造景觀與自然景觀和諧 0.764 0.631聲譽價值28. 景區知名度高 0.627 0.5830.81829. 我很早就聽說過該景區 0.760 0.73130. 身邊很多人都知道該景區 0.702 0.59031. 身邊很多人對景區評價很高 0.694 0.669貨幣價格32. 景區門票價格划算 0.736 0.7640.90033. 景區遊樂項目價格划算 0.713 0.79834. 景區產品(購物、用餐等)價格划算 0.824 0.81135. 景區交通工具價格划算 0.840 0.745行為成本36. 遊覽景區花費的時間值得 0.764 0.6430.80837. 遊覽景區消耗的體力值得 0.825 0.71038. 購買服務付出的精力值得 0.657 0.622 (資料來源:本研究自行整理)
  • 26通過各維度與問項重要性與表現性對比分析,可知服務感知價值各維度及每一項的實際情況得分均值均少於重要性,表示鼎湖山景區服務有許多方面仍達不到遊客要求,有待改進。其中,表現性與重要性差距較大的問項有:門票、遊樂項目、產品、電瓶車價格,景區標誌,導遊、標牌解說,提供承諾服務,等候時間與處理投訴速度等幾項,表示這些方面的服務十分不足,得不到遊客肯定,景區應針對此情況加以重視並做出改善措施。T 檢驗結果顯示顯著性均為 0.000,小於0.01,證明自然風景區服務感知價值各維度及問項重要性與實際情況具顯著差異,可以進行 IPA 分析。3.3 IPA分析圖 1 IPA 方格圖中,筆者以表現性分數為橫坐標,重要性得分為縱坐標,將表現性 3.603 平均值與重要性平均值 4.24 為原點(分割點),橫坐標軸與縱坐標軸相交於此點時將整個二維坐標軸劃分成四個象限,每個象限都有相應的定位。坐標軸的刻度基於重要性與表現性數值的範圍制定,因此每個問項根據自身的重要性與表現性數值都會在圖中有一個具體定位。圖1 自然風景區服務感知價值IPA分析(資料來源:本研究自行整理)注:指標名稱 ● 第Ⅰ象限(需要繼續保持的區域):  1 景區服務設備及設施足夠; 16 景區交通工具快捷方便 ;18 到此旅遊讓我心情愉快;19到此旅遊讓我身心放鬆 ;20 到此旅遊讓我很開心 ;21 到此旅遊我感到很休閒; 25 景區自然風光優美;26 人造景觀設計賞心悅目;27 人造景觀與自然景觀和諧;36 遊覽景區花費的時間值得 ● 第Ⅱ象限(急需進行改進的區域):  2 景區標誌清晰並指示明確 ;4 景區能及時完整提供承諾的服務;5 服務出現錯誤能盡力補救更正;6 遊客遇到困難工作人員樂意幫助;7 工作人員及時處理遊客投訴;9 導遊能提供專業的解說;10 景區標牌解說內容準確詳實; 15 遊客等候時間短;32 景區門票價格划算;33 景區遊樂項目價格划算;34 景區產品價格划算;35 景區交通工具價格划算 ● 第Ⅲ象限(不作重點考慮的區域):  3 工作人員儀容及外表整潔;8 工作人員熟悉業務,很少出現錯誤;11 工作人員熱情禮貌對遊客尊重;13 工作人員及時滿足遊客特殊需求;14 工作人員能給予遊客關心;17 景區購物方便;22 遊覽時體驗到獨特文化; 23 通過此次旅遊開闊眼界;24 遊覽文物眾多古跡時,領略到景區深厚文化底蘊 ● 第Ⅳ象限(可能浪費資源的區域):  12景區旅遊線路設計合理;28景區知名度高; 29 我很早就聽說過該景區;30 身邊很多人知道該景區;31 身邊很多人對該景區評價很高; 37 遊覽景區消耗的體力值得;38 購買服務付出的精力值得圖中第一象限屬重要性與表現性都高的區域,又稱為“繼續保持成果的方面”。共有 10 個要素處於該領域,分別為:第1項服務設備及設施足夠,第 16 項景區交通工具快捷方便,第 18 項到此旅遊讓我心情愉快,第 19項到此旅遊讓我身心放鬆,第 20 項到此旅遊讓我很開心,第 21 項到此旅遊我感到很休閒,第 25 項景區自然風光優美,第 26項人造景觀設計賞心悅目,第 27 項人造景觀與自然景觀和諧,第 36 項遊覽景區花費的時間值得。這 10 個因素均受遊客重視程度相對較高,而現狀也相對良好,需要繼續保持與鞏固,在穩定中尋求完善與提高。但值得注意的是,第 1 項“服務設備及設施足夠”雖然處於第一象限,但可以發現其重要性得分較高,均值達 4.39 分,而績效相對偏低,均值僅有 3.61 分,略高於平均線,說明該要素在遊客心目中處於非常重要的地位,但感知到的現狀並不足夠理想,一定程度上反映出鼎
  • 27唐娟 ,等  基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例表4 各維度與問項重要性、表現性對比與配對樣本T檢驗分析問項/維度 重要性 表現性 重要性—表現性 顯著性Sig(雙側)服務質量 4.25 3.52 0.73 0.0001. 景區服務設備及設施足夠 4.39 3.61 0.78 0.0002. 景區標誌清晰並指示明確 4.51 3.58 0.93 0.0003. 工作人員儀容及外表整潔 4.10 3.44 0.66 0.0004. 景區能及時完整提供承諾的服務 4.27 3.56 0.83 0.0005. 服務出現錯誤能盡力補救更正 4.26 3.49 0.77 0.0006. 遊客遇到困難工作人員樂意幫助 4.28 3.57 0.71 0.0007. 工作人員及時處理遊客投訴 4.34 3.50 0.84 0.0008. 工作人員熟悉業務,很少出現錯誤 4.20 3.57 0.63 0.0009. 導遊能提供專業的解說 4.26 3.41 0.85 0.00010. 景區標牌解說內容準確詳實 4.31 3.48 0.83 0.00011. 工作人員熱情禮貌對遊客尊重 4.22 3.54 0.68 0.00012. 景區旅遊線路設計合理 4.20 3.65 0.55 0.00013. 工作人員及時滿足遊客特殊需求 4.10 3.48 0.62 0.00014. 工作人員能給予遊客關心 4.10 3.42 0.68 0.000便利價值 4.26 3.59 0.67 0.00015. 遊客等候時間短 4.41 3.55 0.86 0.00016. 景區交通工具快捷方便 4.27 3.71 0.56 0.00017. 景區購物方便 4.11 3.51 0.6 0.000情感價值 4.48 3.94 0.54 0.00018. 到此旅遊讓我心情愉快 4.45 3.91 0.54 0.00019. 到此旅遊讓我身心放鬆 4.44 3.97 0.47 0.00020. 到此旅遊讓我很開心 4.46 3.94 0.52 0.00021. 到此旅遊我感到很休閒 4.44 3.94 0.5 0.000認知價值 4.03 3.47 0.56 0.00022. 遊覽時體驗到獨特文化 3.95 3.43 0.52 0.00023. 通過此次旅遊開闊眼界 4.02 3.48 0.54 0.00024. 遊覽文物眾多古跡時,領略到景區深厚文化底蘊 4.12 3.51 0.61 0.000審美價值 4.36 3.87 0.49 0.00025. 景區自然生態風光優美 4.44 4.01 0.43 0.00026. 人造景觀設計賞心悅目 4.32 3.84 0.48 0.00027. 人造景觀與自然景觀和諧 4.32 3.76 0.56 0.000聲譽價值 4.02 3.71 0.31 0.00028. 景區知名度高 4.11 3.72 0.39 0.00029. 我很早就聽說過該景區 4.00 3.68 0.32 0.00030. 身邊很多人知道該景區 3.97 3.76 0.21 0.00031. 身邊很多人對該景區評價很高 3.99 3.66 0.33 0.000貨幣價格 4.3 3.29 1.01 0.00032. 景區門票價格划算 4.37 3.31 1.06 0.00033. 景區遊樂項目價格划算 4.28 3.19 1.09 0.00034. 景區產品價格划算 4.28 3.27 1.01 0.00035. 景區交通工具價格划算 4.27 3.38 0.89 0.000行為成本 4.19 3.69 0.5 0.00036. 遊覽景區花費的時間值得 4.38 3.74 0.64 0.00037. 遊覽景區消耗的體力值得 4.14 3.73 0.41 0.00038. 購買服務付出的精力值得 4.04 3.61 0.43 0.000注:各項特徵的重要性與表現性感知分值基於1-5的Likert變數測量尺上的平均得分(資料來源:本研究自行整理)
  • 28湖山景區部分服務設備與設施數量存在不足,服務設備及設施品質不高。服務設施及設備屬景區為遊客提供的最基本的服務,當遊客連最基本的需求都得不到很好的滿足時,必然會對景區服務效果產生不滿,從而影響到其他服務要素的感知質量,令服務感知價值大幅度降低。因此景區管理者應對此給予關注,找出數量不足的設備、設施,加予補充,及時更換陳舊的設備設施,提高景區基本服務實現能力。第二象限是重要性高但實際情況不佳的區域,被稱為“急需改進的方面”。可以看到此象限的因素有 12 個,為四象限中最多,反映了鼎湖山景區提供的服務在許多方面遠未達到遊客要求,包括“第 2 項標誌清晰並指示明確”,“第 4 項景區及時完整提供承諾的服務”,“第 5 項出現錯誤能盡力補救更正”,“第 6 項遊客遇到困難工作人員樂意幫助”,“第 7 項工作人員及時處理遊客投訴”,“第 9 項導遊能提供專業的解說”,“第 10 項標牌解說內容準確詳實”,“第 15 項遊客等候時間短”,“第 32 項景區門票價格划算”,“第 33 項景區遊樂項目價格划算”,“第34 項景區產品價格划算”,“第 35 項景區交通工具價格划算”等要素。結果反映出,遊客認為景區“服務承諾能力”,“指引解說能力”,“服務效率能力”與“消費價格”四方面比較重要,但實際的感知卻不盡如人意,因此景區管理者應對這幾方面的因素引起特別的重視,儘快作出改善對策。 第三象限中的對象重要性與表現性都相對較低,因此這個象限又被叫做“不做重點考慮的方面”。共有 10 個問項落入該區域:第 3 項工作人員儀容及外表整潔,第 8 項工作人員熟悉業務很少出現錯誤,第 11 項工作人員熱情禮貌對遊客尊重,第 13 項工作人員及時滿足遊客特殊需求,第14 項工作人員能給予遊客關心,第 17 項景區購物方便,第 22 項遊覽時體驗到獨特文化,第 23 項通過此次旅遊開闊眼界,第 24 項領略到景區深厚文化底蘊。這些要素表現性都相對較低,但受遊客重視程度也相對不高,因此暫時不做重點考慮。不過需要注意這些問項重要性只是相對而言較低,並不代表景區就應該忽視該類因素的改善,應該時刻給予關注,將他們列入次要重點考慮對象。第四象限是“可能浪費資源的方面”,該象限要素較少,包括第 12項景區旅遊線路設計合理,第 28 項景區知名度高,第 29 項我很早就聽說過該景區,第 30 項身邊很多人知道該景區,第 31項身邊很多人對該景區評價很高,第 37 項遊覽景區消耗的體力值得,第 38 項購買服務付出的精力值得等 7 個要素。進入此象限的要素受重視程度不高,但表現較好,理論上認為其可能浪費資源,需要降低投入。不過可以發現這 7 項重要性與表現性座標都比較接近中線平均值,與平均水準偏差不大,不存在過度浪費的情況,景區只需適當控制投入即可。值得注意的是,結果顯示遊客普遍肯定景區的聲譽價值,然而前文中多項服務要素達不到要求,在一定程度上反映出景區的實際服務績效與景區顯赫的知名度與好評有差距,景區需要儘快提升服務水準,讓慕名而來的遊客感覺鼎湖山是名副其實的旅遊勝地。下面用同樣方法對自然風景區服務感知價值的 8 個維度進行 IPA 分析,如圖 2 所示:圖2自然風景區服務感知價值維度IPA分析(資料來源:本研究自行整理)注:指標名稱 ● 第Ⅰ象限(需要繼續保持的區域):情感價值,審美價值 ● 第Ⅱ象限(急需進行改進的區域):服務質量,便利價值,貨幣價格
  • 29唐娟 ,等  基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例 ● 第Ⅲ象限(不作重點考慮的區域):認知價值 ● 第Ⅳ象限(可能浪費資源的區域):聲譽價值,行為成本圖 2 結果顯示,屬於“繼續保持成果”的維度有 2 個:情感價值與審美價值,說明遊客在遊覽鼎湖山景區時,在情感愉悅、身心放鬆以及景觀欣賞方面的感知相對良好。景區需要在這兩方面繼續保持,力求提供給遊客更好的服務。落在第二象限的維度有服務質量、便利價值、貨幣價格,這三方面在遊客心目中均擁有較高的地位,但實際狀況不甚理想。因此景區需要加以重視,找出每個方面表現不佳的原因,提高服務質量、增加服務便利性,適當給予遊客價格優惠,從而提高遊客服務感知價值。第三象限只有認知價值一個維度,說明遊客對鼎湖山景區的知識教育功能相對而言不太看重,可以暫緩考慮,但需要保持關注,適當投入資源發展。聲譽價值與行為成本處於第四象限“可能浪費資源”區域,但可以清楚地發現他們表現性的得分只是稍微偏高,很接近平均值,這兩方面不存在表現好但實際價值不高的狀況,景區不需要為此減少資源的投入。綜上所述,8 個維度都在遊客服務感知價值中處於重要地位,鼎湖山景區管理者均需對與其相關的項目保持重視與資源投入。4 研究結論4.1 結論與建議(1)自然風景區服務感知價值具 8 維度結構本研究以鼎湖山為案例,通過中外相關文獻回顧並結合專家訪談意見,構建出自然風景區服務感知價值量表,經問卷調查與數據分析後得出量表具 8 維度:服務品質、便利價值、情感價值、認知價值、審美價值、聲譽價值、貨幣價格與行為成本。研究結果反映出,遊客既受理性的驅策,在遊覽時講究服務質量、便利程度、價格划算等,同時又具感性的一面,追求愉悅的感受、高層次的審美與受人仰慕的聲譽。因此,景區不僅要從理性—實用方面著手,提高服務質量,更要加強遊客在景區的享樂體驗。如可以利用鼎湖山豐富森林生態資源開發原始深林探險路線,令遊客在領略景區巍峨險峻的風光同時也能得到新奇、刺激與驚喜的旅遊體驗,在景區留下難忘回憶,借此提升遊客服務感知價值。(2)鼎湖山景區服務感知價值各問項感知分值偏低,服務質量、便利價值與貨幣價格 3 方面急需進行改善通過自然景區服務感知價值重要性與表現性比較分析,可知問卷問項表現性得分均值均少於重要性,表示鼎湖山景區提供的服務有許多方面未能讓遊客滿意,有待改進。分別對問卷 8 個維度與 38 個問項進行 IPA 分析,得出了鼎湖山服務感知價值“繼續保持”,“急需改進”,“暫緩考慮”“控制投入”四方面。結果顯示,量表中各項目實際績效並沒有達到遊客要求,有待進一步改善。其中,服務質量、便利價值與貨幣價格處於“急需改進”區域,3 維度當中 “服務承諾能力”,“指引解說能力”,“服務效率能力”與“消費價格”等四方面的 12 項項目需要重點關注與儘快改進。因此,筆者建議景區首先應提高員工素質,尤其是導遊提供專業解說的能力,加強對員工的培訓,並建立相應員工激勵機制,保證員工為遊客提供高品質及快捷的服務,同時鑒於景區仍沒有景區專業導遊,建議景區儘快建立自己的導遊中心,培訓具備專業水準的導遊,用專業化、人性化、知識化的解說提高遊客服務感知價值;第二完善景區預期系統,對服務失誤及遊客突發事件進行預測,建立全面的應對預案,並對員工進行授權,讓員工能在服務發生失誤或遊客遇到困難時第一時間做出反應與處理,從而減少遊客負面感知價值;第三對景區指引標誌與解說標牌進行全面翻新,更換,指引牌還應加入與景區相符的人文藝術元素;第四建立合理景區收費制度,可以考慮效仿杭州西湖將鼎湖山免費開放,部分景點、交通工具對學生、軍人、老年人等遊客實行優惠,以犧牲門票與部分服務收入
  • 30的方式吸引更多遊客,並且讓遊客主動在景區逗留更長時間,享受景區的更多服務,從而有效提高遊客服務感知價值,為景區贏來更多收益。 (3)展現鼎湖山深厚文化底蘊,提升遊客認知價值IPA 結果顯示認知價值為“暫緩考慮”方面,表示景區管理者不需要將過度資源或精力投放於此,但需要注意該維度及其問項重要性只是相對較低,景區管理者仍要對此保持適當關注與合理的投入。鼎湖山自唐朝以來就為全國著名佛教聖地,此外不少景點都有其歷史價值與神秘美麗的傳說。景區的文化積澱,是區別景區的亮點與特色,不可忽視。景區可適時開展文化節慶活動,如效仿著名景點五臺山舉辦佛教文化節,宣揚嶺南特色文化,讓鼎湖山成為遊客印象中嶺南佛教文化的標誌之一;也可以考慮建景區博物館,將景區眾多歷史文化特色整合呈現於遊客,讓遊客可以在短時間內瞭解鼎湖山當年的歷史風采與各種美麗傳說,無形中得到服務感知價值的提升。4.2 研究貢獻4.2.1 理論貢獻(1)探討顧客感知價值的內涵與領域延伸顧客感知價值研究興起於 20 世紀 80 年代,目前研究成果主要集中於製造業與商品服務業,應用於旅遊服務業的文獻較少。本文基於顧客感知價值理論,對自然風景區的遊客服務感知進行研究,明確遊客服務感知價值概念、屬性以及構成維度,建立適合自然風景區的服務感知價值量表,為顧客感知價值理論拓展其應用領域。(2)為自然風景區吸引力的增強提供理論指引Kotler[8] 指出,顧客是價值最大化的追求者。反映當顧客在消費中所感知到的價值提高時,產品對顧客的吸引力自然會增大。本研究測評遊客服務感知價值的維度,並對其中感知績效較差的維度提出改善建議,為自然風景區服務感知價值提升,景區吸引力增大提供一定理論指引。4.2.2 實踐貢獻(1)建議適合自然風景區服務感知價值測量量表,為自然風景區管理實踐提供實用測量工具本研究透過感知價值視角,以鼎湖山景區爲例,建立自然風景區的服務感知價值量表,並證明其具有良好的信度與效度。鼎湖山景區爲國家首批與八達嶺、西湖等景區齊名的重點風景名勝區,在國內自然風景區中具有一定代表性;同時,鼎湖山景區逐漸出現不少傳統觀光景區因固守單一資源導向而導致的運營理念、服務理念滯後等弊病,景區發展緩慢原因在國內自然景區中具有典型性。因此,研究得出的自然風景區服務感知價值量表在國內自然景區中具有一定代表性與適用意義,能為景區管理者提供科學測量工具。(2)為鼎湖山景區服務對策改善的重心與資源配置優化提供合理化建議本研究以國家風景名勝區鼎湖山作為研究對象,採用重要性—績效(IPA)分析方法評價出鼎湖山景區提供給遊客的服務中“急需改進”、“繼續保持”、“暫緩考慮”、“控制投入”四個方面,依據測評結果為鼎湖山景區服務對策改善的重心與資源配置的優化,提供合理化建議,同時為景區管理者更好地瞭解遊客心理,作出更有效的服務營銷對策提供參考建議。4.3 研究局限與展望(1)擴大研究範圍與增加調查時間,增強研究結果的適用價值與準確性由於時間、成本等關係,本研究僅對鼎湖山景區進行調查與研究,在樣本的採集、結論等方面均具有一定的局限性。未來研究可以將研究範圍擴大,選取相似或其他類型景區為對象,並選擇一年當中不同時間段進行調查,探討各景區研究結果之間是否具有共性,及觀察景區服務感知價值的動態變化,以求拓展研究結論的應用範圍,更深入地理解遊客對風景區服務價值的真實感知。(2)豐富研究分析方法,增加研究的科學性與合理性研究通過文獻回顧與專家訪談修正得出初始量表,在以後的研究中可以採取更深入的訪談方法,如德爾菲法,以獲取專家更深入的看法;或
  • 31唐娟 ,等  基於IPA分析的自然風景區服務感知價值測評研究 ——以鼎湖山為例採用焦點小組訪談,以研討會方式獲取旅遊者更真實的想法,從而開發出更為科學合理的量表;在數據分析時除了使用探索性因數分析以外,也可嘗試使用結構方程等驗證性因數分析方法,得出更為可靠的結果。(3)研究感知價值影響因素,探討遊客行為作用機制問題文章只對遊客感知價值進行調查研究,對遊客在遊覽前後的其他心理變化並沒有涉及。未來的研究中可以引入遊前動機,遊時體驗,遊後滿意度、忠誠度等因素,探討他們與感知價值之間的相互關係,進一步瞭解遊客行為作用機制的全面情況,為景區經營者更為準確地把握遊客需求心理提供依據。參 考 文 獻[1] Zeithaml, V. A. Consumer perception of price, quality and value: a means-end model and synthesis of evidence. Journal of Marketing, 1988, 52:2-22.[2] Woodruff, R. B. Customer value: The next source for competitive advantage. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 1997, 25(2): 139-153.[3] 黃穎華、黃福才. 旅遊者感知價值模型、測度與實證研究. 旅遊學刊,2007,22(8):42-47.[4] 隋麗娜,李穎科,程圩. 中西方文化遺產旅遊者感知價值差異研究,旅遊科學,2009,23(6):14-20.[5] 國家旅遊局規劃財務司. 2011年中國旅遊景區發展報告[R]. 北京:中國旅遊出版社,2012.[6] Gallarza, M. G., & Saura, G. I. Value dimensions, perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty: an investigation of university students’ travel behavior. Tourism Management, 2006, 27(3):437-452.[7] Jackson, B. B. Build customer relationship that Last. Harvard Business Review, 1985, 63(6):120-128.[8] Kolter, P. Marketing Management. Upper Saddle River: PRENTICE HALL, 2000.[9] Bojanic, D. C. Consumer perceptions of price, value and satisfaction in the hotel industry: An exploratory study. Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, 1996, 4(1):5-22.[10] Jayanti, R. K. & Ghosh, A. K. Service value determination: an integrative perspective. Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, 1996, 34(4):5-25.[11] Oh, H. Service quality, customer satisfaction, and customer value: A holistic perspective. Hospitality Management, 1999, 18:67-82.[12] Parasuraman, A. & Grewal, D. The impact of technology on the quality-value-loyalty chain: A research agenda. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 2000, 28(1):168-174.[13] Woodruff, R. B. & Gardial, S. F. Know your customer: New approaches to understanding customer value and satisfaction. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.[14] Duman, T. & Mattila, A. The role of affective factors on perceived value: an examination in an experiential service environment. Tourism Management, 2005, 26(3):311-323.[15] 李文兵,張宏梅. 古村落遊客感知價值概念模型與實證研究—以張谷英村為例. 旅遊科學,2010,24(2):55-63.[16] Holbrook, M. B., & Hirschman, E. C. The experiential aspects of consumption: consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. Journal of Consumer Research, 1982, 9(2):132-140.[17] 張濤、賈生華. 節事消費者感知價值的維度和測量研究. 旅遊學刊,2008,23(5):74-78.[18] Heskett, J. L., Sasser, W. E. & Schlesinger, L, A. 服務利潤鏈. (牛海鵬譯). 北京:華夏出版社,2001.[19] 白長虹. 西方的顧客價值研究及其實踐啟示. 南開管理評論,2001,2:51-55.[20] Holbrook, M. B. Customer value-a framework for analysis and research. Advances in Consumer Research, 1996, 23:138-142.[21] Jensen, Hansen, K. V. Consumer values among restaurant customers. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 2007, 26(3):603-622.[22] 馬淩,保繼剛. 感知價值視角下的傳統節慶旅遊體驗—以西雙版納傣族潑水節為例. 地理研究,2012,31(2):269-278.[23] Petrick, J. F. Development of a multi-dimensional scale for measuring the perceived value of a service. Journal of Leisure Research, 2002, 34(2) :119-134.[24] Sanchez, J., Callarisa, L. & Rodriguez, R. M. et al. Perceived value of the purchase of a tourism product. Tourism Management, 2006, 27(3): 394-409.[25] 程興火. 森林生態旅遊景區競爭優勢研究-基於顧客感知價值視角的分析. 北京:光明日報出版社,2009.[26] Sheth, J. N., Newman, B. I. & Gross, B. L. Why we buy what we buy: a theory of consumption value. Journal of Business Research, 1991, 22(2):159-170.[27] Martilla, J. A. & James, J. F. Importance-performance analysis. Journal of Marketing, 1997, 41(1):77-79.[28] 謝麗佳,郭英之. 基於IPA評價的會展旅遊特徵感知實證研究:以上海為例.旅遊學刊,2010,25(3):46-54.[29] Evans, M. R. & Chon, K. Formulating and evaluating tourism policy using importance-performance analysis. Hospitality Education and Research Journal, 1989, 13(1):203-213.[30] Almanza, B. A., Jaffe, W. & Lin, L. Use of the service attribute matrix to measure consumer satisfaction. Hospitality Research Journal, 1994, 17(2):63-75.[31] 宋子斌,安應民,鄭佩. 旅遊目的地形象之IPA分析—以西安居民對海南旅遊目的地形象感知為例. 旅遊學刊,2006,21(10):26-32.[32] 鍾櫟娜,董曉莉,邵雋. 基於IPA分析的中國旅遊景區網站發展研究. 旅遊學刊,2012,27(3):60-68.[33] 石定芳,楊曉霞,子濤. 基於IPA方法的喀斯特洞穴旅遊解說系統滿意度評價的實證研究—以重慶市芙蓉洞為例. 中國岩溶,2012,31(1):94-98.[34] Frochot, I. & Hughes, H. HISTOQUAL: The development of a historic houses assessment scale. Tourism Management, 2000, 21(2): 157-167.[35] Akama, J. S. & Kieti, D. M. Measuring tourist satisfaction with Kenya’s wildlife safari: a case study of Tsavo West National Park. Tourism Management, 2003, 24:73-81.
  • 32[36] Maryam, M. K. Research note and report: Tourism development and dependency theory: mass tourism vs ecotourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 1997, 24(4):988-991.[37] 梁文娟,張培培,朱儉. 北京歡樂穀旅遊景區服務質量評析. 管理學家,2010:377-378.[38] Sweeney, J. C. & Soutar, G. N. Consumer perceived value: The development of a multiple item scale. Journal of Retailing, 2001, 77: 203-220.[39] Duman, T. A model of perceived value for leisure travel products [D]. Pennsylvania: State University of Pennsylvania, 2002.[40] 邱皓政. 量化研究與統計分析—SPSS(PASW)資料分析範例. 重慶:重慶大學出版社,2009.[41] 吳明隆. SPSS統計應用事務. 北京:科學出版社,2003.[42] 盧文岱. SPSS統計分析. 北京:電子工業出版社,2012.[43] 賴國毅,陳超. SPSS 17.0中文版常用功能與應用實例精講. 北京:電子工業出版社,2010.[44] Wang Yi-shun, Tang Tzung-I & Jeung-tai, et al. An instrument for measuring customer satisfaction toward web sites that market digital products and services. Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, 2001, 22:845-857.科研進展澳科大赴京交接神十航天搭載種子 促澳成為人參研究中心和產業基地澳門科技大學劉良校長一行於8月23日上午11時於北京航天城參加航天搭載種子交接儀式,以接收早前由神舟十號搭載的人參種子。中國航天基金會理事長張建啟中將和劉良校長分別代表搭載方和委託方進行了交接。是次交接儀式由中國航天基金會舉辦,中國航天基金會吳卓副理事長、承文副理事長、張玉江秘書長,人參研究機構代表澳門科技大學周華副教授、中國農業科學院特產研究所王英平副所長及肖盛元教授、吉林省撫松縣人參產業發展辦公室侯玉兵主任等共同出席儀式。交接儀式上,澳科大校長劉良講座教授代表大學對中國航天基金會表示感謝,同時也感謝中國農業科學院特產研究所、吉林省撫松縣人民政府的支持。他在致辭中指出,對植物的良種選育,航天搭載植物種子技術是一個非常重要和非常有效的手段。利用我國最高端的航天科學技術開展中醫藥科學研究,可進行高科技貴重中藥材航天育種研究,也可研究藥材種子在太空環境下的基因狀態與變化,從而更深入地認識中藥種質科學內涵。因此,我國航天科學技術與中醫藥科學研究的合作前景十分广阔。人參是最負盛名的中藥材,號稱“百藥之王",具有治療眾多疾病的臨床療效和日常保健功效。人參的種子特性與一般的植物種子差別很大,需要經過特殊後熟階段才能完成胚的分化,繼而形成胚根、胚軸、胚芽和子葉等,然後經播種而萌動出苗。因此,在後熟階段進行人工幹預,可成為選育優良人參種子的有效途徑。由於航天搭載時的特殊環境, 能夠對種子的基因以及生理發育產生顯著影響,故將人參種子後熟階段的特殊生理特徵與航天搭載相結合,有可能選育出高產、優效、抗病的人參優良品種。劉良表示,今天在這裡接收經過神州十號飛船15天太空之旅的人參種子,是十分珍貴的科研種子。澳門科技大學中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室、中國農業科學院特產研究所、深圳華大基因研究院、吉林省撫松縣人參產業辦公室,已經聯合組織專家小組,將利用這批最珍貴的人參種子,進行基因分析、品種選育、農學研究、化學分析、生物活性測試、產品研發等研究,希望取得突破性成果。這些工作將大力推動人參產業和科學研究的發展,也將有助於澳門成為人參研究中心和產業基地,促進澳門經濟適度多元发展。澳門特別行政區在中央政府的大力支持下,社會穩定,經濟繁榮,政通人和,呈現著美好的發展前景。 特區政府和社會各界特別關注和支持國家發展航天事業,並在澳門著力推廣航天科普教育,使廣大市民對國家航天科技的認識不斷加深。澳門科技大學還成立迄今全國高等院校中唯一的太空科學研究所,參與国家嫦娥探月數據分析與太空科學研究。近年來,澳門特區政府銳意發展高等教育和科學研究,包括大力發展中醫藥教育、科研和產業,力求建設具國際一流水準的中藥質量與創新藥物研究中心。澳門科技大學作為澳門唯一提供中醫藥高等教育的學府,已經建立了中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室,從世界一流學府和研究機構引進了大批研究人員,配備了最先端的中藥化學分析和生物活性評價研究設備,具備了從事中醫藥高科技研究的能力。劉良表示,本次神十搭載人參種子的基因分析和基因育種等研究,將是我國貴重中藥材高科技研究領域新的里程牌,希望今後能有機會與中國航天基金會進一步合作,充分利用最先端的航天科技,拓展傳統中醫藥的高科技研究,促進我國中醫藥事業和產業發展。
  • 33第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 **Received 4 April, 2012; Revised 12 June 2012; Revised the second time on 1 November 2012, revised third time on June 9, 2013.* Shiyong Zhao, Ph.D. in Economics, Assistant Professor of Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology. Email: syzhao@must.edu.mo, Tel: (853) 8897-2860. The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010Shiyong ZHAO( Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China)AAstract: This paper attempts to examine the effects of ownership and size on profitability of Chinese listed banks. Based on an unbalanced bank-level panel data set consisting of 16 listed banks in China over 1998-2010 and regressed with fixed effect models, we find that ownership structure does not have an economically significant effect on bank profitability, while asset size has a statistically and economically significant and positive effect on bank profitability.These effects stem from the fact that private investors are still not allowed to open banks in China. The significant size effect of China's banking sector explains why almost all banks want to grow larger, serve large customers and finance large government infrastructure projects. To let banks serve small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and rural areas, the government should reduce, if not break, the State sector's banking monopoly.eyyords: Bank size; Listed banks; Ownership structure; Profitability股權結構、規模經濟與中國上市銀行績效:1998~2010趙世勇(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 本文利用中國大陸十六家上市銀行1998~2010年的面板數據,重點研究了股權結構和規模等因素對中國上市銀行績效(贏利能力)的影響。研究發現,國有股權比重對中國上市銀行的績效有微弱的負效應,資產規模對上市銀行有顯著的正效應,這意味着中國的上市銀行存在明顯的規模經濟,規模對銀行績效的影響效果超過股權結構。這個發現解釋了爲什麽中國的商業銀行都在努力做大,也解釋了爲什麽中國的商業銀行(特别是上市銀行)不願意服務中小企業和農村地區。要改變這種狀况,應該打破銀行業的壟斷,開放銀行業給私人投資者,使中小型銀行得以成立并成長。關鍵詞: 規模經濟;上市銀行;股權結構;贏利能力0 IntroductionThis paper attempts to test the effects of ownership and size on profitability of Chinese listed banks. Since the commercialization reform of Chinese banks, and especially the listing of some banks on the stock exchanges, great changes have taken place in China’s banking sector. With nonperforming assets of state-owned banks being removed, and strategic investors introduced, ownership of banks is more
  • 34diversified, and of course almost all banks have grown larger. By the end of 2010, there are sixteen banks in China that have been listed on the stock market (domestic and/or overseas). Considering data availability and the fact that listed banks are more comparable, we only analyze the sixteen listed banks in this paper. We are interested in the effect of ownership on bank profitability, because property rights theory suggests that a firm’s property rights arrangement or ownership structure determines its efficiency and thus performance. The rationale is that ownership or property rights are the most fundamental institutional arrangement, institutional arrangement determines incentive mechanism, incentive mechanism determines human behavior, and human behavior determines economic performance (Cheung, 2002)[1]. Specifically, given market structure, private enterprises tend to outperform their public counterparts, because private ownership provides stronger incentive to managers and employees. The sixteen listed banks in China have quite different ownership structure, so a natural idea is to test whether ownership structure is a key determinant of bank profitability under the current market structure in China.Given the market structure, and given the ownership structure, microeconomic theory suggests that in many industrial production processes, the larger the firm, the lower the average cost will be. That is, industrial production tends to exhibit significant economies of scale over relevant range of output. Does the effect of economies of scale also exist in the banking industry? We use the evidence from the sixteen listed banks to test it. The sixteen listed banks also have different sizes, which is commonly measured by total assets. So our second idea it to test whether size is a key determinant of profitability of listed banks in China. Previous studies show that there is no conclusive relationship between bank ownership and profitability, such as Molyneux and Thornton (1992)[2], and Aburime (2008)[3], among others. Molyneux and Thornton (1992)[2] were the first to explore thoroughly the determinants of bank profitability on a set of countries. They used a sample of 18 European countries during the period 1986-1989, and found a significant positive relationship between ROE and government ownership and the level of interest rates and bank concentration in each country. Aburime (2008)[3] suggested that the composition and spread of ownership h-ad no significant effect on bank profitability in Nigeria, by using 98 commercial and merchant banks in 478 observations over the period 1989-2004. While some cross national research on bank performance find that ownership structure has a significant impact on bank performance (Grigorian and Manole, 2002) [4]. Researches on Chinese banks, however, arrived at different conclusions. Using a dataset covering fifteen Chinese commercial banks over 1996-2002, Liu et al. (2005)[5] concluded that state shares had a significantly negative effect on bank profitability. Zhao and Yang (2009)[6], using a panel dataset covering 2001-2007, also reported a negative relationship between state shares and bank profitability. Gu (2005)[7] studied the determinants of profitability of commercial banks in China during 1998-2003, and found that the profit margins of state-owned commercial banks were much lower than that of non-state-owned shareholding banks in China. She argued that policy burdens (say, redundant workers) and egalitarianism of state-owned banks reduced their profitability. A positive relationship between bank size and bank profitability could be expected if there is significant economies of scale (Molyneux and Thornton, 1992[2]; Bikker and Hu, 2002[8]; Goddard et al., 2004[9]), but researches failed to reach unambiguous conclusions. Boyd and Runkle (1993)[10] found that there was a negative relationship between size and profitability of American banks in the early 1990s. Zhao and Xiang (2010)[11] reported that from 1993 to 2002, large banks and small (community) banks in the U.S. achieved quite comparable profit margins (ROA). Other researchers, however, have found that only marginal cost savings can be achieved by increasing the size of the banking firm (Berger et
  • 35Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010al., 1987[12]; Miller and Noulas, 1997[13]; Athanasoglou et al., 2008[14]). In essence, the impact of size on bank performance remains inconclusive. Previous studies do not offer indisputable results on the effects of ownership and size on bank profitability. That is because institutional environments in which banks are operating are quite different in various countries or regions. So the effects of the same variable on bank profitability in different countries may differ. Even in the same country, the effects of one variable on bank profitability during different periods may also differ, since a country’s institutions (institutional environment and institutional arrangement) may have changed dramatically even within a relatively short period of time, such as China since 1978, or even since 1990s. Nobody denies that institutional environment affects banks’ risk taking behavior and performance (Houston et al., 2010) [15]. The study tries to test the effects of both ownership structure and bank size on profitability of listed banks in China. Most of the previous studies on Chinese banks focused on only one of these two explanatory variables, or mainly focused on the relationship between market structure and bank performance (see Zhao et al., 2001[16]; Qin and Ouyang, 2001[17]). Moreover, most previous studies on this topic used data that is prior to 2005 or even before 2000, while most listed banks in China were listed after 2005. And after being listed, their ownership structure and governance mechanism have greatly changed, which in turn must have affected their profitability. Our paper attempts to reveal the most updated information from the most updated data. Moreover, we also controlled for many other variables that may affect bank profitability, such as liquidity ratio, capital adequacy ratio, loan-deposit ratio, bad loan ratio, loan share of the largest borrower, and loan share of the top 10 borrowers, which were generally ignored by many of the previous studies. We put forward two hypotheses as follows from the above arguments. Hypothesis I: Everything else being equal, state share will have a negative effect on bank profitability. Hypothesis II: Everything else being equal, size will have a positive effect on bank profitability. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 1 reports the data and methodology used in this paper. Section 2 provides the regression results and related explanations. Section 3 concludes the paper with some policy implications. 1 Data and Methodology1.1 The Data and VariaAlesBy the end of 2010, there are altogether sixteen listed commercial banks in China. Selected basic information on the sixteen listed banks in 2010 is presented in Table 1. All the data are from the annual reports of each bank, which can be easily found from their official websites, since they have obligation to disclose their information to the public. The data of most banks can be traced back several years before they were listed. Some banks can be traced back to as early as 1998, such as China Minsheng Bank, while some banks can only be traced back to 2005, such as China Construction Bank. So the dataset from the panel is unbalanced, but that does not hamper our regressions, since panel data regressions do not require a strongly balanced panel.The aim of the study is to test the effects of bank ownership and bank size on bank profitability. So the first step is to define ownership structure. Most commercial banks in China had been wholly-owned by the state. After they were reformed and listed on the stock market, their ownership becomes much more diversified and dispersed. So a natural idea is to use the state share as an indicator of ownership structure of the banks. Using information from the annual reports of the listed banks, we define state share to be the percentage of shares owned by the state (government) and state-owned legal persons. State-owned legal persons are usually large-sized state-owned enterprises (SOEs). After the commercialization reform of Chinese banks, and especially after their listing on the stock market, the general trend of their ownership structure change is that state shares have been declining and
  • 36the ownership structure has become more diversified. For example, before they were listed, the “Big Four”  1state-owned banks were almost 100 percent state owned; but by the end of 2010, state shares in “Big Four” had dropped to 57-83 percent, and ten out of the sixteen listed banks are no longer dominantly owned by the state. That represents a dramatic change compared with that of ten years ago.Since we are going to examine the effect of bank size on bank profitability, i.e. test the effect of economies of scale in the banking sector, we need to define scale or size of banks. A commonly used measure of bank size is value of total assets. That is, when we say a bank is large, we mean it has a large 1. The so-called “Big Four” refer to the four largest commercial banks in China, i.e., Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC), Bank of China, China Construction Bank (CCB), and Agricultural Bank of China (ABC). asset size. Of course, we could use other indicators to measure bank size, such as number of employees or value of gross or net profits, but they are less commonly used than asset size. Notwithstanding, we have good reason to believe that these indicators are highly (positively) correlated. In this paper, by convention, we use asset size to represent bank size.Up to 2010, the largest bank in China is Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC), which has total assets of RMB 13.46 trillion. Assets of the second, third, and fourth largest bank in China all exceed RMB 10 trillion. Following the “Big Four,” assets of the fifth to the twelfth largest bank in China range between RMB 1 trillion and RMB 4 trillion. Each of the rest four listed banks has an asset size below RMB 1 trillion. Of the sixteen listed banks, the smallest bank is Bank of Nanjing, with an asset size of TaAle 1. Basic Information on the sixteen Listed Commercial Banks in China, 2010Name Var. 1 Var. 2 Var. 3 Var. 4 Var. 5 Var. 6 Var. 7 Var. 8Bank 1 13458.62 161.65 397,339 70.80% 40.68 1.20% 22.79% 1.08%Bank 2 10810.32 135.03 313,867 57.03% 43.02 1.25% 22.61% 1.14%Bank 3 10459.87 104.42 279,301 67.83% 37.39 1.00% 18.87% 1.10%Bank 4 10337.41 94.91 444,447 83.13% 21.35 0.92% 22.49% 2.03%Bank 5 3951.59 39.04 85,290 32.36% 45.78 0.99% 20.08% 1.12%Bank 6 2402.51 25.77 43,089 35.30% 59.80 1.07% 21.75% 0.68%Bank 7 2191.41 25.28 28,081 45.49% 90.03 1.15% 23.27% 0.51%Bank 8 2081.31 21.51 33,552 63.01% 64.11 1.03% 19.24% 0.68%Bank 9 1849.67 18.52 29,214 28.89% 63.40 1.00% 24.64% 0.42%Bank 10 1823.74 17.58 30,931 0.00% 56.84 0.96% 18.29% 0.69%Bank 11 1483.95 12.79 22,267 64.04% 57.44 0.86% 20.99% 0.75%Bank 12 1040.23 5.99 14,304 35.99% 41.87 0.58% 18.25% 1.18%Bank 13 733.21 6.80 6,455 19.51% 105.39 0.93% 17.00% 0.69%Bank 14 727.61 6.28 16,450 0.00% 38.19 0.86% 23.22% 0.58%Bank 15 263.27 2.32 4,057 17.14% 57.23 0.88% 20.53% 0.69%Bank 16 221.49 2.31 2,926 29.08% 78.98 1.04% 17.21% 0.97%Source: Data are from 2010 annual report of each bank. Var. 1: Total Assets (RMB billion). Var. 2: Net profits (RMB billion)Var. 3: Number of employees (persons) Var. 4: Shares of state and state-owned entities (%)Var. 5: Net profit per employee (RMB10, 000) Var. 6: Net profit over total assets, ROA (%)Var. 7: Weighted average ROE (%) Var. 8: Ratio of bad loansBank 1: Industrial and Commercial Bank (ICBC) Bank 2: China Construction Bank (CCB) Bank 3: Bank of China (BOC) Bank 4: Agricultural Bank of China (ABC) Bank 5: Communication Bank of China Bank 6: China Merchants Bank Bank 7: Shanghai Pudong Development Bank Bank 8: China CITIC Bank Bank 9: Industrial Bank Bank 10: China Minsheng BankBank 11: China Everbright Bank Bank 12: Huaxia Bank Bank 13: Bank of Beijing Bank 14: Shenzhen Development Bank Bank 15: Bank of Ningbo Bank 16: Bank of Nanjing
  • 37Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010RMB 221 billion. So of the sixteen listed commercial banks, the asset size of the largest bank (ICBC) is more than 60 times of the smallest (Bank of Nanjing). If we count the number of employees as the indicator of bank size, the ranking is almost the same. The number of employees of ICBC is more than 130 times of Bank of Nanjing.Next we define bank profitability, the dependent variable in the fol lowing regressions. Bank profitability, as the name itself implies, means the ability of banks to make profits. It should not be measured only by output, say, total profits or net profits; it is best measured by a ratio, a benefit-cost relationship, because no profit is earned without any cost. In the literature, bank profitability is typically measured by “return on assets” (ROA) and/or “return on equity” (ROE). In this paper, we use three indicators to measure bank profitability, including ROA and ROE.2 Please note that profitability only indicates the ability to make money, the variable itself says nothing about why it can make money or how it makes money.The first indicator of profitability is called “net profit per person,” which is defined by “net profit divided by total number of employees.” The second is ROA, and the third is ROE, which is called “weighted average ROE.” 3All these indicators are either directly reported by the banks in their annual reports, or can be easily calculated based on their definitions. All three indicators are related but different. All of them can measure bank profitability, but from different perspectives.We can have a glimpse of the sixteen listed banks on their profitability. For net profit per person, the “Big Four” banks do not have an advantage, which can be explained by historical reasons, say, redundant workers under traditional systems. In 2010, Bank of Beijing has the highest value of net profit per person, 2. In the literature, economic value-added (EVA) and net interest margin (NIM) are also used to measure bank performance, but they are not as commonly used as ROA and ROE. 3. For the formula of calculating “weighted average ROE,” please refer to a Notice issued by China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC) in 2001, http://finance.sina.com.cn/g/34625.html.which is RMB 1.05 million, while the lowest is Agricultural Bank of China (ABC), which had been traditionally serving the rural areas. Incidentally, ABC is the last bank of the “Big Four” to be listed on the stock market. For ROA and ROE, the difference among the banks is much less dramatic. If we rank ROA, the highest is China Construction Bank (CCB), which is 1.25 percent. The Industrial Bank is the best performed if ranked with ROE; its ROE reaches nearly 15 percent in 2010. Besides ownership structure and size, we still need to control for other variables to measure the effects of ownership structure and size on bank profitability reliably. These control variables are percentage of loan by the largest debtor, percentage of loan by the top 10 debtors, liquidity ratio, loan-deposit ratio, bad loan ratio, and capital adequacy ratio. All these data are reported in the annual reports of listed banks. The names, definitions, and descriptive statistics of all variables are presented in Table 2.1.2 The Model and MethodologyWe will apply panel data analyses in the empirical study. The advantages of using panel data are obvious. First, panel data can provide us with more observations. Since there are only sixteen listed banks in China up to now, if we do not use panel data, we would not have enough observations for regression. Second, panel data can effectively control the heterogeneity of individual banks, since the banks have quite different backgrounds and characteristics. Third, econometrically, panel data can provide more information, more variation, more degrees of freedom, and less collinearity (Wang, 2008)[17]. Given the panel data, we still have three alternatives when choosing an appropriate model to use. That is, we could choose among pooled OLS model, fixed effect (FE) model, and random effect (RE) model. When choosing between pooled OLS and FE models, we use Wald test. The Wald test result shows that FE model is more appropriate. When choosing between pooled OLS and RE models, we use B-P test and LR test, both tests show that RE model is more appropriate. When choosing between FE and
  • 38RE models, we use Hausman test. The Hausman test supports the FE model. Sixteen (banks) is not a large number, so the heterogeneity among them is less likely random. We will use FE model to test the following equation: (1)Here, profitability is measured by the three different definitions explained above (so we have three specific models); the meanings of other variables are listed in Table 2.Before the regressions, we have to conduct some diagnostic tests on multi-collinearity and heterogeneity among cross-sections. The first is collinearity between the explanatory variables. People may have good reason to suspect a collinearity relation between bank ownership and bank size, because large banks are traditionally owned by the state in China.This is really a problem if we use just cross-sectional data. As mentioned above, panel data can mitigate the collinearity problem; this is from the perspective of econometric methodology. If we examine the data carefully, we will find that after the banks are listed on the stock market, the state shares in the large banks have been declining, while the asset size of all banks has been increasing. Even if we view a cross section, say in 2010, some banks are very large, but their state shares are not very high. For example, CCB is the second largest bank in China, but its state share is only 57 percent. Some banks are not very large, but their state shares are very high. For example, CITIC Bank and Everbright Bank are much smaller than the “Big Four,” but their state shares are quite high - more than 65 percent.The second problem is possible heteroscedasticity among the cross-sections. After checking the models, we find that there do exist heteroscedasticity. To solve this problem and possible cross-sectional correlation problem, we will use regressions reporting Driscoll-Table 2. Variables: Names, Definitions, and Descriptive Statistics, 1998-2010Variable Name Meanings of Variables Mean Std. Dev. Min MaxROA Return on Assets (%) 0.78 0.343 0.13 1.55ROE Weighted Return on Equity (%) 18.30 6.298 4.32 42.78Profit_per_person Net Profit Per Person 33.24 22.123 4.32 42.78State_ownership Fraction of State Ownership (%) 40.40 28.340 0 100Total_asset Value of Total Assets 20408 30009 253 134586Net_profit Net Profit 179.32 310.66 1.70 1616.54Employees Number of Employees 79291 137727 689 489425Top_1 % of loan by the Largest Debtor 6.33 4.75 1.03 38.16Top_10 % of loan by Top 10 Debtors 40.59 23.86 15.70 165.06Liquidity_ratio Liquidity Ratio (%) 46.79 13.24 25.02 83.29Loan_deposit_ratio Loan-Deposit Ratio (%) 64.67 7.40 46.72 79.96Bad_loan_ratio Bad Loan Ratio (%) 3.93 4.99 0.33 26.73Capital_adeq_ratio Capital Adequacy Ratio (%) 11.18 4.02 -1.47 30.67Note: ROA=Net Profit divided by the Mean of Beginning and Closing Balances of Total Assets. ROE weighted is calculated according to The Information Disclosure and Compilation Rule No. 9 – Calculation and Disclosure of Return on Equity and Earnings per Share (revised in 2010), formulated by China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC). Percentage of Loan by the Largest Debtor = Loan borrowed by the Largest Debtor divided by Net Capital. Percentage of Loan by Top 10 Debtors = Loan borrowed by the Largest 10 Debtors divided by Net Capital. Liquidity Ratio = Balance of Liquid Assets divided by Balance of Liabilities. Loan-Deposit Ratio = Balance of Loan divided by Balance of Deposits (Balance of deposits does not include deposits by governments and outward remittance). Bad Loan Ratio = Balance of Bad Loan divided by Total Loans of all Debtors. Net Profit per Person is in unit of RMB 10,000. Total Assets and Net Profit are in units of RMB 100 million. All other variables are in percentages.
  • 39Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010Kraay standard errors, 4which are more robust if there are heteroscedasticity and cross-sectional correlation problems (Driscoll and Kraay, 1998[19]).Because the pane l da ta we use has the characteristic of N>T (the number of banks is greater than the number of years), and most banks have less than 10 years of data (on average, each bank has only 8.25 years of data). So the problems of serial correlation and panel unit root can be reasonably ignored (Wang, 2008) [17].2 Regression and ExplanationTable 3 presents the regression results. First, let’s look at the effects of ownership structure. From the regression results, share of state ownership has a statistically significant and negative impact on net profit per person and ROE, but economically very insignificant. The results show that if the state ownership rises by 1 percent, net profit per person will drop by 0.0065 percent, and ROE will drop by 0.09 percent. These effects can almost be negligible. The variable of state ownership does not have any statistically significant effect on ROA. In sum, we can conclude that ownership structure is not a key determinant of profitability of Chinese listed banks. That is, the evidence does not support our first hypothesis. This result is somewhat surprising, because it is not consistent with people’s intuition, nor does it accord with theoretical prediction. Both people’s intuition and economic theory (especially property rights theory) suggest that private organizations tend to provide with managers and employees stronger incentive than public ones. It is fair to assume that people in private organizations work harder than those who work in public ones. So it seems that we have good reason to believe that private banks outperform their public counterparts. Banks with lower state shares (or higher private shares) should have higher profit margins. This effect should be both economically and statistically significant.4. For the specific Stata commands and related discussions please refer to Stata Journal, 2007, vol.3, pp. 281-312.The regression results, however, do not provide sufficient evidence to support this common insight. This does not necessarily imply that the data or theory is wrong. It may just imply that ownership is not a key determinant of bank profitability in today’s China. The banking industry is quite different from manufacturing industries. The banking industry is highly regulated compared with manufacturing. Specifically, in China, interest rates (especially deposit interest rates) and reserve-deposit ratio are determined by the People’s Bank of China (PBOC)5, China’s central bank; at the same time, the lower limit of capital adequacy ratio and upper limit of bad loan ratio are specified by China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC), China’s banking regulatory authority. These regulations are applied to all banks. So commercial banks, no matter they are state-owned or privately owned, have little room to maneuver. This is an important reason why ownership structure does not significantly affect bank profitability.This result can also be explained from the perspective of market structure. As we know, since the commercialization reform of banks, especially after China’s entry into the WTO, the banking industry in China has become increasingly competitive. Nevertheless, compared with the manufacturing sector, the banking industry as a whole still holds a monopoly position, in the sense that private investors are not allowed to open a bank. That is why there are numerous so-called “underground private banks” (illegal) in southeast China, especially in Zhejiang Province.6 Under this condition and given that interest rates are not determined by the market but set by the government, the demand for banking services (mainly loans) from other sectors of the economy is far more than the supply of them. Therefore, compared with the industrial sector, it is far easier for banks to make 5. The People’s Bank of China determines all deposit interest rates, but only sets a benchmark interest rate of loans for commercial banks to follow. Commercial banks can vary interest rates of loans within a reasonable range. 6. In March 2012, the Chinese government announced a pilot project in to reform the financial sector in Wenzhou, an eastern coastal city in Zhejiang province with a tradition of entrepreneurship.
  • 40profit in China.7 This represents a mismatch between the industrial structure and financial structure (Lin et al., 2009[20]). Under this kind of market structure, profit of banks results not so much from incentive and efficiency, as it is from their license.The market structure of China’s banking industry can also help to explain the dramatically rapid growth of existing commercial banks in China. Of the top 25 banks that grow most rapidly in the world ranked by the U.K. magazine The Banker (2011)[21], 15 Chinese banks are included.8 During the past three years, profit of Chinese banks has grown by 95 percent. China’s banking profit has accounted for more than 20 percent of the whole world. This is partly explained by the monopolized banking industry, and partly explained by the rapid economic growth of China during the past decade.The above result may suggest that there should be some other factors to explain the variation of bank profitability. Regarding the effect of bank size on profitability, the empirical findings in all the three models indicate that bank size has a statistically significant and positive impact on bank profitability. That is to say, data strongly support economies of scale effect in the banking industry. Regressions results reveal that, on average, when total asset increases by 1 percent, net profit per person will increase by 0.48 percentage points, ROA will rise by 0.2 percentage points, and ROE will rise by 4.23 percentage points. All these estimates are highly statistically significant at 1 percent level. That is, our second hypothesis is strongly confirmed. 7. As Chinese premier Wen Jiabao said, “I think it has been too easy, quite frankly, for our banks to make profits. The reason is that a small number of large banks are in a monopolistic position. It is only from them, and nowhere else, that companies get the loans they need.” Reflecting on the fat profits of banks, Hong Qi, president of China Minsheng Banking Corp, even said at a forum in 2011 that the sector’s profit was so high but profit for industrial companies was so low that he sometimes felt upset to talk about his bank’s profit. Minsheng’s annual report, published in March 2012, showed a surge in profit of more than 58 percent in 2011. For details, please refer to China Daily, April 5, 2012.8. Bank of Jiangsu in Jiangsu province, Bank of Jining in Shandong province, and Chongqing Rural Commercial Bank in Chongqing Municipality ranked No.2, No.3, and No.4 respectively in terms of growth rate. There are other several banks whose growth rates exceeded 100% in 2011 (The Banker, 2011)[21]. This effect of strong economies of scale is relatively easy to understand and explain. Given the shortage of banking services in China, it is not difficult for a bank to find a customer. For any commercial bank, to grant a loan of RMB 1 million, and another loan of RMB 1 billion, the costs are very close – the bank will use almost the same number of persons, and undergo the same processes, but the benefits are 1000 times different. The idea of economies of scale was first proposed to describe industrial production, but it is most appropriate to characterize the banking sector.Undoubtedly, large banks enjoy advantage of economies of scale. For example, ICBC is the largest commercial bank in China, and its profit level was also the highest in 2010 (gross profit was $32.5 billion). CCB is the second largest bank in China, and small wonder its profit level was the second largest in the world (gross profit was $26.4 billion). These are not pure coincidence. Economies of scale must have played a vital role. For example, in 2010, the single largest loan of ICBC was RMB 21.7 billion, while the single largest loan of Bank of Nanjing, the smallest listed bank in China, was only RMB 590 million. If we assume that the costs of a single loan of the two banks are the same, and the interest rates are the same,9 then for the single loan, the benefit of ICBC is more than 36 times of Bank of Nanjing! Thus the effect of economies of scale is very significant in the banking industry. Regressions also show that the percentage of loan borrowed by the single largest debtor and the top ten debtors do not produce any significant effects on bank profitability. That is because these two percent levels are strictly controlled and regulated by CBRC, and out of risk aversion, most listed banks don’t want to “put all eggs in one basket.”10 In contrast, size of assets is not regulated and constrained by any authority, so effect of economies of scale in the banking industry is more reflected by their size of 9. Due to the monopolistic position of the entire banking sector in China, and due to the strong bargaining power of the large banks in China, they don’t have to lower the lending interest rates to find customers. So this assumption makes sense in China. 10. The author is grateful to Professor Han Chaohua of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences for offering this insight.
  • 41Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010assets.Moreover, in China, large banks also have more opportunities to cooperate with governments at various levels.11 Chinese governments, central and local, still control most of the key areas of the national economy such as petroleum, telecom, and railway, etc. To stimulate the economy after the world financial crisis occurred in 2007-2008, Chinese governments have invested heavily in infrastructure construction in recent years, such as highways, railways, and airports.12 These large construction projects, which need a large sum of money, can only be financed by large banks. In an interview with an urban commercial bank leader by the author of this paper, the bank leader said the local government had intended to cooperate 11. For instance, the construction of high-speed railroad between Beijing and Shanghai was financed by Bank of China, which was coordinated by Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Railway of China (Zhao, 2010, p.85)[21]. 12. In 2011, RMB700 billion was invested to build high-speed rail in China. In 2012, an investment of RMB500 billion will be made to build new high-speed tracks (Data source: China Daily, April 5, 2012, page 2). It is easy to understand that these huge projects must be financed b large banks. with the local commercial bank in building the city’s subway system. The local commercial bank, however, was too small to be able to finance it. So the local government had to turn to ICBC (Zhao, 2011)[22].Given the strong economies of scale effect in the banking industry, no bank in China can afford not to become larger, especially relatively smaller listed banks, they face more pressure to become larger. And given the monopoly position of the entire banking industry (private investors are not allowed to open banks), existing banks have no difficulty in finding customers to grant loans provided they have enough capital (deposits). So not only small and medium-sized banks want to grow larger, but large banks want to become even larger.13The situation is quite different from banks in developed countries, which are operating in much 13. On 5 January 2011, Agricultural Bank of China announced that it would issue RMB50 billion of subordinated bonds. On 17-19 May 2011, Bank of China issued RMB32 billion of subordinated bonds. China Merchants Bank and China CITIC Bank both announced to issue new A+H stocks, worth RMB60 billion and RMB26 billion respectively. Source: official website of each bank.Table 3. Regression Results: Determinants of Profitability of Chinese Listed BanksRegressor Model (1)Dependent Var.: Net Profit Per PersonModel (2)Dependent Var.:ROAModel (3)Dependent Var.:ROEState_ownership-0.0065**(0.0025)-0.0014(0.0010)-0.0882**(0.0364)Total_asset0.4820***(0.0685)0.2001***(0.0346)4.2336***(1.2224)Top_1-0.0160(0.0106)-0.0018(0.0056)0.2794(0.2134)Top_100.0026(0.0029)0.0015(0.0017)-0.0609(0.0548)Liquidity_ratio0.0069**(0.0024)0.0032***(0.0008)0.2615***(0.0584)Loan_deposit_ratio0.0117*(0.0060)0.0064**(0.0025)0.2762***(0.0754)Capital_adeq_ratio0.0492**(0.0183)0.0412***(0.0111)-0.0002(0.2445)Bad_loan_ratio-0.0209(0.0191)0.0040(0.0081)1.0037***(0.1687)Constant-2.2571***(0.6031)2.0016***(0.2828)-48.2648***(12.6222)Observations N=132 N=132 N=132Within R-squared 0.7164 0.5342 0.1997F-value 652.95 155.12 170.81Model specification Fixed Effect Fixed Effect Fixed EffectNote: ***, **, and * stand for statistically significant at 10%, 5%, and 1%, respectively. Figures in parentheses are Driscoll-Kraay standard errors of the estimates. In the regression equations, total assets is in unit of RMB trillion, other regressors are in units of percentage. In the regressions, net profit per person and total asset are in logarithm.
  • 42more competitive markets. As reported by Staikouras and Wood (2003)[23], in Europe, medium-sized banks have the highest profit margins, and then small banks, and last large banks. Sinkey (1992)[24] also reported an inverse U-shaped (parabola-shaped) relation between bank profitability and bank size in the U.S. If competition in the banking sector is intense enough (private investors are allowed to open banks), then competition among large banks will drive down their profit margins. Because large banks compete for large customers to realize the benefit of economies of scale, then large customers would have a better bargaining position to drive down loan interest rates that large banks could charge. Chinese banking industry is still far from that situation.Several control variables, say, liquidity ratio, loan-deposit ratio, and capital adequacy ratio, also show significantly positive effect on profitability of listed banks; these effects, however, are economically very insignificant. Bad loan ratio does not produce any significant effect on net profit per person and ROA, but significantly positive effect on ROE. All these variables are balances between rate of return and risk; they are “double-sided sword.” Theoretically, the higher the risk taken by a bank, the higher will be the rate of return. The accumulation of risk, say bad loans, may also erode the profit of a bank.3 ConclusionBy using an unbalanced bank level panel data, this study seeks to test the effect of ownership structure and size on bank profitability in China during the period 1998-2010. The empirical findings from this study suggest that ownership structure does not have any economically significant effect on bank profitability, while bank size has both statistically and economically significant and positive effect on bank profitability. That is to say, there exists strong “economies of scale” in Chinese listed banks. This helps to explain why all Chinese banks are striving to become larger. This also explains why no large banks are really willing to serve small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs),14 nor are they really willing to serve the rural areas.The findings of this paper reflect a fundamental problem in the economic structure of today’s China. Compared with the industrial manufacturing sector, the banking sector is monopolized, in the sense that no private investors are allowed to open a bank. At the given interest rates, which are controlled by the central banks, the demand for loans far exceeds the supply of it. So almost all banks, state owned or privately owned, make profits far more easily than the competitive manufacturing industry. Moreover, although the government (central bank) determines interest rates, it does not control the size of each loan, so large banks can reap more benefits from economies of scale than smaller banks.The findings of this study also offer some policy relevance. That is, to let the banks serve SMEs and farmers, the government should open the banking industry and allow small private banks to emerge and develop. That may seem radical for China today, as a compromising step, Chinese government may legalize some of the “underground” private banks in Southeast China’s Zhejiang province, especially in Wenzhou, allow them to operate under the “sunshine.” Those “underground” thus illegal private banks are just like weeds, which have strong vitality. Just like a famous Chinese poem goes, “Even a praise fire cannot destroy the grass; it grows again when the spring breeze blows.” So it is better to legalize them than to wipe them out; they cannot be wiped out because of the huge market demand. One limitation of this paper is the possible endogeneity problem of some explanatory variables in the empirical models. It remains uncertain whether profitability will affect total asset, bad-loan-ratio and capital-adequacy-ratio, etc. It is fair to assume that such impacts are marginal and negligible considering that these variables are more heavily influenced by government policies and market conditions. Even so, 14. Economists and the public have long complained about a lack of progress in reform of the State-dominated banking and financial industry and of inadequate service for the country’s large number of small and medium-sized enterprises.
  • 43Shiyong ZHAO The Effects of Ownership and Size on Profitability of Chinese Listed Banks: Evidence over 1998-2010we hope to address this problem in future studies. References [1] Cheung S. Economic explanation III: choice of institutions, Hong Kong: Arcadia Press, 2002. [2] Molyneux P., Thornton, J. Determinants of European bank profitability: a note. Journal of Banking and Finance, 1992, 16(6): 1173-1178.[3] Aburime, T. Impact of ownership structure on bank profitability in Nigeria. Journal of Global Economy, 2008, 4(3): 169-182.[4] Grigorian D, Manole V. Determinants of commercial bank performance in transition: an application of data envelope analysis (IMF Working Paper #146). International Monetary Fund, Washington DC, 2005. [5] Liu H., Wei W., Ouyang, J. A research on China’s banking performance based on market, ownership, and capital. Studies of International Finance, 2005 5(1): 62-67. [6] Zhao R., Yang Y. Empirical analysis of the impact of capital structure on China’s commercial banks profitability. Journal of Shanxi Finance and Economics University, 2009, 31(6): 85-92. [7] Gu X. A study on the profitability of China’s state-owned commercial banks, Ph.D. Dissertation, East China Normal University, 2005.[8] Bikker J., Hu H. Cyclical patterns in profits, provisioning and lending of banks and procyclicality of the new Basel capital requirements. BNL Quarterly Review, 2002, 221(1): 143-175. [9] Goddard J., Molyneux, P., Wilson, J. Dynamic of growth and profitability in banking. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 2004, 36(6): 1069-1090.[10] Boyd J., Runkle D. Size and performance of banking firms: testing the predictions of theory. Journal of Monetary Economics, 1993, 31(1): 47-67.[11] Zhao S., Xiang L. Advantages and performance of American community banks. Economic Perspectives, 2010, 6(1): 129-134. [12] Berger A., Hanweck, G., Humphrey D. Competitive viability in banking: scale scope and product mix economies. Journal of Monetary Economics, 1987, 20(3): 501-520. [13] Miller S., Noulas A. Portfolio mix and large bank profitability in the USA. Applied Economics, 1997, 29(4): 505-512.[14] Athanasoglou P., Brissimis S., Delis, M. Bank specific, industry specific and macroeconomic determinants of bank profitability. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, 2008, 18(2): 121-136.[15] Houston J., Lin C., Ma Y.. Creditor rights, information sharing, and bank risk taking. Journal of Financial Economics, 2010, 96: 485-512. [16] Zhao X., Jiang Z., Zhou J. An empirical study on the relationship between market structure and performance of China’s banking industry. Journal of Financial Research, 2001, 3(1): 59-67. [17] Qin W., Ouyang J. Market structure, efficiency and performance of China’s commercial banks. Economics Science, 2001, 4(1): 34-45.[18] Wang Z. Panel Data Model and Its Application in Economics, Beijing: Economic Science Press, 2008.[19] Driscoll J., Kraay A. Consistent covariance matrix estimation with spatially dependent panel data. Review of Economics and Statistics, 1998, 80(4): 549-560.[20] Lin Y., Sun X., Jiang Y. Toward a theory of optimal financial structure in economic development. Economic Research Journal, 2009, 8(1): 4-17.[21] The Banker. Top 1000 banks, available from www.thebanker.com, 2011.[22] Zhao S. The Transformation of China’s Financial Market: The Government, the Firm, and the Financial Institutions, Macao: Macao University of Science and Technology Press, 2010.[23] Staikouras C., Wood G. The determinants of bank profitability in Europe: Paper presented to the European Applied Business Research Conference, Venice, 9-13 June 2003.[24] Sinkey J. Jr. Commercial Bank Financial Management in the Financial Services Industry, New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1992.校園文化《外交官系列講座I》第二講 ——中國駐巴西大使李金章主講“中國和拉美國家展望”由澳門基金會贊助,澳門科技大學舉辦的《外交官系列講座I》第二講,於10月12日下午在澳門科技大學N101室舉行。本次講座邀請到原中華人民共和國外交部副部長、中華人民共和國駐巴西大使李金章先生前來演講。李金章大使,自1976年起,前後擔任中華人民共和國駐尼加拉瓜共和國大使館一秘、駐古巴共和國大使館參贊、外交部拉美司司長。2001年,出任中國駐墨西哥大使。兩年後回國,擔任部長助理。2006年,升任中華人民共和國外交部副部長。2012年起,擔任中華人民共和國駐巴西大使。在講座上,李金章大使為同學們介紹了巴西社會、文化、經濟等方面的現狀和特點,分析了巴西在社會經濟發展中所存在的問題。李金章大使指出,中國和巴西作為經貿合作夥伴國以及金磚五國的成員國,兩國還需要進一步深化合作,尤其是在基礎設施建設方面,巴西亟需中國企業的加入和合作。李金章大使在最後的學生問答環節中鼓勵學生以輕鬆、包容、開放、平等及多角度的態度看待外國文化,擴展文化視野及國際觀,在加強專業知識學習的同時,也要多接觸和瞭解外國文化知識。
  • 44第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論王少傑1,2,劉善仕2(1. 華南理工大學工商管理學院,廣州;2. 廣東湛江師範學院,湛江)摘要: 以往研究中國企業文化建設問題,理論界多以西方的企業文化理論來談論中國企業文化建設,研究成果主要體現為研究者的企業文化的理性思辨結晶。而關於中國傳統文化如何進入企業文化建設的視野,理論界的研究同樣仍然以純理論研究為主,鮮有通過具體的案例分析去推演中國傳統文化與企業文化建設的理論範式。本研究通過紮根一家應用傳統文化進行企業文化建設的典型企業,得出一個有別于現有主流企業文化理論的企業文化建設模型,在這個個案模型的基礎上,我們演化出中國企業進行企業文化建設的基本規律。研究的成果是對中國傳統文化與現代企業文化建設如何耦合的一個理論創新,是對現有企業文化理論的一個補充。同時,本研究的成果對於中國企業全面走向國際經濟社會的過程中,需要著力注意的企業文化本土化問題有一定的參考價值。關鍵詞: 企業文化;中國傳統文化;中國企業文化;企業文化建設 Chinese traditional culture, corporate culture construction, sustainaAle groyth of enterprises: the theory of corporate culture to Auild a localizedShaoJie WANG1, 2, Shanshi LIU2( 1. South China University of Technology Faculty of Business Administration, Guangzhou, China ) ( 2. Guangdong Zhanjiang Normal University, Zhanjiang, China )AAstract: In previous studies the building of enterprise culture in China, theorists and more to the Western theory of corporate culture to talk about the cultural construction of Chinese enterprises, research results mainly for rational debate crystallization of the researcher's corporate culture. About traditional Chinese culture, how to get into the field of view of the building of enterprise culture, the research field in the same still pure research-based, little theoretical paradigm through specific case analysis to deduce the traditional Chinese culture and corporate culture construction. In this study, by application of traditional cultural construction of corporate culture rooted a typical enterprise, come to a different from the existing mainstream theory of corporate culture construction of corporate culture model, we evolved Chinese enterprise corporate culture, in this case the model based on the construction of the basic law. The outcome of the study is a theoretical innovation, coupled how the construction of the Chinese traditional culture and modern corporate culture is a supplement to the existing corporate culture theory. The same time, the results of this study for Chinese enterprises towards a comprehensive international economic and social process, the need to focus attention to the localization of corporate culture has a certain reference value.eyyords: Corporate culture of traditional; Chinese culture; Corporate culture; Corporate culture construction收稿日期:2012-07-27;修訂日期:2013-03-08。本文受中央高校基本科研業務費面上專案編號2013XMS05的資助王少傑:華南理工大學工商管理學院博士後,湛江師範學院教師,從事企業管理研究。 E-mail:wangsj2288@163.com;Tel:18620079190
  • 45王少傑,等  中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論1 導論1.1 研究背景 在國際範圍內,對企業文化的研究肇始於 20世紀 80 年代日本經濟快速崛起而對美國經濟形成的巨大壓力背景下美國學者的反思,當時大批美國管理學家、社會學家和心理學家赴日本考察,在比較了美日兩國企業管理的根本性差異後,提出了企業文化的概念和企業文化理論。我國的企業文化理論是上個世紀 80 年代中後期隨著我國企業大規模引進西方企業管理理論,而從國外移植進來的。學術界從這個時候開始,展開對企業文化的研究,因為企業發展到一定階段,沒有統一的行為方式和價值觀,以便培育自己個性鮮明的企業文化,企業無法持續健康發展(于雪麗,2010 年)[57]。由此,我國的企業文化研究開始,但長期以來的企業文化研究大多缺乏實證的支撐,以純理論思辨的方式研究企業文化一直是主流。在我們長期的調研中發現,目前,越來越多的企業認識到企業文化的重要性,積極開展企業文化建設,有些企業對企業文化的認識達到企業核心競爭力的高度,有些企業從人力資源系統的優化層面入手,通過緩和勞資關係,進而構建和諧的勞資關係來推動企業文化建設,企業文化在推進過程中,對中國五千年傳統文化的認識越來越深刻、廣泛,個性化的企業文化探索潮流正在形成。但也存在不少問題,企業在進行企業文化建設的動機方面,功利心太重。企業往往在不太考慮員工幸福指數的增加,不太考慮社會責任等問題的背景下,去搞企業文化,把企業文化視為“精神鴉片”,以為員工只要聽了企業文化宣講,就會變成“雷鋒式的員工”,企業效益就會在短期內大增。這種企業利潤導向型企業文化建設觀,造成不少企業在企業文化建設過程中,開始雄心萬丈,最後草草收場,文化建設業績就是牆上掛著的幾條標語。功利思維導向型的企業文化觀正在成為制約著我國企業走向持續發展之路關鍵之所在。此外,不少企業在把傳統文化引入企業文化建設的過程中,不顧企業的實際情況,找一些簡潔明快的古文作為自己的企業文化,造成企業文化與員工心理、企業特點不能有效地契合,使企業文化建設功敗垂成。這些問題的出現,我們認為主要在於企業文化建設缺乏規範的路徑指引和企業對企業文化生成規律把握不夠所致。通過對無限極公司企業文化建設的深入研究,我們發現了諸多對我國企業文化建設有重要價值的知識。1.2 研究的問題本研究通過對無限極公司企業文化建設的長期關注和深入研究,對比企業文化在不少企業中正在變成面子工程,提升企業形象的工具的現象。由此我們提出:中國企業如何走出當前企業文化建設的困境?如何通過規範的方式去步步為營地推進企業文化建設?如何讓企業文化成為引導員工做事、做人的精神指標?如何讓企業文化成為企業長青事業的基石?無限極公司的企業文化建設實踐回答了我們的這些問題,在此基礎上,我們將著力研究以下幾個問題:第一、企業文化的演化路徑。不少企業的文化建設最後無疾而終,究其原因在於企業不明白企業文化的演化路徑所致,無限極企業文化的建設過程持續進行 20 年,這其中的發展軌跡給我們展示一個企業文化演化的路徑圖。第二、企業文化通過怎麼樣的途徑去影響員工行為,進而使員工圍繞公司的發展戰略而行動,推動公司戰略的實現。無限極企業文化建設的歷程有助於我們揭開長期以來困擾公司企業文化建設的難題。第三、怎樣的企業文化才能成為推動其快速發展的強大動力,這其中的作用機制是什麼。這個問題也是 20 多年來困擾我們大多數企業文化建設的老問題,本研究將通過無限極公司為例的研究分析,探索企業文化成為企業“精神發動機”的內在邏輯機制。第四、強勢企業文化的演化路徑如何形成,並進而推動企業快速發展。通過對無限極公司的研究,我們發現強勢企業文化是一個動態的系統,而這個系統是一個典型的“耗散結構”。
  • 461.3 研究的目的到目前為止,關於企業文化的研究,大多數集中在靜態層面上對企業文化進行分層研究,這種研究思路的一個邏輯前提是,企業文化已經形成,並在企業運行中發生影響,從這樣的邏輯出發,來靜態的討論企業文化現象,而對於企業管理中如何實施才能促使這些文化現象的出現,以及這些文化現象通過怎樣的演化路徑才對企業產生積極影響等問題涉及很少。這樣的研究往往把理論視角引入定勢思維的陷阱;另外一種代表性的研究是把現代自然科學的系統論、資訊理論、耗散結構理論移植到企業文化問題的研究中,在這方面的研究,同樣囿于理論範式的桎梏,而把這些理論按照“依葫蘆畫瓢”的方式應用在企業文化研究中,這樣得出的研究結論以及研究過程,把一個活生生的企業文化問題變成一具冰冷的“理論僵屍”,最後同樣使理論研究陷入困境,而與現實的企業文化存在脫節。還有一種是在國學熱的背景下,把中國傳統文化引入企業文化建設,力圖擺脫既有理論束縛,開創一種中國本土的企業文化建設理論及路徑。但從實踐來看,大多數的相關研究論文停留在講經論道的層面來談傳統文化指導企業文化建設,造成不少企業在文化建設實踐中,不加深入的分析,把傳統文化直接搬到企業,力圖用“原生態”的傳統文化來解決企業文化建設問題,實踐效果不言而喻。有鑑於此,本研究在沒有任何理論範式框定的前提下,選擇一個應用中國傳統文化指導企業文化建設工作做的比較好的企業——無限極公司為案例,進行研究。目的有三:其一、從動態的角度探討企業文化的演化過程,從中尋找企業文化演化路徑、模式等;其二、從實證的層面探討中國傳統文化通過怎樣的路徑與現代企業文化建設相結合,從中尋找一個本土化企業文化建設模型,以便本研究的成果能對企業文化建設起到實踐操作層面的指導意義;其三、闡述一個動態的企業文化理論,特別是能被中國人思維邏輯容易接受的理論。2 文獻評論關於企業文化研究方面的文獻,從 1980 年代以來日益增多,對這些文獻資料的整理,我們從以下視角進行梳理:2.1 從企業文化一般層面的企業文化理論研究 2.1.1 從系統論的層面闡述企業文化建設國外有學者從系統論的層面對企業文化進行探索性的研究後,指出企業文化是一個複雜的演化系統,這個系統在企業發展中的存在表現為一個複雜的自組織過程,企業文化變革必須通過系統內外資訊流動機制的建立來達成(約翰‧霍蘭,2000)[54]。在國內,有學者把企業文化系統當作一個耗散結構來研究,提出企業文熵概念來闡述企業文化系統持續、健康發展的對策(李靜,2010年)[55]。這些學者把企業文化當做一個動態的系統進行研究闡述,賦予企業文化動態變化的機制,是企業文化研究的一個重要進步。正如有學者指出:企業文化是在企業成員相互作用的過程中形成的,為大多數成員所認同的,並用來教育新成員的一套價值體系(愛德格 ‧ 沙因,2011)[65]。如何把系統的企業文化變成價值體系?有學者指出:只有將企業置身于自然與社會環境之中,才能更好更清晰的確立企業在經濟社會發展中所處的位置,才能更好的塑造符合經濟社會發展方向的良好的企業文化(劉光嶺,2010 年)[66]。可見,企業文化是一個動態演化的系統,只有把這個系統置於特定的社會、自然背景下,它才能產生應有的價值。我們認識到企業文化是一個系統,這一點很重要,但更為重要的是這個系統能夠融入特定的文化社會等背景中,這樣才能在系統中演化出指導企業人行動的信念。2.1.2 層次論的層面闡述企業文化建設國外學者們關於企業文化的研究最早從層次論的角度展開,對企業文化通過層次化的視角進行研究是企業文化研究領域很重要的一個流派。這個流派把企業文化視為一個洋蔥,提出五花八門的企業文化學說,代表性的有特雷斯 ‧ 迪爾和
  • 47王少傑,等  中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論阿倫 ‧ 甘迺迪(1982)[49] 在《企業文化》中也對企業文化的基本要素問題進行了探討,並且總結出以價值觀為核心的,包括企業環境、英雄、儀式、文化網路等五個結構要素的企業文化理論。以及 Hofstede(1990 年)[22] 的四層次模型中提出的由裡及外的四個層次依次是價值觀(第一層)、儀式(第二層)、英雄(第三層)、符號(第四層),外面三層納入企業文化“實踐活動”的範疇,是可見的,而最裡層的“價值觀”是核心,是不可見的。除了這些觀點外,其他學者也從層次論的角度提出類似的學術觀點,如 Kotter,1992[14];查德‧巴斯卡, 1981年 [46];威廉‧大內,1981年 [47];湯瑪斯‧J‧彼得斯,1982 年 [48];約翰‧科特,2004[51];傑克林 ‧ 謝瑞頓,1998 年 [52]。受國外研究的影響,國內不少學者對企業文化的研究提出類似的見解,比如有學者提出企業文化分為物質層、精神層、制度層、行為層等諸多層級劃分(宋軍,2012)[68],也有人提出企業文化三層次論:核心價值觀、制度技術文化、行為形象文化(馬曉苗,2012 年)[69]。這些研究成果的產生,使我們看到一個結構層次分明的企業文化構成。這些理論視角在企業文化研究的早期,對於人們認識抽象的企業文化有一定的幫助,這種研究有一個基本的假設即企業文化已經形成,並可以自動的發揮作用,這種研究思路有事後諸葛亮的嫌疑。因為企業文化不可能是固化的,它是一個不斷變化的系統,我們不可能通過人為的方式把一個客觀存在的事實主觀化,並給其製作一套漂亮的外衣來裝飾。另外,企業文化層次化研究顯然忽視了企業文化的演化過程,而把企業文化成型後的研究代替了企業文化演化的研究,這顯然在事物的發展邏輯上有缺陷。我們認為企業文化的研究應該從動態演化的過程來研究,給企業一個動態的、活生生的企業文化理論,引導企業進行企業文化建設,避免把僵化的說教交給企業,最終誤導企業發展。2.1.3 企業文化對企業績效影響方面的研究國外學者的研究表明,企業文化對企業績效有著非常明顯的影響,這種影響大多是通過企業文化對員工價值觀等心裡層面的影響來影響企業的發展,最終成為企業的核心競爭力(道格拉斯 ‧ 諾斯,2005 年 [41];約翰 ‧ 科特,2004[51];Dealte ,1982[21];Peterst ,2003[9];Denisondr,1990[10];Kotterjp ,1992[11];Collins J,2002[12];Soupata L,2001[13];Kotter J P,1992[14];Barney J B, 1986[15];Gordon G G, 1992[16];Barney J B.,1991[17]; 柯 林 斯,2002[43];Richard N Farmer, 1965[18])。Akin 和 Hopelain 的研究進一步表明:企業文化和績效之間的聯繫隨著時間的推移一直在加強。這方面的研究成果揭示了企業文化建設的終極目的——推動企業持續發展,使企業文化研究逃脫理論說教的圈套,步入實證研究的境地,有力地推動了企業文化建設理論的發展。受國外相關研究的影響,國內學者的實證研究也從不同角度的探索揭示企業文化對企業績效的影響。張暘(2006 年)[63] 研究指出,企業文化與組織績效存在正相關關係。也有學者指出,企業文化有助於和諧雇傭關係的構建,這種關係有助於企業文化變化成企業的文化品牌(楊一瓊,2011)[64],而這種品牌最終變成企業在市場競爭中克敵制勝的法寶,推動企業績效的顯著提升。有學者的研究進一步指出:企業文化經過數次昇華最終變為企業的核心競爭力(劉嘯,2012 年)[67],可見企業文化對企業發展的影響最終會集中體現在企業在市場競爭的績效中;宋军(2012 年)[68] 等人從不確定性環境下企業文化對企業發展的影響研究表明:企業文化的契合度對企業績效有著顯著的影響,特別是在高度不確定性的環境下,這種影響更為明顯。2.2 從企業文化特殊層面——中國傳統文化對企業文化建設的理論研究不少學者認為中國傳統文化對中國企業文化建設有負面影響,某些情況下甚至成為阻礙企業文化建設的民族文化因素,為此,對中國傳統文化在企業文化建設的負面影響提出比較激烈的批評,認為中國傳統文化的負面因素制約了我國企
  • 48業文化建設,特別是國有企業文化的建設(王華強,2006 年 [38];劉晉軍,2009 年 [39];閻世平,2008 年 [40])。我們認為這種觀點有失偏頗,中國傳統文化影響中國社會數千年,並孕育了中華古文明,如果中國傳統文化真如學者們所言,它怎麼可能數千年不斷的影響著中國人?特別是進入21 世紀以來,中國傳統文化在世界範圍內的影響力正在恢復。早在 1988 年 1 月,世界各地 75 位諾貝爾獎獲得者在巴黎集會通過的《巴黎宣言》開宗明義地呼籲:如果人類要在 21世紀生存下去,就必須回到 2500 年前,去吸收孔子思想,這些智者的呼籲表明中國傳統文化對人類發展的重要意義。難道中國傳統文化對外體現其精華的一面,對內體現其糟粕的一面嗎?我們只能帶著問題通過實證去探索。中國傳統文化博大精深,是我國企業文化建設的智慧源泉,對現代企業管理有重要的影響。從 20 世紀 90 年代以來,有一大批華人學者開始發掘中國傳統文化對中國企業文化建設的重要影響和意義,他們的研究指出,中國文化的重人守信、人和務實、順道法治、節儉對策、利器修仁、天人和諧等思想是中國企業文化力形成的源頭活水。在此基礎上學者們提出了傳統文化治理企業的 C 理論、協同論、和合論、羅盤理論、企業文化建設的五行學說理論等。(成中英,1991 年 [26];蔣一葦,1989 年 [27];鄭海航,2004 年 [28];潘承烈,1997 年 [29];駱承烈 2008 年 [30];劉剛 2009 年 [31];席酉民 , 2002[32];黃如金, 2006[33];蘇東水,2005[34];胡祖光, 1998[35];曾仕強, 2006[36];李昆,2009 年 [37];馬英傑,2011[61]。)這些研究從不同的角度開展對中國傳統文化的挖掘,提出企業文化建設如何與傳統文化對接的思路、模式,對推動傳統文化與企業文化建設理論的發展做出重要的貢獻。但這些研究成果中,除了曾仕強先生的研究成果外,其他學者的研究成果集中體現在從學理上來探討中國傳統文化對企業文化建設的問題,通過系統地案例研究來支撐學理的研究成果的研究理論界還顯不足,這是該領域研究的一個缺陷。3 研究方法本研究應用紮根研究的方法,通過對目標企業的觀察、記錄和對 17 個管理部門負責人及部分公司高層管理人員訪談來獲取研究資料,訪談的過程中,採用開放式問題來進行。在進行的過程中,訪談時根據本研究的訪談大綱來進行的。在訪談過程中,我們主要把自己塑造成一個忠實的聽眾。力求做到我們的說話時間不超過 5% 的訪談時間,把我們自己塑造成既是礦工,也是遊人的角色定位,著力傾聽受訪者的特殊資訊,並做好對這些資訊的挖掘工作。此外,不時提出問題引導受訪人在我們的訪談大綱內訴說自己的故事(艾爾 ‧ 巴比,2006 年 [58])。我們做了大量的觀察筆記和 14 小時 25 分的訪談錄音,這些資料全部整理出來後,總共字數是十五萬八千多字,把這些資料初步分析後,我們對該公司的生產基地進行了實地觀察分析,和對生產基地員工代表進行深度交流,這些員工分為三組,每組倆人,三組人在公司的工作時間分別為:工作 15 年以上的元老、8 ~ 10 年的員工、最近一年加入的員工,通過這個環節的資料收集,我們進一步驗證第一階段的資料,獲取更為全面的研究資料。在整個研究的過程中,我們通過對研究目標進行訪談和觀察的方式進行資料收集。訪談有一個針對不同部門和不同人群的訪談大綱,這個大綱是我們在文獻整理和對研究目標企業的有關資料的全面分析研究的基礎上整理出來的。在每次訪談前,我們都會向被訪談者就訪談的內容做一個簡要的說明,並就訪談資料的使用問題做出明確的承諾。在具體訪談過程中,訪談的提綱只是起一個提示作用,防止被訪談者沒有涉及到訪談大綱的主要內容時,我們技巧性的引導一下被訪談者,或者在訪談結束後以開放的方式詢問對方的意見。在訪談中,我們為了避免被訪談者使用抽象的概括性語言,盡可能多向被訪談者提問題,這些問題是針對被訪談者個人的陳述而提出的。
  • 49王少傑,等  中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論這對訪談者的臨場發揮能力是個巨大的考驗,即使訪談前準備的再充分,好多問題也是無法預測到的。對於被訪談者的非語言行為,我們主要通過及時捕捉他們的表情來獲取一些資訊,這就是觀察被訪談者的形體動作、面部表情、說話的語氣等。訪談的內容我們通過錄音和筆倆種方式來記錄。我們一般在每次集中訪談結束後,做出訪談備忘錄,主要採用解釋型(對結果做出初步的解釋)、方法型(討論訪談時使用的方法及其對研究過程的影響)進行。通過這種方式收集到研究的原始資料,對這些原始資料,我們按照定性研究的基本要求,對其進行分類、編碼、登錄。具體過程為:3.1 對資料進行開放性編碼開放性編碼是為現象取名字或加以分類的分析工作。不經此一分析性的基礎步驟,紮根理論研究法的後續分析與成果展示是無由發生的。我們需要用開放性編碼將搜集來的資料分解成一個個單位。因此,在分析工作裡,我們的第一要務就是得把資料轉換成概念,此即為開放性編碼的主要工作。但基於我們本次研究的範疇明顯,而收集回來的資料很龐大,特別是錄音整理的文字資料,其中很大一部分與本研究沒有直接的關係,所以在進行資料登錄時,我們也是用了選擇性登錄的方法,即把與本研究直接相關的資料進行登錄,其餘不相關的資料捨棄,最後形成的與研究主體密切相關的文字資料一萬六千多字,為何出現十五萬多字的資料最後有效資料才是接近其十分之一的內容呢?我們分析完資料後發現,造成這個問題的主要原因是:我們訪談的過程中是 5 ~6 人一個小組進行訪談,儘管有一個訪談提綱,但在具體訪談的過程中,我們的訪談成員對企業的有關資料研究的透徹程度不同,問了被訪談人員不少偏離主題的問題;另一方面,目標企業對本次訪談非常重視,被訪談人員都做了很充分的準備,在整個訪談過程中,他們急於全面展現他們的“準備成果”,有時候他們談到興致的地方也往往跑題,而我們糾正不及時造成與主題無直接關係的資料大量出現。但從資料整理的結果來看,這並沒有影響我們的研究。本研究在此階段,主要的工作是進行概念化及範疇化的步驟,因考慮到資料量龐大的緣故,所以本研究在此階段一方面對原始資料進行概念化的工作,同時開展範疇化的動作。本研究所收集的原始資料進行概念化過程為:在概念化的階段,本研究依據訪談和觀察資料,進行概念化的分析,總共分析出 240 個概念。在這個階段,我們以一種開放的心態來對待所收集的資料,排除個人的偏見和文獻資料的影響,將所有資料按照研究主題的範疇進行取捨,把與本研究主題有關的資料歸類編碼(即概念化的處理)。因為我們的研究主題範疇很明確,這樣資料的取捨相對容易許多。最後按照資料呈現的屬性進行分類。在這個階段,我們一邊進行登錄一邊寫一些分析型的備忘錄,以便加大對資料的認識度。我們把握的基本原則是:盡自己最大的努力,做到詳細登錄。特別注意當事人的詞語,給每條編碼進行命名,對資料提出盡可能多的問題,不斷就相關的條目進行比較。整個登錄過程是在開放的心態下進行,沒有參雜個人的立場。3.2 對資料進行主軸編碼這個階段的主要任務是發現、建立概念之間的聯繫。概念化的步驟完成後,本研究將概念化過程中所建構的這些概念,依據其相互聯繫,這些聯繫包括:因果關係、時間先後關係、語義關係、情境關係、相似關係、差異關係、對等關係、類型關係、結構關係、功能關係、過程關係、策略關係等。繼續進行下一步範疇化的動作。本研究先將相關的概念整理,再度聚合成範疇。在此階段總共建立了 26 個範疇:文化生活化、營造良好的員工發展空間、公司文化對新員工的要求、公司文化對員工的關注、公司文化對人的關懷、公司文化對員工關係的掌控、公司文化對用人的影響、家文化感化員工、公司文化傳播職業化、通過形式多樣的活動傳播公司文化、辦公場所裝修傳播公司文化、團隊建設傳播公司文化、領導
  • 50推動公司文化的傳播、公司文化傳播的方式、公司引導建立員工間人際信任、公司文化的滲透力、公司文化培育員工、建立公司品質文化、文化與公司績效、學習優化企業文化建設、公司文化建設的分層、公司文化制度化、公司文化建設方向的選擇途徑、文化變革中的企業文化建設、企業文化的淵源、嚴格固守企業文化。在這個階段,我們每次只對一個類屬進行深度分析,建立起所有的類屬後,再對類屬進行主次分類。通過這些類屬的劃分,對原始資料進行重新組合,建立一個初步的理論建構雛形。3.3 對資料進行選擇性編碼。選擇性編碼是一個統整與精煉類別的歷程。連結各個主要的類別,並統整成一較大的理論架構,研究發現才真正成為一個理論。本研究經過選擇編碼後共探究出 6 個核心範疇,即堅守企業文化、企業文化建設控制機制、企業文化優化公司發展、企業文化傳播機制、企業文化促進勞資關係和諧、企業文化生活化。這裡的核心範疇是指比範疇更具抽像化的概念。這個階段的主要任務是在已經發現的概念類屬中經過系統的分析後,選擇核心類屬將分析集中在與該核心類屬有關的編碼上,這個核心類屬是具有提綱挈領作用的,即這個類屬在所有類屬中佔有核心地位,頻繁出現在資料中,很容易與其他類屬發生聯繫,比其他類屬更容易發展出一般性的理論。我們把這 6個範疇概括為:企業文化建設的演化模式。在這個理論框架下,對原始資料進行進一步的分析以後,我們歸納了這樣幾個觀點:第一、企業堅守自己的企業文化與企業文化生活化可以造就強勢企業文化;第二、強勢的企業文化有助於企業構建和諧的勞資關係;第三、和諧勞資關係的存在與企業持續發展之間存在著密切的正相關性。第四、有效的企業文化傳播機制和控制機制的存在是保證和諧勞資關係的重要因素。4 目標案例的分析4.1 目標案例背景介紹無限極公司是隸屬李錦記集團的一家公司,該公司創辦於 1992 年,是李錦記成為亞洲第一食品品牌,通過醬料把中國優秀飲食文化傳播到全世界之後,開始其第二個使命——將中國 5000 年的優秀養生文化透過中草藥健康產品傳播到全世界。此而創辦了無限極公司,經過 20 年的奮鬥,無限極榮獲了全國企業文化優秀獎、中華慈善獎、亞洲最佳雇主獎、中國最佳雇主獎等大獎,無限極的品牌價值在 2005 年名列中國 500 個最具品牌價值排行榜中的 62 位,品牌價值為 80.83 億人民幣。無限極秉承百年老店李錦記的優良傳統,在20 年的發展歷程中,實現了一個又一個的飛躍,秘密何在?它的企業文化就是打開其飛速發展秘密的一把鑰匙。無限極企業文化的核心價值觀是“思利及人”。在思利及人的理念的影響下,無限極經過 20 年的探索,建立了獨具特色的企業文化體系(圖 1)。無限極公司通過企業內部強大的文化傳播機制,把企業文化融入到員工的行為中,員工不但積極主動地承擔工作,而且把公司的文化帶回家中,影響自己的家人,企業文化的滲透力超越企業進入社會。圖1 無限極企業文化體系圖4.2 目標案例企業文化發展階段4.2.1 李錦記百年歷史中形成了鮮明的企業社會責任觀,這成為無限極企業文化的歷史源頭。從李錦記的創始人開始,歷代經營者秉承“修身豈為名傳世,做事惟思利及人”這樣樸素簡單
  • 51王少傑,等  中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論的道理做人、做事、做企業,始終把保持產品品質放在第一位,把對方的利益放在合作的首位,把誠信的追求放在企業管理的核心地位,這樣,與李錦記合作的客戶從來不會吃虧,所以大家對李錦記的產品放心,對與李錦記的合作放心。第三代掌門人李文達先生,為了把李錦記的商業精神傳給下一代,在無限極董事長李惠森年幼的時候,無論拜見供應商還是經銷商,都會帶著孩子,使其親身慢慢感受“思利及人”的商業真諦。無限極企業文化今天的成功,離開百年李錦記,將成為無源之水、無本之木。飲水思源,無限極企業文化的源頭在百年李錦記。4.2.2 1992年~2002年:南方李錦記(無限極公司的前身)的企業文化探索階段。1992 年 ,懷著傳播中國健康養生文化的理念,李文達先生攜子李惠森到廣州開拓李錦記集團的另外一份事業——弘揚中國數千年積澱下來的中草藥文化,開創南方李錦記的發展歷程。在這個階段,公司文化宣導“思利及人”,以此推動保健養生產業的發展。企業文化以“思利及人”為核心價值觀,堅持務實誠信、永遠創業精神。4.2.3 2002年~2007年:南方李錦記(無限極公司的前身)開始系統探索企業文化建設。2002 年,公司管理層在總結公司創業 10 年的發展經歷時,反復討論公司經歷 2 次 1 巨大的波動而不倒,進而取得飛速發展,這其中的原因何在?經過公司管理層的充分討論,大家認為企業文化的作用功不可沒,於是公司開始大力探索系統的公司文化建設。在這一年,公司開始全面實施第一個五年計劃,明確了企業的發展戰略,把企業文化納入公司發展戰略,該項工作由公司的董事長親自抓落實。這期間,公司文化建設圍繞“思利及人”,提出“自動波管理模式”,企業文化宣導體系初步形成,公司各部門開始探索不同方式落實公司文化,以實際行動體現公司文化,公司建立了系統的企業文化培訓體系,為員工個人1 一次是国家取缔传销销售模式公司受到冲击,一次是中央决定军队不能从事经营性活动而造成公司与第一军医大学的合作中断。的提升提供更多的機會,設立文化大使推動公司文化落實和部門間的溝通。同時,公司在企業文化建設方面投入大量資源,推動企業團隊建設,打造“高效團隊”。比如開展員工滿意度調查,獲取企業文化建設的意見和建議;提出“爽”的工作氛圍的概念;開展家庭同樂日,讓員工與家屬一起參加,瞭解體驗公司文化;推出無限極中草藥健康理念,舉辦養生文化進萬家知識巡展;培訓高級業務精英,培訓供應商,推動公司文化在上下游產業鏈中的傳播;推動環保理念深入員工心,樹立環保意識;提出造福社會共用成果、造福社會盡心盡力理念,使南方李錦記的公益責任價值觀得到極大提升。2007 年公司發佈了第一個年度社會責任報告,董事長提出:源於責任、引領發展的主題。4.2.4 2008年~2009年:從南方李錦記到無限極,企業文化建設全面總結,在糾錯中繼續向前發展。2008 年,公司由南方李錦記更名為無限極,這期間公司探索新的文化建設模式——聘請職業經理人來打理公司的文化建設事業。但實踐中出了問題,公司各部門不再推動公司文化,大家把推動公司文化的工作全丟給公司主管企業文化的職業經理人,公司文化建設出了問題。這期間公司開展養生文化進萬家的全國專家巡講活動,提出“健康、家庭、事業”三平衡的理念;對員工開展針對性的培訓和個人發展計劃,推動公司文化融入到員工的日常工作、生活中;在團建方面,通過比武擂臺、瘋狂的創意、趣味運動會、思利及人案例辯論會等活動,幫助員工正確理解“思利及人”的三要素:換位思考、關注對方感受、直升機思維;舉辦家庭同樂日、大地任我行活動,向員工傳播家庭、事業、健康三平衡理念;舉辦軍民同樂日,提高員工的生命意識;培訓合作夥伴,傳播公司文化;通過舉辦物流供應商研討會,向合作夥伴傳播公司的“務實誠信、思利及人、客企一體”企業文化。2009 年,公司開展建立品質文化為主題的企
  • 52業文化建設活動。公司舉辦了創建以客戶為中心的品質文化大討論,把品質文化深入公司每一位員工的心中,建立系統的品質保障制度體系,嚴把產品品質關,開展科研合作,勵志創新;繼續開展養生文化進萬家活動,傳播三調養、四合理、三平衡、三富足、三和諧的健康責任理念,培養養生文化推廣專員;建立融洽的勞資關係和完善的福利體系,豐富的培訓活動,促進員工成長,對員工進行職業生涯規劃培訓,舉辦我的特質生活有獎照片徵集活動,促進員工之間的瞭解,建立信任;通過滿意度調查,建立雙向溝通平臺,員工滿意度進一步提升;通過有獎短信競猜活動,宣導公司品牌文化;組織員工開展體育活動、提供半價電影票、家庭同樂日活動、軍民聯誼活動,讓員工感受公司文化;舉辦第二屆供應夥伴業務促進合作聯誼大會,傳播公司客企一體、實現共贏的文化;推動電子化辦公,設置廢舊電池統一回收箱,宣導綠色辦公理念,公司制定企業對公司生產排放的固體殘餘物進行回收利用,傳播環保理念;公司提出短期與長期平衡發展、硬體與軟體平衡建設、輸血與造血的平衡慈善三大理念,捐資教育、救助貧困,把思利及人理念在實踐中體現,啟動中華慈善總會下思利及人基金,在扶貧、助弱、賑災方面取得良好效果。4.2.5 2010年至今:企業文化系統開展,各部門全體行動起來,形成全員文化格局。2010 年公司提出“自動波領導模式”,公司文化系統展開。本年度,公司開始實施第三個五年計劃。聯合科研力量、厲行創新、提供卓越的產品,建立原材料生產基地,保證產品原材料的品質,從源頭控制品質關,生產製作追求零缺陷文化;舉辦無限極 2010 世界行走日活動,宣導每天行走多一步,健康人生無限極的理念,打造全球首家網上中華養生館,繼續開展養生活動進萬家,打造無限極四葉草健康計劃,向國民傳播科學養生理念,在海外傳播中華養生文化;建立公司完善福利體系,持續提升員工的滿意度,加大員工培訓,成就員工未來人生,創造舒適安全的辦公環境,員工投票選座椅,彈性工作、保障健康,向員工發放無限極周邊生活手冊,生產中心裝環保空調,舉辦消防安全疏散演練,增強員工生命意識,增加生活設施、體育設施,鼓勵員工健康生活、平衡工作;舉辦第三屆供應鏈夥伴業務促進聯誼大會,深化客企一體理念;舉辦業務諮詢會、業務管理委員會會議、為業務夥伴提供輔助、強化培訓業務高級主管等活動,踐行客企一體;發佈公司規範經營三字經,説明合作夥伴規範經營;公司成立節能小組,宣導公司的圖2 無限極企業文化演化路徑圖
  • 53王少傑,等  中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論環保責任文化,改善公司生產、生活設備,集約能源,2010 年與華南農業大學合作開發中藥渣變廢為寶的技術研究取得成功,在資源再生利用邁出決定性的一步;響應地球一小時活動、舉辦臺灣淡水濕地保育活動,提升員工的環保意識;通過私立思利及人基金,履行公司社區責任,建設學校、培訓教師、賑災濟困。2011 年,公司建立了一個中心、四大技術平臺、多方科研權威支撐的科研體系,保證產品品質,創建無限極中草藥種植管理模式,推廣公司品質文化,通過品質“畫與話”活動,闡發公司的品質文化;組建中草藥產業鏈安全研究中心、建立國家級實驗室、獲准設立博士後科研工作站,舉辦學術研討會,使公司產品品質有堅實的保障基礎;在全國 12 個城市舉辦無限極 2011 世界行走日,普及健康理念,提高全民素質,推出二十四節氣養生手冊,舉辦無限極保健食品安全知識大賽,繼續舉辦養生文化進萬家活動,舉辦無限極中草藥種植管理論壇,傳播無限極的健康理念;建立員工住院互助基金和員工商業保險福利,推出員工自助訂餐系統,優化公司訂票和報銷流程,提供優質的工作環境,體現公司對員工的人文關懷;建立系統的企業文化體系,系統闡述永遠創業精神的內涵、自動波領導模式的內涵、思利及人的內涵,開展激勵為主題的企業文化落實計劃;進行年度表彰激勵員工,推動日常認可卡制度,推行技術激勵項目,發明自動波領導模式學習工具,如學習卡、學習影片、測試遊戲,舉辦企業文化節,點燃文化激情,啟動企業文化分享平臺;進一步加大員工培訓力度,拓展員工的發展空間,建立員工康樂會,豐富員工生活;舉辦無限極2011 世界行走日廣州活動,舉辦新廠環場長跑活動,傳播健康理念;舉辦全國性主題活動,傳播公司養生文化,召開第四屆供應夥伴業務促進聯誼大會,促進公司與合作者的聯繫,傳播客企一體文化;投資改造設備,提升公司節能減排能力,啟用新的文印管理模式,推進無紙化辦公,推行滅燈一小時,行走 6000 步活動和無限極低碳一天活動,傳播環保理念;在思利及人基金的平臺上,支援健康快車 2011 系列活動,向社區送教育送健康,創新教育扶貧模式,組織 2011 關懷小組行動,傳播公司的社區理念。5 資料整理結果通過對紮根資料三級編碼工作的基礎上,我們通過對三級編碼範疇進行邏輯分析,得出如下理論模型(見圖 3)。該模型是對無限極企業訪談資料整理的基礎上推演得出的,該模型向我們展示了一個應用中國傳統文化進行企業文化建設的思維路徑,以及在實施這個模型的過程中,需要著力把握的關鍵要素。該模型表明我們理論界長期以來占主導地位的企業文化層次論有待商榷。但該模型表明案例公司的企業文化是由六個範疇構成一個企業文化系統,通過企業文化的控制機制和傳播機制,把企業的價值觀傳播到員工的日常生活中,使企業文化成為企業的核心競爭力。該模型是我們通過分析十多萬字的資料資料得出的,下面我們將對該模型做一個分解闡述。5.1 無限極公司企業文化演化模型的具體闡釋5.1.1 中國傳統文化與現代企業文化建設的耦合馬克思(2011 年)[62] 指出:“人們自己創造自己的歷史,但是他們並不是隨心所欲的創造,並不是在他們自己選定的條件下創造,而是在直接碰到的、既定的、從過去承繼下來的條件下創造。”我們是否可以從中推演出:中國企業在進行企業文化建設工作的過程中,顯然不可能離開中國博大精深的傳統文化而從西方先進之邦“移植企業文化”來進行自己的文化建設,我們唯有從我們民族深厚的歷史文化淵源出發,才能構建出真正屬於我們企業自己的核心競爭力範疇的企業文化這樣的結論?那麼企業如何把中國古老的智慧應用在現代企業管理中,使其轉化成企業發展的精神動力?通過無限極公司的長達 20 年的實踐歷程,我們在訪談資料的整理基礎上,進一步梳理了有關無限極公司的 2 本公開出版書籍和無限極公司 2007 年以來
  • 54的社會責任報告。我們發現無限極公司把中國傳統文化引入企業文化建設是遵循人類的文化認知規律而展開的,具體過程如圖 4。圖4 中國傳統文化與企業文化耦合模型這個企業文化耦合模型為何能在無限極企業文化建設中產生積極的作用?荷蘭學者 Hofstede 區分了文化的五個維度:(1)集體主義與個體主義;(2)不確定性規避;(3)權力距離;(4)長期與短期導向;(5)男子氣與女子氣。這些是能夠影響人類行為的文化特質(Hofstede G,2001[1])。而中國的傳統文化是一種具有極強集體主義特質的文化,這種文化對中國人的影響是根深蒂固的,中國人行為的文化出發點都可以在傳統文化中找到依據。已有大量研究證實集體與個體主義的文化維度在行為水準上對人類的各種心理過程,如自我概念、動機、知覺、情緒和認知等產生明顯的影響,用這個文化維度可以來識別西方人與東亞人之間的思維方式的差異(Triandis 圖3 企業文化演化模型圖
  • 55王少傑,等  中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論H C,1995[2])。這種集體主義特質鮮明的中國傳統文化不但深深的影響著每一個在此文化環境中成長起來的人,而且這種文化特質也深深的印在中國人的基因裡。研究表明:根據文化-基因協同進化理論,文化特質可以具有進化優勢。文化特質中的個體主義和集體主義,可能具有適應的功能,它與文化相容的性狀可能為遺傳後代連續選擇,這一過程會導致某些基因的等位元基因頻率存在人群的差異(Munafo M R,2009[3])。所以在集體主義特質導向型文化中成長起來的中國人,對自己成長背景文化的依賴、認同是與生俱來的。在這樣文化背景下進行企業文化建設,顯然有利於該文化背景下成長起來的人接受,而且這種接受具有某種先天的基因生物學意義的支撐。為此,無限極公司很好的解決了在中國文化背景下如何“萃取”出來具有本企業特質的核心價值觀,而這個價值觀就是中國傳統文化與企業文化建設的耦合點之所在。只要這個點找到了,那麼意味著中國人可以從文化心理的層面接受以這種文化耦合點為核心生發出來的企業文化。從我們的訪談資料來看,公司的文化傳承了中國傳統文化的價值觀,形成我們企業自己的“思利及人"核心價值觀,“思利及人"來源於唐代大書法家顏真卿的碑帖“修身豈為名傳世,做事惟思利及人"這句飽含中華民族文化的經典句子(訪談對應編碼 62)。無限極公司顯然找到了從哪裡“萃取”企業的核心價值觀的道路,而且成功地獲取了公司企業文化建設的最初“基因”——“思利及人"。這片段的基因顯然符合中國員工的民族文化基因進化,能被中國員工較好接納。但是單純有這樣一段文化基因還遠遠不足以成為企業文化,無限極公司的實踐告訴我們,當公司找到屬於自己的“文化基因片段”——“思利及人"後,開展了全員的“文化基因片段”轉錄過程。無限極公司為了把“思利及人"轉錄成企業文化體系,探索出一套獨特的企業文化的傳播方式。第一 職業化傳播:公司培養專業的講解員團隊給來訪者講述公司的發展歷程及公司的發展理念、文化等。設立傳訊部圍繞公司的企業文化理念負責做公司與消費者、社會之間的公關工作,讓別人理解企業做事的動機和出發點,把公司隱性的文化顯性化。此外,公司有一個由各部門負責人組成的文化推廣小組,通過這個小組把公司文化體現在員工行動中,企業文化的落實重在“化"而不在於灌輸,比如我們通過搞文化節來落實公司文化。管理層每 3 個月開一次總結會,企業文化是其中重要的討論內容。但是 2009 年我們請了一位企業文化的經理來專業推企業文化,但出事了,有了文化經理大家不幹了,等待文化經理去搞企業文化建設,各部門的主動性不強,我們發現這樣下去可能前功盡棄,於是定下落實企業文化是每一位管理層的責任,管理層放手下面的人去講,去落實,部門主管去推企業文化,這樣企業文化又開始動了。(這些訪談對應編碼3、43、44、54、103、161、170)這告訴我們,所謂的職業化,決不是由專門的職業化的個人去做事,而是一個職業化的工作系統在發揮作用,這樣才能把企業文化推向前進,這也印證了企業文化是一個系統,需要諸多環節的整體配合、協作來完成其落實。第二、通過形式多樣的活動來傳播文化。公司每年從社會維度、公司的健康理念等方面確定具體的活動,2010 年在成都搞千人赤足行,傳播公司的文化理念。通過文體活動把公司文化滲透到工廠普通員工的行為中,目前,基層員工與公司的互動很好。通過文藝的方式把枯燥的例會樂趣化,在快樂中傳播公司文化。我們常年舉辦各種活動,邀請經銷商參加,讓他們從中體會、感受公司文化。我們的主要任務是把公司的理念、意識形態的東西轉化為可操作的行動。每年通過不同的主題活動,把公司的理念、意識形態的東西轉化為可操作的行動。主題活動增進員工之間的親切感,決策效率提高。(這些訪談對應編碼 2、35、83、93、123、197、198)這告訴我們,企業文化、文化建設不是神秘
  • 56的東西、行為,而是一些生活化,甚至是娛樂化的一些東西、行為,無限極公司正是把不少人視為深不可測的企業文化通過通俗多樣的形式變成員工生活的一部分,這是該公司企業文化建設取得成功的一個重要因素。第三、裝修傳播文化。公司在裝修過程中,借助特定的元素體現公司文化,把太極美學體現在裝修中,把公司的核心理念鐫刻在石頭上,陳列在公司 17 樓的展廳,把直升機模型停放在公司展廳,展示公司的管理中的“直升機思維"。公司 17 ~ 18 層之間的樓梯是一個透明的火炬造型,把激情似火的觀念傳給員工。公司大會議室的一面牆造成室內攀岩的牆壁,把艱苦創業的理念傳給員工。VIP 會議室的椅子可以圍繞會議桌 360 度自動旋轉,以此來強化換位思考的理念。VIP 會議室的頂燈是一個北斗七星的造型,寓意管理人員在企業要像北斗七星一樣指引公司前進的方向。公司 18 樓展廳的文化牆上通過生動的造型展示公司文化。把公司第三代掌門人李文達先生的塑像置於公司展廳的入口處,使參觀人,一進門就可以瞭解公司的歷史。(這些對應編碼 4、6、7、8、9、12、203)無限極公司通過公司建築物、辦公場所等的裝修,把公司的文化理念體現的公司中,讓員工一旦走進公司這個環境中,很快可以潛移默化的接受公司的企業文化,顯然文化符號化,營造一個良好的文化符號氛圍,成為無限極公司文化建設成功的又一重要因素。第四、通過團隊建設傳播企業文化。公司組建團隊時,有一個互相介紹制度,保證公司與員工之間的充分瞭解,達成信任,建立共同的目標,然後去宣傳學習公司文化正本,讓公司文化進入落實平臺,最終形成一個迴圈的“學、做、教"體系,推動公司文化發展。此外,公司每年每人450 元的團隊建設費,分兩次進行,活動圍繞公司文化建設開展,我們通過團建發現團隊成員的心智模式,培養員工合作做事的精神和良好的溝通能力。我們這裡講合作辦事的能力,講整體的能力。公司團建時,由員工對企業文化進行具體的講解,給員工一個展示自己的舞臺。(這些對應編碼 20、22、38、47、49、51、91、136。)無限極公司的團建活動獨具特色,以傳播公司文化為主線開展團建,團隊建設的活動緊緊圍繞公司文化,處處體現公司文化,讓員工在一個濃郁的文化氛圍中感受到在其他公司很難得到的一種生存氛圍,通過這樣的氛圍來逐步改變員工的心智模式,這是無限極公司文化建設成功的再一重要因素。 在無限極公司,企業多年以來始終堅守的核心價值觀——思利及人,就是企業文化與中國傳統文化的耦合點,這個點成為無限極企業文化的生命起源點,是企業文化的種子,一旦企業給這顆種子適當的生發條件,他就會發芽、生長、壯大而演化出企業的文化體系。國內不少企業搞企業文化最後無功而返或把起因引入困境,我們認為最為重要的原因在於這些企業沒有找到文化建設的耦合點,造成企業從一開始就與員工的文化心理相背離,這是企業文化建設失敗的邏輯起點。可見傳統文化在企業文化建設中發生怎麼樣的作用,關鍵在於通過何種方式來導入,何種方式去影響員工,案例公司通過構建良好的文化傳播機制,把傳統文化自然的融入到企業管理中,潛移默化的影響員工的行為。5.1.2 中國的傳統文化如何在企業文化建設中造就強勢企業文化強勢企業文化的關鍵在於其對員工行為的影響程度,而引發這種影響程度的關鍵在於企業文化能否與員工的文化心理相契合。因為文化本身就是一種複雜的心理現象,可以看作是心理活動的產物,而它反過來又會影響到心理活動。企業文化對企業發展的作用正是通過這種心理傳導機制而發生作用。有學者指出:組織文化是根植於組織之內的特定的價值觀和基本信念,這種價值觀和信念為組織提供行為準則,並指導組織的一切活動和行為。組織文化通過影響雇員的行為和心智模式進而影響組織運作,強勢文化的作用尤
  • 57王少傑,等  中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論為明顯(謝洪明,2006)[70]。所以,強勢企業文化構建的一個關鍵點在於如何在企業文化建設的鏈條中構建一個心理傳導機制,通過這種機制使文化與員工的行為切合。無限極公司的實證研究告訴我們,強勢企業文化是通過如下模型而實現的。圖5 強勢企業文化形成模型文化心理學研究表明,文化能夠塑造或者影響人的知覺。企業文化對企業發展的影響最終要通過員工的行為來體現,而對員工行為影響的最好方式就是把文化移植到生活中,使文化生活化,這樣企業文化就在“隨風潛入夜、潤物細無聲”的境界下,完成對員工行為的影響。為什麼生活化的環境中能使員工更好的接受企業文化?一項文化心理學研究表明,在面對一個重要的知覺物件時,生活在集體主義文化(如中國人)中的人能更好地結合情境資訊,而生活在個體主義文化 (歐美人)中的人更傾向於忽略情境資訊。這些實驗研究結果表明文化信念能夠影響視知覺(Kitayama S,2003)[4],為此,企業文化通過生活化的環節,把員工置身於生活化的文化環境中,員工工作過程中,耳濡目染接觸到的視覺物件大多是與企業文化有關聯的資訊,通過在這樣文化生活化環境中“浸泡”過的員工,企業文化對其產生影響是不言而喻的。中國員工是在有悠久集體主義傳統的國家成長起來的,有關研究表明:一旦文化特質的適應性形成,負責存儲和傳遞文化能力的認知神經結構在遺傳選擇的作用下會得到進一步的“提煉”。為此,這種文化特質在遺傳選擇的進化過程導致了心理和神經過程的文化差異,而這種心理和神經過程在文化特質的遺傳過程中起到內生表型的作用(Aylor S E,2006)[71]。這種內生表型的作用進一步通過遺傳的方式進行代際延續,把文化特質傳遞給下一代,使某些顯性的文化特質在特定的群體中固化。經遺傳學研究表明:人類基因具有明顯的文化特質差異性,主要是由於一個特定基因的等位元基因頻率的文化特質差異,會在多個進化過程中存在,如自然選擇、遺傳漂變(Green A E,2008)[72]。所以,集體主義的因素對於中國員工來說,是根植在其基因中的文化資訊,擁有這樣文化基因的員工進行企業文化薰陶,營造一個生活化的集體化的文化環境應該是最為便捷、有效的途徑。另外一項研究則更為生動的證明這中文化特質在現實生活中的存在:一項文化心理學研究表明,在面對一個重要的知覺物件時,生活在集體主義文化中的人能更好的抓住情境資訊;而生活在個體主義文化中的人更傾向於忽視情境資訊(Kitayama S, 2003)[73]。這就更說明對中國員工進行企業文化傳播時,營造一個能被其心裡容易接受的環境是多麼的重要,而生活化的環境顯然是人們最為樂於、輕鬆接受環境。強勢的企業文化只有在這樣的環境具備的條件下,才能形成,強勢的影響力才能更好的體現。如果沒有這樣一些情景資訊反復刺激員工的認知,那麼對於擁有集體主義基因的中國員工來說,顯然是一件困難的事。根據 Markus 的觀點,不同文化背景下往往會形成不同結構的自我概念。集體主義文化背景中的個體傾向于形成互倚型的自我概念(interdependentself);而個人主義文化背景下的個體往往會形成獨立型的自我(independentself)。這些不同的自我概念又會進一步對認知活動產生不同的影響作用(楊紅升,2007)[24]。在集體主義傳統下成長起來的中國員工的自我概念顯然是互倚型的,本案例企業通過為員工營造一個和諧的集體生活環境,在這樣的生活背景下,員工會更易認可、接受公司文化。比如無限極公司實施
  • 58的“圍餐制度",每次吃飯八個人一桌,通過這樣的方式,把員工由個人的“我"變成集體的“我"進而變成企業的“我"。企業文化在這樣的背景下被組織成員較好的接受。本研究的目標企業——無限極公司,通過把文化生活化引導員工接受企業文化,引導員工隨著企業文化完善自己的行為,而員工的這種把文化行為化的過程,又使公司員工的生活文化化了。以下資料能給我們一個清晰的解釋。公司文化無處不在,文化是最生活化的,文化就是教你處理事情的方式方法。倆人之間會形成處理事情的方式,把這種方式、習慣文字化就是顯性的文化。企業文化是規定、引導員工的行為,使員工有更好的習慣,比如公司宣導健康、家庭、事業三平衡,我們在一起做事,也是在一起生活。工作也是生活的一部分,由此延伸到家庭生活,家和萬事興。新員工是思利及我觀,公司盡力滿足他們的要求,比如在員工宿舍安裝寬頻、電視、空調、電扇,專門的電腦室。員工來廣州有免費的專車,公司體育設施齊全,建有圖書館。在此基礎上讓新員工接受公司思利及人的文化。公司員工之間互諒互解,形成一種日常的行為。再如 2001 年,公司一位女員工老家出事了,她非常著急,公司領導第一時間知道這件事,並派了一位男同志送這位女員工回家,這位員工處理完家事後,很快回到公司,通過這樣的一些行為,讓員工在公司有一種歸屬感。員工中形成一個相互關心的氛圍,員工在這樣的環境中受到很大的精神激勵。(資料來源於編碼:1、25、45、181、50、70、74、75、86、98、101、105、117、126、178、178、190、193、194、195、222、223、231、26、237。)無限極公司是通過什麼樣的方式實現企業文化對員工的強大影響力?以上資料告訴我們,促使企業文化與員工行為實現互通的橋樑是——文化生活化。所以文化生活化是強勢企業文化形成的一個必備條件,怎樣實現文化生活化?需要企業根據自己的實際情況,開發一些針對性的宣導工具,營造這個企業文化氛圍,在企業造成一種人人談企業文化、人人學企業文化的“勢”,用這種“勢”推動文化行為化,達到企業文化強大的影響力。5.1.3 強勢企業文化的保障機制企業造就強勢的企業文化非容易之事,但要保持企業文化的強勢,特別是持續的強勢,那就更為不易。本研究的目標企業是怎樣實現保持企業文化持續強勢的途徑呢?我們的研究表明,強勢文化的保持秘密是通過以下模型來實現的。圖6 強勢企業文化保障模型企業文化的強勢是借助特定的橋樑實現的,這個橋樑就是企業文化的傳播機制和企業文化建設控制機制。通過傳播機制保持企業文化對員工文化認知持續刺激,使企業文化在員工內心世界中由外在的資訊變成內在的資訊,進而變成一種類似習俗的文化現象而紮根於員工心中。這個過程用哈耶克的思想來闡述就是:“文化既不是自然的,也不是人為理性設計出來的,文化乃是一種由習得的行為規則構成的傳統。分散的個體通過追求自身利益最大化,彼此互動與博弈產生了彼此認同的規則即“內部規則”——文化傳統,並在此基礎之上產生了人們相互交往的自發社會秩序(靳濤,2002)[25]”。案例企業建立文化傳播機制為:公司建立職業化傳播文化機制,通過傳訊部向外傳播公司文化,通過由各部門負責人組成的公司文化推廣小組落實文化,充分利用公司內部的總結會制度推
  • 59王少傑,等  中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論動文化建設。公司通過組織形式多樣的活動推廣公司文化,以針對員工的活動為主,也有針對員工家屬的。同時公司還通過精心設計的公司裝修來傳播公司文化,探索形式多樣的公司文化傳播方式,讓公司文化深入員工的內心和行動中。此外,公司的每年兩次的全員團隊建設活動也是公司文化傳播的重要管道,公司領導更是身體力行來傳播公司文化(本部分數據來源於編碼:170、161、103、54、44、43、3、2、35、83、93、123、197、198、4、6、7、8、9、12、197、198、20、22、38、47、49、51、91、136、179、16、24、27、107、143、155、177、196、202、229、147、10、11、18、19、238、138、21、23、30、28、34、36、37、53、55、56、71、73、76、78、79、80、82、84、85、95、106、108、111、112、124、127、128、131、135、149、150、151、152、153、92、156、168、172、176、182、185、210、214、216、217、221、228、240、171、167、146、145、134、42、132、52、139、)。通過這樣縝密的文化傳播機制的建立,讓員工的生活中充滿企業文化,員工的行為受這樣一種生活化的文化氛圍的薰陶而自覺體現公司的價值觀于其言行和工作中。案例企業的文化建設控制機制為:公司通過建立學習型組織來優化企業文化建設,比如建立固定的閱讀讀書會,通過分享讀書成果來推動企業文化建設,把企業文化建設工作落實在對企業管理層的年終考核中,通過調動公司的每一位員工的積極性,讓管理人員與員工一起確定企業的文化建設方向及年度目標,根據企業發展的不同階段,確定企業文化的發展目標,讓企業文化在變革中不斷發展(本部分數據來源於編碼:58、99、129、163、137、29、57、109、130、133、154、148、31、32、175、235、174)。通過這樣完善的企業文化建設的控制機制,保證公司企業文化建設的方向不會偏離公司發展的戰略,使企業文化在公司可控的範圍內變革前進。顯然正是案例公司具備這樣強的公司文化的傳播和控制能力,才能造就和諧的勞資關係,進而使企業文化對員工保持強大的感染力和引導力,使員工的行為始終與企業文化保持一致,最大限度的防止了每位員工在追求個人利益最大化過程中出現無視他人、企業利益的行為發生,及時糾正企業員工發生的偏離企業文化的行為,在企業中實現多贏格局。這表明企業文化傳播機制、控制機制一方面保障企業文化與員工行為互相匹配的實現。如有研究表明:文化塑造著人們對其自身情緒的體驗、表達、識別和調節的偏好。相對于高喚醒的正性情緒,東亞人體驗到較低的情緒喚醒,東亞人比西方人更傾向於抑制自己的情緒(Tsai J L. 2007)[74]。這種情緒的自我抑制行為應該是儒家文化薰陶的結果,中國人在這方面表現的更為突出,所以,企業需要通過文化傳播機制和文化建設控制機制,及時發現員工的自我抑制情緒,引導員工健康成長,愉快工作。 另一方面,也保障和諧的勞資關係在企業中形成。勞資關係的和諧是企業發展的基礎,和諧的勞資關係與企業文化之間是互相促進、互相影響的關係。強勢的企業文化的最終體現管道之一就是勞資關係,所以勞資關係是企業文化強弱的一個“晴雨錶”。5.1.4 強勢的企業文化推動企業績效增長企業文化促進公司績效的增長,這是多年中外學者一直研究的一個重要課題。約翰 ‧ 科特(2004 年)[51] 在《企業文化與經營業績》一書中,從量化分析的層面,對 1987 ~ 1991 年間 200 多家公司的企業文化和經營業績之間的關係進行深入研究後得出:企業文化對企業長期經營業績有著重要影響的結論。從無限極公司二十年發展的歷史來看,這個結論同樣是得到支持的。本研究案例企業的實踐表明:通過企業文化建設,在公司建立良好的人際信任機制,保證公司內部溝通的順暢,避免部門間、人際間的扯皮行為對公司發展的不良影響;公司文化的強大滲透能力,使廣大員工的家屬深受感染,保證了公司員工的工作得到家人的大力支持,推動公司的發展,公司文化的強大滲透力也使新入職的員工
  • 60在短期內迅速融入公司中,避免新老員工的隔閡影響公司發展;通過公司文化影響經銷商的行為,保證公司與客戶之間的良好關係,推動公司業績的穩步增長;公司強大的品質文化,保證優質的產品服務消費者,建立廣大消費者對公司的信任,為公司績效的增長夯實市場基礎(本部分數據來源於編碼:239、162、236、102、119、120、164、165、110、192、230、232、180、173、169、140、100、61、33、59、94、13、116、39、41、46、63、66、206、64、65、67、68、69、187)。但這裡我們必須說明的一點是,只有強勢的企業文化才能起到促進企業績效增長的作用,對於弱勢的企業文化對企業績效的作用究竟是什麼?我們沒有進行專門的探討,但從我們長期的企業調研獲取的實證案例來看,弱勢企業文化對企業的績效是中性的,有些時候是其反作用的。所以企業文化促進企業績效增長、公司發展,一定是強勢企業文化所為,特別是那些快速發展、快速膨脹而健康成長的公司,沒有強勢企業文化的支撐,很難實現那樣的結果。同樣,國內學者的研究也得出類似的結論:企業的績效更取決於在長期的市場競爭中所發展起來的核心競爭力,而核心競爭力是由具有特色的企業文化等不可測因素決定的,這大大減少了股權結構對企業績效的影響(金培,2003)[56]。有學者進一步指出:組織文化會長期性地影響企業經營績效,甚至會決定企業的經營成敗。組織文化對績效的影響力可以分為三個維度:第一是文化的方向性;第二是文化的滲透性;第三是文化的強度。文化有較大的影響力就是指其具有廣泛的滲透性與較深遠的影響強度,即所謂的強勢文化。強勢文化可以減少決策制定的成本和使工作專門化,因而會影響組織績效。組織文化傳播廣泛且深入、並在決策中得到應用的組織,比起那些沒有普及組織文化的組織,在投資和銷售方面的回報都要好得多;同時高層主管必須建立一個有利於知識創新的企業文化和價值觀,促進組織內部的知識流通和知識合作,提升組織個體與整體的學習能力,以增加組織整體知識的存量和價值。(謝洪明,2006)[70]。但是企業文化通過那個環節最終影響到企業的發展績效?學者們在這方面鮮有研究。從無限極公司的實證研究來看,我們發現,企業文化對公司發展績效的影響是通過“和諧勞資關係”這個中間橋樑來實現的,但是企業文化培育和諧勞資關係是一個長期的過程,通過這個過程企業文化的作用才能傳導到企業發展績效中來,正是這個原因,金培先生的研究結論提出從“長期”這樣一個時間概念來闡述企業文化對企業績效的顯著影響。我們研究的進一步發現,下面這個模型的生發機制首先以企業文化為起點,順時針方向旋轉,來體現企業文化對企業發展績效的影響,通過這樣一個過程理順順時針旋轉的機理後,企業文化才能發揮促進企業績效的使命。一家企業一旦完成這個“順時針”影響機理,那麼企業就進入良性發展。此外,這個模型告訴我們,企業文化就是一根杠杆,如何用這根杠杆撬動企業發展,必須找到一個支點,這個支點就是“和諧勞資關係”。無限極公司正是找到這個支點而使企業文化成為撬動企業飛速發展杠杆。公司的文化生活化和文化宣導工具是促使文化深入人心,是和諧勞資關係得以形成的基礎。圖7 企業文化推動企業績效模型 6 研究結論本研究在深入分析案例企業紮根資料的基礎
  • 61王少傑,等  中國傳統文化、企業文化建設、企業的可持續成長: 構建一個中國本土化的企業文化理論上,推演出企業文化建設模型,這個模型與現有的企業文化理論相比,我們的貢獻在於:第一、找到中國企業文化建設與中國傳統文化之間的邏輯關係;第二、我們得出一個新的動態企業文化模型,彌補了現有企業文化理論把活的企業文化人為的僵化,或人為的預設一種思維路徑去研究企業探討企業文化的思維路徑,使本研究的成果對中國企業管理實踐更具有指導意義;此外,本研究關於中國傳統文化與現代企業文化建設的耦合、中國的傳統文化如何在企業文化建設中造就強勢企業文化、強勢企業文化的保障機制、強勢的企業文化推動企業績效增長的理論模型的構建,這有助於中國本土企業在進行企業文化建設過程,避免照搬國外企業文化而誤入企業文化建設的歧途,構建出符合中國員工思維、習慣的本土化的企業文化,從而推動企業的發展;最後,在研究方法上,我們用規範的紮根理論研究流程,對中國企業文化建設進行了深入的研究,這是我們在中國企業文化研究方法方面的一個貢獻。因為目前關於企業文化研究的中外文獻就研究方法來看,主要通過研究者的思辨分析或引入定量研究的思路,開發測量表進行研究,但這些研究一方面過於主觀化,另一方面定量研究儘管可計量,但對中國企業文化研究來說,在我們沒有開發出符合中國實際的企業文化量表的前提下,通過引進外國的量表進行本主題研究,顯然存在測量的準確性問題。本研究的紮根研究則是完全通過觀察中國人的言行,分析這些言行的基礎上而得出的企業文化理論,這個理論更符合中國企業的實際,也更能被中國員工接受。本研究的不足:本研究以一個案例為樣本進行深入研究,這在代表性方面略顯不足。本研究的成果是在研究個案基礎上得出的,對其他企業的企業文化建設有沒有可行性的指導,我們沒有驗證,這有待我們進一步在企業文化建設的實踐中去檢驗這個理論模型。未來理論研究展望:在這個問題上,未來的研究可以在若干個案例背景下進行紮根研究,對模型的構成要素進行反復驗證、完善模型。此外,對本研究主題設計一個符合中國人思維習慣的科學的企業文化量表,就此進行一個量化的研究,這樣可以找到更多的樣本,獲取更多的資訊,通過多樣本對模型進行驗證、改進。參 考 文 獻[1] Hofstede G. Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001.[2] Triandis H C. Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1995.[3] Munafo M R, Durrant C, Lewis G, Flint J. Gene? environment interactions at the serotonin transporter locus. Biological Psychiatry, 2009, 65(3): 211-219.[4] Kitayama S, Dufy S, Kawamura T, Larsen J T. Per- ceiving an object and its context in different cultures: A cultural look at new look. Psychological Science, 2003, 14: 201-206.[5] S E, Way B M, Welch W T, Hilmert C J, Lehman B J, Eisenberger N I. Early family environment, current adversity, the serotonin transporter polymorphism, and depressive symptomatology. Biological Psychiatry, 2006, 60: 671-676.[6] Green A E, Munafo`M, DeYoung C G, Fossella J, Fan J, Gray J R. Using genetic data in cognitive neuroscience: From growing pains to genuine insights. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2008, 9: 710-720.[7] Kitayama S, Dufy S, Kawamura T, Larsen J T. Per- ceiving an object and its context in different cultures: A cultural look at new look. Psychological Science, 2003, 14: 201-206.[8] Tsai J L. Ideal affect: Cultural causes and behavioral consequences. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2007, 2: 242-259.[9] Peterst,Watermanrh. 追求卓越[M]. 北京:中央編譯出版社,2003:66,11213.[10] Denisondr. Corporate culture and organizational effectiveness [M] .New York : John Wiley & Sons , 1990: 5-210.[11] Kotterjp, Heskettjl. Corporatecultureandperformance[M]. NewYork: FreePress, 1992: 16, 21, 19, 21, 35, 31, 40, 50, 47, 25, 58.[12] Collins J,Porras J. 基業長青[M]. 北京:中信出版社,2002:114.[13] Soupata L. Managing Culture for Competitive Advantage at United Parcel Service[J]. Journal of Organizational Excellence, 2001, 20( 3) : 19-26.[14] Kotter J P, Heskett J L. Corporate Culture and Performance[M]. New York: Free Press, 1992.[15] Barney J B. Organizational Culture: Can It Be a Source of Sustained Competitive Advantage[J]. Academy of Management Review, 1986, (11): 656-665.[16] Gordon G G, DiTomaso N. Predicting Corporate Performance from Organizational Culture[J]. Journal of Management Studies, 1992(29): 783-798.[17] Barney J B. Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage[J]. Journal of Management, 1991, 17: 99-120.[18] Richard N Farmer, BarryM Richman. Comparative Management and Economic Progress[M]. Homewood: Richard D.Irwin, 1965: 401-405.[19] Kotter and Heskell. Corporate Culture and Performance, New York: The Free Press, 1992: 23-24.
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  • 63第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 員工希望對辱虐管理——員工創新的曲線調節作用孫柳苑(吉林大學珠海學院,珠海)摘要: 根據社會啟動理論,本次研究將探求辱虐管理影響員工創新行為的機制。基於從一家中國製造企業獲得的樣本資料,本次研究將探討如下幾個問題:(1)辱虐管理與員工創新行為存在倒U關係,(2)希望將對辱虐管理與員工創新行為之間的倒U關係有顯著調節效應。本次研究將從新的視角研究辱虐管理。關鍵詞: 辱虐管理;員工創新行為;希望The inverted u-shaped relationship Aetyeen AAusive supervision and employee creativity: the moderating effect of HopeLiuyuan SUN( Jinlin University Zhuhai College, Zhuhai, China )AAstract: Drawing upon social activation theory, this study is to propose and test a model of the mechanisms through which abusive supervision affects employees’ creativity. Based on two-wave survey data from a Chinese manufacturing firm, we propose that (1) there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between abusive supervision and employee creativity, (2) Hope moderates the inverted U-shaped relationship between abusive supervision and employee creativity. This study provides new insights into the research on abusive supervision.eyyords: Abusive supervision; Creativity; Hope 收稿日期:2013-03-05;修訂日期:2013-04-29。孫柳苑,女,博士,吉林大學珠海學院教師,主要研究方向:人力資源。E-mail:liuyuan1013@hotmail.com 電話:138256062960 引言如何提升企業的自主創新能力,成為擺在中國企業家和管理者面前的重要戰略議題。員工創新是企業創新的源泉,獲得核心技術的關鍵,競爭中生存成長的根基。近年來越來越多的學者從組織環境入手,分析組織環境的特性如何作用於員工的創新[1]。在組織環境的研究中,學者們都強調了領導行為對員工的創新能夠產生實質性影響作用[2]。但絕大多數學者遵循西方經典的社會交換理論以考察領導行為的作用效果,這些研究關注的是領導積極行為對員工創新的直接作用,例如變革型領導(transformational leadership)、授權型領導(empowering leadership)、服務型領導(servant leadership)[3~5]。領導壞行為對員工創新的影響這一黑箱仍未打開。實際上創新行為這種行為對負面領導行為更加敏感。無論是領導者、領導行為,還是領導效果都包含兩方面的內容即積極與消極的方面。近些年來,隨著領導者和領導行為等負面新聞的出現,學術界開始從新的視角來研究領導問題,並將其定
  • 64義之為“破壞型領導”(destructive leadership)。Einarsen 等(2003)[6] 指出研究和預測破壞型領導行為比提升領導行為的積極效應還要重要。破壞型領導是一系列負面領導行為的統稱,這些行為包括辱虐管理(abusive supervision)、暴君領導(Tyrannical supervision)、欺淩(bully)、出軌(derail)、毒性領導(toxic leaders)等等。辱虐管理作為一種破壞型領導行為普遍地存在於組織管理中,它會對組織和員工產生一系列的影響。員工可能因此感到沮喪、憂慮、壓力或對工作不滿[7~8],甚至有的員工會通過破壞型越軌行為例如偷盜、延遲工作和浪費資源來報復領導[9]。上述的研究證實了辱虐管理對組織和員工的直接負面影響,但忽略了員工是否採取某些積極行為降低辱虐管理的破壞效應。 本文的貢獻在於(1)運用了社會啟動理論(Social activation theory)探求破壞型領導行為辱虐管理對於員工創新這種積極行為的影響機制。(2)創造性地探求了領導行為與員工創新的倒 U 型關係。由此本文將開拓領導與員工創新研究的新方向。(3)剖析員工希望這一變數對於辱虐管理及員工創新關係的調節作用,探究了員工對於改善企業管理者壞行為的貢獻,對於人力資源管理有一定的實踐啟示。 1 理論背景及假設1.1 理論背景倒 U 曲線最先是由美國著名經濟學家、1971年諾貝爾經濟學獎得主西蒙·庫茲涅茨提出來的 [10]。他通過對 18 個國家經濟增長與收入差距實證資料的分析,得出“收入分配不平等的長期趨勢是在前工業文明向工業文明過渡的經濟增長早期階段迅速擴大,然後在增長的後期階段逐漸縮小。”表現在圖形上是一條先向上彎曲後向下彎曲的曲線,形似顛倒過來的 U,故人們將其稱之為“倒U 曲線。在研究方法上,倒 U 曲線關係是指兩個變數首先是正相關的,但是到了一個點之後兩個變數的關係開始轉為負相關關係[11]。創新是指在特定領域中,員工針對組織的產品、實踐、服務或程式產生一些新穎、實效的想法,並運用這些想法生產新的產品,提供新服務[12~13]。本文採用啟動理論(Social activation theory)探求破壞型領導行為辱虐管理對於員工創新這種積極行為的影響機制。社會啟動理論指出人的行為受到某些驅動力的[14]。外部因素例如環境的複雜性、環境的變化、不確定性,內部因素例如人的思想都可以驅動人的不同行為[14~15]。但是這些驅動力有一個標準控制點,超過或者低於某個點都會使人產生壓力。Ursin 和 Eriksen(2004) [16] 從神經生理學的角度深入了對社會啟動理論的研究,並據此提出了社會啟動理論的分支理論——壓力認知啟動理論(cognitive activation theory of stress)。壓力本身就是一種驅動力。壓力在產生的初期並不會給人造成太大的威脅。壓力的應對行為取決於對結果的認知期盼。這種期盼分為積極樂觀的、消極的。當人對於結果的期盼是積極樂觀時,應對行為就是處理問題。當人對於結果的期盼是消極時,其應對行為就是絕望、無助。壓力認知啟動理論給予我們的啟示是:面對壓力時,人們會採取不同的應對行為,這種行為可能是積極的也可能是消極的。一些學者已經運用社會啟動理論來進行倒 U 型關係的實證研究,例如任務績效、滿意度、驅動調節行為的頻率[17]。適當的驅動力可以提升員工的績效水準,但是過高或過低的驅動力都有可能降低人對於環境的敏感性[18]、大腦皮層的反應效率[19]及人體的效能[20]。社會啟動理論也被學者用來解釋壓力與創新倒 U 型關係 [21~23]。當壓力適中時,人最具有創新力。因為適中的壓力會激發人的主觀能動性創新、創造性地解決問題[24]。適中的壓力不但能增強驅動力使人體興奮,還能提供認知刺激,從而激發人的創造性思維,激勵個體尋求問題解決方案[25~28]。直面壓力並尋找解決問題策略很有可能成為創新的源泉[29]。但是當壓力超過一定限度時,人可能產生絕望和無助的情緒[16],或者使人的個體產生認知障礙[30],從而停止他們的創新行為及放棄對於問題
  • 65孫柳苑  員工希望對辱虐管理——員工創新的曲線調節作用的解決。1.2 辱虐管理與創新的倒U曲線關係現有研究對辱虐管理的定義多採用[31]Tepper(2000)的定義,即員工感知到的管理者持續表現出敵對的言語和非言語行為,但不包括身體接觸這類行為。具體表現為公開批評嘲弄下屬,不履行對下屬的承諾,對待下屬粗魯無禮,不搭理下屬,對下屬漠不關心,對下屬大發雷霆,辱駡下屬,羞辱下屬,對下屬使用侮辱性的稱謂,以解雇的方式恐嚇下屬,怒視下屬以及輕視和貶低下屬等。辱虐管理應當被看為一種壓力源[32]。但是在 Tepper(2007)[33] 的文獻中,作者進一步指出應當運用兩個視角來看待辱虐管理。第一,管理者運用辱虐管理的目地可能是要故意傷害員工。另外一個角度是管理者運用辱虐管理或者贊同辱虐管理的初衷是極大的提高員工的勞動生產率或者保住組織的投資[34]。辱虐管理者在運用辱虐管理手段的同時可能也會在工作上支援員工。這是因為社會關係是社會支持與社會對抗的結合體[35]。管理者與員工的關係是衝突與支持並存的[36]。因此員工對於辱虐管理的認知及行為也是截然不同的。有些員工對辱虐管理感知強烈,可能採取職場偏差行為來報復組織或者管理[37]。有的員工則傾向於繼續為組織服務,原因在於這些人員認為辱虐管理是暫時的,或者他們根本就認為辱虐管理是正常的管理行為[31]。人為了實現預期的效果會傾向於繼續維持某些不盡人意的關係。純粹的報復性行為非但不能有效制止主管的辱虐管理行為,反而會更加惡化主管與員工間的關係[38]。如果員工珍視的某些寶貴資源取決於與上級的關係,例如升職和加薪,那麼員工會盡力改善或維持與主管的關係而非蓄意破壞[38]。 儘管至今沒有學者研究辱虐管理對於創新的機製作用,但是有一些相似的研究可以作為佐證。Tepper 等(2001)[39] 研究了辱虐管理行為及員工的抵抗行為。研究發現辱虐管理引致的員工抵抗有消極抵抗和積極抵抗。積極抵抗中包含著部分重要的建設性行為,例如加強與上級的積極溝通。當辱虐管理存在時,員工希望通過這些建設性行積極的改善與辱虐管理者的關係,而非破壞關係或者傷害第三者達到心裡平衡[40]。Tepper(2000)[31] 認為員工之所以繼續維持與辱虐管理者不盡人意的關係是因為他們感到很迷茫,他們害怕組織外未知的世界,也許其他組織的辱虐管理更加嚴重。辱虐管理者除了對員工實施辱虐管理行為還有其他正常的管理行為,這些員工期盼自己積極的行為終有一天能被管理者認可。據此,本文假設當辱虐管理這種壓力源的程度適中時,員工可能仍然繼續為組織服務。適中的辱虐管理激發員工的主觀能動性創新、創造性地解決問題,並且運用創新緩解辱虐管理的負面效應及改善員工與主管尷尬的關係。但當辱虐管理超過員工可承受範圍之後,或者員工的積極行為並沒有得到組織的認可也沒有改善他們的處境。這時辱虐管理會對員工的心理造成傷害,使他們產生無望和無助的情緒,從而遏止他們的創新行為。假設 1:辱虐管理與員工創新存在倒 U 關係1.3 員工希望的調節作用希望這個構念在 20 世紀 50 年代開始被引入到心理和精神學的研究[41]。根據 Snyder etal (1991:570)[42] 對於希望的定義:希望是導向成功的元素集合,它包括(1)目標導向的決心。(2)導向成功的規劃,目標及實現途徑。希望可以被定義為一種信念,它能推動個人克服心理問題朝著目標發展 [43]。Simmons 等人(2003 年)[44] 將希望定義成一種積極的情感,它反映了對現實狀況實際評估後產生的預期及期盼。希望包括情感和認知兩種成分。在情感的層面,希望可以視為對於未來取得積極和負面結果的預期。在認知層面,希望是對於實現目標的渴求進一步指出希望還包括耐力,毅力,目標延展,預期,獎勵和勝利,實現目標的意願。 Dufault 和 Martocchio’s(1985)[45] 的模型指出希望的六個特性:情感性,認知性,行為性,關聯性,暫時性,承接性。Peterson(2000)[46] 甚至指出希望可以描述為樂觀
  • 66的態度。希望和樂觀都是對於實現未來目標的期盼和渴求[47]。綜上所述希望包括三個方面的要素:(1)關於未來的積極情感。(2)個人對於實際狀況評估後的認知。(3)個人為實現目標所採取的行為。學者們對於希望因素在組織中的效應也做了不同的研究。希望有助於員工面對辱虐管理時實施創新行為。因為希望值高的員工在面對辱虐管理時,會繼續留任為企業貢獻而非辭職。希望在組織中的重要效用就是組織粘合劑[48]。Ahiauzu 和Asawo[49] 通過對一家製造企業的員工調查發現充滿希望的員工對於組織有一種責任感和忠誠度。他們不但有為組織做貢獻的精神,還對組織目標的實現做出智力的支持。這個和Walker's(2006)[50]關於希望的效應是吻合的 : 希望不僅產生精神力量同時還能產生智慧力量。希望還可以降低員工的離職率,為組織留住人才。因此希望值高的員工面對辱虐管理這種壓力源時,希望會激發他們精神和智慧的力量進行創新,為組織作貢獻。同時,希望可以扮演解決障礙,舒緩壓力和調節情緒的作用[43]的角色。Fry and Whittington(2005)[51] 提出希望是人的內在激勵源。當遇到目標實現的障礙時,人們可以感知到壓力,但如果個人希望值高的時候,就會採取積極的態度處理困難,而不僅僅是放棄。希望在組織中可以用來對抗壓力,從而最終提高績效。辱虐管理最終會導致員工創新行為的降低。但是員工創新行為的變化因人而異,因辱虐管理的程度而變化。當辱虐管理這種壓力源的程度適中或者沒有超過員工的承受能力時,希望值高的員工可能仍然希望繼續為組織服務,因此會採取積極的態度來處理與辱虐管理者的關係。同時他們會理性分析實際的狀況,並採取創新的行為獲得組織的認同、改變自身的尷尬處境,從而最終克服辱虐管帶來的負面效應。但是當員工的努力沒有取得他們預期效果時,辱虐管理的程度仍然在持續加劇直至超過員工的承受範圍,員工就會停止或減少創新行為。據此,本文提出當員工希望值越高時,他面對辱虐管理時採取的創新行為就會越多,但是當辱虐管理程度持續升高超過員工承受能力時,其創新行為也會隨之減少。假設 2:員工希望值調節辱虐管理與員工創新之間的 U 關係。2 研究物件和研究程式2.1 研究物件本研究資料來自廣東省一家制造型企業,研究物件為公司管理者及其直接下屬。本研究調查問卷以套為單位,1 套問卷包括 1 份主管問卷和 1份員工問卷,每份問卷用一個信封封存,並在信封上編好員工的代碼。在研究者自己保存的員工名單中有信封上的代碼及對應的員工姓名,一方面便於研究者記住對應的員工,另一方面便於後續資料整理過程中員工和直接主管的對應。在征得該企業高層管理者(人力資源部門的負責人及總經理)同意後說明調查目的和過程,先請人力資源部的人提供所有員工的花名冊以及對應的年績效考核表,由本研究調查人員選擇主管和員工。在選擇員工時根據上一年績效考核成績,分別選擇一位績效考核成績較好、兩位中等和一位較差的員工,排除近一年內進入的無績效考核成績的員工及績效考核成績不能反映真實情況的員工,最後分別確定 120 名主管及 240 名直接下屬。在人力資源部門人員的配合下發放問卷,整個問卷調查採用縱向研究,分兩次進行,前後兩次間隔 1 個月。第一次調查(T1)針對下屬,調查內容包括自身背景資訊、感知的主管辱虐行為、員工希望等 ; 第二次調查(T2)針對主管,包括主管個人資訊以及主管對下屬創新行為的評價,為了保證主管填寫問卷品質,在企業高層管理者支援的基礎上,召集符合要求的主管開會,並要求主管當場填寫問卷。問卷填寫完成後,答題者自己封存問卷並交給人力資源部門,最後集中交回研究者。在調查過程中,告知答題者所填寫的答案嚴格保密、問卷不記名、資料登錄電腦後問卷會被銷毀、問卷只包含整體資料不含任何個人資料和
  • 67孫柳苑  員工希望對辱虐管理——員工創新的曲線調節作用資訊等。對於回收的問卷,基於以下原則進行篩選。①問卷中有多處空白的予以剔除 ; ②問卷中不能確定選項過多者予以剔除 ; ③問卷填寫呈現明顯的規律性的予以刪除,如所有答案選擇同一選項、答案呈現 S 形排列等。篩選後,進行上下級配對、前後兩次調查問卷匹配後,最終得到 184 名下屬和 92 名主管的配對樣本。員工問卷有效回收率為77%,主管問卷有效回收率為 77%。有效問卷中下屬被試中男性為 104 位 ; 女性為 80 位。下屬被試學歷普遍不高,以中學學歷為主。有效問卷中下屬被試職位主要是一線工人 110 人 ; 基層管理者41 人 ; 中層管理者 33 人。2.2 研究工具辱虐管理採用 Tepper(2000)[31] 編寫,經Aryee 等(2007)[52] 改編的 10 題項量表,採用回覆翻譯方法測量辱虐管理,該量表只有一個維度即辱虐管理。本研究中該量表由員工提供評價(T1),量表的信度係數Cronbach ' s α 值為 0.86,大於 0.700,表明有良好的測量信度。採用 Snyder等(1991)[53] 開發的表測量希望(HOPE),該量表包括 12 個題項,信度為 0.93。採用 Zhou &George(2001)[54] 的 13 題項量表測量員工創新行為。為了避免同源誤差,員工的創新行為一般由主管來評定[2,54~57]。因此本研究在第二次調查中(T2)要求主管對員工的創新行為作出評價。量表的信度係數 Cronbach ' s α 值為 0.94。為了方便比較,所有量表均採用 Likert 5 點計分,要求被試者對描述的行為從 1 到 5 做出評價,1 為非常不同意,5 為非常同意。控制變數為員工與主管的共事年限。2.3 統計分析表1 描述性統計分析變數 Mean SD 1 2 3與主管共事年限 2.52 2.02辱虐管理 2.38 0.66 -0.77** 希望 3.23 0.77 0.10 -0.34***創新 2.42 0.69 -0.16 -0.04 -0.84**注:n=276,*P<0.05,**P<0.01,***P<0.001 表2 創新作為因變數的層級回歸統計結果解釋變數因變數Beta創新B ΔR2 R2步驟1 辱虐管理 -0.05 -0.04 0.00 0.00步驟2辱虐管理 0.12 0.11*0.55*** 0.55***辱虐管理2 -0.92 -0.76***步驟3辱虐管理 0.28 0.27***0.28*** 0.83***辱虐管理2 -0.38 -0.32***希望 0.65 0.73***步驟4辱虐管理 0.23 0.22***0.05*** 0.88***辱虐管理2 -0.61 -0.50***希望 0.69 0.77***辱虐管理 × 希望 0.37 0.33***辱虐管理2 × 希望 -0.49 -0.54***注:n=276,*P<0.05,**P<0.01,***P<0.001 表 1 總結了變數的平均值,標準差以及相關係數。辱虐管理與員工希望顯著相關,員工希望與員工創新顯著相關。但是辱虐管理與員工創新並無直接的相關關係。對於假設的檢驗,主要採用層級回歸的方法來進行。層級回歸分析結果列在表 2 中結果表明。以往研究證實組成交互作用項與組成交互項的變數往往存在嚴重的多重共線性問題(Aiken&West 1991)[58]。因此,本研究採用了“中心轉換法”(Centrering Transforrmation)來克服這樣的問題。表 2 列出了回歸結果。第一步,加入辱虐管理的主效應, 對共線性問題進行了檢測,未發現預測變數間的明顯共線性,(R2=0,P > 0.05)由顯著情況可知。第二步,加入辱虐管理的二次方,加入後的模型是成立的(R2==55%, P<0.01), 並且比步驟 1 增加了 55% 的解釋力,模型顯示辱虐管理對員工創新行為有顯著的倒 U 作用(β = –0.92,P<0.01),支持假設 1。第三步,加入希望的調節項。加入後的模型是成立的(R2==83%, P<0.01)。第四步,加入辱虐管理與希望的交叉項及辱虐管理的二次方與希望的交叉項,加入後的模型是成立的(R2==88%,P<0.01)比較步驟 3 和步驟 4, 加入這一交叉項可增加 5% 的解釋力,並且交叉二次方項的顯著性係數顯著為負,資料可
  • 68支援假設 2。為了進一步探討員工希望對辱虐管理及員工創新曲線關係的調節方向及深層次影響,我們使用 Aiken 和 West(1991)[58] 的方法,分別檢驗了該調節變數在低於均值和高於均值情況下回歸曲線的係數。圖 1 表明了這兩種交互作用的影響模式。當員工希望值低於均值時,員工創新水準基本呈下降趨勢。發現在高水準的希望值調節下,辱虐管理與員工創新呈顯著的倒 U 型關係。圖1 高低員工希望值對於辱虐管理與員工創新的調節作用3 分析和討論(1)研究證實辱虐管理這種“冷暴力”的形式是存在的,且本研究中使用 5 點量表上獲得的辱虐管理的平均值為 2.38,與美國樣本的平均值1.500 相比(劉,宋 & 吳 2008)[59],本研究樣本中員工的辱虐管理體驗要高於西方樣本。其次,證實辱虐管理對員工的創新行為有顯著的倒 U 效應。對於創新行為的研究多是從正面進行的,如有學者認為變革型領導影響員工的創新行為(Shin & Zhou,2003)[2],領導開放性、領導-成員交換(Atwatera& Carmeli,2009)[60] 等都影響員工的創新行為。實際上,創新行為的特點決定了這種行為可能對管理者的負面行為和情感更為敏感。用社會啟動理論可以很好地解釋員工的創新行為,實際上在激勵員工進行創新行為的因素中也存在區別,如員工希望度、組織的支援、員工對組織的認同和情感都是創新行為的影響因素,也就是說缺少這些因素員工的創新行為很能持久。員工在辱虐管理的初級階段或者辱虐程度較低時,可能基於對組織的希望或者維持自身在企業的地位而進行創新、改革,以期改變與主管的關係,獲得領導的認可。但管理者持續的辱虐管理可能破壞這種創新努力,使員工喪失創新的安全感,創新的積極性也會受到打擊。已有研究證實辱虐管理會減少下屬的組織公民行為,如吳隆增,但是針對創新行為這種具有一定風險的組織公民行為而言,辱虐管理對創新行為影響更為深刻,也更有研究的意義。此研究結論一方面說明辱虐管理與員工行為不但存在直線關係,還存在倒 U 型關係,另一方面也說明辱虐管理廣泛而深刻的消極影響。(2)關於員工個體特點與辱虐管理之間關係的研究不多,但是如果把辱虐管理視為一種工作壓力源的話,就比較容易解釋其中的關係。本研究打破了以往研究將辱虐管理與員工報復行為相聯繫的思維定式。壓力源是指引發人們壓力反應的各種情景因素,如刺激等,可以分為生活壓力源(主要指個人生活方式上的變化)、工作壓力源(包括角色衝突、時間壓力、低參與和控制等)、人際關係緊張(它會嚴重影響員工個人的正常生活和組織目標的實現)。辱虐管理對員工而言就是一種重要的工作壓力源,在相同的環境條件下,不同個體對辱虐程度的感知可能是不一樣的。本研究證明並不是所有的員工在遇到辱虐管理時都一定會採取敵對破壞行為,有些員工更傾向於通過積極的行為改變被辱虐的處境。資料顯示員工希望水準越高,在辱虐管理最初階段作出創新的行為可能性就越大 ; 反之員工希望水準越低,辱虐管理對創新的負面影響就越大。4 結論4.1 分析結果討論本研究以廣東省兩家大型制造型企業 184 名員工和 92 名主管為配對樣本,運用回歸方法分析辱虐管理對員工創新行為的影響及其機制,員工希望值的調節作用。研究結果表明研究結果表明:(1)辱虐管理與員工創新行為之間存在倒U關係。
  • 69孫柳苑  員工希望對辱虐管理——員工創新的曲線調節作用(2)員工希望值對辱虐管理與員工創新行為之間的倒 U 關係起調節作用,當員工希望值高時,倒U 關係更為顯著。本文對於文獻研究有如下貢獻:(1)辱虐管理與某些結果變數存在曲線關係。面對辱虐管理時,有些員工會傾向運用積極方式打破僵局。當他們的努力無效時,他們才會停止這種積極行為,(2)本文創新性的研究了辱虐管理與員工創新的關係,辱虐管理程度較低時,員工更趨向于採取積極行為。(3)本文進一步證實了辱虐管理對於不同個體的影響存在著差異。一些因素會影響員工採取不同的應對行為。本研究顯示員工的希望是一個很好的調節因素。同時本研究對於壓力認知應對模型有一定的貢獻,員工在面對壓力時,不同的員工特質會影響他們對壓力的認知及其應對。本文對於組織管理實踐有如下貢獻:(1)本文的研究結果對於組織來說猶如一記警鐘,辱虐管理將最終降低企業的創新績效,並可能帶來其他危害結果,因此辱虐管理應當儘量避免。員工的價值更多地體現在其富有創造力的思想行為上,員工創新是提高企業生存能力和競爭優勢的關鍵因素。組織領導者應當認識到辱虐管理給組織帶來的消極影響,通過對其直接下屬的調查,採用匿名調查和間接測量的方式可獲取管理者是否有辱虐下屬的行為以及嚴重程度的資訊,這有助於甄別辱虐管理或者帶有辱虐管理傾向的管理者,從而及時防範辱虐管理消極影響的產生和擴大。(2)辱虐行為不是依靠某個員工或者主管能解決的問題,組織應當承擔一定的責任,從而最終避免辱虐行為的發生。例如組織可以應當加強對管理者的培訓,提高他們管理水準,這些將有助於降低辱虐管理的發生率。(3)本研究顯示員工希望值可以調節辱虐管理與創新的關係。因此在企業人力資源管理實踐中,可以通過提高員工對組織的希望,增強員工對組織的情感,肯定員工對組織的貢獻來激勵員工的創新行為。領導者在平時的工作中要注意自己的行為對下屬自我概念的影響,另外,組織也要注意培養員工高的組織自尊,為下屬營造一種“我對於組織是重要的,有價值的”、“在組織中我是受到信任和受賞識”的積極氛圍,從而使員工有較強的動機去表達自己的想法和建議。(4)由於員工個體的差異會引致不同的應對管理者的方式。因此管理者要明晰下屬的個體特徵,針對不同員工進行管理,從而幫助其更好地適應組織環境,在組織中發揮才幹。(5)管理者應當幫助員工更好的處理各種壓力源,從而降低辱虐管理在組織的負面影響。同時組織應該開展針對員工的工作理念、價值觀、心理健康、法制知識以及與領導相處的技巧等的專門培訓,一方面提高他們及時發現問題、反映問題的認知判斷能力,另一方面也提高他們應對領導辱虐行為的能力和技巧。4.2 研究局限與未來研究方向本研究具有一定局限性,這些在未來研究中可以做適當補充研究。(1)測量工具的局限性,本研究使用的量表均來自西方學者的成熟研究,實際上辱虐管理、建言行為等在不同的文化背景下有不同的表現形式,因此後續研究可以考慮在中國文化背景下開發量表測量。(2)研究樣本的局限性,本研究樣本來源於廣東大型制造型企業,雖然這樣能夠較好地控制行業以及地域等因素對研究結論的影響,提升研究的內部信度,但是也在一定程度上抑制了研究的外部效度,後續研究可以針對不同行業和區域進行實證研究以進一步驗證本研究的結論。(3)本研究沒有研究辱虐管理與員工行為的互動關係。如果員工採取積極行為應對辱虐管理,辱虐管理者是否用同樣積極的行為回報員工是本研究沒有探討的領域。未來研究可以探討這種相互影響機制。(4)本研究所做調查只是針對在職員工和主管。我們沒有聯繫那些因為不滿辱虐管理者而離職的員工,因此研究樣本具有局限性。(5)本研究沒有探討組織的某些可能影響因素,而只是把員工個人希望值作為研究的調節因素。因此未來的研究可以探索組織對於辱虐管理,甚至社會因素對於辱虐管理及員工應對行為的影響和調節機制。
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  • 71孫柳苑  員工希望對辱虐管理——員工創新的曲線調節作用Journal of applied psychology, 92(1), 191-201.[38] Ashforth, B.E. (1994). Petty tyranny in organizations. Human relations, 47, 755-778.[39] Tepper, B. J. , Michelle, K. D. & Jason, D. S. (2001). Personality Moderators of the Relationship Between Abusive Supervision and Subordinates’ Resistance. Journal of Apply Psychology. 86(5), 974–983.[40] McLaughlin, M.L.; Cody. M.J. & Robey C.S. (1980). Situational Influences on the selection of strategies to resist compliance-gaining attempts. Human Communication Research. 7, 14-36.[41] Magaletta, P. R., & Oliver, J. M. (1999). The hope construct, will, and ways: Their relations with self efficacy, optimism, and general well-being. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 539-551.[42] Snyder C.R., Harris C., Anderson J.R., Holleran S.A., Irving L.M.,Sigmon S.T., Yoshinobu L., Gibb J., Langelle C. & Harney P. (1991). “The Will and the Ways: Development and Validation of an Individual-differences Measure of Hope”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60 (4) 570-85.[43] Gillham, J. (2000). The science of optimism and hope. Radnor, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.[44] Simmons, B. L., Nelson, D. L., & Quick, J. C. (2003). Health for the hopeful: A study of attachment behavior in home health care nurses. International Journal of Stress Management, 10, 361-375.[45] Dufault, K. & Martocchio, B.C. (1985). Hope: Its spheres and dimensions. Nursing Clinics of North America, 20, 379-391. [46] Peterson, C. (2000). “The future of optimism”, American Psychologist, Vol. 55 No. 1, 44-55.[47] Bryant, F. B., & Cvengros, J. A. (2004). Distinguishing hope and optimism: Two sides of a coin, or two separate coins? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 273-302.[48] Ludema, J.D. (2001) From deficit discourse to vocabularies of hope: The power of appreciation. In Cooperrider, D. L. Sorenson, P., Whitney, D. & Yeager, T. (eds.) Appreciative Inquiry: An Emerging Direction for Organization Development Champaign, IL: Stipes. [49] Ahiauzu, A. and Asawo, S. P. (2009). Unwavering Hope and Workers’Commitment in the Nigerian Manufacturing Industry: a study in Workplace Spirituality, The Business Renaissance Quarterly, 4 (1), 105-124.[50] Walker K. D. (2006). “Fostering hope: a leader’s first and last task”, Journal of Educational Administration, 44 (6) 540-569.[51] Fry, L.W. & Whittington, J.L. (2005). In search of authenticity: Spiritual leadership theory as a source for future theory, research, and practice on authentic leadership. In B. Avolio, Gardner, W. & Walumbwa, F. (Eds.). Authentic leadership: Origins, development and effects. Monographs in Leadership and Management. New Your: Elsevier Ltd., 3, 183-200. [52] Aryee, S., Chen Z.X, Sun L.Y., Debrah Y. A. (2007). Antecedents and outcomes of abusive supervision: test of a trickle-down model. Journal of applied psychology, 92(1), 191-201[53] Snyder, C. R.,Harris.C, Anderson, J.R., Holleran. S.A., Irving. L.M., Sigmon. ,S.X., Ybshinobu. L., Gibb.J., Langelle.C., & Harney.P. (1991). The Will and the Ways: Development and Validation of an Individual-Differences Measure of Hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60: 4, 570-585[54] Zhou, J., & George, M. J. (2001). When job dissatisfaction leads to creativity:Encouraging the expression of voice. Academy of Management Journal, 44(4), 682-696.[55] Oldham, G. R., & Cummings, A. (1996). Employee creativity: Personal and contextual factors at work. Academy of Management Journal, 39: 607–634.[56] Tierney, P., Farmer, S. M., & Graen, G. B. (1999). An examination of leadership and employee creativity: The relevance of traits and relationships. Personnel Psychology, 52: 591–620.[57] Zhou, J. 2003. When the presence of creative coworkers is related to creativity: Role of supervisor close monitoring, developmental feedback, and creative personality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 413–422.[58] Aiken, L. S., West, S. G. Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Beverly Hills, CA: sage, 1991[59] 劉軍,宋繼文,吳隆增. 政治與關係視角的員工職業發展影響因素探討. 心理學報,2008,40(2): 20 1-209.[60] Atwatera.L., Carmeli.A. (2009). Leader–member exchange, feelings of energy, and involvement in creative work. The Leadership Quarterly. 20: 3, 264–275.校園文化法國單車騎士 Marc Delval 蒞臨科大分享環遊世界經歷大學於9月26日舉辦了一場名為 “Let's cycling around the world”講座。是次講座邀請到來自法國的Marc Delval為學生分享他用單車環遊世界各地的經驗。講座由澳門法國文化協會和澳門科技大學學生會主辦,屬會義工團承辦,並得到澳門基金會、The Seasons贊助,澳門科技大學基金會支持。講座反應熱烈,吸引百多名學生參加。現年64歲的Marc Delval是一名單車自助遊的愛好者,這四年來他騎著總重量達65公斤的單車,遊歷了歐美多個國家,已走過41000公里。2012年剛完成由北京至巳黎、倫敦的自行車奧運之旅,這次來到了澳門,作為最後旅程中的首站。講座中,Marc Delval展示了一直與他相伴的“戰車”,並講述自己從12歲開始已經有單車環遊世界的夢想。同學要求Marc用一個詞來形容他多年的旅程,他回答說“Fantastic”。完成這次澳門之旅後,Marc Delval將會出發到中國內地,繼續他的騎車旅程。
  • 72第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 基于TAM2的高星級酒店網站用戶接受度研究——以澳門五星級酒店網站爲案例唐 娟,李曉晨(澳門科技大學酒店與旅游管理學院,澳門)摘要: 越來越多的酒店開始運用信息交流技術,網站是重要的技術之一。 一個高品質的網站可以給酒店業吸引更多的線上客戶。本研究主要以酒店網站品質作為測量變量,並以澳門五星級酒店網站為研究對象,來研究用戶的接受度。本研究採用結構方程模型來分析資料,分析結果支持了提出的九個假設並給酒店管理者提供了合理化建議。關鍵詞: 酒店網站質量;技術接受模型; 結構方程模型Research on User Acceptance of Hotel WeAsite Based on TAM2 ─ An Empirical Study of 5-star Hotel Websites in MacauJuan TANG, Xiaochen LI( Macau University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau, China )AAstract: Numerous hotels have adopted Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as a way to cope with rapid changing environments and website. A high-quality website can attract and retain online customers in the highly competitive hospitality industry. This study provides a domain-specific, integrative approach in evaluating the hotel website quality and antecedents of user acceptance for hotels. This research investigated the websites of 5-star hotel in Macau, set up and identified corresponding TAM2 model proposed hypotheses were proposed. This research adopted SEM to testify those the results proved out the entire nine proposed hypotheses were supported and certain managerial suggestions were offered.eyyords: ICTs; Hotel Website Quality; TAM2; SEM收稿日期:2013-09-12;修訂日期:2013-10-03。﹡通訊作者:唐娟,女,博士,助理教授,主要研究方向:旅游市场营销,旅游文化E-mail: jtang@must.edu.mo,Tel: 853-889723570 引言爲了加强競爭力和贏得更多顧客的青睞,越來越多的酒店採用信息交流技術(ICT)來應對千變萬化的市場環境。客房預訂系統、采購和庫存系統、無綫互聯網、電子郵件、以及酒店網站等ICT 技術在整個整個行業都已廣泛實施應用 [1]。在競爭激烈的酒店業,開發和維護一個高質量的網站成爲獲得和留住綫上客戶的關鍵[2]。越來越多的自由行旅客喜歡自己預訂酒店[3],其中有些人會選擇在線預訂酒店,成為酒店網站的潛在客戶,所以“在線預訂”將成為旅遊業的一個重要應用[4]。如今大量的第三方代理網站占取了酒店網絡營銷的份額,爲了减少對第三方分銷商的依賴,酒店應該建設和優化官網來堅固他們的在綫營銷體系。技術接受模型(TAM)是研究解釋和預測人
  • 73唐娟,等  基于TAM2的高星級酒店網站用戶接受度研究們對資訊技術接受程度的基礎理論,後續研究不斷加以拓展和驗證,形成了更為完善並且操作性強的實用模型。許多學者把網站質量作為外部變量,運用 TAM 來研究網站質量和用戶接受 [5~8]。在許多產業的網站領域研究中發揮了巨大的作用。然後酒店領域,特別是澳門酒店領域的研究則相對薄弱。通過對數據庫的搜索,有關澳門酒店網站研究的文獻資源很少,尤其是澳門大型酒店網站在研究上仍處於起步狀態。五星級酒店是澳門當前酒店領域的代表性業態,同時也和澳門的博彩經濟密切關聯。因此,本文將著重於突破該領域的研究現狀,以選定的六個澳門五星級酒店(集團)網站為研究對象,採用結構方程模型(SEM)分析數據,並給酒店管理者提出一些合理化建議。這不僅為 TAM 模型在酒店網站研究領域中的理論驗證添磚加瓦,也為澳門本土酒店在其網站建設的優化和市場細分等實踐意義上有一定的指導價值。1 文献综述1.1 TAM模型的演變及相關研究技術接受模型是由 Fishbein 與 Ajzen [9] 通過理性行為模型(TRA)在技術接受度研究中演化而來的,是一個用於解釋個體行為的普適模型,也是研究使用著對一項新技術接受度的常用理論模型之一[10]。TAM 在已被廣泛運用於很多有關接受度的研究中,比如信息技術[11~13]、線上社區[14]、學習訓練[15~16]、網上購物[17~18]、航空企業網站[19]以及旅遊和酒店業中的旅行或酒店預訂[20~21]、前臺辦公系統[22]等等。經典的 TAM 提出了外部變量是影響內部感知、態度以及意向的基礎[23]。Davis[23] 等在 TRA 的基礎上提出內部感知分爲感知有用性(PU)和感知易用性(PEOU)兩種,兩種感知影響了用戶的態度(AT),進一步影響著用戶使用新技術的意向(BI)以及最終行為(AU), 此理論還提出感知易用性對感知有用性有著至關重要的影響。感知有用性表示一項技術的有用程度,就是使用該技術可以提高用戶的工作績效,而感知易用性則是指該技術的易用程度,就是使用該技術不需要多費精力就可以輕鬆地達到目的[24~25]。在此之後也有很多相關模型的出現,Venkatesh 與 FredD. Davis[26] 的技術接受擴展模型(the Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model, 簡 稱 TAM2)、Venkatesh et al.[27] 的技術接受和使用統一模型(the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, 簡 稱 UTAUT) 、Venkatesh 和Bala[28] 的技術接受模型 3(Technology Acceptance Model 3, 簡稱 TAM3)等等。它們在信息技術的接受和使用研究中得到了廣泛的應用。筆者根據文獻閱讀總結了這些模型的關係:TAM 是一個簡約的經典模型, 它爲後續研究提供了重要基礎; TAM2 通過擴展 TAM, 根據系統的特性和外部環境的因素,捨弃了原來的“attitude toward using”,探討了感知有用性和感知易用性决定因素的來源, 成爲 UTAUT 和 TAM3 模型提供了重要支撑理論; UTAUT 是在綜合包括 TAM 和 TAM2 模型在內的八個模型基礎上提出的整合與改進模型,爲後續研究提供了擴展空間; TAM3 是對 TAM2 的進一步擴充和延伸, 又融入了其他模型的因素, 提出了信息技術接受和使用决定因素的綜合模型。這些模型從始致終圍繞著一根主綫而展開,那就是使用意向决定使用行爲[29]。本文意在探討用戶瀏覽酒店網站後是否有考慮通過酒店網站購買酒店產品的行為意向,TAM2最為適用。因此本文採用 TAM2 模型(圖 1),並去掉最後的“Actual System Use”,僅探討用戶的行為意向。圖1 TAM2 模型(資料來源:Venkates 與 Davis, 2000[26])
  • 741.2 網站質量網站信息質量是評價網站內容的重要測評維度之一,許多有關網站內容的研究都側重于研究信息質量,例如時效性、準確性、有用性等[30~33]。Doll 與 Torkzadeh[34] 構建通過信息質量維度和易用性維度測量了用戶對 EUSE 系統的滿意度。DeLone 與 McLean[35] 通過對六個信息系統變量(信息質量、系統質量、信息使用、用戶滿意度、個體影響和組織影響)的研究,構建了 D&M IS Success 模型。其中信息質量維度包括準確性、時效性、完整性、相關性和一致性五個測量指標。該模型後來也被廣泛運用于許多信息系統相關研究來評價網站的信息質量。Ahn[7] 等指出,在網絡環境下信息質量的評價不僅包括網站所顯示的信息,也包括表現出來的形式。他們採用了準確性、完整性、豐富性、時效性、可靠性和適宜的格式作爲測評網站信息質量的指標,這些指標雖然全面但是具有一定的重複性,需要進一步的總結與篩選。 網站系統質量也是網站質量評價的重要測評維度之一。在 DeLone 與 McLean [35] 的 IS Success模型中,系統質量維度包括易用性、功能性、可靠性、靈活性、數據質量、可携帶性、集合性和價值性八個測評指標。Rayport 與 Jaworski[36] 提出了網站設計的 7Cs 模式,分別是 Context(組織),網站內容的設計與陳方式,要同時符合功能性與美觀性兩個需求;Content(內容),指網站上所傳遞的內容,例如包括産品、服務、促銷方案、顧客支持、信息等相關內容的文字、圖片、聲音和錄像等;Community(社群),供網站使用者之間的互動空間,讓使用者有依賴感、歸屬感和參與感;Customization(個性化定制),網站滿足不同客戶要求的能力以及提供個性化服務的能力;Communication(溝通方式),網站需要提供多種溝通方式,避免複雜的溝通環節,讓客戶能够在第一時間反應問題幷解决問題;Connection(聯繫),一些友情鏈接或者是相關信息的鏈接是非常必要的,這就是一個通往詳細信息的結點,能够讓用戶更好的獲取信息以及 Commerce(商務), 網站進行商務交易的能力提供多種接口功能,如客服咨詢、網上報名、網上繳費等功能,可以促進電子商務的發展及企業業務的發展。J. W. Palmer[37] 提出網站系統質量應該包括網頁外觀、載入速度、導航系統以及網站操作的表現。Rangathan 與 Ganpathy[38] 將安全性和私隱性納入網站系統質量維度的研究。Ahn[7] 等指出網站系統質量測評應包括外觀設計、導航系統、反應速度、安全性、穩定性和功能相關性。網站服務質量與傳統服務質量有著許多區別。Zeithaml, Parasuraman, 與 Malhotra[39] 將網站服務質量定義爲網站在消費者購買過程中提供的效率和有效性。Bhattacherjee[40] 在其對網站服務質量的研究中指出,網站服務質量應包括接受消費者的抱怨、爲消費者解决問題、協助消費者有效的使用産品以及提供更完善的服務和商品。Ahn[7] 等提出網站服務質量測評指標包括可靠性、信任、(企業)能力、反應速度、信用保證、個性化服務以及售後服務。Parasuraman, Zeithaml, 與 Malhotra[41] 的研究表明網站服務質量包括效率、義務、系統使用性、回應速度、賠償以及交流等。研究將以信息質量、系統質量以及服務質量作爲酒店網站質量的三個維度,每個維度中的測評指標及問項設定主要參考 Ahn[7] 等的量表以及其他學者的相關研究。1.3 酒店網站質量測評指標Jeong 與 Lambert[42] 從信息的效用,信息的易用性,信息的可用性以及顧客的態度的角度提出了酒店信息質量的評估模型,共有 38 個指標(包括信息的效用、信息的易用性、信息的可用性以及顧客的態度)。有些學者對酒店站的績效進行評估,建立了網站信息質量評估模型[43~44]。Zafiropoulos, 與 Vrana[45] 除了建立了酒店網站評估模型外,還把網頁的信息服務分爲六個層次,同時比較管理者和使用者的不同觀點。Jeong 與 Lambert[42] 運用基于顧客感知的旅館網站信息質量框架進行測試, 這個框架包括四個信息質量標準:
  • 75唐娟,等  基于TAM2的高星級酒店網站用戶接受度研究可用性、易用性、友好性和顧客態度。Rong、Rob Law[46] 和香港理工大學還有澳大利亞迪肯大學信息技術學院的學者在《國際酒店管理雜志》上發表的《酒店網站在綫購買者和在綫瀏覽者的對比分析》一文中,對酒店網站的在綫購買者和僅瀏覽不購買者進行對比分析。調研人員在香港國際機場詢問游客過去 12 個月內有訪問過酒店網站,如果有,就請他們填寫調查問卷。酒店網站信息內容分析指標包括五個信息維度:酒店設施信息、預訂信息、聯繫信息、周邊信息、網站管理等共45 個指標,提出的指標全面地概括了一個酒店網站所需要的全部信息。問卷依據這 45 個指標,幷給與簡單描述,利用李克特七分量表,讓受訪者選擇哪些最重要或是最同意哪些。之後,研究者利用 SOMs(self-organizing maps,自組織映像)的方法進行市場細分研究,按照受訪者的七個基本信息(語言、國籍、性別、年齡段、受教育程度、收入區間和最近 12 個月內是否有在綫預訂酒店)將其分爲 10 個不同小組,得出具有“說英文、高收入、高學歷、年長男性”特質的小組有可能成爲在綫購買者、具有“說中文、高學歷、低收入女性”特質的小組有可能成爲僅瀏覽不購買者等結論。最後作者還强調,同一家酒店不同語種的網頁,不是僅僅的文字翻譯就能達到顧客的需求,還要根據將不同語種的人群的喜好和注重點來考慮網頁的設計和文字的描述。余志遠,王兆成[47]抽樣調查了全國 19 個省市的 208 個高星級酒店網站,從網站設計元素著手,引入“元素使用率”來判斷元素在酒店網站設計中的利用程度,從而構建了高星級酒店網站設計元素歸屬與分布圖。其研究目的是試圖爲國內高星級酒店建設更加優秀的網站提出有效的對策與建議,以面對新的經營與競爭環境。Yeung[48] 研究認爲,可用性和功能是影響旅游網站性能的兩大主要因素 . Law 與 Wong[49] 研究得出一個成功的網站必須具備安全的支付系統、不同産品或服務價格範圍和用戶友好系統三個重要因素。Au Yeung和 Law[50] 在研究香港酒店網站時也得出了訪客需要一個平靜的閱讀環境,廣告動畫等幹擾信息會使訪客厭煩的結果。同時,用戶對於網頁的顯示和下載速度、網頁的長度方面評價也比較低。大陸學者胡濤等人[48]根據我國旅游網站的情况,適當修改了 Au Yeung 和 Law[51] 提出的旅游網站可用性衡量指標,基于啓發式的評價方法制定了 24 個修改後的指標來評價我國國內旅游網站的可用性,幷選取了我國海南省海口市的網民進行實踐調查。這些指標劃分爲五個維度:語言、網頁的結構和設計、信息結構、用戶接口和網頁導航標識以及整體情况,每個維度又劃分爲若干個指標(共 24個指標)。研究結果表明用戶對目前旅游網站是不大滿意的,“幹擾內容少”的得分最低,說明用戶對網站中的廣告等幹擾內容不滿意。有些學者從關係營銷(CRM)的角度對酒店網站評價進行了研究。如 Gilbert 與 Powell-perry [52]運用改進過的 RM 模型評價了 143 個酒店網站的服務質量,之後他倆又于 2003 年將 RM 模型運用在測試酒店網站的便利性和多媒體應用上。大陸學者熊偉等人[53]認爲酒店網站功能作爲酒店信息化的研究要點之一,雖已有成果但多關注網站本身的結構和內容,却忽視了酒店網站爲其顧客服務的本質。他們的研究基于顧客需求,在確定網站功能結構和評價指標的基礎上研究運用問卷調查法,得出顧客需求較强的指標,幷選取廣州市60 家星級酒店網站作爲分析樣本,用網絡內容分析法對其功能實現進行評估。其所構建的指標主要包括酒店基本信息、相關旅游信息、酒店産品和服務、接口功能、信息回饋與交流、客戶關係管理、信息更新這七個方面,分基礎層、主體層、核心層這三個層次,共 30 個指標。研究認爲,目前廣州市星級酒店網站功能不能滿足顧客的需求,要使酒店網站真正成爲酒店管理和營銷的有效工具,必須充分考慮酒店顧客需求。小結,本研究采用真實性、完整性和時效性作爲測評酒店網站信息質量的指標;採用、回應速度、網頁設計、導航功能以及選擇多樣性作爲測評酒店系統系統質量的指標;採用交互性、跟
  • 76進服務、個性化服務以及回應速度作爲測評酒店系統服務質量的指標。2 研究設計2.1 模型和假設圖2 本研究模型圖(資料來源:本研究自行整理)根據文獻總結和酒店網站實際情况,本研究模型如圖 2 所示。研究假設如表 1 所示。表1 研究假設No. 研究假設H1 PEOU 對PU有正向影響H2 PEOU對BI有正向影響H3 PU 對BI有正向影響H4 IQ對PU有正向影響H5 IQ 對 PEOU有正向影響H6 SYQ對 PU有正向影響H7 SYQ對 PEOU有正向影響H8 SEQ對PU有正向影響H9 SEQ對PEOU有正向影響(資料來源:本研究自行整理)表2 酒店網站用戶接受度測量問項維度 問項 理論依據信息質量IQ真實性 IQ1. 該酒店網站提供的信息是真實可靠的參考Chung[43];Ahn等[7];Law 與 Bai [54];熊偉等[53]及專家修改意見完整性 IQ2. 該酒店網站提供的信息豐富, 齊全時效性 IQ3. 該酒店網站信息更新及時系統質量SYQ穩定性 SYQ1. 該酒店網站總是處於可訪問狀態 參考Rayport,等[36];Loinacono, Watson 與 Goodhue [55];Gilbert, Powell-perry[56];Law等[49];Chung[43];Ahn等 [7];張麗霞,吳宏偉[57];Law 與 Bai[54];胡濤等 [51];Ye, Law 與 Gu[58];Casaló等[19];Susskind 與 Stefanone[59];Zhang[60];Lee 與 Gretzel[61]及專家修改意見回應速度 SYQ2. 該酒網站能夠在我可以接受的時間範圍內響應我的操作網頁設計 SYQ3. 該酒店網站網頁佈局合理導航系統 SYQ4. 該酒店網站導航系統清晰準確選擇多樣性 SYQ5. 該酒店網站能提供不少於一種語言流覽網頁服務質量SEQ交互性 SEQ1. 該酒店網站能提供與顧客之間的交流平臺參考Rayport,等[36];Jeong等[42];Ahn等[7];Parasuraman等[41];Xiong等[53] 及專家修改意見跟進服務 SEQ2. 該酒店網站能為提供跟進服務個性化服務 SEQ3. 該酒店網站可以為客戶提供個性化/定制服務回應速度SEQ4. 該酒店網站能够在我可以接受的時間範圍內回復我的問題和意見感知有用性PUPU1. 該酒店網站提供的信息是我需要的參考Davis等[26];Lu, Yeung[48];Venkatesh等[29];Jeong等[42];Kim 與 Park[52];Ahn等[7] 及專家修改意見PU2. 使用該酒店網站可以提高我購買酒店産品的效率PU3. 在該酒店網站上的價格比其他行銷管道更划算PU4. 總的來說,該酒店網站對我很有用感知易用性PEOUPEOU1. 可以從該酒店網站上容易地搜索到我所需要的信息參考Davis等[23];Venkatesh等[26];Kim 與 Park[62];Ahn 等[7]及專家修改意見PEOU2. 該酒店網站的導航系統易于操作PEOU3. 該酒店網站信息表述簡潔、容易理解PEOU4. 總的來說,該酒店網站用起來很方便行爲意向BIBI1. 我會考慮增加流覽該酒店網站的時間參考Dav i s等 [23 ];Tay lo r 與 Todd [63];Pavlou[64];Kim 與 Park[62];Ahn等[7]及專家修改意見BI2. 我會考慮增加使用該酒店網站的頻率BI3. 我會考慮通過該酒店網站購買酒店産品(資料來源:本研究自行整理)
  • 77唐娟,等  基于TAM2的高星級酒店網站用戶接受度研究2.2 問卷設計及樣本確定本研究在中外相關文獻回顧的基礎上幷結合澳門五星級酒店網站之實際情况,總結出澳門五星級酒店網站用戶接受度問卷維度與問項。爲進一步修改與調整問卷問項,使問卷更加通順易懂,更具針對性與科學性,爲大規模的正式調查打好良好基礎以及爲數據分析的有效性提供保障,筆者邀請七位學界與業界專家進行深入訪談。七位學者與專家意見主要集中在:(1)對部分問項文字表述提出修改意見,使問項語言更爲簡潔準確,語義表達更爲完整;(2)指出個別項目應予以删除,如該網站采用多種多媒體呈現內容(圖片、視頻、音樂等),被選取的六個酒店網站均多種多媒體,沒有异議,應予以刪除;(3)需拆分或合幷部分問項等。具體問項如表 2 所示。由於研究時間、經費等客觀條件的限制,本文結合學術理論、專家意見以及實際情况確定受訪者由兩部分組成,其一是實際用過網站預定酒店的顧客,其二是流覽過此網站但是沒有預定過酒店(被視爲潜在顧客)。考慮到澳門旅游的某些特殊政策,游客需要辦理《港澳通行證》、《護照》等證件方可入境,短期內重游率相對其它較爲方便頻繁出入的旅游目的地較低。本文因此將潛在顧客也視作研究對象的重要組成部份。爲保證數據質量,本研究的受訪者均為使用或瀏覽過任意一個或全部選定六家酒店網站的用戶。問卷發放分爲兩個部分,一部分是在綫發放,以騰訊微博、微信朋友圈、人人網等社交軟件爲平臺發放問卷鏈接;另一部分是實地發放,由調查員攜帶平板電腦在選定酒店內或周邊進行調查填寫。本量表采用李克特五分制量表,問卷正式發放與回收日期爲 2013 年的 7 月至 8 月。總共回收了 436 份問卷,有效問卷爲 399 份,有效率爲 91.51%。受訪者中男性為 43.61%,女性為56.39%。大部分年齡分佈在 19 到 30 歲,70.2% 的受訪者擁有大學或以上教育背景。整理後的數據使用 SPSS21.0 和 AMOS21.0 軟件進行信效度分析和驗證性因子分析。3 數據分析本章將運用 SPSS21.0 和 AMOS21.0 兩個軟件做出以下分析:1) 信度分析; 2) 測量模型分析; 3) 結構模型分析。3.1 信度分析如表 3 所示, 所有量表 Cronbach's alpha 均達到 0.7[65~67], 所有問項的 Corrected Item-Total Correlation 也都達到 0.5 以上 [68],分析結果說明本量表的信度很好。表3 信度分析結果維度及問項Corrected Item-Total CorrelationCornbach's alpha所有問項 0.907網站質量 0.828信息質量IQ1 0.5030.737IQ2 0.545IQ3 0.645系統質量SYQ1 0.5660.777SYQ2 0.604SYQ3 0.636SYQ4 0. 548SYQ5 0.501服務質量SEQ1 0.8050.880SEQ2 0.778SEQ3 0.672SEQ4 0.746感知有用性PU1 0.6180.804PU2 0.713PU3 0.615PU4 0.537感知易用性PEOU1 0.5310.853PEOU2 0.761PEOU3 0.745PEOU4 0.766行爲意向BI1 0.7420.841BI2 0.787BI3 0.597(資料來源:本研究自行整理)3.2 測量模型分析本結構方程模型包含六個測量模型和一個結構模型,採用最大似然法運用 Amos21.0 軟件進行分析。上一章節中我們用 Cornbach's alpha 來測
  • 78量了整個量表和每個構面(測量模型)的信度,本章節中我們會用更多指標測量每個測量模型的信效度。組合信度(CR)和多元相關系數的平方(SMC, R2)用來測量測量模型的信度,收斂效度 / 單維性(包括標準的因子載荷、組合信度 CR和平均方差提取量 AVE)和擬合指標用來測量測量模型的效度。如表 4 所示,幾乎所有的測量指標都達到了標準。所有因子載荷都達到 0.5 以上,所有組合信度值都達到 0.6 以上,所有平均方差提取量值都達到 0.5以上 [69~70]。所有多元相關系數平方值達到 0.3標準,有些更高達到 0.7 甚至 0.9 以上 [71]。表4 測量模型信效度分析測量模型多元相關係數平方SMC(R2)收斂效度/單維性標準因子載荷組合信度(CR)平均方差提取量(AVE)測量模型1IQ1 0.476 0.6900.7563 0.5090IQ2 0.578 0.760IQ3 0.473 0.688測量模型 2SYQ1 0.488 0.6980.8367 0.5091SYQ2 0.534 0.731SYQ3 0.699 0.836SYQ4 0.362 0.602SYQ5 0.462 0.680測量模型3SEQ1 0.654 0.8090.8792 0.6482SEQ2 0.706 0.840SEQ3 0.434 0.659SEQ4 0.646 0.804測量模型4PU1 0.469 0.6850.8181 0.5318PU2 0.676 0.822PU3 0.396 0.629PU4 0.587 0.766測量模型5PEOU1 0.352 0.5930.8600 0.6172PEOU2 0.904 0.951PEOU3 0.854 0.924PEOU4 0.359 0.599測量模型5BI1 0.882 0.9390.8673 0.6935BI2 0.852 0.923BI3 0.475 0.689(資料來源:本研究自行整理)測量模型 1 和測量模型 6 是正好識別模型(χ2=0.000,df=0),其餘四個測量模型的擬合指標結果都非常好[72],均具有理論參考價值,如表 5 所示。 表5測量模型擬合結果χ2 RMR GFI AGFI CFI NFI測量模型227.000(p=0.000)0.026 0.975 0.924 0.956 0.947測量模型3 14.333(p=0.01) 0.021 0.982 0.909 0.979 0.976測量模型4 9.979(p=0.007) 0.016 0.988 0.939 0.985 0.982測量模型514.336(p=0.001)0.011 0.988 0.939 0.197 0.984(資料來源:本研究自行整理)表6 結構模型擬合結果擬合指標 最優擬合標準 結構模型Absolute fit measuresχ2 The lower, the better1042.615(p=0.000)RMR <0.05 0.128RMSEA<0.05 very good, <0.08 good0.097GFI >0.90 0.814AGFI >0.90 0.767Incremental fit measuresNFI >0.90 0.795RFI >0.90 0.765IFI >0.90 0.831TLI(NNFI) >0.90 0.805CFI >0.90 0.830Parsimonious fit measuresPGFI >0.50 0.652PNFI >0.50 0.694PCFI >0.50 0.725CN >200 98χ2/DF <2.00 4.523(資料來源:本研究自行整理,吳明隆[66])3.3 結構模型分析研究模型的各項擬合指標結果如表 6 所示。根據 t 法則, df = 221 > 0, 本研究模型是一個過度識別模型。雖然不是所有擬合指標都達到最優值,但是本模型也具有一定的理論參考價值。數據分析結果為 PEOU 對 PU 有顯著影響(β=0.336, p<0.001),PU 對 BI 有 顯 著 影 響(β=0.570, p<0.001),PEOU 對 BI 有 顯 著 影響(β=0.161, p<0.05)。IQ 對 PU(β=0.263, p<0.001) 和 PEOU(β=0.232, p<0.01) 都 有顯 著 影 響。SYQ 對 PU(β=0.181, p<0.01) 和PEOU(β=0.244, p<0.01)都有顯著影響,SEQ對 PU(β=0.495, p<0.001)和 PEOU(β=0.422, p<0.001)都有顯著影響。圖 3 顯示了測量模型、
  • 79唐娟,等  基于TAM2的高星級酒店網站用戶接受度研究路徑值以及其顯著度。上一章節中提出的九條假設都成立。結果顯示網站質量的三個維度都對 PU有直接影響,並通過 PEOU 對 PU 有間接影響。網站質量通過 PU 和 PEOU 對用戶的 BI 有間接影響。圖3 測量模型及路徑值(資料來源:本研究自行整理)4 研究結論4.1 結論與建議(1)TAM2 模型適用于研究澳門高星級酒店網站本模型的擬合指標和路徑值都表明 TAM 模型適用于研究澳門高星級酒店網站,幷且九個假設都成立。(2)感知有用性相比感知易用性對用戶行爲意向的影響更爲顯著本研究結果表明感知有用性相比感知易用性對用戶行爲意向的影響更爲顯著,這與之前許多學者[72]的研究結果都是一致的,這說明酒店網站用起來越方便,給用戶帶來的有用程度也越高,建議酒店管理者加强對此方面網站的建設。(3)服務質量是影響使用者行爲意向最顯著的維度數據結果顯示,服務質量不僅是酒店網站質量的組成成分之一,也是對用戶接受度影響最顯著的維度,越來越多的用戶在滿足酒店網站提供的資訊的同時,更加關注酒店網站提供的服務。事實上,酒店網站的交互性不僅僅指建立顧客與酒店之間的交流平臺,顧客與顧客之間的交流也是非常重要的,酒店網站在跟進服務、個性服務以及回應時間方面也應做出加强。與此同時,酒店也應加強線下服務,與線上服務相互呼應,給使用者提供更加貼心的服務體驗。(4)添加具有當地特色的資訊服務澳門是個獨具特色的多元化旅遊城市,不僅擁有娛樂場,眾多的世界文化遺產也是不容錯過的旅游體驗,許多高星級酒店還會承辦大型的會展和娛樂活動。酒店網站可以提供這些具有當地特色的相關資訊或鏈接,讓用戶對酒店乃至整個澳門都有更加深入的瞭解。(5)多做調查研究做到知彼知己酒店管理者應在線上或者線下多做調查研究,瞭解不同顧客類型的需求差異,及時彌補自身不足及做好市場細分,為顧客提供更好消費環境的同時增加酒店利潤。做到知彼知己才能共得雙贏。4.2 研究局限及展望(1)優化研究範圍與增加調查時間,增強研究結果的適用價值與準確性受限於研究時間、成本等因素,本研究只對六個澳門五星級酒店網站進行了調查與研究,在樣本的采集、結論等方面均具有一定的局限性。未來研究可以將研究範圍擴大,選取更多的五星級酒店網站或不同級別酒店網站爲對象,各級別酒店研究結果之間是否具有或差異,以求拓展研究結論的應用範圍,更深入地理解用戶對酒店網站的真實體驗。在以後更為充裕的研究資源支撐下,筆者將力圖將潛在顧客和現實顧客做更精確的細分,探求不同顧客類型之間的關係及差異。(2)豐富研究分析方法,增加研究的科學性與合理性研究通過文獻回顧與專家訪談修正得出初始量表,在以後的研究中可以采取更深入的訪談方法,如德爾菲法,以獲取專家更深入的看法採用焦點小組訪談,以研討會方式獲取旅游者更真實
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  • 82第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 Received 24 Sep. 2013; Revised 10 Oct. 2013.Corresponding author: Zhang Meng, Ph.D, assistant professor, specializing in human geography. E-mail: mzhang@must.edu.mo Value Perception, Threat Ayareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in MacauMeng ZHANG1, Meisi WONG2( 1. Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China; ) ( 2. School of Continuing Studies, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: Conservation is a fundamental aspect of heritage management, especially management of world heritages, which bear unique and universal values for mankind. People in local communities play a vital role in such initiatives, so it is meaningful to learn their attitudes towards world heritages and their motivation to conserve them. This current empirical study selected Macau, where a world heritage is situated, as the study area, and mainly performed a quantitative questionnaire survey on local university students. The principal component analysis identified three factors which can represent the responding students' value perception of the world heritage, namely, cultural value, social value and economic value, based on which, the cluster analysis categorized the students into three types, namely, cultural type, economic type and negative type. According to the findings, local students demonstrate high-level perception of the values of their own world heritage, with certain degree of disparity, in contrast, room still exists for improvement with regard to awareness of threats it is faced with and willingness to protect it, which are only at a modest level. Finally, efforts to enhance heritage education were called for and other recommendations of managerial implications were also proposed accordingly.eyyords: World heritage; Value; Protection; Macau; University students澳門大學生世界遺產價值認知、威脅感知與保護意願調查張 萌1,黃美斯2(1. 澳門科技大學酒店與旅游管理學院,澳門;2. 澳門科技大學持續教育學院,澳門)摘要: 保育,是世界遺産管理各項議題中的第一要務,而遺產所在地的社區居民在其中發揮著關鍵的作用。本文將世界遺產所在地澳門作為研究區域,對當地大學生進行定量的問卷調查,通過主成分分析將其對澳門世界文化遺產——澳門歷史城區的價值認知歸納為文化價值、社會價值與經濟價值三個因素;並在此基礎上利用聚類分析將受訪大學生劃分為文化型、經濟型與否定型三個群組。研究發現,澳門大學生對其世界遺產的價值普遍具有高度的認知,並且伴隨著一定的差異性。而其對遺產所面臨威脅的感知以及對遺產的保護意願仍存在提升的空間。文章最後為澳門青年學生世界遺産教育提出了具有針對性的對策建議。關鍵詞: 世界遺產;價值;保護;澳門;大學生
  • 83Meng ZHANG, et al. Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macau0 IntroductionCurrently, the endeavors to conserve heritages, especially world heritages are highly advocated and well documented worldwide. Anyway, there is a lack of research on the role of local communities in this regard, and their views of world heritages have rarely been studied[1]. This is a gap that must be filled, as encouraging participation of local people in the preservation of their heritage is part of the mission of world heritage sites (WHSs)[2]. Since the last two decades, public involvement has become a worldwide issue as the bottom-up approach has spread across the field of heritage conservation and city planning[3], and the need to involve a broader range of stakeholders in heritage decisions to achieve sustainable practice has been recognized[4]. Among people in different age groups, the young people are normally better educated about heritage issues and hold the society's future in their hands. Attitudes of young people appear to be crucial as they will ultimately play a direct part in providing knowledge based solutions to problems related to heritages. In this light, the UNESCO published “World Heritage in Young Hands: An Educational Resource Kit for Teachers” to inspire and reinforce young people's commitment to preserve our heritage, and to help close the gap between school and society by offering stimulating activities which promote involvement in the community[5]. Do the young actually develop ties to their heritage? This research performed an empirical study of Macau, investigating the local university students' understanding of the values embodied in their world heritage, the threats facing it and their intention to protect these heritage resources.1 Theoretical FrameyorkThe concepts of value, threat and protection are introduced, echoing the classical division of the types of world heritage conservation indicators: those of pressure (threats to the asset), those of state (universal values, authenticity and integrity) and those of response (management and public use of the asset)[6].1.1 Heritage ValueIt is one of the major arguments of this research that perceived values justify and motivate the protection efforts for world heritage. The consideration behind a typical conservation decision normally reveals many different, sometimes divergent values: the artistic and aesthetic values of an old building, as well as the historical values of its associations, plus the economic values tied up in its use, and so on. In short, values are an important, determining factor in the current practices and future prospects of the conservation field[7], in other words, values are something that is put into a place as a heritage to make it worth protecting[8]. Specifically for world heritages, the values must be universal and outstanding, the best representative and can be acknowledged as general or worldwide[9].In effect, however, it is not easy to define values of a heritage site, and the difficulty is compounded by the mixture of intrinsic values judged by the objective approach and the subjective values defined by people by the relativistic approach[6]. Economically, the total value of cultural heritage resources is considered to integrate both its use value and non-use value. Use value refers to the benefits from the users' direct use of facilities or services belonging to a heritage site, whilst non-use value is derived from the intangible or abstract valuation of the resources, including option value, existence value, and bequest value. Option value indicates a future use value, while existence value relates to the fact that an individual may benefit from the resource through his/her belief in the continuity of its existence. Bequest value is related to the concept of taking responsibility of keeping the resource intact for our future descendants[10]. Experts go further to extend such categorization, classifying heritage values into individual ones versus collective ones, and private versus public ones. An underlying theme is a further distinction between those values that are included in an economic analysis of heritage and those that might lie beyond a strictly financial calculus[11].Subsequently, such a further distinction exists
  • 84between economic and cultural values[12]. The social-cultural values of cultural heritage can be summarized as aesthetic value, spiritual value, social value, historical value, symbolic value, etc.[7]. In detail, they refer to the provision of cultural, aesthetic and spiritual satisfaction both individually and collectively, the importance as a source of memory and inspiration, and the contribution to national and local community identity, which is fundamental for sense of place and social cohesion[13]. The economic value of cultural heritage can be defined as the amount of welfare that heritage generates for society[14], especially in the form of increased employment and income[15]. What deserves special mention is heritage tourism. Regarding tourism, some researchers admit that heritage is regarded as one of the most significant and fastest growing components of tourism[16].1.2 ThreatsIn principle, UNESCO places equal emphasis on the conservation and the use of WHSs. In other words, the policy of UNESCO is to keep WHSs in a good condition for future generations and making them available to the public as much as possible[1]. Heritage is the contemporary use of the past[17], and in reality, the elderly nature of the built heritage makes them constantly vulnerable to some degree of deprivation and decay[18]. Many heritage sites around the world which preserve mankind's history have been demolished due to a variety of factors such as war, natural disaster, overuse, and weather[10]. Commercial activities may also damage historic resources, through physical damage caused by tourist use or through commoditization, trivialization and standardization[19]. It is in light of this situation that when laying down the objectives of the world heritage conservation indicators in 2007, the UNESCO/WHC highlighted the importance of “identifying the threats”[20]. It is meaningful because the deterioration or even destruction of heritage resources could also be harmful to the survival of our identity, our nations and our planet[5]. Among all the existent or potential threats, those caused by tourism initiative are currently most noticeable. The relationship between tourism and heritage management, especially cultural heritage management, is dialectic[21]. From the negative side, excessive visitation and seasonal variation in visitor numbers leading to site degradation are in conflict with the initial goal of the World Heritage Convention, and challenges the sustainability of those sites[22]. What's more, cultural values may be commercialized and corrupted due to the “tourismification” of heritage sites[23~24] - the degradation of cultural values will in turn negatively influence tourism values, forming a vicious circle[25]. These will eventually result in irreversible physical and social damage, not only to such sites but also to the communities surrounding them[5].1.3 Heritage Protection / EducationThe implications of being internationally recognized as a world heritage site also mean an international accountability[26], so most contemporary societies are very keen on the preservation and conservation of their heritage[27], to maintain and enhance the outstanding universal value, the conditions of integrity and/or authenticity at the time of the declaration. The value of these heritages as a capital stock is what makes them worthy of conservation[28]. Such recognition has given rise to an urgent question: Are the cultural significance values well identified, understood, clearly stated and disseminated at all level among the stakeholders especially the local community?[18]. This calls for the awareness that conservation can no longer be based on the object's intrinsic quality. It must be founded on our ability to recognize its aesthetic, historic, scientific, social values etc., or rather, it is the community that must recognize these values, upon which its own cultural identity can be built[29], and from which its economic benefits can be derived. The logic relationship between people's attitude and behavior towards world heritages seems to be self-evident, but are rarely examined by empirical studies. Anyway, theories and findings from environmental education studies can neatly lend relevant references. According to environmental psychology and human
  • 85Meng ZHANG, et al. Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macaugeography, the perception of a space is a key factor in understanding human behavior within that space, as opposed to only its attributes[30~31]. Likewise, the social psychology theories have argued that the change in the behavior will not happen on its own, but requires changes in knowledge and attitude. Hence, it is believed that this notion is at the heart of government policy making and that proper knowledge would have tangible effect on behavior[32]. Eawert and Galloway (2004) believe that one of the more noteworthy areas of interaction between human and the natural environment is environmental attitudes[33]. To achieve behavioral changes associated with a particular issue, at first, it requires changing in individual's attitude towards the same issue. For this reason, achieving human attitudes (e.g. environmental attitudes) and exploring individual cognition is essential in the research of environmental behavior[34]. In order that young people may participate effectively in environmental conservation, they need to be aware of the issues and challenges at stake, and have the means to act accordingly[5]. Hence, to familiarize students with world heritage conservation and encourage them to actively participate in the lifelong process of heritage preservation, world heritage education will enable young people to reflect on and discuss the meaning and value of heritage, the techniques required to manage world heritage, the advantages and threats of mass tourism to world heritage, and so on[5]. Drawing on the categories of environmental education objectives proposed by UNESCO, the cause-effect relationship between key variables can be summarized by Figure 1[35].Fig. 1 Environmental Education Paradigm2 Study Area and MethodologyThe fusion of different cultures had brought Macau a large number of world-class heritages that characterize the urban landscape. As the signature of these relics and resources, The Historic Centre of Macao is a collection of over twenty locations on the Macau peninsula that witness the unique assimilation and co-existence of Chinese and Portuguese cultures in Macau, a former Portuguese colony. It represents the architectural legacies of the city's cultural heritage, including monuments such as urban squares, streetscapes, churches and temples. In the year 2005, the Historic Centre of Macao was inscribed by UNESCO as a world cultural heritage, making it the 31st designated world heritage site in China, which symbolized the most authoritative international recognition of Macau's cultural heritages. It was described by UNESCO as: “with its historic street, residential, religious and public Portuguese and Chinese buildings, the historic centre of Macao provides a unique testimony to the meeting of aesthetic, cultural, architectural and technological influences from East and West,” and “...it bears witness to one of the earliest and longest-lasting encounters between China and the West, based on the vibrancy of international trade”[36]. In the year 2006, Macau Tourist Office launched the slogan “A World of Difference, The Difference is Macau” to establish the image of Macau as a cultural heritage tourism destination, and for this, won the gold award for its initiatives in cultural heritage tourism from the Pacific Asia Travel Association in 2007. In the aspect of preservation, Macau government spares no efforts either, and the drafting of Cultural Heritage Protection Law is just one example. Besides, such non-for-profit and non-governmental organizations as Macau World Heritage Promotion Association and Macau Heritage Ambassadors Association were established, to publicize the value of heritages in Macau and to promote cultural heritage tourism of Macau, while the issue of sustainable use of heritage resources through preservation still remains on the top agenda.
  • 86In this study, the combination of methods, both quantitative and qualitative, was employed. On-site field observation activities were conducted to record the real dangers threatening this world heritage; a workshop with local experts was initiated to know the common channels through which the public, especially the university students can make contribution to world heritage preservation; a questionnaire survey was performed to examine local university students' value perception, threat awareness, protection willingness of their world heritage; semi-structured in-depth interviews were held to dig more information relevant to the topic. Prior to data collection from questionnaire survey, consultations with experts were held and a pilot study was conducted with fifty local university students to assess face and content validity. Based on the feedback, minor adjustments were made to the questionnaire. In this formal self-administered questionnaire, ahead of the questions, a brief introduction to the Historic Centre of Macao, the world heritage site, was presented, considering respondents must clearly understand the characteristics of the object they are being asked to value[37], but emotive language use or the implication that a world heritage was accepted as highly valuable were avoided. The subsequence of the questionnaire was divided into four parts. The first part dealt with the respondents' perception of the values embodied in their world heritage, composed of sixteen items which were summarized from the literature collation. The second part dealt with the respondents' awareness of the threats facing their world heritage, composed of six items which were summarized from both the literature collation and field survey. Items in the first two parts were both five-point Likert scaled. The third part dealt with the respondents' willingness to protect their world heritage, composed of three items, and questions in this part was inspired from interviews with local experts in the field of cultural heritage conservation and promotion. The fourth part dealt with the respondents' personal information, as well as their actual relationship with their world heritage. Participants of the survey were year 2 to year 4 students from Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management and School of Continuing Studies, Macau University of Science and Technology, who held either a Macau permanent resident identity card or a Macau non-permanent resident identity card, and whose student ID cards were different than those of non-local students. A stratified sampling approach was adopted, in an attempt to sample students evenly of years of enrollment and different majors, tourism or others, while also including a balanced mixture of birthplaces, Macau or elsewhere. Altogether 600 questionnaires were disseminated, and 555 valid ones were collected, accounting for 92.5% of the total.3 Result3.1 Descriptive AnalysisIn the descriptive analysis, responding university students demonstrated high recognition of all values of Macau world heritage in general, among which, the item “document of Macau history” was scored highest (4.26); the lowest-scored item “enhancement of citizens' cohesion” was also scored relatively high (3.39). As for awareness of threats to their world heritage, students also exhibited high level of agreement, with “over-capacity visitation” the highest, as is shown in Table 1. The willingness to protect Macau world heritage is presented in Table 2.TaAle 1 Ayareness of Threats to Macau World HeritageItem Mean Std. DeviationPhysical damage to architectures 3.79 0.771Pollution to surrounding environment 3.87 0.821Over-capacity visitation 4.03 0.889Excessive commercialization 3.80 0.851Loss of cultural authenticity 3.60 0.853Inadequate preservation effort 3.49 0.9143.2 Factor AnalysisConsidering the correlat ion between the variables, factor analysis by SPSS 17.0 was performed for heritage value perception, to reveal the essence of the study objects in a more differentiating and holistic
  • 87Meng ZHANG, et al. Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macau TaAle 2 Willingness to Protect Macau World HeritageProportion of donation to monthly disposable incomePercentNumber of times of monthly participation in heritage conservation activitiesPercentWillingness to join a heritage conservation associationPercent0 16.9 0 29.7 Strongly disagree 4.10 + ~ 0.1% 28.8 Once 46.7 Disagree 12.10.1% + ~ 0.5% 25.2 Twice 17.7 Neutral 56.80.5% + ~ 1% 20.7 Thrice 2.9 Agree 23.21% + 8.3 Thrice + 3.1 Strongly agree 3.8Total 100 Total 100 Total 100TaAle 3 Factor Analysis Result of World Heritage Value PerceptionFactor/Variable Loading Mean SD individual/cumulative variance(%) Cronbach's ΑCultural Value1) Document of Macau history 0.781 4.26 0.75322.817/22.817 0.8282) Embodiment of diverse culture 0.750 4.21 0.7273) Singular scenic beauty 0.585 3.83 0.7654) Outstanding educational function 0.482 3.82 0.8405) Extraordinary research value 0.619 3.98 0.8066) Living evidence for the future generations 0.654 4.12 0.8017) Practical cultural utility 0.651 4.12 0.8118) Symbol of the city's existence 0.502 4.20 0.899Social Value9) Enhancement of sense of belongingness 0.763 3.63 0.86717.306/40.123 0.79210) Enhancement of citizens' cohesion 0.842 3.39 0.84011) Enhancement of citizen's identification 0.778 3.54 0.879Economic Value12) Promotion of international reputation 0.604 4.18 0.77614.541/54.664 0.77813) Tourism landmark and attraction 0.726 4.22 0.80914) Diversification of economy 0.710 3.87 0.88415) Sustainable growth of economy 0.776 3.75 0.84116) Creation of employment opportunities 0.568 3.50 0.930KMO=0.870, p<0.01TaAle 4 Result of Cluster AnalysisFactorClusterCultural Type Economic Type Negative Type Cultural value 0.35018 -0.09568 -1.89055Social value 0.72882 -0.76917 0.29975Economic value -0.07637 0.28112 -1.52102Cluster size 260 260 35Percentage of respondents 46.85% 46.85% 6.3%
  • 88manner and to simplify the further analysis. Principal component factors with an eigenvalue of one or greater were rotated by the Varimax analysis. Bertlett's test of sphericity and the calculation of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) statistics indicated if the data were suitable for the identification of orthogonal factor dimensions. A total of sixteen variables, all with loadings equal to or greater than 0.40, were respectively incorporated into three factor groupings which explained 55% of the total variance, as is shown in Table 3. In examining the internal consistency, Cronbach's alpha was assessed and verified the appropriateness of the classification.3.3 Cluster AnalysisAshworth (1996, 1998) highlighted the point that different individuals perceive and encounter heritage spaces in different ways based on their own cultural backgrounds[38~39], and it is one of the main aims of the current study to identify different types of Macau university students who can be described by their different understanding of the value of their world heritage. A cluster analysis was employed in order to categorize the responding students based on their assessment of the three factor groups. To achieve desirable effect, approximately 10 percent of the samples were selected at random for hierarchical clustering with Ward's Method and Squared Euclidean Distance. Judging from the Dendrogram, it was most appropriate to divide all the samples into three types, so in the following K-Means clustering analysis, the number of clusters was determined as three. The results were presented in Table 4.It can be seen from the final cluster center, among the three clusters, the first one highly agrees on the cultural and social value of Macau world heritage. These two kinds of value can be summarized as cultural value, by the dichotomy between “cultural value vs. economic value”, so the first cluster was named “Cultural type”. The second cluster holds a highly positive attitude towards the economic value of Macau world heritage, so was named “Economic type”. The first two clusters represented the mainstream of Macau university students, accounting for 93.7% of the total respondents. Although with different emphasis, their assessment of all values of Macau world heritage was generally positive, in other words, they have strong perception of such values. The third cluster was named “Negative type”, because their recognition of all values of Macau world heritage was generally low, with over half of the items scored below 3 on average. This cluster only represented 6.3% of the respondents. It was learnt with examination into the information of the students that in each type, only less than ten percent of the total have joint an association related to Macau world heritage, and the major channels through which they acquire knowledge about Macau world heritage are school, TV and radio, and Internet. In terms of religious belief, Christians demonstrate much stronger awareness of cultural values of Macau world heritage among all types. Most world heritages are going through an evolution in which their utility declines while aesthetic function increases simultaneously[40]. In contrast, Historic Centre of Macao, especially the Christian and papistical churches, although strictly protected for their paramount historic and cultural significance, are still serving the public in their daily life in modern society, so these converts naturally hold them in higher regard. From the angle of the place of their birth and current life, it was shown that university students who were born and brought up in Macau and those are now living in Macau Peninsula, where the historic center is located, surprisingly demonstrate a lower cognition of the cultural values but a higher cognition of the economic values than others who were born, brought up or are living elsewhere. The possible reason is that they have been too familiar with their homeland to retain any curiosity or attraction towards it, to a degree that they have become indifferent to its historic, cultural and aesthetic values. Meanwhile, these students and their family have more opportunities to participate in and benefit from the development of cultural heritages, especially operation of heritage tourism, so they have more direct understanding of the function of Macau world heritage to boost tourism and economy.
  • 89Meng ZHANG, et al. Value Perception, Threat Awareness and Protection Willingness of World Heritage: A Case of University Students in Macau4 Discussion and RecommendationUnexpectedly, despite high recognition of world heritage value, motivation to contribute to the conservation of the world heritage is only at a modest level. Possible reasons can be inferred from McKenzie's (1999) argument on Fostering Sustainable Behavior, that there are three explanations for people not engaging in an activity: (1) People do not know about the activity or its benefits; (2) People who know about the activity may perceive that there are significant barriers associated with engaging in it, and (3) While people may feel that there no significant barriers to carrying out the activity, they may perceive that it is easier and more beneficial to continue with their present behavior[41]. This conclusion was also echoed by the interview with ten local university students in Macau in this study, and this is why education is crucial in the attempt to overcome these impediments to heritage conservation efforts by increasing the students' interest and intention to carry out heritage conservation activities, making it more convenient for them to do these activities and providing more information about such activity so that the students can see the benefits of world heritage conservation and are motivated to participate. A gap be tween the l eve l o f in t e res t i n conservation and the actual level of conservation[1] is always found and discussed; likewise, this study discovered knowing something is important does not necessarily mean that people will be ready to protect it. Local university students in Macau have high level value perception of their world heritage in general, but obvious unevenness also exists. To instruct and inspire the students to have a deeper understanding of the social-cultural values of the world heritage, alongside the economic ones especially in fostering tourism, and to know that priority should be given to conservation, rather than development in world heritage management agenda, will be the key issue to strengthening the conservation efforts for world heritage. The young students of today will be the backbone of Macau of tomorrow, and they are also holding the future of the world heritage in their hands. The precondition for cognition lies in direct contact and encounter, so besides heritage education courses and lectures, universities should also show students around the world heritage on a regular basis, combing the informative interpretation and participatory and innovative experiential activities, to enhance their love of their fellow citizens and their passion for world heritage conservation. World heritage education can be implemented through such channels as microblog, animation and comics which are favored by the youth and should be conducted through exchange with the rest of the world, capitalizing on the advantage of Macau as an open and internationalized city. Such issues as nurturing of talents and input of capital, which are closely related with world heritage education, can only be facilitated by the guarantee of law. The Macau SAR Government should formulate regulations to indicate the glorious obligation of local people to learn from and protect their world heritage, and to motivate the young students to make contribution to conservation and preservation of their world heritage and diverse cultures. References [1] Takamitsu J, 2011. The impact of world heritage site designation on local communities: A case study of Ogimachi, Shirakawa–mura, Japan. Tourism Management, 32: 288-296. [2] UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2010. World Heritage. Available from: http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=160. [3] Sirisrisak T, 2009. Conservation of Bangkok old town. Habitat International, 33 (4): 405-411.[4] Torre M, 2002. Assessing the Values of Cultural Heritage, The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles.[5] UNESCO, 2002. World Heritage in Young Hands: An Educational Resource Kit for Teachers.[6] Silvio M Z & Lucia T F H, 2011. Measuring urban heritage conservation: theory and structure (part 1). Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development, 1(2): 96-108.[7] Torre M, 2000. Values and Heritage Conservation. The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles.[8] Dann N & Cantell T, 2007. Maintenance in conservation. In Forsyth, M (edit.) Understanding historic building conservation. Blackwell publishing. Oxford.[9] Shuhana S, Ahmad B S. & Rohayah C A, 2012. Urban landscape factors that influenced the character of George Town, Penang UNESCO World Heritage Site. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 50:238-253.[10] Kim S S, Wong K K F & Cho M, 2007. Assessing the economic value
  • 90of a world heritage site and willingness-to-pay determinants: A case of Changdeok Palace. Tourism Management, 28: 317-322.[11] Throsby D, 2007. The Value of Heritage. Heritage Economics Workshop, ANU.[12] Hutter M & Throsby D, 2008. Beyond Price: Value in Culture, Economics, and the Arts. New York: Cambridge University Press.[13] Communities and Local Government, 2009. Draft Planning Policy Statement 15: Planning for the Historic Environment, Communities and Local Government Publications, London, 2009. [14] Ruijgrok E, 2006. The three economic values of cultural heritage: a case study in the Netherlands, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 7: 206-213. [15] Bowitz E & Ibenholt K, 2009. Economic impacts of cultural heritage - Research and perspectives. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 10:1-8.[16] Alzua A, O'Leary, J & Morrison A, 1998. Cultural and heritage tourism: identifying niches for international travelers. Journal of Travel and Tourism Studies, 9(2): 2-13.[17] Lowenthal D, 1998. The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[18] Mohd-Isa A. F, Zainal A Z & Hashim A. E, 2011. Built Heritage Maintenance: A Malaysian Perspectives. Procedia Engineering, 20: 213-221.[19] Ho P, & McKercher B, 2004. Managing heritage resources as tourism products. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 9(3): 255-266.[20] UNESCO, 2007. Second meeting of the working group on the simplification of the periodic reporting questionnaire and the setting up of indicators: presentation of Lydia Deloumeaux – world heritage indicators. [21] McKercher B, Ho P S Y & DuCros H, 2005. Relationship between tourism and cultural heritage management: Evidence from Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 26: 539-548.[22] Hall C M, & Piggin R, 2001. Tourism and world heritage in OECD countries. Tourism Recreation Research, 26(1): 103-105.[23] Daniel Y P, 1996. Tourism dance performances: Authenticity and creativity. Annals of Tourism Research, 23(4): 780-797.[24] Urry J, 1990. The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies. London: SAGE.[25] Garrod B, & Fyall A, 2000. Managing heritage tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(3): 682-708.[26] The University of the West of England, 2003. Maintaining Value. Final Report Submitted to Maintain our Heritage The University of the West of England Bristol. Access from http://www.maintainourheritage.co.uk/index.html[27] Greffe X, 2004. Is Heritage an Asset or a Liability? Journal of Cultural Heritage, 5(3): 301-309.[28] Khalid S, Al-hagla, 2010. Sustainable urban development in historical areas using the tourist trail approach: A case study of the Cultural Heritage and Urban Development (CHUD) project in Saida, Lebanon. Cities, 27: 234-248.[29] Marilena V, 2010. A definition of cultural heritage: From the tangible to the intangible. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11: 321–324. [30] Garling T, 1998. Introduction-Conceptualizations of Human Environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18:69-73.[31] Jones M, 2000. The Elusive Reality of Landscape: Concepts and Approaches in Research. In Heritage: Conservation, Interpretation and Enterprise, Fladmark J, ed. 17-41. Aberdeen: The Robert Gordon University.[32] Salehi S, 2009. Environmental Attitudes and Behavior in Iran: A Study in the Northern Provinces Using the New Environmental Paradigm, PhD thesis, Leeds, University, UK.[33] Ewert A, & Galloway G, 2004. Expressed Environmental Attitudes and Actual Behavior: Exploring the Concept of Environmentally Desirable Responses. 10th International Symposium on Society and Resource Management: 58-59[34] Amir M & Sara K, 2011. A survey of relationship between the environmental attitudes and environmental knowledge and energy consumption behavior among citizens of urmia, west Azerbaijan, Iran. International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies, 3(1): 27-37.[35] UNESCO, 1977. Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education Final Report, Paris: 26-27.[36] UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2012. Historic Centre of Macau. [37] Poor J P & Snowball J D, 2010. The valuation of campus built heritage from the student perspective: Comparative analysis of Rhodes University in South Africa and St. Mary's College of Maryland in the United States. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11: 145-154.[38] Ashworth G, 1996. Struggling to control the past. In Focus, 22:4–5.[39] Ashworth G, 1998. Heri tage, Identi ty and Interpret ing a European Sense of Place. In Contemporary Issues in Heritage and Environmental Interpretation, Uzzell D and Ballantyne R, eds:112-132. London: The Stationary Office.[40] Peng S S, 2008. Introduction to World Heritage Tourism. China Tourism Press.[41] McKenzie-Mohr D. & Smith W, 1999. Fostering Sustainable Behavior: An Introduction to Community-Based Social Marketing. New Society Publishers, Canada.學術動態大中華地區旅遊款待管理體驗式學習圓桌會議在科大舉行 酒店與旅遊管理管理學院於10月21日舉辦了大中華地區旅遊款待管理體驗式學習圓桌會議。 會議圍繞如何在款待和旅遊領域進行體驗式學習的主題進行了深入的研討。參與討論的嘉賓有麥希國教授(澳門科技大學), Brain King教授(香港理工大學),蘇小恩博士(澳門大學),鄭妙嫻女士(澳門理工學院),黃業堅博士(澳門旅遊學院),吳武忠教授(臺灣國立高雄餐旅大學),劉大可教授(北京第二外國語學院)等。與會各嘉賓均同意將共同成立一聯盟,以期在體驗式學習方面有進一步的合作,並共同組織參與由澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院主辦的體驗式學習會議,會議初步預期在明年5月份舉行。
  • 91第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 基於工作-家庭衝突的澳門博莊工作壓力、工作滿意度分析周金泉,周少玲(澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門)摘要: 本文旨在探討澳門博彩業莊荷工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突的現況,並比較個人背景對工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突的影響,從而使工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突在工作滿意度上所顯示的差異情況。透過考察莊荷工作-家庭衝突對工作壓力與工作滿意度之間的關係,分析影響工作滿意度的原因。文章對澳門娛樂場發放的589份問卷分析後發現,莊荷的工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突不會因性別、學歷及工作年資有顯著的差異之分,工作壓力及工作-家庭衝突多產生在35歲以下。研究結論支持了提出的假設,提醒博彩業界要注重年輕博彩莊荷的工作壓力與家庭衝突問題,提升其工作滿意度。關鍵詞: 澳門; 莊荷; 工作家庭衝突;工作壓力;工作滿意度TaAle Dealer’s Work Stress and JoA Satisfaction in Macau Casino Based on the Work-Family ConflictsJin Quan ZHOU, Shoal Ling ZHOU( Faculty of Hospitability and Truism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: Table dealer’s work stress and job satisfaction in Macau are deeply discuss in the paper, according to individuals background of each work family conflicts and work stress, to find the differentia between the job satisfaction, work stress and work-family conflicts. The reasons of effect of job satisfaction can be analyzed by the investigation on the relationship between the work stress and job satisfaction on the work-family conflicts. According to the analysis of 589 questionnaire get from the Macau Casinos, the evident can be found that there is significant difference for staffs under 35 years old between work stress and work-family conflicts, but for their gender, education and seniority. All hypotheses are supported by the findings to minder for the gambling management to focus on the issue of work family conflicts and work stress for the reason of improvement of the young staff’s job satisfaction.eyyords: Macau; Table Dealer; Work-Family Conflict; Work Stress; Job Satisfaction收稿日期:2013-08-22;修訂日期:2013-09-23。澳門科技大學科研項目《基於產業生命週期的澳門博彩產業發展戰略研究》基金資助;項目號:0244。*通訊作者:周金泉,男,博士,澳門科技大學,助理教授,主要研究方向:旅遊管理、博彩管理。 Email: jqzhou@must.edu.mo, Tel: 88982925。0 引言澳門地區的經濟因博彩業帶動作飛躍式的發展,隨著澳門經濟強勢增長,對人力資源數量和品質需求也越來越高。博彩服務所提供的產品中最重要的是員工的禮貌及服務等無形產品,所有員工的素質可說是服務性行業經營者成功的重要關鍵因素(Lewies, 1989)[1]。在博彩業中,服務人員與顧客互動的服務傳遞過程,將直接影響客
  • 92人對娛樂場的評價(Chi & Zheng, 2009)[2]。歷史原因澳門人力資源的文化程度及技能水準仍然相對偏低,但因特區政府開放賭權時承諾“博彩業的莊荷職位不可以聘請外傭”,所以連那些相對偏低學歷、技能缺乏或單一的中壯年人士,也被吸引進入博彩企業當莊荷(Table Game Dealers);此外,澳門博彩業除了面對全球博彩業及內在業界的競爭外,還面對員工離職、怠工、工作滿意度下降的問題,一個重要原因在於員工平均工作量日益增多所產生的工作壓力,同時影響員工與家庭相處及和諧,且造成工作與家庭角色間的衝突,一定程度上影響工作滿意度。博彩業的人力資源管理面對相當多的挑戰,如人才短缺、員工流失率高、培訓不足、員工心理壓力、提高員工工作滿意度等問題,而這些急需解決的問題都是在於工作壓力、工作家庭衝突等問題。 鑒於此,本文以澳門娛樂場莊荷的視角,對澳門六家博彩公司的 34 家娛樂場莊荷進行調查,探討他們的工作家庭衝突與工作壓力、工作滿意度之間的關係,希望為提升娛樂場經營管理以及澳門人力資源開發與管理提供借鑒。1 文獻回顧1.1 澳門博彩業莊荷博彩業具有與旅遊服務業相似的特質,莊荷入職的要求除需符合一般的工作要求外,還需 24小時不定期的輪更工作,客情因有淡、旺季及假期與節日之分,需求的勞動力極富有彈性,員工不輕易獲准休假。澳門博彩業屬高利潤行業,能提供高薪吸納人力資源(澳門統計暨普查局,2013)[3],同時為免惡性的人力資源的競爭,在薪金制度下,澳門莊荷的月薪是固定,但各間博彩企業提供的福利就有所不同。據澳門統計暨普查局現公佈 2012 年第 4 季博彩業人力資源需求及薪酬調查結果,按職業統計莊荷有 23895 名,男性9637 名,女性 14258 名,莊荷的空缺有 1209 個,按年減少 295 個,平均月薪(不包括花紅及獎金)為 15990 澳門元,按年升幅為 8.8%。博彩服務過程中,澳門地處東南亞,顧客也多以東南亞及華人為主,下注的博彩金額較大,因此客人的情緒波動也相對較大, 並且員工與顧客的互動較為頻繁,溝通所引起的衝突時有發生。加上娛樂場的工作環境惡劣,如噪音嘈雜、吸食二手煙等及不定期的輪班工作造成的較嚴重工作壓力問題(Breen, Cairncross, Hing & Tiyce, 2012; Gu & Siu, 2009)[4 ~ 5] 外,並因員工要保有工作崗位,維持家庭生計及承擔家庭責任,肩負著的工作壓力也較其他行業沉重。1.2 工作壓力工作壓力表現為一種動態的過程,當個體評估和認知工作的需要與必須妥善處理的資源之間產生落差時,便會引發工作壓力(Marie, 2004)[6]。與傳統的研究只把工作環境因素作為影響組織效率的因素來考察不同,把工作環境中各種因素作為影響個體生理及心理健康的壓力來源來看,Colville & Bernardi(1999)[7]、Lemire 等人(1999)[8]等之觀點放在經濟、工作與家庭問題上,把一般行業的工作壓力源劃分為組織內壓力源、組織外壓力源。博彩業莊荷員工的潛在工作壓力來源可歸納為工作本身的特性(如,工作負荷)、工作環境(如,空氣調節、噪音、吸食二手煙)、組織的特性(如,組織的管理文化)、及職場中的人際互動(如,同事及顧客關係)(Breen, Cairncross, Hing, & Tiyce, 2012)[4]。博彩業的前線員工所受的工作壓力,非同一般性的行業。博彩業的莊荷的工作壓力來源多因其工作特性關係,其壓力源除了像一般行業的壓力源外,最主要的壓力源來自于節慶假日如常工作,工作與家庭生活的步伐不協調,不定期的輪更工作(Eggers & Hsieh, 2011)[9] 及惡劣的工作環境(Au, Tsai & Ieong, 2009; Breen et al., 2012; Kuok & Taormina, 2009; Wan & Pilkington, 2009)[10~12]。 近年因經濟的不景氣及競爭激烈,博彩企業採取開源節流及以顧客為導向的經營模式,員工都須增加其工作量,承擔更多的工作責任。工
  • 93周金泉,等  基於工作-家庭衝突的澳門博莊工作壓力、工作滿意度分析作壓力隨之而加重,產生壓力的後遺症也加劇,影響生理、心理等個人行為,如:工作滿意度下降、工作參與減少、緊張、焦慮、情緒起伏、怠工、曠職、離職、酗酒、賭博、無法專心工作、心血管疾病、免疫及消化系統失調等等(Breen et al., 2012; Hall & Shaffer, 2002)[13]。Wong 和 Wu (2008)[14] 以時間壓力及焦慮兩大因素研究澳門莊荷的工作壓力,實證研究結果指出,澳門莊荷的工作壓力的產生是源于沉悶、單一及無意義的工作,引致莊荷產生有賭博的念頭。綜上所述,工作壓力研究至今,多數的學者皆著重于研究工作環境中的壓力與個人的心理、生理所產生的反應及影響;而產生工作壓力的後遺症將呈現在員工的工作滿意度、身體健康、心理健康上,如焦慮、沮喪、賭博、酗酒、工作及家庭生活等問題上(Breen et al., 2012; Guttentaga, Harriganb & Smith, 2012; Wong & Wu, 2008; Hall & Shaffer, 2002)[15]。 1.3 工作家庭衝突工作與家庭的衝突起因就是在於這兩區領域中的各自有限資源下,個體企圖同時滿足自身在工作角色與家庭角色的矛盾(Bruce, Edward & Marjorie, 1997)[16]。Kahn、Wolfe、Quinn、Snoek 與 Rosenthal(1964)[17] 等最先探討工作與家庭角色之間的複雜關係,提出角色衝突理論,來研究工作與家庭衝突。Greenhaus 與 Beutell(1985)[18]的研究指出,工作者從工作與家庭領域所面臨到的角色壓力在某種程度上不相容時,若投入在工作角色時就很難或必須犧牲履行家庭角色,反之亦然。 Spurlock(1995)認為傳統研究,女性多以家庭為重,男性多以工作為重,但現在越來越多的女性進入原有男性的勞動力市場(Collins, Hollander, Koffman, Reeve, and Seidler 1997)[18], 現 今 的 社會,當面對工作與家庭衝突時,雙薪家庭工作者需要面臨到角色彼此不相容所產生的壓力(A. & G. Ramasundaram, 2011)[19]。在全臺灣的大樣本調查,但研究結論表明臺灣工作者的工作家庭衝突,不論是工作 - 家庭衝突或家庭 - 工作衝突,在性別上均無顯著差異。(Lu et al., 2008)[20]。有小孩的家庭比沒有小孩的家庭面臨更多的衝突,因為在家庭領域不僅要扮演配偶的角色,還要扮演父母的角色(Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985)[18]。導致角色間的衝突來源,主要有以下三種因素:時間導向衝突(Time-Based Conflict)、緊張導向衝突(Strain-Based Conflict)和行為導向衝突(Behavior-Based Conflict),乃由於在角色中的行為可能無法滿足另一個角色行為的期待。除了角色衝突外,工作家庭衝突還具有方向性的問題。不同的生活領域,產生工作和家庭之間衝突的不同形式,工作影響到家庭(工作-家庭衝突,Work to Family Conflict,以下簡稱 WFC),家庭亦有可能影響到工作(家庭-工 作 衝 突,Family to Work Conflict, 以 下 簡 稱FWC)。Gutek, Searle & Klepa(1991)[21] 的研究,印證了稀有假說(Scarcity Hypothesis)的論點,工作者花費在工作上或是家庭生活領域的時間越多,產生的 WFC 或 FWC 越多。 許多相關的實證研究已指出,工作與家庭是 交 互 運 作(Edwards & Rothbard, 2000;Frone, 2003)[22~23] 且互相影響彼此,對個人工作上、家庭上及個人與身心上產生許多負面的影響,包括個人身體健康、情緒低落、家庭與婚姻滿意度下降及沮喪感等(Frone, Russell & Cooper, 1992)[24];在工作上,會造成生產力下滑、遲到、缺席、離職、士氣低落、工作滿意度降低(Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985)[18]。 Byron(2005)[25] 進 一 步 將WFC 與 FWC 的衝突來源也分成三類:不同來源相關的變數對於 WFC 和 FWC 的影響也會不同。個人工作相關的變數,與 WFC 相關的影響較大,與 FWC 相關的影響較少。例如,個人擁有較多的家庭支持則其所感受到的 FWC 則會較少,但是卻不一定會有較少的 WFC。Ashforth, Fugate & Kreiner(2000)[26] 提出工作與家庭界線理論及Clark(2000)[27] 提出工作與家庭疆界理論。工作干擾家庭傾向(Work Interfering with Family,簡
  • 94稱 WIF)比家庭干擾工作傾向(Family Interfering with Work,簡稱 FIW)具有更高的平均值和解釋更多的預測結果變數(包括健康和滿意度的變數)(Frone et al., 1992; Higgins, Duxbury & Irving, 1992; Kinnunen & Mauno, 1998)[28~29],並且有許多研究證明工作干擾家庭是家庭干擾工作的三倍(Frone et al.,1992)[24]。因此, 本文選擇工作干擾家庭這樣的視角研究澳門博彩莊荷的行為。1.4 工作滿意度之相關研究Fournet, Distefano, & Pryer(1966) [30]、 Locke,(1976)[31]、 Seashore & Taber( 1975)[32]和 Wernimont(1972)[33] 等根據上述四種理論,將影響工作滿意度的量表確定為五個:工作本身的滿足、升遷方面的滿足、薪資方面的滿足、人際關係方面的滿足、上級態度的滿足。綜合以上文獻,本文將採用以 Kalleberg(1977)[34] 綜合性觀點作概念性及操作性定義,測量博彩莊荷的滿意與不滿意度加以平衡後,所形成整體滿意度。Robbins 與 Judge(2009)[35] 的研究,員工能由個人對於工作滿意度心理層面變化的過程,對其當前工作職務的主觀、直接感受與反應,綜合反映出來。2 研究假設2.1 工作壓力對工作-家庭衝突的影響Byron (2005)[25] 回顧 60 篇相關的研究及發現,工作領域中的工作壓力與工作 - 家庭衝突有高的相關性(p=0.48),並指出工作與家庭互相衝突(WFC 或 FWC)之壓力確實是整體工作壓力知覺的一個重要方面。Boyar等人(2003)[36]研究指出,工作對家庭衝突來源的成因,當員工工作需求很高時,工作壓力會增加,無法扮演好家庭角色而形成工作對家庭衝突。本研究將工作 - 家庭衝突結合壓力關係對生理、對心理之負面情勢與感覺,提出以下假設: ● H1:工作壓力對於工作 - 家庭衝突存在顯著的正向影響關係。 ● H1-1:生理壓力對於工作 - 家庭衝突存在顯著的正向影響關係。 ● H1-2a:心理壓力之負面情勢對於工作 - 家庭衝突存在顯著的正向影響關係。 ● H1-2b:心理壓力之心理感受對於工作 - 家庭衝突存在顯著的正向影響關係。2.2 工作壓力對工作滿意度的影響就工作壓力而言,正面的壓力是追求工作的良好表現及成就的推動力,負面的壓力便帶來消極的後果能,阻礙跟人哪里的發揮和影響工作的完成(Cavanaugh, et al,2005)[37]。工作滿意度除了影響個人工作的表現之外,本身也受其他因素所影響,Kinicki 與 Kreitner(2006)[38]、Alutto 與Parasuraman(1984)[39] 及 Jamal(1990)[40] 的 研究同樣指出,工作壓力是影響工作滿意度相當重要的因素,且二者之間呈現一種負向相關的關係。即工作壓力越大,個人的工作滿足感越低;工作壓力程度越低,個人的工作滿意度感越高。本文將工作滿意度結合壓力關係對生理、對心理之負面情勢與感覺,提出以下假設: ● H2:工作壓力對於工作滿意度存在顯著的負向影響關係。 ● H2-1:生理壓力對於工作滿意度存在顯著的負向影響關係。 ● H2-2a:心理壓力之負面情緒對於工作滿意度存在顯著的負向影響關係。 ● H2-2b:心理壓力之心理感受對於工作滿意度存在顯著的正向影響關係。2.3 工作-家庭衝突對工作滿意度的影響工作 - 家庭衝突與工作滿意度產生負向影響(Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998)[41~42]。工作 - 家庭衝突方面,女性所受的影響比男性強;工作滿意度方面,女性的滿意度比男性低(Bruck, Allen, & Spector, 2002; Greenglass, Pantony, & Burke, 1988; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998)[43~45]。本文將工作滿意度結合工作 - 家庭衝突關係對時間、緊張及行為提出以下假設: ● H3:工作 - 家庭衝突對於工作滿意度存在
  • 95周金泉,等  基於工作-家庭衝突的澳門博莊工作壓力、工作滿意度分析顯著的負向影響關係。 ● H3-1:緊張及行為為導向的工作 - 家庭衝突對於工作滿意度存在顯著的負向影響關係。 ● H3-2:時間為導向的工作 - 家庭衝突對於工作滿意度存在顯著的負向影響關係。2.4 以工作-家庭衝突為仲介的工作壓力與工作滿意度影響負面的工作情緒將會造成工作 - 家庭衝突,因而導致低工作滿意度(Boles & Babin, 1996)[46],WFC 能較好地預測員工的工作壓力,它通過工作壓力間接地對工作滿意度起作用。本研究以工作 - 家庭衝突為仲介變項假設,結合壓力關係對生理、對心理之負面情勢與感覺,提出以下假設: ● H4:工作 - 家庭衝突對工作壓力與工作滿意度具有仲介效果。 ● H4-1:工作 - 家庭衝突對生理壓力與工作滿意度具有仲介效果。 ● H4-2a:工作 - 家庭衝突對心理壓力之負面情緒與工作滿意度具有仲介效果。 ● H4-2b:工作 - 家庭衝突對心理壓力之心理感受與工作滿意度具有仲介效果。3 研究設計3.1 測量工具的產生按照 Macneil(1981),參照 Beehr (1976)、House 與 Rizzo (1972))[47~49] 之工作壓力量表,採用 Guttentaga 等人(2012)[50] 之問題賭博量表,共 10 條題項,測量生理、心理壓力對個體帶來的影響。工作與家庭衝突的方面主要圍繞工作-家庭的衝突(WFC),參考 Greenhaus & Beutell(1985)[18]、 A. & G. Ramasundaram (2011)[19]對工作 - 家庭衝突的定義,個體對工作與家庭兩種角色,在某些方面彼此互不相容時所產生的角色衝突是源自於角色壓力,而這些角色衝突的壓力是來自於時間、緊張及行為上的衝突,衡量其構面的二個研究變數分別為緊張及行為導向衝突、時間導向衝突。工作滿意度是參考 Hoppock(1935)[51]、Boonzaier, Ficker & Rust(2001)[52]的工作滿意量表四題問題,其中第 2 題修改為反向題,採用反向計分。測量工具是以 Likert 的五點量表衡量。3.2 樣本來源與特徵問卷調查採用非隨機的便利抽樣法來獲取所需的問卷資料。透過學者們專業研究及某娛樂場所的莊荷小組討論把問捲進行信度及效度測驗,利用兩階段的問卷調查方式來篩選與過濾。第一階段以 35 份問捲進行資料的前測分析,向三十五名博彩企業員工作樣本測驗及溝通,避免在問卷中發生缺失。前測問卷回收後利用 IBM SPSS Statistics 19.0 版為分析工具,以 Cronbach's α 係數驗證問卷信度及衡量各項目間之可靠性、穩定性及內部一致性,確認本研究問卷適合作為正式問卷之用。本文的各個構面之 Cronbach's α 值均高於 0.7,表明本研究量表之信度相當高。第二階段以非隨機便利抽樣之方法,正式通過六間博彩企業的值班經理向莊荷員工發出 800 份調查問卷(其中澳博300份,銀河 、新濠 、威尼斯人、永利、美高梅各 100 份),讓員工根據個人認知感受進行填答,最後進行問卷回收及分析工作。實施問卷調查時間從 2012 年 12 月至 2013 年 2 月止歷時2 月,期間經歷耶誕節、元旦等節假日,但是澳門博彩員工工作輪換制度並不受節假日影響 , 因而問卷效度不受影響,問卷回收 632 份,經由篩選及扣除無效樣本後,共獲取 589 份有效問卷,有效樣本回收率達 73.6%。在 研 究 樣 本 中, 男 性 為 31.9%, 女 性 為68.1%;婚姻狀況方面以未婚(23.3%)及已婚有小孩(59.1%)居多;年齡方面主要分佈於 25 ~35 歲(29.5%)和 35 ~ 45 歲(42.1%),資料顯示受測者以青壯年居多;工作機構的受測者以澳博(33.1%)占多些,因“澳博”的雇員較多,其他的工作機構的受測者分配較平均;工作年資則以 5 ~ 10 年(39.2%)居多,3 ~ 5 年(31.9%)次之,3 年以下再次之;學歷方面,初中或以下
  • 96(30.6%)、高中(33.6%)及高中畢業(31.4%),分佈較平均,持大學學歷(4.4%)占很少數(見表 1)。 表1 樣本人口統計分析(n=589)專案 變數 樣本數 百分比(%) 累積百分比(%)性別 男性 188 31.9 31.9女性 401 68.1 100婚姻狀況 未婚 137 23.3 23.3已婚無孩 89 15.1 38.4已婚有孩 348 59.1 97.5其他 15 2.5 100年齡 25歲以下 60 10.2 10.225~35歲 174 29.5 39.735~45歲 248 42.1 81.845歲以上 107 18.2 100工作機構 澳博 195 33.1 33.1威尼斯、金沙 81 13.8 46.9新濠 80 13.6 60.4美高梅 58 9.8 70.3永利 93 15.8 86.1星際 82 13.9 100工作年資 3年以下 139 23.6 23.63~5年 188 31.9 55.55~10年 231 39.2 94.710年以上 31 5.3 100學歷 初中或以下 180 30.6 30.6高中 198 33.6 64.2高中畢業 185 31.4 95.6大學 26 4.4 1004 資料分析與結果對回收的有效問卷進行資料的篩選、編碼、登錄與統計分析等工作後,以 IBM SPSS Statistics 19 統計軟體進行資料的處理、分析及假設檢定。4.1 信度與效度分析本文採用之量表的 KMO 值及 Bartlett 球形檢定的顯著性(如表 2 所示)分別為:工作壓力的 KMO 值為 0.858,Bartlett 球形檢定為顯著(p<0.000);工作 - 家庭衝突的 KMO 值為 0.842,Bartlett 球形檢定為顯著(p<0.000);工作滿意度的 KMO 值為 0.726,Bartlett 球形檢定為顯著(p<0.000)。因素萃取時,採用主成分分析法(Principal Components Analysis),而轉軸法採用最大變異法,來進行分析。累計方差解釋變異量分別為63.20%、65.98% 和 56.89%,可以判斷,專案變數具有較好的會聚性。表2 各構面之KMO值與球形檢定結果構面 KMO值Bartlett 球形檢定近似卡方分配 自由度 p值工作壓力 0.858 1759.684 45 0.000***工作-家庭衝突 0.842 1446.880 21 0.000***工作滿意度 0.726 583.929 6 0.000****p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001信度測試結果顯示(見表 3),工作滿意度衡量構面 Cronbach's α 值為 0.737,屬高信度;其他如工作壓力、工作 - 家庭衝突衡量構面 Cronbach's α 值為 0.808 及 0.836 均高於 0.70,表明量表具有良好的信都,可以滿足後續研究的需要。表3 信度分析結果衡量構面 題數 Cronbach's α工作壓力 10 0.808工作-家庭衝突 7 0.836工作滿意度 4 0.737資料來源:本文整理效度分析所示,建構效度、收斂效度以及區別效度方面,變數的標準化載荷係數都高於 0.5。本論文的各構念乃以相關文獻作理論基礎,並且修訂自以往學者所運用之量表,故能符合衡量工具的內容效度之要求。4.2 描述性統計與獨立樣本檢驗因素研究結果顯示(如表 4 所示),工作壓力方面,博彩荘荷的生理壓力最大,多數莊荷每天的工作都面對巨大的工作壓力,帶著負面情緒工作,沉重的疲倦感離開工作崗位,荘荷心裏感受的壓力方面的影響較大,這有可能引起他們對博彩能夠緩解工作壓力,產生賭博的念頭。工作家庭衝突方面,時間導向的工作 - 家庭衝突的構面平均數高於緊張及行為導向的工作 - 家庭衝突,雖然工作帶給莊荷緊張情緒及負面行為,表示莊荷希望工作過後,希望能有時間可以與家人聚會,
  • 97周金泉,等  基於工作-家庭衝突的澳門博莊工作壓力、工作滿意度分析表4 因素分析exploratory factor analysis因素 題項 因素負荷量 平均數 特徵值 解釋變異量生理壓力a5. 每天下班後,我覺得十分疲倦。 0.763 3.513.95163.20%a2. 因為工作上的問題,常使我難以入眠。 0.748 2.94a4. 我經常覺得我的工作量太大,負荷過重。 0.686 2.86a6. 工作時,我常感到精神緊張。 0.611 2.76a1. 我的工作使我覺得坐立難安。 0.571 2.64心理壓力 (負面情緒)a9. 工作時,我會覺得心情低落,悶悶不樂。 0.762 2.50 1.329a7. 工作時,我會覺得無精打彩。 0.740 2.55a10.賭博能緩減我的工作壓力。 0.738 2.01a8. 工作時,我覺得脾氣比平常暴躁。 0.680 2.61心理壓力 (心理感受)a3. 我會覺得在目前的職位上,能發揮我的才能。 0.872 3.08 1.040緊張及 行為導向c4. 我的工作造成我在家裏無法放鬆心情。 0.828 2.813.51765.98%c3. 工作上碰到麻煩會讓我變得很易怒,並且把氣出在家人身上。 0.787 2.73c6. 當我在工作時,會因為個人或是家庭的問題而感到煩惱。 0.764 2.88c5. 當我從工作崗位上回到家時,我疲憊的情緒使我無法做家務事。 0.647 3.10 時間導向c1. 我的工作使我無法隨心所欲地花費時間參與家庭問題。 0.824 3.381.081c2. 我輪班工作造成我錯過家庭活動。 0.812 3.47c7.我的工作時常佔據了我跟家人相處的時間。 0.754 3.51整體性b1. 一般而言,我對現在從事的職業感到滿意。 0.850 3.172.276 56.89%b3. 我對現在的工作感到滿意。 0.841 3.16b4. 一般人對我從事的工作都會感到滿意。 0.651 3.27b2. 我很想辭掉這份工作。* 0.649 3.39注:*為反向題表5 變項與人口統計變項之獨立樣本t檢定及差異分析工作壓力 工作-家庭衝突 工作滿意度人口統計變項(N=598) p值 事後比較 p值 事後比較 p值 事後比較性別A. 男性0.633 ---- 0.234 --- 0.000** ---B. 女性婚姻狀況A. 未婚0.000**Dunnett's T3 A>C B>C0.004**Dunnett's T3 A>C B>C0.000**Scheffe C>A C>BB. 已婚無孩C. 已婚有孩D. 其他年齡A. 25歲以下0.000**Scheffe A>C,A>D B>C,B>D0.005**Scheffe A>D B>D0.000**Scheffe D>A,D>B C>A,C>BB. 25~35歲C. 35~45歲D. 45歲以上工作機構A. 澳博0.000**Dunnett's T3 D>A,D>F E>F,B>F0.000**Scheffe C>F D>F E>F0.000** Scheffe A>D,B>D C>D,F>D F>E,C>EB. 威尼斯、金沙C. 新濠D. 美高梅E. 永利F. 星際工作年資A. 3年以下0.835 N 0.148 N 0.002**Scheffe A>D C>DB. 3~5年C. 5~10年D. 10年以上學歷A. 初中或以下0.753 N 0.472 NB. 高中C. 高中畢業D. 大學注:*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, N:p值未達顯著水準,>:平均數大於。 資料來源:本文整理
  • 98減少工作時間以及適當的工作輪換與家庭時間之間衝突,能夠在一定程度上弱化工作家庭衝突。工作滿意度方面,莊荷普遍對工作感到滿意,儘管存在工作壓力以及工作家庭衝突等矛盾,荘荷希望保留這份工作。對獨立樣本的 t 核對總和差異的相關分析(見表 5):工作壓力對莊荷的性別、工作年資及學歷沒有顯著差異,而西方人管理的博企、25 歲以下至 35 歲、未婚或已婚無孩的莊荷對工作壓力呈顯著差異。工作 - 家庭衝突與莊荷的性別、工作年資及學歷沒有顯著差異,而西方人管理的博彩企業、25歲以下至 35歲、未婚或已婚無孩的莊荷對工作 -家庭衝突呈顯著差異。工作滿意度對莊荷的學歷沒有顯著差異,而東方人管理的博彩企業、女性、35 歲至 45 歲以上、工作 3 年以下及 5 至 10 年、已婚有孩的莊荷對工作滿意度呈顯著差異。4.3 假設檢驗本文研究假設的個路徑經回歸分析後的結果(見表 6),H1-H4 的全部假設都得到驗證。5 研究結論與啟示5.1 研究結論澳門的博彩業的莊荷們的工作壓力及工作 - 家庭衝突的高相關性的結果表明,工作 - 家庭衝突結論部分相同與 Byron(2005)[25] 等前人研究一致,但工作壓力不會因性別、學歷及工作年資有顯著的差異之分,支持了 Liu 等(2008)[20] 對臺灣工作者的研究結論,但與 Ramasundaram,(2011)[19]研究結論基本不相同,可能的解釋是東西方社會家庭與工作關係認同的差異性,且工作壓力及工作 - 家庭衝突的多產生在 35 歲以下,未婚或已婚無孩的莊荷身上,與許多研究文獻如,Bruck 等人(2002)[43],Greenglass 等人(1988)[44],Kossek 與 Ozeki(1998)[45] 的研究結果大致不相同,女性莊荷的工作滿意度高於男性莊荷,澳門莊荷年齡偏大且低學歷可能成為這一結論的原因。(1)莊荷的工作壓力對工作 - 家庭衝突具有顯著影響博彩業莊荷的工作壓力對工作 - 家庭衝突具有顯著正向關係,這與 Byron(2005)[25] 研究結果相同,工作壓力對工作 - 家庭衝突呈正向影響,員工的工作壓力越大,發生工作 - 家庭衝突機會越高,研究結果支援 Boyar(2003)[36] 的結論。莊荷每天的工作都是需要面對巨大的工作壓力而帶著負面情緒工作,最後還有可能帶著沉重的疲倦感離開工作崗位。澳門莊荷工作壓力主要來自工表6 各構面之假設檢驗構面 β R2 F 結果H1.工作壓力對工作-家庭衝突 0.494*** 0.244 189.602 接受H1-1.生理壓力對工作-家庭衝突 0.476*** 0.226 171.502 接受H1-2a.心理壓力之負面情緒對工作-家庭衝突 0.448*** 0.201 147.686 接受H1-2b.心理壓力之心理感受對工作-家庭衝突 -0.173*** 0.030 18.033 接受H2.工作壓力對工作滿意度 -0.296*** 0.088 56.306 接受H2-1.生理壓力對工作滿意度 -0.223*** 0.050 30.766 接受H2-2a.心理壓力之負面情緒對工作滿意度 -0.407*** 0.166 116.485 接受H2-2b.心理壓力之心理感受對工作滿意度 0.331*** 0.110 72.465 接受H3.工作-家庭衝突對工作滿意度 -0.376*** 0.141 96.455 接受H3-1.以緊張及行為導向的工作-家庭衝突對工作滿意度 -0.390*** 0.152 105.065 接受H3-2.以時間導向的工作-家庭衝突對工作滿意度 -0.251*** 0.063 39.528 接受H4工作-家庭衝突對工作壓力與工作滿意度之仲介效果 -0.304*** 0.154 54.652 接受H4-1:工作-家庭衝突對生理壓力與工作滿意度具有仲介效果。 -0.348*** 0.141 49.166 接受H4-2a:工作-家庭衝突對心理壓力之負面情緒與工作滿意度具有仲介效果。 -0.242*** 0.210 78.975 接受H4-2b:工作-家庭衝突對心理壓力之心理感受與工作滿意度具有仲介效果。 -0.328*** 0.212 79.966 接受*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 資料來源:本文整理
  • 99周金泉,等  基於工作-家庭衝突的澳門博莊工作壓力、工作滿意度分析作的生理疲憊與工作時的情緒低落,工作不定期輪更往往使員工身體的週期性生理問題疾病的產生原因,同時莊荷工作的簡單機械,導致無法提高工作時的情緒。而導致工作與家庭衝突的主要因素在於工作時間與輪更致使與家人相聚時間的衝突,即使在家庭中也無法消除工作帶來的影響。研究的結論表明,澳門莊荷的工作壓力及工作 - 家庭衝突的多產生在西方管理公司如 MGM,35 歲以下、未婚或已婚無孩的莊荷身上。需要從不同的企業文化、管理模式方面加以分析,中方的澳博娛樂公司歷史悠遠,組織文化不同與西方公司,可能會在解決員工工作壓力與家庭衝突的方面給予更多的組織支援。從世代生活方式差異看,年輕未婚莊荷可能感覺到莊荷的輪更與機械的工作,與其社會與個人生活發生衝突,甚至影響其價值觀的判斷,因而感到巨大壓力與衝突。(2)莊荷的工作壓力對工作滿意度具有顯著影響工作壓力對工作滿意度具有顯著的負向影響關係,與 Kreitner(2006)[38] 的研究結果一致,生理壓力及心理壓力之負面情緒對工作滿意度呈負向的顯著相關,造成莊荷的工作壓力對工作滿意度的影響達顯著呈負向相關。研究支持 Kreitner(2006)[38]、Alutto 與 Parasuraman(1984)[39] 及 Jamal(1990)[40] 等人的結論,心理壓力之感覺為正向的顯著相關,造成莊荷的工作壓力的心理壓力之感覺對工作滿意度的影響為顯著呈正向相關,能直接降低其對工作滿意度的負面影響。澳門莊荷雖然有工作壓力,但是研究結論是莊荷不願意辭掉這份工作。可能的解釋在於澳門產業發展主要集中在博彩業,年輕莊荷莊荷缺乏就業選擇,同時,大部分莊荷學歷為高中,進行職業選擇方面面臨著困難,儘管工作壓力大,但也是比較好的選擇。(3)莊荷的工作 - 家庭衝突對工作滿意度具有顯著影響博彩業莊荷在工作 - 家庭衝突對工作滿意度上,具有顯著的負向影響。研究結果與 Allen 等(2006)研究結果一致,莊荷感受到工作與家庭之間的衝突程度較高時,相對影響工作滿意度降低。在時間導向、緊張及行為導向的工作 - 家庭衝突下,雖然工作帶給莊荷緊張情緒及負面行為,莊荷還是希望工作過後,能有時間可以與家人聚會。莊荷的工作與家庭的時間導向衝突,表明莊荷職業的特點,甚至影響到莊荷的家庭生活,因而降低工作滿意度,中方公司、年齡 45 歲以上、低學歷、已婚有孩的莊荷滿意度高。有趣的是,本研究的結論中女性莊荷的工作滿意度高於男性,與 Bruck 等(2002)[43] 及 Grenglass(1998)[44] 的結論不一致。澳門博彩業飛速擴張,使低學歷、年齡大的澳門女性也成為莊荷,與其他行業相比,莊荷的高薪可能在一定程度上減少了家庭負擔,使女性莊荷的工作滿意度高於男性,但是,研究的數據表明,工作年資 10 年以上的莊荷滿意度最低,也表明女性高滿意度可能是暫時的,隨年資的增長,如果沒有工作內容的改變,工作 - 家庭的衝突會逐步表現出來。由於博彩莊荷工作特性有別於一般服務行業,比如工作內容單一、內部晉升機會低等。從工作家庭界線理論來看,家庭對工作的衝突通過家庭界線的滲透,有小孩的莊荷期望在家庭方面的犧牲為日後帶來更好的生活品質,進而莊荷比較能調適家庭生活方面的衝突,直接影響了莊荷的工作滿意度。(4)莊荷的工作 - 家庭衝突對工作壓力與工作滿意度具有仲介效果莊荷感受到工作壓力越高,影響工作與家庭之間的衝突就越大,而且會直接影響莊荷的工作滿意度,這與 Frone 等(1992)[24]、Kinnunen 和Mauno(1998)[29] 及 Boles(1996)[46] 研究結果一致。以工作 - 家庭衝突加入為仲介變項後而弱化工作壓力對工作滿意度的直接影響關係,此說明工作壓力實為工作滿意度的主要原因,期中工作 - 家庭衝突對於生理壓力的影響最為明顯,降低工作 -家庭衝突,將有利於降低張合的工作壓力進而提高工作滿意度,尤其以時間為導向的工作 - 家庭衝突,合理安排輪更,除了中方博彩企業,特別是
  • 100在西方管理的企業中,需要注意合理的輪更,如何減低莊荷的工作壓力,將成為博企經營者及管理人員首要改善的要務。5.2 研究建議提高莊荷的工作滿意方面,適宜作整體性的觀察。除了外在滿意指薪資、升遷機會等等,內在滿意則是指福利、與顧客、管理層與同事之間的相處及工作環境等方面的滿足外,還需得到社會人士對莊荷的工作的認同。原因在於報章上刊登很多負面的新聞,如賭博犯罪等,均對莊荷形象受損 , 一定程度上降低了莊荷對滿意度的認知。建議博企方面,為企業及莊荷建立正面的健康形象,如建立義工團、負責任博彩及支助弱勢團體等。莊荷只有得到社會的認同,在工作上獲得非貨幣性及貨幣性的滿足後,進而對組織有更好的向心力及忠誠度,就能提高員工對組織滿意度,相對地工作滿意度也隨之而提高。由於經濟、社會、家庭等不同的壓力導致莊荷其本身的工作壓力日益嚴重,建議組織若能對莊荷實施完整的職前訓練或服務期間的在職訓練,聘請專家學者或資深經理人教導專業的工作技能及有效的實務經驗,使其能在工作處理上能更得心應手,提升工作的績效及自身對工作上的滿足,亦有助於工作滿意度提升。莊荷對在工作特性及工作環境所產生的生理壓力及心理壓力的負面情緒認知程度越高則其所感受的工作壓力也就越高,通常可藉由工作環境的改善、工作內容的調整,如工作崗位變換以促進其工作動機與工作滿足感,因此,建議考慮莊荷需求實施工作崗位多元化,並安排多樣化壓力因應方式的教育訓練課程,相信能夠幫助莊荷在面對壓力時,能做更適當的調整,在個人壓力調適和情緒引導之下,確實也能夠今人們當中表現得更好。莊荷的工作環境與輪更值班外,面對無理的賭客也不少,加上假日的工作壓力沉重,進而導致莊荷於下班後將情緒帶回家,引致工作與家庭的衝突產生,而衝突所產生的後果往往會讓莊荷引發生理及心理上的情緒低落,進而影響工作滿意度,若工作與家庭衝突的調解員能適時介入並給予輔導,使莊荷回復工作心情,更能專心地投入工作,提高工作滿意度。本研究有意義的發現在於,不同於以往的研究結論,女性莊荷在工作 - 家庭衝突壓力下,其工作滿意度高於男性;青年莊荷的工作 - 家庭衝突下的壓力感超過了年長的年齡階段的莊荷,雖然本文前面部分已經從不同視角進行了分析,但是需要從澳門女性職員、青年員工的工作結構、組織支援和社會支援角度去發現其原因。5.3 局限性與研究展望本研究就莊荷工作家庭衝突與工作壓力、滿意度開展探索性研究,建立了這個模型並通過了實證檢驗,但受主觀條件的限制,研究存在一些局限。在樣本選取上,澳門 34 家娛樂場分屬六家博彩公司,各家公司的管理側重不同,特別是中西兩種管理模式的差別,組織支援與社會支援對於澳門博彩員工與負責人博彩的策略將會進一步影響員工的工作壓力與工作滿意度。本文的局限表現為,論文是屬於靜態研究,缺乏時間維度上的序列的考察,後續研究正在進行中。另外,本文採用研究量表大部分為來自其他行業,對於博彩行業,還可以進一步發展更為適切的研究量表。此外,本研究的結論表明,年經莊荷壓力過大以及女性壓力並不明顯於男性,這與許多研究結論不同,後續研究將會從這兩個視角展開。當然組織中員工壓力與工作滿意度的仲介影響因素的研究可以是從多個方面進行的。致 謝感謝匿名評審專家為本文的改進和完善提供的建設性意見。參 考 文 獻[1] Lewies, R. C. (1989). Hospitality marketing: The internal approach. The Cornell Hospitality and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 30, 41-45.[2] Chi S. S., & Zheng G. (2009). Drivers of job satisfaction as related to
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  • 103第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 Received 21 Oct. 2012; Revised 25 maych. 2012.Dr. Sung Hee Park is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Macau University of Science and Technology. E-mail: parksh@must.edu.mo, Tel: +853 6388 2472Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf Ay Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College StudentsSung Hee Park1, Chi-Ming Hsieh2( 1. Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China ) ( 2. Department of Tourism, Recreation and Leisure Studies National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan )AAstract: The purpose of this study is to examine potential market segments of disc golf between beliefs and participation intention among college students by employing a CHAID analysis. Data were collected through non-probability in-class convenience sampling approach. A sub-sample of 457 respondents was used to develop a decision tree in the Exhaustive CHAID. The results indicated that three key predictors of participation intention to disc golf according to their beliefs (fun/ enjoyable activity, an activity that involves drug use, and an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/self-improvement/ achievement) and identified four mutually exclusive segments which had different levels of intend to participate in disc golf. MANOVA and one-way ANOVAs were conducted to examine significant differences among segments. Suggestions are made based on findings from the study.eyyords: Segmentation; Disc Golf; Potential Market; Beliefs; CHAID以信念與參與意圖區隔飛盤高爾夫之潛在市場 ——以大學生為例朴聖姬1,謝奇明2(1. 澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門;2. 國立東華大學觀光暨休閒遊憩學系,台灣)摘要: 本研究旨在藉由卡方自動交互效應(CHAID)分析大學生的信念與參與意圖,以檢視飛盤高爾夫活動之潛在市場區隔。抽樣上選擇以非機率便利抽樣法調查在校大學生以蒐集資料。並以回收之457份有效樣本為基礎進而以CHAID發展決策樹。研究結果顯示大學生進行飛盤高爾夫的參與意圖主要有三個關鍵因子乃依據他們的信念而來(1.樂趣/趣味性的活動、2.活動及涉藥物使用、3. 活動涉及到自我挑戰、自我突破、與成就感等機會),此外,本研究亦辨識出四個不同的市場區隔,其區隔源於不同層次之飛盤高爾夫參與意圖,最後並使用多因子與單因子變異數分析以檢視不同區隔之顯著差異。依據上述分析結果做成具體建議以供未來相關研究進行之基礎。關鍵詞: 區隔;飛盤高爾夫;潛在市場;信念;自動互助檢視法
  • 1040 IntroductionDisc golf, known as Frisbee golf or folf, is one of fast growing activities in the outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism in U.S. Disc golf is relatively new activity in which individual players throw a flying disc at a target, using rules similar to traditional golf, and it improves a combination of physical and mental abilities. According to the Professional Disc Golf Association[1], disc golf has more than 40000 members grown at a rate of 12~15% annually, with nearly 3000 courses in the U.S. and more than 3000 globally. Detailed growth information in number of disc golf courses in the United States is described in Figure 1. Disc golf is played in more than 40 countries, primarily in North America, Central and Western Europe, Japan, New Zealand and Australia. This activity can be played by anyone of any age or gender and players can match their pace to their capabilities, making the sport a lifetime activity. Along with the physical aspects of the game, many courses are in park settings which add its own associated psychological and physical benefits as well as administrative and community advantages[2]. In addition, disc golf courses provide intimacy with nature in which many courses are a part of the landscape and designed with the terrain and natural obstacles[3]. Altymer identifies advantages of disc golf: 1) disc golf courses have low installation costs and low landscape maintenance requirement; 2) disc golf can be a profit center, which is especially attractive for parks facing budget cuts; and 3) high use of disc golf courses can help decrease park vandalism[4].Figure 1. Groyth in NumAer of Disc Golf Courses[1]Almost every states and many city parks in the United States have a dis golf course facility, and likely along with each, a following of disc golfers. However, despite the growth in disc golf, disc golf does not have as much participation as other sports[5]. Most Americans have never played disc golf or possibly have never heard of this activity. To understand why people get involved in a sport or activity, it is important to identify people's beliefs and attitudes toward the activity.Variables that link to attributes and represent the information about characteristics or qualities of an object are called beliefs which are the fundamental component of a human being's conceptual structure[6]. Beliefs about favorable attributes toward an object will lead to a positive attitude, and vice versa. Knowledge of how these beliefs affect people's intention to participate or not participate in disc golf can help in developing effective strategies for promoting this activity.The purpose of this study is to examine important attributes of people's beliefs about disc golf that affect intention to participate in playing disc golf. In addition to identify potential market segments of disc golf based on the interactions of beliefs and participation intention among college students by employing a Chi-squared Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) analysis[7]. The main objectives of this research are: 1) to understand main attributes of beliefs that influence the inclination to participate in disc golf; 2) to identify potential market segments about disc golf; and 3) to explore significant differences among derived segments in their perception of individual and community benefits about disc golf.1 Literature Revieys1.1 Natural-Based RecreationNatural-based recreation is defined as leisure time activities conducted outdoors in natural settings or involving in some direct way elements of nature[8]. It can provide economic benefits to communities and recreation activities that enhance a quality of life[9~10]. According to the outdoor foundation (2012), a total of 141.1 million Americans, nearly half of the
  • 105Sung Hee Park, et al Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College StudentsU.S. population, enjoyed various forms of outdoor recreation in 2011. A number of research has been conducted to find the reason why people engage in outdoor recreation[11~13]. In the U.S. adults participate in outdoor activities because of getting exercise whereas youth indicates spending time with family and friends[14]. Outdoor recreation activities provide a variety of opportunities to participants, such as socializing, exercising, relaxing, excitement, learning, and enjoying nature [15]. Driver et al. categorize the benefits of natural-based recreation activities which are personal growth, physical health benefits, psychological well-being, social integration, social outcomes of sports, and social change[2]. Especially, physical health benefits and psychological benefits are identified as two major types of impacts of individual sport and physical activity involvement. 1.2 Previous Study of Disc golfKennedy identified six approaches to generating income based on disc golf, such as sales of discs, apparel and snacks, and from green fees, disc rental, and fees for reserving the course, shelter or toilet facilities, and explained a tournament that could help to build a sense of community[15~16]. Siniscalchi & Pierskalla demonstrated the individual and community benefits of playing disc golf, which might be primary motivations for people to play it[3]. While, other research examined characteristics and developing phenomenon of disc golf that reveal the growing importance and lack of understanding about disc golf [17-18]. Haley examined conflict between disc golfers and other recreation activity participants in urban parks in Calgary, Canada[19]. Based on on-site and telephone surveys, the author indicated that improving disc golf planning and management can reduce recreational conflicts. However, there are many questions related to disc golf market still remained and is need for more research about disc golf market required.1.3 CHAID-Based Decision TreeThe Chi-squared Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) is an exploratory method for segmenting a population into two or more exclusive and exhaustive subgroups by maximizing the significant of the chi-square, based on categories of the best predictor of the dependent variable[7]. Segments obtained from CHAID analysis are different from cluster type models because the CHAID method, which is derived to be predictive of a criterion variable, is defined by combinations of predictor variables[20]. CHAID technique depends on interactions among the independent variables, finding those that explain the greatest differences within the dependent variable.Marketers can identify the key influencers or significant drivers in certain markets using CHAID analysis, which results in a treelike diagram commonly called a decision tree. Decision trees have several advantages in a data mining environment [21]. They are non-parametric and make no assumptions about the underlying probability distribution therefore suited for exploratory knowledge discovery. Moreover, decision trees are efficient and superior to non-linear covariate effects and higher-order interactions thus CHAID-based decision tree can provide a more detailed analysis that uncovered potential or niche markets with specific characteristics, behaviors and attitudes. There are several market segmentation studies using by CHAID-based decision tree. Croes uses CHAID to identify the characteristics of visitors that contributed to their choice of a type of accommodation and thus to market differentiation in Aruba[22]. Park examines the performing arts market by identifying and profiling performing arts consumers[23]. Gan et al. analyzes Singapore's credit cardholders in search of variations among demographics and card usage patterns as well as cardholders' perceptions regarding credit card ownership and use[24]. Hsu and Kang employ CHAID to identify market segments among international travelers to Hong Kong, based on traveler characteristics[25].2 Research Method2.1 Instrument DevelopmentA review of the extant literature provides the
  • 106foundation for the development of item statements in the questionnaire, containing multiple-choice and rating-scale questions. This study used Fishbein and Ajzen's variable definitions to identify the attributes of belief dimensions and the theoretical relations linking beliefs to behavior[6]. To understand people's intention, a close examination of their beliefs and attitudes is vital, as these factors must correlate closely with one another to be a reliable predictor of behavior. A research model in this study is presented in Figure 2. This study applied Siniscalchi and Pierskalla's personal and community benefits of disc golf[3] and Haley's study about belief indicators of disc golf[19]. Figure 2. Research ModelThe questionnaire was designed with five sections, including 1) involvement in sports activities; 2) awareness and participation in disc golf; 3) beliefs and the perceived benefits of disc golf; 4) future intention to participate in disc golf; and 5) demographics. To address the purpose of this study, a number of specific variables of beliefs, the perceived benefits about disc golf, and demographic were selected and used for the analyses. Appendix A presents the questionnaire of the survey.The first section was designed to ask whether respondents participate in sports activities. The second section asked three questions to respondents about their involvement in disc golf and how they became aware of disc golf. The category for the variables was dichotomous (1=yes and 2=no). The third section examined the beliefs of respondents about disc golf and its benefits. A series of ten attributes of beliefs about disc golf using a five-point Likert type scale (1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree) is: 1) a fun/enjoyable activity; 2) an activity that involves drug use; 3) a social activity (opportunities to be with friends, family, and meet people); 4) an expensive activity; 5) a relaxing and stress relieving activity; 6) a competitive activity; 7) an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/self improvement/achievement; 8) an activity that involves exercise/physical fitness; 9) an easy-to-start/learn/play activity; and 10) an activity that involves drinking. Two items of individual benefits: (if you participate in disc golf you can) 1) enjoy nature, the outdoors, and fresh air; and 2) escape your daily routine; and two items of community benefits: (A community can be improved because a disc golf course) 1) provides positive recreation opportunities for community residents; and 2) brings extra revenue to a community of playing disc golf were assessed with 1 being strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree. The fourth section asked a question of future intention to participate in disc golf with a five-point Likert type scale. The last section included two demographic questions which included in this study referred to gender and citizenship.2.2 Data Collection and SelectionThis study used non-probabili ty in-class convenience sampling approach which helped reduce research time and cost, and enabled collection of a large amount of data in a limited time period. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2008), 18- to 24-year-olds and 25- to 34-year-olds comprised the largest groups of attendees at sports events, and had the highest participation rates in exercise programs, playing sports, and engaging in outdoor activities. College students are a subset of this population. Siniscalchi mentioned that 40% of disc golf players are less than 30 years old[17]. These demographic profiles imply that college students are a potential target population for disc golf research. To collect data, requests for distributing survey instruments to groups of students were emailed to several faculties who had enrolled students greater than 100 in the class and courses tended to have a diversity of students across colleges in Spring and Summer semester of 2009. After receiving final approval for the study, a
  • 107Sung Hee Park, et al Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College Studentstotal of 508 self-administered questionnaires were distributed and collected from the college students in the 8 different classes at a large University in the Midwestern United States during April-June, 2009. Finally, a total of 470 valid questionnaires (92.5%) were included. For the CHAID analysis, a sub-sample of 457 respondents who completed the information of participation intention to disc golf within next 12 months, and their beliefs about disc golf was selected and re-categorized into two groups. The future participation intention to disc golf (yes = 31.7%, no = 68.3%) utilized as a dependent variable and ten attributes of beliefs were used as predictors (1 = disagree, 2 = agree).2.3 Data analysisA series of belief attributes were analyzed to determine if splitting the sample led to a statistically significant effect on the future intention to participate in disc golf. T-tests were used to compare their beliefs and future intention to participate in disc golf between male and female students. Moreover, the Exhaustive CHAID was selected over the original CHAID algorithm because it had a better chance of finding optimal association between dependent variable and predictors. A series of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and were employed to identify significant differences on the perception of individual and community benefits of participating in disc golf. The data was analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences for Windows and Answer Tree 3.1.3 Results3.1 Respondent information The sample consisted of more females (54.3%) than male (43.2%). Almost all the respondents (94.7%) were U.S. citizens, and of U.S. citizens, 72.4% were Caucasian/white. Of the international students, 46.2% were Asian. The majority of the respondents (84.1%) indicated they exercised or engaged in at least one sports activity. Of the respondents, slightly more than half (53.5%) had heard of disc golf or frisbee golf before. Moreover, the female group who had not heard of disc golf was much higher than the male group. A higher percent of males (41%) played disc golf than females (17.6%). The percentage of regular male players (8.4%) was much higher than regular female players (1.6%). In sum, disc golf participation between different genders, males tended to be involved more in disc golf than females.3.2 T-tests resultT-tests revealed several statistically significant differences (p<0.05) between male and female students in their responses regarding the attributes of beliefs and the intention to participate in disc golf. Male students had stronger beliefs that disc golf was a fun/enjoyable activity, an activity that involved drug use, a social activity (opportunities to be with friends, family, and meet people), and an activity that involved drinking while female students had a higher belief about disc golf that was an activity involved exercise physical fitness. Furthermore, male students had a higher intend to participate in disc golf in the future than female students.3.3 Exhaustive CHAID resultThe decision tree resulting from the Exhaustive CHAID analysis identified significant predictors of beliefs about disc golf participation consisting of 4 levels and containing six nodes. Furthermore, four mutually exclusive groups were segmented into a total of four terminal nodes according to their index scores that showed greater and less than 100% which represented the proportion of respondents who had higher future intention to participate in disc golf in the overall sample. The results indicated that three key predictors of participation intention to disc golf according to their beliefs: Disc golf was 1) ‘a fun/ enjoyable activity (Χ²=48.06, Bonferroni adjusted p value <0.001)'; 2) ‘an activity that involves drug use (Χ²=11.01, Bonferroni adjusted p value <0.001)'; and 3) ‘an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/self-improvement/ achievement (Χ²=17.67, Bonferroni adjusted p value <0.001)'.Decision tree for participation intention to disc
  • 108golf is presented in Figure 3. The root node at the top of the decision tree represents the sample of 457 college students, who were divided into two categories. There were more respondents who did not intend to participate in disc golf in the future (n=312, 68.3%) than respondents who intended to participate (n=145, 31.7%) in the sample. Figure 3. Decision Tree for Participation Intention to Disc GolfThe root node was split, based on whether disc golf was a fun enjoyable activity. College students who agreed with this activity (44.4%) showed higher intention to participation in disc golf. This group was further divided into two categories, based on whether disc golf was an activity that involves drug use. Students who agreed with drug use (67.4%) showed the highest intention to participate in disc golf. On the other hand, people who did not agree with drug use (40%) split on whether disc golf was an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement. Students who agreed with this belief (42.4%) had higher intention to participate in disc golf than people who did not agree (31.7%). The resultant four segments were subsequently ranked according to their index scores. An index score of more than 100% shows that the corresponding node has a higher than expected proportion of people with a certain characteristic or behavior. The four segments were summarized with respect to their size and intention to participate in disc golf in the future in Table 1.The most likely to participate in disc golf segment was: 1) college students who agreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity and an activity that involved drug use (segment 1); and the second most likely to participate in disc golf segment was: 2) college students who agreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity and an activity that involved opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement but disagreed disc golf was an activity that involved drug use (segment 2). On the other hand, segments which were less likely to participate TaAle 1. Gain Summary Ay Percentage DistriAution of the CHAID Analysis Node SegmentNo. of respondents(n)% of all the respondents(%)No. of respondents who have intention to participate in disc golf(n)% of respondents who have intention to participate in disc golfa(%)% of rate of respondents who have intention to participate in disc golf in the node(%)Index score(%)a4 1 43 9.4 29 20.0 67.4 212.6b5 2 160 35.0 78 53.8 48.7 153.66 3 65 14.2 12 8.3 18.5 58.21 4 189 41.4 26 17.9 13.8 43.4a Proportion of respondent rates who intend to participate in disc golf in the node compared to the overall sample.b 212.6% = 67.4% (the rate of participation intention to disc golf in Node 4). / 31.7% (the rate of participation intention to disc golf in the overall sample).
  • 109Sung Hee Park, et al Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College Studentsin disc golf in the future were: 3) college students who agreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity but disagreed disc golf was an activity that involved drug use nor opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement (segment 3); and 4) college students who disagreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity (segment 4).3.4 Perception of individual and community Aen-efitsResults of the MANOVA in Table 2 indicated that significant differences among the four segments in the perceptions of individual and community benefits of disc golf participation were found at p < .001. The results of a one-way ANOVA also showed that two individual benefit attributes and one community benefit attribute contributed differently to each segment. However, there was no significant difference in perception of ‘whether a disc golf course brings extra revenue to a community' among the segments. Regardless of the segment, individual benefits were highly rated than community benefits while participating in disc golf by the respondents. Specifically, ‘you can enjoy nature, the outdoors and fresh air if you participate in disc golf' was the highest among the four measurements, with an aggregate mean of 4.22 on a 5-point scale, followed by ‘you can escape your daily routine if you participate in disc golf' (M=4.0). However, ‘a community can be improved because a disc golf course brings extra revenue to a community' showed the lowest mean score of 3.14. Results of Tukey's HSD post_hoc tests showed that college students in segment 1 who agreed disc golf was a fun enjoyable activity which involved drug showed the highest means on the two personal benefit attributes, followed by those in segment 2 who agreed disc golf was a fun enjoyable activity which did not involve drug use but involved opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement while, students in segment 4 who disagreed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity indicated the lowest means. Thus, the belief of ‘disc golf is a fun/ enjoyable activity' was strongly related to positive perceptions of personal benefits while participating in disc golf. With regards to perception of community benefits, segments 1 and 2 who had stronger intention to participate in disc golf in the future rated the two community benefit attributes higher than segments 3 and 4 who had less intention to participation in disc golf.4 ConclusionsThis study helps outdoor recreation managers and promoters understand a detailed knowledge of participating in disc golf. Specifically, the study illustrated how potential market of disc golf can be segmented among the college students based on the interactions of their beliefs and intention to participate in disc golf, by using the CHAID method. Fun and enjoyable, involves drug use, and involves opportunity for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement are the key beliefs about disc golf for college students to Table 2. Perception of Individual and Community Benefits among SegmentsPerception of disc golf participation(1-5 ratings, 5 being the most positive) Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4 FIndividual benefit: enjoy nature, the outdoor and fresh air(Overall M = 4.22)4.5a 4.4a 4.4a 3.9b 24.7***Individual benefit: escape your daily routine(Overall M = 4.00)4.3a 4.2a 4.1a 3.7b 15.3***Community benefit: provides positive recreation opportunities for community residents(Overall M = 3.83)4.1 a 4.1 a 3.8b 3.6b 19.4***Community benefit: brings extra revenue to a community(Overall M = 3.14)3.2 3.2 2.9 3.2 2.03n.s.Aggregate means by segment 4.02 3.98 3.8 3.6Wilkes' lambda = 0.793, F = 8.78, p<0.001***p < 0.001, n.s.: not significant a-bTukey's HSD test: Means in the same row followed by the same superscript were significantly different at p < 0.05
  • 110increase their intention to participate in disc golf.Ajzen and Fishbein 's model explain the relationships among beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior[6]. The beliefs and attitudes are seen as influencing people's behavior, and the intention is the probability dimension that links attitude and behavior. This study explores the theoretical relations linking beliefs to behavior intention and identifies four potential market segments. Therefore, beliefs about disc golf and intention to participate can be the most important variables to separate potential disc golf market of college students and their future behavior such as attending and playing disc golf of each segment are predicted according to the findings. The segments 1 and 2 included the college students who were more likely to participate in disc golf in the future, and thus can be identified as actionable segments[25]. These segments commonly believed disc golf was a fun and enjoyable activity. If one can figure out these underlying characteristics of fun and enjoyable, they could be used to help promote disc golf by developing different target marketing strategies that highlighted those characteristics.On the other hand, segments 3 and 4 showed less intention to participate in disc golf in the future. They did not think disc golf was neither fun/enjoyable, nor an activity that opportunities for challenge/ self-improvement/ achievement. It seems that they do not know disc golf well. Therefore, promoters and organizers should emphasize this activity on the positive ideas for both physical and mental benefits and provide more opportunities to play disc golf near their resident area such as in community colleges, universities and recreational parks. Using various media can help increase attention of those who have never participated in disc golf before. While participating in disc golf, college students in all the segments shows higher perceptions of personal benefits than community benefits. Thus, promoters need to focus on the positive images of playing disc golf that personal as well as community benefits can be acquired by supporting for disc golf courses in communities and make sure the facility has a low impact on the natural environment. D r u g u s e i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a n e g a t i v e characteristic related to disc golf because this activity originally developed with the hippy culture in which drug use was one stereotype in the 1960s. However, segment 1 which had the highest intend to participate to disc golf believed disc golf was not only fun and enjoyable, but involved drug use. Thus, an effort to remove and replace the negative idea of playing disc golf with drug use must be needed for the college students. In addition, the gender differences affect students' belief about disc golf and their participation intention. To increase participation of college students in disc golf, promoters should provide an image of fun and social activity for male while exercise physical fitness for female students.This study extends the knowledge of potential market of disc golf among college students. The more the students have positive beliefs or are involved in disc golf, the higher their intention to play in the future. This study confirms the relationship between beliefs and future intention. However, it is important to find that not every beliefs impact behavioral intention equally. Some beliefs are stronger indicators for intention and behavior than others. Furthermore, college students can be predicted to participate in disc golf based on each segments. This information is vital for disc golf promoters and outdoor recreation managers to plan and build facilities and services. Although many students are still not familiar with disc golf, it is a growing activity based on the increasing number of courses and tournaments. This study can provide the primary managerial implications to disc golf administer and promoters.References [1] Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA). (2012). http://www.pdga.com.[2] Driver, B. L., Brown, P. J. and Peterson, G. L. (1991). Benefits of leisure. PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.[3] Siniscalchi, J. and Pierskalla, D. (2005). Flying saucers: Disc golf can bring personal and community benefits to rural America. Parks & Recreation, 40 (1), 42-47.
  • 111Sung Hee Park, et al Segmenting Potential Market of Recreational Disc Golf by Beliefs and Participation Intention:A Case of College Students[4] Altymer, D. (1996). Disc golf fever: Will your park catch it. Parks & Recreation, 31(8), 48-51. [5] Fullerton, S. (2006). The foundation of sports marketing. Sports Marketing. Retrieved from http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/007312821x/349858/sample_ch01.pdf[6] Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.[7] Kass, G. V. (1980). An exploratory technique for investigating large quantities of categorical data. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Applied Statistics, 29(2), 119-127.[8] Cordell, H. K. (2008). The lastest on trends in nature-based outdoor recreation. Forest History Today, (spring, 2008), 4-10.[9] Nelson, C., & Stynes, D. (2003). 2003-2007 Michigan comprehensive outdoor recreation plan. Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of Natural Resources.[10] Stynes, D. (2002). Michigan golf tourists-economic impacts. East Lansing, MI: Department of Park, Recreation, and Tourism Resources, Michigan State University. [11] Walker, G. J., Deng, J., & Dieser, R. B. (2001). Ethnicity, acculturation, self-construal, and motivations for ourdoor recreation. Leisure Sciences, 23(4), 263-283.[12] Walker, G. J., Hull, R. B., & Roggenbuck, J. W. (1998). On-site optimal experiences and off-site benefits. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(4), 453-471.[13] Manfredo, M. J., Driver, B. l., & Tarrant, M. A. (1996). Measuring leisure motivation: A meta-analysis of the recreation experience preference scales. Journal of Leisure Research, 28, 188-213.[14] Outdoor Foundation (2012). Outdoor recreation participation report 2012. Retrieved from http://www.outdoorfoundation.org/pdf/ResearchParticipation2012.pdf.[15] Wisnom, M. S. (1999). Relationships between benefits sought, recreation activities, and group characteristics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University.[16] Kennedy, C. (2007). Making space for the DISC jockey. Parks & Recreation, 42(1), 34-37. [17] Siniscalchi, J. (2004). The personal and community benefits of disc golf to rural America (and beyond), PDGA internal documents. Retrieved from http://www.pdga.com/documents/BenefitsOfDiscGolf-Siniscalchi_.pdf [18] Benson, Jerome Edward II. (2000). Toward a valid disc golf course design algorithm: using landscape ecology and geographic information systems (GIS) to assess recreation facilities' sites. Stephen F. Austin State University, TX.[19] Haley, H. (2002). Exploring emerging recreation and its planning challenges: The case of disc golf in Calgary. CAN., The University of Calgary, Calgary.[20] Magidson, J. (1994). The CHAID approach to segmentation modeling: chi-squared automactic interaction detection. In R.P. Bagozzi (Ed.), In advanced methods of marketing. research (pp. 118-159). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.[21] Bakken, S. K. (2005). Use of chi-squared automatic interaction detector in the prediction of vocational rehabilitation outcomes among veterans with substance use disorders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.[22] Croes , H. (2008) . Accommodat ion por t fo l io and market differentiation: the case of Aruba. Tourism Review, 56(2), 185-197.[23] Park, S. H. (2010). An analysis of the performing arts consumer: developing market segments by using chi-squared automatic interaction detection (CHAID). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University.[24] Gan, L. L., Maysami, R. C. and Koh, H. C. (2008). Singapore credit cardholders: ownership, usage patterns, and perceptions. Journal of Services Marketing, 22(4), 267-279. [25] Hsu, C. H. and Kang, S. K. (2007). CHAID-based segmentation: international visitors' trip characteristics and perceptions. Journal of Travel Research, 46(2), 207-216.[26] Chen, J. S. (2003). Market segmentation by tourists' sentiments. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(1), 178-193.Appendix A: Survey InstrumentSection 1: This section asks questions about your involvement in sports activitiesQ1. Do you exercise or engage in any sports activity? □ No □ YesSection 2: This section asks about your awareness and participation in disc golfQ2. Have you ever heard of disc golf (FrisAee golf)? □ No (If no, skip to Section 3) □ YesQ3. Do you play disc golf? □ Yes □ No Q4. Which of the folloying statements most closely applies to you? (check one) □ I have heard of disc golf, but haven't played it □ I have played disc golf before, but do not play regularly □ I have played disc golf before and play disc golf regularlySection 3: This section asks about your beliefs and the perceived benefits of disc golfFor each sentence completion statement below, put an V in the box indicating your level of agreement:
  • 112Q5. Disc golf is…Strongly Disagree Disagree Not Sure AgreeStrongly Agree1. a fun/ enjoyable activity2. an activity that involves drug use3. a social activity (opportunities to be with friends, family, and meet people)4. an expensive activity5. a relaxing and stress relieving activity6. a competitive activity7. an activity that involves opportunities for challenge/self improvement/achievement8. an activity that involves exercise/ physical fitness9. an easy-to-start/ learn/ play activity10. an activity that involves drinkingQ6. If you participate in disc golf, you canStrongly Disagree Disagree Not Sure AgreeStrongly Agree1. enjoy nature, the outdoors, and fresh air?2. escape your daily routine?Q7. A community can Ae improved Aecause a disc golf courseStrongly Disagree Disagree Not Sure AgreeStrongly Agree1. provides positive recreation opportunities for community residents?2. brings extra revenue to a community?Section 4: This section asks about your future intention to participate in disc golfQ8. Will you play disc golf (at least once) in the future? □ Definitely will not □ Probably will not □ Not Sure □ Probably will □ Definitely willSection 5: This section asks about yourself for data analysis purposesQ9. What is your gender? □ Male □ FemaleQ10. What are your citizenship and race/ethnicity? (check one)□ U.S. Citizen □ International Student□ African American/ Black □ African□ Asian/Asian American □ Asian□ Caucasian/White □ European□ Hispanic/Latino □ Oceanian□ Native American/Inuit/Aleutian □ North American□ Native Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander □ South American□ Other □ Other□ Prefer not to answer □ Prefer not to answer
  • 113第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 Received 6 Dec. 2013; Revised 27 Dec. 2013.Eko Yi Liao, Female, PhD, Assistant Professor, Research area: organizational behavior & human resource management, Email: yliao@must.edu.mo, Tel: 1981 8897It is All aAout Procrastination: Stress and MotivationEko Yi Liao( Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstract: Procrastination becomes a general concern in the contemporary society, where almost everyone commits to a certain level of procrastination in their daily work or life. Yet the knowledge system about procrastination remains incomplete and open to new evidence and theoretical perspectives. This study investigated the phenomena of college student’s procrastination behaviors. Specifically, it adopts the theory of stress coping to develop the research model, indicating that perceived stress is the critical predictor of such avoiding or delaying behaviors. In addition, a motivation theory helps to identify the individual difference that affects this stress-procrastination relationship, which is student’s goal orientation. Data from Critique Interview Techniques with eight college students and survey among 203 college students were collected and analyzed. Results and findings show support to the proposed model and hypotheses. Theoretical as well as practical implications were discussed accordingly.eyyords: Procrastination; Perceived stress; Goal orientation研究拖延症:壓力和動力廖 逸(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 拖延症在當代社會逐漸成爲一個成爲廣受關注的問題,而每個人在工作或生活中或多或少都存在拖延的情况。但現今關于拖延症的知識體系仍不完善,有待理論的支撑和實證研究的支持。本研究目的是瞭解大學生的拖延症情况,運用壓力管理理論和激勵理論中的目標創建理論提出研究模型和研究問題。本研究認爲個體感受到的壓力會直接影響其拖延行爲,幷且個體的目標創建和實踐情况會影響這個“壓力-拖延"的關係。通過對大學生的訪談及問卷調查,數據分析結果初步支持本研究提出的理論模型。研究意義及未來的研究方向也一幷進行了討論。關鍵詞: 拖延;壓力;動力0 IntroductionIndividuals in current society are facing more challenges, such as multitasking, interacting with other individuals in different social activities, keeping up with several deadlines at the same time. When individuals do not acquire sufficient or systematic personal skills (e.g., time management skills) to deal with (e.g., prioritize, make timetables, and fulfill various expectations) these challenges, problems
  • 114happen. Procrastination, one critical personal failure in the above-mentioned area, significantly interferes with one’s work and life[29]. Specifically, procrastination is defined as a lack of self-regulatory delay or a failure in those work tasks and life issues[28]. This destructive behavior seriously decreases individual’s work effectiveness, functional social interactions, may even cause other mental or physical dysfunctions. When it comes to academic performance (e.g., examination scores, class attendance, participation in team work/projects, etc.), procrastination poses an even severe threat to students. The reasons are that teenagers or young adults are at the life stage of gradually forming their persistent work/life habits and styles, which once settled will be relatively difficult to transfer or eliminate. Thus, students’ procrastination is found as a prevalent yet destructive phenomenon.However, the current knowledge system on students’ procrastination remains incomplete and unsystematic in three major ways. First, how procrastination is developed still needs investigation and clarification. While some scholars regard procrastination as a negative form of personality trait[7,13~14], other researchers, with more theoretical and practical support, treat it as a self-regulatory failure or a destructive individual delaying phenomenon[28]. This study follows the “behavioral track” that investigating procrastination as a dysfunctional behavior. In this line of research, scholars focus more on attitudinal or situational predictors (e.g., satisfaction perception, fairness perception), other types of antecedents are in need of adding to the big picture. Then, the questions raised are: Does an individual’s procrastination level remain stable across life stages? If yes, how can we prevent such long-term personal delaying “habit”? If no, what are the situational or individual predictors of procrastination? In addition, with the specificity of their life stage, teenage and young-adult students are influenced particularly strongly when acquiring the procrastination trait or committing to related behaviors.Second, current knowledge about the personal and interpersonal determinants of students’ procrastination leaves large gaps for theoretical and empirical research investigation[29]. Even if individual’s procrastination level is determined to some extent by biological characteristics or personality traits, there are external factors or cognitive factors that can substantially increase or decrease the degree of procrastination. Unfortunately, what are the cognitive antecedents that affect students’ procrastination, which in turn deteriorate their academic performance, are in need of theoretical investigation and empirical evidence.Third and most important, how can educators gain better understanding of student’s procrastination, and in turn facilitate student’s adjustment to a lower level of procrastination is one important question to school instructors and educators. As noted before, young adult students, especially college students, are a special group of individuals. They are entering the stage of stabilizing their working or life strategies and orientations, yet are also flexible and open to new experiences and powerful influence. To this end, then, educators are with the responsibility to be aware of and response to those external factors of student’s procrastination, not only for the sake of academic performance, but also for the purpose of a positive and influential education that can achieve long-term effect on student’s life and career development.Thus, to bridge these research gaps and provide practical educating strategies, this study focus on discovering the reasons contributing to college students’ procrastination, and connecting its findings with educator’s responsibilities and awareness. Specifically, this empirical study adopts the Krohne’s avoidance coping theory and Goal orientation theory to propose a research model, where perceived stress level influence the degree of student’s procrastination, and goal orientation functioning as a buffering effect in this relationship. Semi-interview data collected with Critical Incident Interview Techniques (CIT) through eight students, and survey data using questionnaires from over two hundred college students showed support to the research model and hypotheses. Practical implications for both college students and educators are presented based on the findings and
  • 115Eko Yi Liao It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivationresults of the study.1 The Behavioral Perspective of ProcrastinationResearch on procrastination can be traced back to a few centuries ago, where scholars discovered the existence of certain behaviors which include voluntarily delay or avoid tasks. The very first few perspectives on procrastination was relating procrastination to sin - “to procrastinate is to sin”. However, with more and more qualitative and quantitative research focusing on this area, scholars started to view procrastination from different angles. A longitudinal empirical study found that the degree of individual’s procrastination remain relatively stable with a period of ten years, thus it concluded that procrastination can be treated as a personality trait[7,17~18]. In addition, Lay and colleagues conducted a series of studies discovering the trait perspective on procrastination, which is described as “the predisposition to engage in dilatory behavior”[20~21]. The trait procrastination has been investigated in relation to Big Five Personality Model, individual emotions and moods (e.g., anxiety), attitudes and mental abilities (e.g., time management).Another branch of procrastination research focuses on the behavioral aspect of procrastination, regarding it as a “self-regulatory failure”[27~29]. This line of research regards procrastination as a dysfunctional behavior of individuals, which include an intended avoiding or delaying action on starting or finishing tasks[4,9]. Solomon and Rothblum (1984) in their investigation in the frequency of student’s procrastination-related behaviors argue that procrastination is “the act of needlessly delaying tasks to the point of experiencing subjective discomfort”, which upgrades the range of procrastination to the set of delaying behaviors that go beyond poor time management or study skills. With the behavioral perspective, procrastination are found to be an increasingly popular phenomena, because of the emergence of more and more deadlines, multi-tasks, working with different people in different situations. Accordingly, people are more curious about what actually causes procrastination level to vary, and what the controllable and uncontrollable factors throughout this process are.The nomological network of procrastination as a behavior is not complete or systematic because of two reasons. First, there is a need to conduct further and more empirical studies focusing on the underpinnings of procrastination in order to contribute to a broad picture of how procrastination functions in different context. For example, motivation related reasons have not been introduced to the procrastination research, leaving a gap of understanding the motives behind such behaviors[29]. Second, the relationships between procrastination and its correlates still need to gather more empirical evidence and theoretical integration. Although various correlates (predictors as well as consequences) have been studied relating to procrastination, conflicting findings have been discovered. For example, some personality traits are found significantly related to procrastination in certain studies, while no relationship or marginal relationship were indicated in other studies. To this end, further field studies can help to add more empirical investigation in this area.2 Theoretical Background and Hypotheses Development2.1 Stress and ProcrastinationIn response to the above mentioned research gaps in procrastination, this study focus on investigating the procrastination phenomena of college students. Students are likely to display procrastination behavior in their academic studies, teamwork, or dealing with other life/study issues. The major stream of procrastination research focuses on discovering the predicting role of dispositional aspects (e.g., big-5 personalities, etc.)[1]. Less is known about how individual perceptions, especially negative feelings and emotions, will influence one’s procrastination level. Thus, what individual factors constitute the critical influences on students’ procrastination remains an important yet not-much-investigated question. This study argues that the degree of procrastination can be
  • 116explained by the severeness of perceived stress. Also, this relationship will be buffered by the student’s goal orientation. To provide theoretical underpinnings of how college students adopt different levels of procrastination and the mechanisms of how this antecedent-behavior relationship is influenced with individual difference, this study uses the Krohne’s avoidance coping theory[17~19] and Goal orientation theory[3,6]. Stress is defined as the “a state of mental tension and worry caused by problems in life, work, etc.” from Merriam-Webster dictionary. Stress can cause individuals negative emotions such as depression[23~24], and different directions and levels of consequent behaviors such as alarm reaction, stage of resistance, stage of exhaustion[26] (general adaptation syndrome, Selye, 1956). With its critical influence on individuals, researchers are dedicated to discover the different coping strategies and its related outcome behaviors.Individual’s percept ion of s t ress i s one unavoidable yet critical influence in affecting procrastination behaviors for a few reasons. First, as discussed before, contemporary society engenders varied “deadlines” to individuals, becoming the driving force of pressure perception and may easily cause distraction during the process. Second, although it is unavoidable, it will gain benefits for both schools and students if we build a knowledge system of relating student’s stress to their procrastination. The reason is that both of them can take into consideration of mechanisms to minimize related stress feelings in order to prevent procrastination.In proposing the stress coping strategies, Krohne argues that individuals tend to adopt either vigilant or cognitive avoidance method to cope with perceived stress[17~18]. Cognitive avoidance refers to individuals stress resolution of “averting attention from stress-related information”, which indicates a relatively negative form of dealing with stressful perceptions. This avoidance strategy is useful in understanding the influence of stressful feelings on college students’ adoption of procrastination in two ways. First, college students are facing various but different degree of stress related to both course load and life events. With the academic requirements of taking different courses, completing assignments and course projects, preparation for quizzes and exams, students have no choice but to accomplish as much of these academic tasks as they can to assure of an “academic survive” in college/university. Also, same as adults, they also encounter and undergo troublesome or difficult life events, performing as another source of stressors. To search for an outlet of the two sources of strains, students tend to avoid sticking up to their study plans, or delaying certain tasks as a relief and buffer from the intenseness.Second, college students often have a more flexible timetable then working individuals[2], and are at the life stage where different levels of changes can happen frequently. Students only contribute a certain portion of their time on classes and school activities, leaving them relatively more free time to spend based on individual willingness. Thus, they have their distinctiveness in comparing to other groups of adults, where stress may function differently to their procrastination level. They will be more likely and more able to follow Krohne’s “avoidance” route of dealing with stress. For example, if there is choice to be made between a difficult course project and a dinner gathering, students may opt to avoid the stressful assignment and choose a more entertaining activity. Thus, it is proposed that with increased perceived stress, college students are likely to commit to higher level of procrastination.Hypothesis 1. Perceived stress level is positively related to students’ procrastination.2.2 The Role of Goal OrientationSince scholarly research on procrastination have not gathered sufficient theoretical and empirical studies both on antecedents and moderat ing mechanisms[22] , more investigation in related topics will be able to provide further information to procrastination literature. Hypothesis 1 focuses on discovering the predicting role of stress in students’ procrastination. Then, the next question comes: will this stress-
  • 117Eko Yi Liao It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivationprocrastination relationship hold for all types of students? In other words, are there any buffering factors or individual differences which distort the relationship? Previous procrastination studies have not much discovered the individual moderating constructs, leaving much space for research investigation. To this end, this study tries to discover students’ differences in goal orientation and investigate how this individual difference may affect the stress-procrastination relationship.Specifically, Goal orientation theory[3,6] is adopted as the underlying theory for this buffering effect. Goal orientation theory is one of the most critical motivation theories and has been adopted largely in explaining students’ involvement and engagement in school and learning activities[15]. It describes how and why people are motivated by objectives achievement, and how goal achievement functioning as a personal state or trait that guides and affect individual’s behaviors. Although there may be different types of goal orientation, this study follows the general goal orientation mechanisms to understand how students are motivated by their goal settlement and whether their behaviors are consistent with the set goals or not will influence their procrastination.It is proposed that if a student is highly goal oriented, he/she would be better motivated toward their academic tasks, which will help minimizing any distractions during the task-fulfillment process. In this way, highly goal-oriented students will be less likely to commit dysfunctional delaying behaviors such as procrastination.Hypothesis 2a. Student’s goal orientation is negatively related to his/her procrastination behavior.Also, it is argued that the degree to which students are clearly aware of their goals and keep their behaviors sticking to the goals closely, will moderate the relationship between stress and procrastination. First, when students have established goals and regard it an essential achievement to accomplish the goals, they are more directed at those appropriate behaviors toward goal achievement. They are less likely to be distracted by outside attractions such as entertainment facilities, social activities, or trivia personal issues because they are concentrated on fulfilling their goals. Second, when students spend most part of their effort and energy in fulfilling their planned goals, they are less likely to be drawn back by stressful feelings or intimidated by difficulties and troublesomeness. In addition, with established step-by-step and detailed plans closely connected to their goals, students can hardly find excuses for task postponement or wondering around and wasting those absolutely free time slots. Thus, it is proposed that when students are highly goal oriented, the stress-procrastination relationship will be weaker; when students are less goal-oriented, the stress-procrastination relationship will be even stronger:Hypothesis 2b. Student’s goal orientation will moderate the stress-procrastination relationship, in such a way that the relationship becomes stronger when a student is less goal-oriented, and the relationship becomes weaker when a student is highly goal-oriented.3 Methodology3.1 Participants and ProceduresThe data collection for this study includes two parts: for the first part, 8 students participated in the semi-interviews using CIT to provide detailed information and incidences about procrastination as an exploration of the topic; for the second part, 203 college students participated in the survey data collection. Participation is on a voluntary basis. Participants were informed that the content of their answers is for academic research only and they were assured of anonymity and confidentiality. CIT[10] was used to conduct semi-interviews with 8 undergraduate students for this study. CIT is considered to be a useful method in studying complex or new phenomenon[30]. This method can provide more detailed information of the events/incidents provided by the participants, and could help minimize the errors compared to having to summarize across different incidents[25].
  • 118For CIT, participants were asked to describe a specific incident when they have procrastination behavior in their daily study or life. Procrastination was described to them as “delay on course assignment or projects”, “always catching up with deadlines”, “voluntarily postpone things that should be done on time”, and so on. Then the students were asked to think of whether they were under any stressful events or feel any pressure during or before the incidents.Then, for the major data collection, of the 203 participants, 58% were male and 42% were female. The average age of the interviewees was 21. They are majorly in their third year (52%) or the fourth year (46%) of undergraduate programs. They were asked to rate from 1 to 5 on several questions relating to stress, procrastination, and goal orientation.As the interview schedule and the questionnaire were originally written in English, the author translated it into Chinese. Another bilingual researcher back translated the questions to ensure conceptual consistency. The two researchers discussed and agreed upon the final version. 3.2 Measures3.2.1 Procrastination.Lay’s[20] 20-item procrastination scale which was developed for student populations was adopt to measure student’s procrastination behaviors. A sample item is “I often find myself performing tasks that I had intended to do days before”. Participants were required to rate on a 5-point Likert type scale (from 1= strongly disagree to 5= strongly agree) to indicate their agreement on the items. The confident alpha value for procrastination was 0.86.3.2.2 Perceived stress.Cohen and Will iamson’s (1988) 10-i tem Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) was adopt to measure student’s perception of stress. A sample item was “In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly?”[5] Participants were required to rate on a 5-point scale (from 1= Never to 5= Very Often). The confident alpha value for procrastination was 0.82.3.2.3 Goal orientation.The 7-item goal orientation was adopt to measure student’s awareness of their goals and the degree to which their behaviors sticking to the goals and plans. A sample item is “If I set goals, I take action to reach them.” The first five items are 5-point Likert type scale (from 1= strongly disagree to 5= strongly agree), while the last two items measure the frequency of their behaviors (from 1= none of the time to 5= all of the time). The confident alpha value for procrastination was 0.83.4 Analyses and ResultsBoth qualitative and quantitative analyses were used to test the hypotheses and the proposed model. The qualitative data were the procrastinations incidences provided by participants. The aim is to enable researchers gather first-hand and detailed information about the process of stress leading to procrastination, and its related emotions in the incident. The quantitative data are the ratings of 203 participants on the scales of all the variables of interest.Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was adopted to test the measurement model to see whether all the variables are distinguished from each other, based on the ratings of students. Five indices were reported for each testing model. Following Hu and Bentler’s(1999) recommendation, the combination of incremental fit indices (IFI, TLI, and CFI) and absolute fit indices (RMSEA and SRMR) was used in this study[11]. This combination was adopted because it was shown to minimize the influence of Type I and Type II errors in different conditions[11]. A value of 0.95 or higher for IFI, TLI, and CFI, a value of 0.06 or lower for RMSEA, and a value of 0.08 or lower for SRMR, are suggested as good fit of the model (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The proposed model was compared with a series of models, including the null model, the two 2-factor models (one with combined stress and procrastination, and the other one with combined goal orientation and procrastination), and one 1-factor model (combined all factors). The results (Table 1) show that the proposed model received a significantly
  • 119Eko Yi Liao It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivationbetter fit in all indices (TLI = 0.97, CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.03) then all alternative models. Also, results show that the students are able to distinguish all the studied variables.Table 2 contains the means, standard deviations, and a correlation matrix of all the studied variables (gender, age, grade, region, procrastination, perceived stress, and goal orientation). The hierarchical multiple regression was used to test the research model and hypotheses. The four control variables (gender, age, grade, and region) were input in step 1, and then the z score of stress and z score of goal orientation were added in step 2. Last, the interaction term (created by the product of z score of stress and z score of goal orientation) were created and added in the model. The results of the moderation analyses were presented in Table 3.From the results, we can tell that the relationship between stress and procrastination was significant (β= 0.15, p < 0.05), showing full support to Hypothesis Table 1 Results of Confirmatory Factor AnalysesModel Factors χ2 df Δχ2 RMSEA CFI TLINull model 1108.29 465Baseline model 3-factor model 1052.59 435 55.7** 0.03 0.98 0.97Model 1 2-factor model (1) (combing stress and procrastination) 1169.85 453 117.26** 0.08 0.89 0.89Model 22-factor model (2) (combining goal orientation and procrastination)1169.20 453 116.61** 0.08 0.88 0.89Model 3 1-factor model (combining all factors). 1458.20 454 405.61** 0.12 0.83 0.83** p <0.01TaAle 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations gender age grade region Procrastination Goal Orientation stressGendera 1 Ageb -0.13 1 Gradec -0.12 0.30** 1 Regiond 0.20* -0.35** -0.61** 1 Procrastination -0.04 -0.114 0.01 -0.07 (0.86) Goal Orientation 0.14 -0.07 -0.04 0.05 -0.35** (0.83) Stress 0.06 0.00 0.15 -0.19* 0.19* -0.16* (0.82)Mean 0.56 21 3.5 0.61 2.8 3.9 2.9SD 0.51 1.4 0.51 0.49 0.58 0.78 0.59Note. N=203.(a) 0 = male, 1 = female. (b) higher value represents higher age. (c) value ranges from 1 to 4. (d) 0 = Macau, 1 = Mainland.*p< 0.05. ** p <0.01.TaAle 3 Summary of Moderated Regression AnalysesVariableProcrastinationβ Δ R2 95% CI FStep 1 Gender -0.05 (-0.22,0.12) Age -0.05 (-0.10,0.00) Grade -0.01 (-0.21,0.19) Region 0.12 0.09 (-0.37,0.01) 3.67Step 2 Goal orientation (A1) -0.30** (-0.39,-0.21) Stress (A2) 0.15* 0.04* (0.01, 0.14) 9.4**Step 3 A1*A2 -0.32** 0.12** (-0.46,-0.22) 28.8***p<0.05. ** p <0.01.
  • 1201. The relationship between goal orientation and procrastination is also as expected (β= 0.30, p < 0.01), showing support to Hypothesis 2a. Then, the moderator effect was also found significant and in the same direction as we predicted (β= -0.32, p < 0.01). Thus, Hypothesis 2b was also supported.To further show the moderator effect of goal orientation, a plot figure was created (Figure 1). The sample was classified into two groups based on the goal orientation score (high goal orientation and low goal orientation). It also supports the hypotheses, where perceived stress level was significantly and positively related to procrastination, and the relationship tend to be weaker when the goal orientation value is high.5 DiscussionThis empirical study aims at bridging the research gaps in procrastination behavior of college students. Specifically, it tries to investigate the predicting role of perceived stress on student’s voluntary delaying, and the moderating role of goal orientation. As discussed before, everyone commits to procrastination to a certain level, and this delaying behavior poses a serious threat in our work and life productivity. Furthermore, college students are a specific group of individuals, who are at the critical stage of their life and need to adjust to a set of positive working and living habits. Thus, learning the antecedents of college students’ procrastination is of particular importance. To this point, results and findings of this study support that when students perceive a higher level of stress, they are more likely to commit to procrastination behaviors. Then, if the students are highly oriented to their goal achievement, the stress-procrastination relationship will be buffered.The findings contribute to the procrastination literature. First, it uses a motivation theory to investigate the underpinnings of procrastination, which was suggested as necessary steps in gaining systematic knowledge about procrastination[29]. Many previous procrastination literatures overlooked the influence of negative cognitive perceptions, preventing the development of theoretical argument and empirical investigation in this perception-procrastination relationship. Adopting the theoretical perspectives Figure 1 Plot of significant Stress * Goal Orientation interaction
  • 121Eko Yi Liao It is All about Procrastination: Stress and Motivationof the combination of a stress coping theory and a motivation theory, this study provides a new perspective in predicting and treating procrastination phenomena. It argues that when students are highly stressed, they are less likely to concentrate on those academic tasks, and are less capable of spending effort to stick to their regular or rational time management plans. The reasons are that they are more distracted by the stressful events, and the accompanied negative emotions and moods prevent them from keeping up with their original timetables. Yet, student’s goal orientation level will buffer this relationship, in the way that when students are highly conscious about their goals and highly committed to their goal achievement, they are less likely to be affected by perceived stress and in turn adopt procrastination. Goal achievement motivates the students to build up rational and positive views on life events and academic requirements, allowing them to be guided by set goals, rather than being influenced by cognitive perceptions.Second, it discovers one critical predictor of students’ procrastination, which is the perceived stress level. Previous procrastination literature focus more on the role of self-regulation skills, such as time management skills and self-determination, leaving a question of how other variables which are less stable will influence the procrastination. Such investigation on how “flexible” factors affect one’s procrastination has certain advantages. For example, it becomes clear and workable to identify those “changeable” factors once an individual feels the need to improve his/her delaying behavior. Also, with understanding of these less stable antecedents (i.e., perceived stress), researchers and educators will be able to develop coping strategies and resolutions toward procrastination.6 Practical Implications for EducatorsWhile focusing on improving student’s academic performance, college educators are also responsible in assisting students to adjust to a set of positive cognitive status and forming constructive behavioral habits and practices. Thus, when students face the problem of lacking motivations to keep up with academic plans, or experiencing overload pressure and losing internal commitment to study, educators will be encountering the dilemma of whether to increase academic requirements or not. On one hand, increasing requirements seem to be a reasonable choice to alert students. On the other hand, such behavior may further deteriorate students’ intrinsic motivation.To this dilemma, findings of this study suggest that educators are suggested to consider the critical role of goal orientation. One solution to engage students better with their academic timetable is to develop courses or short-term training program to help students realize their life and study goals, set up related plans, and teach relevant knowledge of achieving the goals. In this way, even for stressful period during an academic semester such as examination period, students have the abilities to make better use of their time management skills and decrease procrastination behaviors.7 ConclusionDealing with student’s procrastination can be a tricky problem: how to balance their requirement of “freedom” and educator’s concern of too much freedom leading to less motivation. Findings of this study suggest that, when perception of stress increases, student’s procrastination level also increases. Also, if students are highly goal oriented, they will be less influenced by the stress-procrastination relationship. This study provides preliminary findings on how to incorporate procrastination behaviors with motivation theory, offering research opportunities for future studies. Future research can further investigate the role of intrinsic motivation in predicting and dealing with procrastination, especially for students. References [1] Akerlof, G. A. (1991). Procrastination and obedience. The American Economic Review, 81(2), 1-19.[2] Akinsola, M. K., Tella, A., & Tella, A. (2007). Correlates of
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  • 123第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 IEEE 802.11無線局域網節點緩衝區大小設置綜述楊紹博,趙慶林*,馬治傑(澳門科技大學資訊科技學院,澳門)摘要: 隨著無線通訊技術和計算機網絡的迅猛發展,人們對於移動信息服務的需求也在不斷地增加。這就吸引了人們對802.11無線局域網在提供移動信息服務性能方面的大量關注。緩衝區是影響無線網絡性能的重要因素之一。本文首先對當前廣泛使用的802.11無線局域網節點緩衝區大小設置方案進行綜述,然後提出新的觀點和研究方向。關鍵詞: 無線局域網;緩衝區;基礎架構A SURVEY OF BUFFER SIZING IN IEEE 802.11 WLANsShaobo YANG, Qinglin ZHAO*, Zhijie MA( Faculty of Information Technology,Macau University of Science and Technology,Macao,China )AAstract: With the rapid development of wireless communication and computer networks, people's demand for mobile information services is constantly increasing. This attracts a great deal of attention on the performance of 802.11 based WLAN that can provide mobile information services. The buffer size is one of the important factors affecting the system performance. This paper first gives a comprehensive survey on the state-of-the-art node buffer sizing technologies in 802.11 WLANs, and then proposes new research directions.eyyords: WLAN; Buffer; Infrastructure收稿日期:2013-04-04;修訂日期:2013-09-26。項目:澳門科學技術發展基金037/2010/A*通訊作者:趙慶林,男,博士,副教授; 研究方向: 無線移動網絡; E-mail: qlzhao@must.edu.mo; Tel: 8897 23060 引言隨著無線通訊技術和計算機網絡的迅猛發展,人們對於移動信息服務的需求也在不斷的增加。傳統的文字和圖片服務已經無法滿足現實的需求,大量的音頻、視頻傳輸需求變得越來越多,用戶對網絡性能的要求也越來越高。緩衝區是影響無線網絡性能的重要因素之一,因此如何合理地設置緩存區大小是一個非常值得研究的問題。WLAN(無線局域網)有兩個廣泛使用的標準,分別爲 802.11 和 802.11e。基於 802.11 標準的WLAN 只提供盡力而為的服務,對 QoS(服務質量)並沒有保障。IEEE 802.11e 標準的提出,正是為了增加 802.11 標準對 QoS 的支持。目前已有對802.11 緩衝區性能的研究,比如文獻 [1~3]。然而對 802.11e 緩衝區性能的研究還比較缺乏。本文的主要工作是分析總結了已有的節點緩衝區設置方案。并在此基礎上,我們提出在802.11e EDCA 網絡中研究節點緩衝區大小設置的方案。本文後續內容現安排如下:首先對 802.11 無綫網絡進行簡單介紹,然後介紹緩衝區在 802.11 WLAN 中的設置方案,最後提出本文的研究展望。
  • 1241 802.11無線網絡簡介本節首先介紹 DCF 和 EDCA 的工作原理,接著介紹無綫網絡的分類。1.1 802.11 DCF和EDCA 1.1.1 DCF工作原理802.11 DCF 採用了 CSMA/CA 機制(如圖 1所示)以及指數退避算法。網絡中的節點在競爭信道前,會先偵聽信道。如果信道在 DIFS 時間內為空閒,節點就開始進入 Back-off(退避)過程。如果信道忙 , 則計時器掛起直到信道變成空閒。如果信道空閒 , 則每經過一個 SlotTime(時隙),競爭信道中各節點的退避計數器減 1。當節點的退避記數器遞減到 0 時,節點立即發送數據。競爭失敗的節點會保持退避狀態繼續等待下一個 DIFS,並把當前的 CW(競爭窗口)加倍,重新開始競爭信道,直到發送成功或達到 CWmax(最大競爭窗口)。當重傳次數超過一定次數時,CW 會被重置為 CWmin(最小競爭窗口)。如仍有新的分組要發送,則重複該發送過程。圖1 CSMA/CA基本訪問機制1.1.2 EDCA工作原理802.11e EDCA 通過引入不同的優先級來提供區分服務。EDCA 定義了 4 種 AC(訪問類型),每個 AC 都類似 DCF,且均有自己獨立的信道競爭參數:AIFS(仲裁幀間間隔)、CWmin、CWmax 和 TXOP(傳輸機會)。與 DCF 中的 DIFS 不同,在 EDCA 中,不同的 AC 有不同長度的 AIFS。高優先級 AC 的 AIFS較小,同样 CWmin 也較小。所以具有高優先級的AC 可以較快的接入信道。獲得信道訪問權的 AC将在 TXOP 時間内传输一个或多個分組。1.2 802.11無線網絡分類表1 802.11無線網絡分類WLAN基本架構 單跳網絡 多跳網絡有基礎架構網絡有基礎架構的單跳網絡 比如:WiFi有基礎架構的多跳網絡 比如:WMN無基礎架構網絡無基礎架構的單跳網絡 比如:Bluetooth無基礎架構的多跳網絡 比如:Ad Hoc在無線網絡的發展過程中,形成了兩種主要的組網方式:有基礎架構網絡和無基礎架構(Ad hoc)網絡。而每一種網絡架構又分為單跳與多跳兩種。如表 1 所示。有基礎架構網絡是目前 WLAN 廣泛採用的組網方式,節點間的數據通訊都要通過 AP(接入點)。而在無基礎架構網絡中,任意兩個節點間可以直接進行通訊,無需 AP 進行集中控制和轉發,相關的 MAC 控制功能由各個節點進行分佈式的管理。2 緩衝區在802.11 WLAN中的設置方案網絡在進行通訊的過程中,如果出現短時間內大量的數據包到達網絡節點,而節點又無法立即對數據包進行處理的現象,就會造成數據包排隊,增加數據包延時。因此我們需要考慮如何合理地設置緩存區大小。由於無綫網絡是從有線網絡發展而來,所以我們先介紹緩衝區在有線網絡中的設置方案,然後介紹緩衝區在無綫網絡中的設置方案。2.1 有線網絡中緩衝區的設置方案在傳統的有線網絡中,因為數據包在網絡中的平均服務時間是不變的,所以網絡中節點的緩衝區大小可以根據 BDP(時延帶寬積)規則來進行設置,如公式(1)所示。 (1)2.2 無線網絡中緩衝區的設置方案本節分別從單跳網絡和多跳網絡的角度,來綜述緩衝區在 TCP 傳輸協議和 UDP 傳輸協議下的設置方案。2.2.1 單跳WLAN中緩衝區設置方案 ● TCP 傳輸協議下的緩衝區設置方案
  • 125楊紹博,等  IEEE 802.11無線局域網節點緩衝區大小設置綜述文獻 [1] 對基於 TCP 協議的 WLAN 緩衝區大小進行設置,分別從數據包的平均服務時間和緩衝區的空閒時間的角度,提出了 eBDP、ALT 和A* 三種適應信道動態變化的動態算法。i. eBDP 算法與傳統有線網絡相比,WLAN 中數據包的平均服務時間波動較大。因此平均服務時間可動態地計算。當信道中只有一個數據流時,可根據(2)計算每個數據包的平均服務時間 。 (2)其中, , 分別表示第 k +1 個的數據包到達網絡接口隊列頭部的時刻以及此數據包傳輸結束的時刻。這兩個值用來計算第 k +1 個數據包的服務時間。 表示第 k +1 個數據包服務完成後的平均服務時間,它是對第 k 次的平均值和當前數據包服務時間的指數滑動平均。平滑參數 W的選擇涉及適應時間的變化和精確度間的平衡。eBDP 算法中的緩衝區大小 根據(3)計算緩衝區大小。 (3)其中, 根據第一步計算。 為隊列延時的目標最大值, 表示平均服務率, 為緩衝區的最高上限,參數 c 的作用是適應並調節短期服務率波動。ii. ALT 算法當多個數據流共用信道時,eBDP 算法因無法利用統計複用的方法而不再適用。文獻 [1] 的研究發現,如果節點的緩衝區空閒時間過長,鏈路利用率就會下降;為了提高鏈路利用率,可將緩衝區增大,從而提高吞吐量,進而達到提高鏈路利用率的目的;而隨著緩衝區不斷增大,緩衝區的空閒時間就會隨之減小,導致延遲的增加,所以又要減小緩衝區,以便來降低延時。文獻 [1] 在這個規律的基礎上,提出全新的ALT 算法,來適應多個數據流共用信道的情況。在 ALT 算法中,節點一旦獲得傳輸機會,就會立即發送數據包,盡可能的減少數據包在緩衝區的等待時間。首先,我們選定一個固定的時間間隔 T,然後週期性地去觀察它的空閒和繁忙狀況。讓 為第 k 次觀察時 T 中的空閒時間。讓 為第 k 次觀察時 T 中的繁忙時間。他們滿足公式(4)。 (4)然後讓 Q(k)表示第 k 次觀察週期的緩衝區大小。於是 Q(k +1)可以根據公式(5)去更新。 (5)其中,a =10,b =1 被證明是最優的參數設置。ALT 算法實質就是在尋找 和 間的平衡。由公式(5)可以看出:當 時,第k +1 次節點緩衝區大小和第 k 次節點緩衝區大小是相同,節點緩衝區大小保持不變;當 時,第 k +1 次節點緩衝區大小大於第 k 次節點緩衝區大小,節點緩衝區大小增加;當時,第 k +1 次節點緩衝區大小小於第 k 次節點緩衝區大小,節點緩衝區大小減小。iii. A* 算法A*算法結合了eBDP算法和ALT算法的優點。首先,通過測量數據包的平均服務時間計算出緩衝區 的值;其次,通過空閒時間 / 繁忙時間計算出緩衝區 的值;最後通過公式(6)選擇緩衝區的大小。 (6)當信道發生變化時,A* 算法通過 eBDP 算法對服務時間進行測量,並對緩衝區進行迅速的調整,再利用 ALT 算法對緩衝區做進一步的微調。 ● UDP 傳輸協議下的緩衝區設置方案UDP 協議,主要應用於即時通訊。以語音通訊為例,通過對網絡性能的觀察,可以發現網絡的吞吐量和延時與語音通訊的會話數量有一定的規律。文獻 [2] 的研究發現,當語音會話數量增加到臨界值之後,網絡的吞吐量會出現急劇下降和延時急劇上升的趨勢。同時,語音會話數量臨界值與網絡中節點的緩衝區大小也存在著緊密的關係:a. 當網絡中會話數量小於臨界值時,網絡中節點的緩衝區大小對吞吐量和延時基本沒有影響;b. 當
  • 126會話數量大於臨界值時,隨著節點的緩衝區逐漸增大,吞吐量逐漸下降,而延時卻逐漸的增加。2.2.2 多跳WLAN中緩衝區設置方案對於多跳 WLAN,文獻 [3] 的基本思想如下: 第一步:將 WMN(无线网格网)中同一衝突域內的一組節點(也就是鄰居)設置共同的鏈路緩衝區(即鄰居緩衝區),這個緩沖區要足夠大。第二步:根據一定比例將緩衝區大小進行分配。這樣,雖然每個節點分配的緩衝區都很小,但依然可以保持在較高的網絡利用率下,減少端到端的延遲。具體地說,先用(7)計算鄰居緩衝區大小 B。 (7)在公式(7)中,變數 和 RTT 的確切值與網絡的拓撲結構和無線信道特性有著直接的關係。其中 為多跳無線網絡的最大承載能力,即在沒有競爭通訊的時候,同一個衝突域中 M 個節點的無線鏈路速率最小值 ,如公式(8)所示。 (8)RTT 為一個數據包的往返延時。注意它不包含隊列延時。RTT 可以通過公式(9)、(10)和(11)計算其中的 和 分別代表 TCP段和 ACK 各自的總傳輸時間。 (9) (10) (11)然後根據衝突域中節點個數 M,按公式(12)計算節點緩衝區大小比例。 (12)最後,將公式(7)計算得到的值 B 按(12)分配每個節點的緩衝區大小。文獻 [3] 指出鄰居緩衝區算法適用於 TCP 協議和 UDP 協議共存的混合網絡。此算法能達到提高吞吐量和降低延時的目標。2.2.3 節點緩衝區設置方案比較本節比較了在單跳和多跳 WLAN 中,不同的緩衝區設置方案分別在吞吐量和延時兩方面的影響。在單跳與多跳 WLAN 中,我們又詳細地區分了 TCP 傳輸協議與 UDP 傳輸協議。如表 2 所示。從表 2 中可知,在使用 TCP 傳輸協議的單跳WLAN 中,使用 eBDP、ALT 和 A* 算法動態的調節緩衝區大小,可以提高吞吐量和降低延時。在使用 UDP 傳輸協議的單跳 WLAN 中,當語音會話的數量小於臨界值時,緩衝區的變化對網絡性能無影響。反之,當語音會話的數量大於臨界值時,隨著 緩衝區的不斷增加,吞吐量減小而延時增加。在多跳 WLAN 中,無論是 TCP 傳輸協議還是 UDP傳輸協議,鄰居緩衝區算法都通過動態的調節緩衝區大小的方法來降低延時。3 研究展望目前的研究主要是對基於有基礎架構的 802.11 WLAN 的節點緩衝區大小設置方案進行研究。然而,隨著無綫網絡技術的發展,無基礎架構網絡日益增多。另外,由於 802.11 只能提供盡力而為的服務,而 802.11e 可以提供更好的 QoS,因此我們提出以下兩點研究展望:表2 節點緩衝區大小設置方案性能分析網絡結構 傳輸協議 方案 緩衝區 吞吐量 延時單跳無線網絡TCP協議eBDP算法 動態變化 逐漸增加 逐漸減小ALT算法 動態變化 逐漸增加 逐漸減小A*算法 動態變化 逐漸增加 逐漸減小UDP協議小於語音會話數量臨界值 緩衝區對網絡性能無影響 無明顯變化 無明顯變化大於語音會話數量臨界值 逐漸增加 逐漸減小 逐漸增加多跳無線網絡TCP協議 鄰居緩衝區算法 動態變化 無明顯變化 大幅減小UDP協議 鄰居緩衝區算法 動態變化 無明顯變化 大幅減小
  • 127楊紹博,等  IEEE 802.11無線局域網節點緩衝區大小設置綜述研究在無基礎架構下緩衝區設置方案。因為有基礎架構網絡與無基礎架構網絡的拓撲結構不同,所以有基礎架構下的緩衝區設置方案不一定適用於無基礎架構網絡。研究 802.11e EDCA 機制下緩衝區大小設置方案。因為在 802.11 中,節點每次只能發送一個分組,而在 802.11e 中節點可以在 TXOP 時間內連續發送多個分組,所以已有的 802.11 緩衝區設置方案可能不再適用於 802.11e 網絡。參 考 文 獻[1] Tianji Li, Douglas J. Leith,David Malone: Buffer sizing for 802.11-based networks. IEEE/ACM Trans. Netw.19(1):156-169 (2011)[2] D. Malone,P. Clifford, D.J. Leith:On Buffer Sizing for Voice in 802.11 WLANs. IEEE Communications Letters, 10(10): 700–703 (2006).[3] Kamran Jamshaid, Basem Shihada,LiXia, and Philip Levis: Buffer Sizing in 802.11 Wireless Mesh Networks.2011 Eighth IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad-Hoc and Sensor Systems, pp. 272-281 (2011). 學術動態澳門科技大學舉辦國際認證培訓由國際學院舉辦的“參加工程專業認證(美國ABET)的前期準備工作”培訓課程,於7月31日至8月4日順利完成。來自黑龍江工程學院和哈爾濱工程大學代表八個專業(電腦科學與技術、電氣與資訊工程、材料與化學工程、動力與能源工程、機電工程、汽車與交通工程、測繪工程、土木工程)的院長、副院長、系主任、教務處處長以及教學品質管制與評估中心主任和國際合作與交流處等行政管理職能部門等29人參加這個為期五天的培訓。香港理工大學工程學院機械工程學系的張鎮順教授、香港城市大學協理副校長程星博士、澳門科技大學資訊科技院長蔡亞從教授、澳門科技大學國際學院院長孫建榮教授擔任培訓班的講課,培訓內容包括澳大利亞工程專業認證、香港工程師協會工程(HKIE)專業認證、認證中的學生學習:美國高校的做法,以及美國ABET工程專業認證。高等教育品質保障體系中的認證主要有兩大目標:保障社會的利益,幫助院校提高品質。院校認證(Institutional Accreditation)與專業認證(Specialized/Programmatic Accreditation)是國際上高等教育品質保障體系中的主要兩種認證類型,前者是對整個大學進行品質的認證,後者對大學中一個專業進行認證,執行認證的通常是由學科組織和行業為主的認證機構。作為品質保障體系的一種類型,美國高等教育的認證已經有百餘年歷史,其六大區域高等教育認證委員會分別擔任對美國境內大學的院校認證,近年來,已經有不少國家的大學申請參與美國的院校認證;而專業認證則由不同的專業認證機構對大學中不同專業進行認證。這次培訓中涉及到的工程教育專業認證有三個國家地區的專業認證機構:澳洲(Engineers Australia),美國(ABET)和香港(HKIE),其中,美國ABET的工程教育專業認證從其歷史、專業參與數量、以及參與代表面等影響最大。中國目前已經成為華盛頓協定(The Washington Accord)的預備成員之一,在正式成為該協定協會會員之後,擁有世界上工程教育本科畢業生人數之最的內地院校各工程專業就有資格申請參加華盛頓協定協會會員國或地區任何一家工程專業認證的資格。參加並通過工程專業認證是保證畢業生具備獲得註冊工程師資格的前提。 這次培訓旨在提供工程專業認證前期準備工作的相關資訊,使專業的課程設置、教學管理與實施、學生學習品質評估等各項工作與工程專業認證的標準有一定的契合度。為完善本澳高等教育體制,推動本澳高等院校教育素質持續提升,特區政府已經有序開展有關高等教育制度法律的修訂工作,當中包括設立高等教育評鑑制度。評鑑制度將規範高等院校及高等教育課程需接受評審,推動院校不斷自我完善,持續提升教學和科研素質。大學把不斷提高教育品質作為大學發展的重要內涵,這次舉辦的工程教育專業認證培訓班也是大學不斷借鑒國際高等教育品質保障體系的渠道之一。
  • 128第 7 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.22013 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2013 《傷寒雜病論》中針灸學思想對許叔微針灸學說的影響陳 敏(澳門科技大學中醫藥學院,澳門)摘要: 為探討許叔微針灸學說的理論來源及其與仲景針灸學說的關係,本文對比研究了《傷寒雜病論》及許叔微相關著作中針灸學的內容,發現許氏著作中很多針灸學觀點均是對《傷寒雜病論》中“陽證用針"、“陰證用灸"、“針治傷寒"、“灸補腎陽"及“針灸藥合用"等針灸學思想的繼承與發展。我們認為,許叔微針灸學說主要來源於《傷寒雜病論》中的針灸學思想,許氏對其進行了較好的繼承與發展,也值得我們進一步發掘整理。關鍵詞: 《傷寒雜病論》;針;灸;許叔微;影響The Influence of Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease on Xu Shuwei’s Theory of Acupuncture and MoxiAustionMin CHEN( Faculty of Chinese Medicine,Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China )AAstract: In purpose of discovering the theoretical origin of Xu Shuwei’s theory of acupuncture and moxibustion and the relationship with that of Zhang Zhongjing, the study made a comparison between the content of Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease and the related documentaries of Xu Shuwei. It is found that Xu’s perspectives on acupuncture and moxibustion showed an inheritance and development of thoughts from the masterpiece, such as “acupuncture for yang syndrome”, “moxibustion for yin syndrome”, “acupuncture curing exogenous febrile diseases”, “moxibustion strengthening kidney’s yang”, “combined therapy with acupuncture, moxibustion and herbal medicine”, etc. We concluded that Xu Shuwei’s theory of acupuncture and Moxibustion was mainly based on the related thoughts from Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease, from which Xu inherited and developed well. Both thoughts of acupuncture and moxibustion are worth further discovery and research.eyyords: Treatise of Exogenous Febrile Disease; Acupuncture; Moxibustion; Xu Shuwei; Effects收稿日期:2013-10-07;修訂日期:2013-10-24。通訊作者:陈敏,男,博士研究生,助理教授,主要研究方向:针灸与中医经典的结合, E-mail: mchen@must.edu.mo,Tel: 0853-634247480 引言張仲景是一位藥物與針灸並重的醫家,在他的的不朽之作《傷寒雜病論》的自序中,所稱“越人入虢之診”,就是針藥並用的先例。此書中直接與針灸有關的條文達 69條,應用的穴位有風池、風府、期門、巨闕、大椎、肺俞、肝俞、勞宮、關元 9 個,而後世醫家根據他的論述,還補充了足三裡、太溪、氣海、中極、中脘、百會等穴。他的針灸思想仍是遵循辨證論治的原則,針灸的基本方法是因勢利導,用針刺祛邪,溫灸扶正;他還善於用灸法回陽救逆,辨治厥證。仲景還對
  • 129陳敏  《傷寒雜病論》中針灸學思想對許叔微針灸學說的影響當時普遍使用溫針、火療法產生很多誤治變證的情況進行了分析,闡明誤用的危害,提出一些切實有效的敦誤方法[1]。而這些都對許叔微的針灸思想產生了重要影響。許叔微,字知可,宋代(西元 1079~ 1154年)醫學家,真州白沙人,自幼博覽群書,尤邃於醫,紹興壬子以第五名中進士,後官至集賢院學士,故人們尊稱為“許學士”。許叔微家世寒微,自幼業儒,冀圖仕進,但年方十一,連遭家禍,百日之內,並失怙恃,於是,年長後,刻意方書,“以利天下與後世之人”。中年時代,已以醫名著鄉里。許氏學術精湛,且醫德高尚,頗受時人嘉許[2]。晚年,取平生已試之方,並記其事,寫成《普濟本事方》、《傷寒百證歌》、《傷寒發微論》、《傷寒九十論》等著作。《普濟本事方》主要收載內科常見病症共 23 類的治療方劑和針灸法;《傷寒百證歌》全書 5 卷,將《傷寒論》的主要部分分為百證,每證編歌一首,便於記誦,其中第 34 證“可火不可火歌”,第 36 證“可灸不可灸歌”,第 37 證“可針不可針歌”,完全是針灸學的內容;《傷寒九十論》是許氏選其親治的有代表性的案例 90 例,對《傷寒論》的證侯治法進行分析,並指出辨證取方用藥要點,其中不少也聯繫到了針灸治療的內容。可見許氏針灸治療的內容與《傷寒論》有著極深的淵源,其針灸治療思想基本宗于仲景的針灸思想,我們將從以下幾個方面就二者的聯繫來進行具體探討:1 陽證用針張仲景運用六經辨證的方法,以三陽經統攝六腑,三陰經統攝五臟。陽經受病多屬實屬熱,陰經受病多屬虛屬寒。因此,依據《內經》:“熱則寒之,寒則熱之”的原則,確立了陽證宜針,陰證宜灸的針灸治療原則[3]。他的這一觀點在條文中明確地體現出來。在《傷寒論》中,涉及正確使用針灸療法的條文共 16 條。屬於三陽病的有9 條 (24、108、109、117、142、143、171、216、231 條 )。其中有 8 條採用針刺治療,僅 117 條為用灸法治療 (燒針令其汗,針處被寒,核起而赤者,必發奔豚。氣從少腹,上沖心者,灸其核上各一壯,與桂枝加桂湯,更加桂二兩也。) 但從原文分析,本條病因為燒針誤汗傷陽,心陽受損,風寒從針孔侵入,氣血凝滯,針處紅腫。複引動下焦水寒之氣上沖,發為奔豚。其病機為陽虛陰乘。故內服桂枝加桂湯溫通心陽,平沖降逆,外用灸法溫經散寒。可見本條雖為三陽病用灸,但卻是針對寒邪而設。在仲景“陽證用針”思想的指導下,許叔微也多依此行,如《傷寒九十論‧血結胸證》載:“丁未歲,一婦患傷寒,寒熱,夜則譫語,目中見鬼,狂躁不寧,其夫訪予詢其治法,予曰:若經水適來適斷,恐是熱入血室也,越日告曰:已作結胸之狀矣。予為診之約:若相委信,急行小柴胡湯等必愈,前醫不識,涵養至此,遂成結胸證,藥不可及也,無已,則有一法,刺期門穴,或庶幾愈,如教而得愈。”此為外邪入於血室,上結胸中而成之證,氣血凝滯,陽熱壅結,故刺期門以瀉之而取效。在此書中,許氏也多用針刺治療陽證,且其取穴之法,多仿仲景,且每多獲效;對於陽證,亦絕少見其用灸,合當法仲景者也。2 陰證用灸在《傷寒論》裡正確使用針灸治療的 16 條原文中,屬於三陰病的有 7 條 (292、304、308、325、343、349、361 條,)。其中有 6 條採用灸法治療,僅 308 條為用針刺治療 ( 少陰病,下利便膿血者,可刺。) 本條雖屬少陰病,但病機卻是邪陷血中,為實熱,故用熱則瀉之之法,與“陰證宜灸”的原則亦不相悖。另外,在《傷寒論》三陽篇中,有 l6 條誤治條文,均是熱證誤用火治;三陰篇中有 l 條誤冶條文 (284 條 ),記述了陰虛用灸而產生變證。說明仲景運用灸法是對於陰寒內盛或陽虛陰盛而設的。許氏師法仲景,故灸法用於陰證也成了許氏的主要思想之一,他認為“陰毒”、“陽微”、“陰證”最宜用灸,如《傷寒百證歌》中第 14 證
  • 130“陰證陰毒歌”中就有“陰病漸深腹轉痛,心胸瘨脹鄭聲隨。虛汗不止咽不利,指甲青黑面色黧。一息七至沉細疾,速灸關元不可遲。”之說;《普濟本事方‧陰毒漸深候》記載,出現“四肢逆冷,腹痛轉甚,或咽喉不利,或心下脹滿”等症狀,“速宜於氣海或關元二穴灸二三百壯,以手足和暖為效”;治療陰毒沉困候,“但與臍中灼艾,如半棗大,三百壯以來。手足不和暖者,不可治也”。陰毒之證,“本因腎氣虛寒,因欲事或食冷物後傷風,內既伏陰,外又感寒,或先感外寒而伏內陰,內外皆陰”,此時許氏採用急灸關元、氣海、神闕等穴來回陽固脫,然後再服用熱藥。可見在治療陰證時,許氏還將灸的位置擺在了藥物之前。3 針治傷寒許氏《傷寒九十論 ‧ 刺陽明證》載:“庚戌五月,李氏病傷寒,身熱頭痛無汗,渾身疼痛,脈浮大而緊,予投以麻黃湯數服,終不得汗,又多用張苗燒蒸之法,而亦不得。予教令刺陽明,少間,汗出漐漐遍身。一時間,是夕身涼病退”。這是太陽欲傳陽明之證,刺陽明截阻其傳經而得痊癒。而在《傷寒論》中就有:“太陽病,頭痛至七日以上自愈者,以行其經盡故也。若欲作再經者,針足陽明,使經不傳則愈。”二者如出一轍。當然,針刺並不簡單局限於階段病邪傳經,其對傷寒多證的治療作用也不可小覷。如《傷寒論》24 條:“太陽病,初服桂枝湯,反煩不解者,先刺風池、風府,卻與桂枝湯則愈。”此為表邪太甚,鬱阻經絡,凝滯不通,病重藥輕,針刺風池、風府,一則疏通經絡,宣通氣機,二則兩穴為祛風主穴,針刺可奏疏風解表之功。142 條:“太陽與少陽並病,頭項強痛,或眩冒,時如結胸,心下痞硬,當刺大椎第一間、肺俞、肝俞。”此為病邪由表入裡,太、少兩經受邪,已有化熱之勢,刺督脈之大椎,以清熱祛表邪,配肺俞、肝俞,通調氣機。142 條:“脈弦,五日譫語不止,當刺期門。”此為病邪已入少陽經而化熱,少陽肝膽之火擾動心神,故譫語不止,刺期門,可清泄肝膽之火。4 灸補腎陽《傷寒論》292 條:曰:“少陰病,吐利,手足不逆冷,反發熱者,不死,脈不至者,灸少陰七壯。”此虛寒吐利,腎陽式微,心氣衰竭,而脈不至,急灸足少陰經,溫補腎陽以壯心氣。明確提出了灸補腎陽之說。其實在其他用灸條文中也寓有此意,如 304 條“少陰病,得之一二日,口中和,其背惡寒者,當灸之,附子湯主之”,此處之灸亦溫腎陽爾;362 條:“下利,手足厥冷,無脈者,灸之。”此為厥陰下利,亡陽之征,急用灸法,回陽救逆,後世醫家多灸關元、氣海以培補元氣,從仲景描述的脈象及後世取穴來看,此處急溫的就是腎陽。可見,在仲景看來,灸法是溫補腎陽的重要方法之一,其地位或許要排在藥物之前,從 292 條就可窺見一斑,聖人只言灸,未及方,更未言附、薑等藥,當是灸效更速爾。《普濟本事方》中許叔微重視溫補的學術思想表現得非常突出,除臨床用藥之外,在灸可溫補原則的指導下,許氏常採用灸法治療腎陽不足諸證,如《普濟本事方‧卷二》治療腎厥證:“治腎氣不足,氣逆上行,頭痛不可忍,謂之腎厥,其脈舉之則弦,按之石堅。”除了服玉真圓外,“更灸關元穴百壯”以溫腎降逆。許氏非常強調陽氣在人體生命活動中的重要性,主張利用灸法溫補腎陽,在用穴方面,重視並善於運用關元、氣海、腎俞、神闕等腧穴,對它們的位置、主治、可灸壯數都有詳解。這些穴位或屬任脈,位於下焦,或屬五臟俞募穴,均與腎臟關係密切,《普濟本事方 ‧ 卷九》記載,氣海穴“在臍下一寸五分,任脈氣所發”,“此男子生氣之海也,髒氣虛憊,真氣不足,一切氣疾,悉可灸之。陰證傷寒,不限壯數”。記載“關元穴,在臍下三寸,小腸之募”,治“臍下痛”等,“可灸三百壯”。可見其對灸法在溫補中所起作用的重視。5 針灸藥合用張仲景在其著作中靈活運用了針、灸、藥等治療手段,做到取其長,補彼短,很好地發揮了
  • 131陳敏  《傷寒雜病論》中針灸學思想對許叔微針灸學說的影響藥物與針灸在治療上得優勢,因而取得了“如浮鼓”的臨床療效。如《傷寒論》第 24 條:“太陽病,初服桂枝湯,反煩不解者,先刺風池、風府,卻與桂枝湯則愈”。此為表邪鬱遏太過,經絡凝滯不通,藥力不能外達所致。選風池、風府是因為二穴可疏散外風,與總的治療趨勢相合,此外,風府為督脈上手足三陽之會,疏散氣機、通調經脈的能力較強;風池為足少陽的祛風主穴,能解半表半裡之邪,兩穴合用可以有效的去除外風,助藥力外達,以提高療效。試想一下,若只針刺兩穴,則只能祛風;而若只服桂枝湯則只能調和營衛,而祛風之力不足,所以針藥並用在此為最佳的治療方案,能取得最好的治療效果[4]。如《雜病方第二十三》救卒死而張口反折者方下:“灸手足兩爪後二十四壯了,飲以五毒諸膏散”。此證為陰陽逆亂,脾腎失調,驟然風動,閉阻脈絡的閉症,所以先灸十宣穴,後飲湯藥。許氏亦堅持針、灸、藥並重,不因藥廢針灸,也不因針灸廢藥。特別是在某些急重病治療中,許氏肯定了針灸療具有藥物難以達到的療效,但在運用針灸療法時並不偏廢藥物治療。如治腎經虛,腰不能轉側以及腎厥證,施灸的同時,須分別服用鹿茸圓、玉真圓。可貴的是,許叔微繼承發展了仲景的這一思想,並在此基礎上有所發展。他創造性地將巴豆、黃連等藥物與灸法聯繫起來,發明了隔巴豆、黃連灸,此法屬隔物灸的一種,許氏創此法用以治療仲景未用針灸施治的結胸證。《普濟本事方 ‧ 卷九》載:“巴豆十四枚,黃連七寸和皮用。右搗細,用津唾和成膏,填入臍心,以艾灸臍上,腹中有聲,其病去矣,不拘壯數,病去為度,才灸了,便以溫湯浸手帕拭之,恐生瘡也。”結胸證,是指邪氣積於胸中而出現胸脘疼痛、脹滿之證,分為熱實結胸與寒實結胸。許氏在此段“治結胸法”正文下用小字注有:“陰毒傷寒,關隔不通,腹脹喘促,四肢逆冷,亦依此灸之,氣通可治。”可見,該治法主要用於寒實結胸證。利用巴豆辛熱毒烈之性瀉下冷積,通利逐實,黃連性寒善清,制約巴豆性味,將這兩味性質有天壤之別的藥物共同使用,並借灸而發其藥性,實是許氏的創見[5]。除上述幾點外,許氏對仲景陰虛忌灸、多用特定穴等方面針灸思想有所繼承,亦有所發展。《傷寒百證歌 ‧ 可灸不可灸歌》中許氏曾明文告誡後人,陰虛之證,慎不可灸:“微數之脈卻慎之。因火為邪恐難救。(仲景雲:微數之脈。慎不可灸。因火為邪。則為煩逆。焦骨傷筋血。難複也。)脈浮熱甚灸為難。唾血咽幹誠戾繆。(仲景雲:脈浮熱甚。而灸之則為實。實以虛治。因火而動咽躁。必吐血。自微數之脈以下。皆不可灸也。)”從他引用的仲景條文就可看出,其思想來源與理論根據就是《傷寒雜病論》。另外,許氏在選穴上也直承仲景,如前所言 “刺期門”“取陽明”,這些都反映了二人喜用俞募穴等特定穴來施針用灸,取穴之特性而用。尤其是在施灸時,俞募穴及任督二脈的要穴就用得更多了。總地說來,許叔微基本的針灸學說都是對《傷寒雜病論》中主要的針灸學思想的繼承與發展,對於仲景“陽證用針”、“陰證用灸”、“針治傷寒”、“灸補腎陽”、“針灸藥合用”等針灸學思想,許叔微都進行了較好的繼承,並有所創見,許氏將這些思想觀點運用到其臨床實踐中,豐富了其治療手段,提高了臨床療效,甚至數起沉屙。這對仲景針灸學說的發展起到了極其重要的作用,許氏還將其所得及治驗著錄於冊,對於後世針灸學的研究與發展提供了參考與基礎。當然,這些寶貴的針灸學思想與臨床經驗也值得我們進一步發掘、整理與繼承。參 考 文 獻[1] 魏稼.各家針灸學說[M].上海科技出版社.1987:45[2] 金麗.《傷寒九十論》辨治傷寒理法探析[J].陝西中醫學院學報.2005,28(3):1-2[3] 紀軍 .張仲景針灸學術思想探析[ J] .中國實用醫學研究雜誌.2004, 3(3):253-254[4] 姜碩,狄忠,劉更生,等.淺析《傷寒論》之針藥結合思想[J].遼寧中醫雜誌. [5] 陳瑜 . 《普濟本事方》灸法探略[ J ] . 安徽中醫學院學報.2005,24(6):25-26
  • 132第 7 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.7 No.12013 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2013 收稿日期:2012-10-29;修訂日期:2013-05-21。楊明儀,女,博士,副教授,澳門理工學院。主要研究方向:英語教學。E-mail:myyoung@ipm.edu.mo Tel:85993349English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG( Macao Polytechnic Institute School of Business, Macao, China )AAstract: This study took a structural equation modelling (SEM) approach to test the English learning pattern of business undergraduates studying at the Macao Polytechnic Institute. A questionnaire adapted from the Course Experience Questionnaire, the Study Process Questionnaire and the Out-of-Class English Use Questionnaire was administered with 287 students, testing 10 variables including learning approaches, course experience, out-of-class English use, exam grade and student satisfaction. Results of SEM analysis showed that (1) the hypothesized model fitted the theoretical learning model proposed by Biggs[1]; (2) similar to the author's previous study with MUST students[2], out-of-class English use had a positive effect on deep learning approach and English grade; (3) surface learning approach, inappropriate assessment and workload had negative effects on English grade; and (4) course experience variables such as appropriate workload and clear goal had direct effects on student satisfaction. Based on the findings, it was concluded that in regions like Macao, where English is used mainly in the workplace, it is important for teachers to ensure that the workload of an English course appropriately aligns with the objectives of an academic programme and demands of the job market, satisfying the needs of their students.eyyords: English use; Learning approach; Student satisfaction; Workload; Assessment英語使用、學習方法、考試成績與學生滿意度:以澳門理工學院為例楊明儀(澳門理工學院管理科學高等學校,澳門)摘要: 本研究通過結構方程模型分析,測試澳門理工學院管理專業本科生的英語學習模式,利用課堂經驗問卷、學習方法問卷、課外英語使用問卷對287名學生進行了調查,測試學習方法、課堂經驗、課外英語使用、考試成績及學生滿意度等十個變量。結構方程模型分析發現(1)本研究的測試模型符合Biggs[1]的學習理論模型;(2)正如作者以前對澳科大學生進行的研究結果一樣[2],課外英語使用對深層學習方法及英語考試成績產生正值效應;(3)表面學習方法、不恰當工作量及評核對英語考試成績產生負值效應;(4)恰當工作量、清晰目標等課堂經驗變量對學生滿意度產生直接正值效應。基於上述結果,本研究得出結論:由於英語主要在澳門的職場使用,教師應該確保英語學科工作量與本科課程及職場要求一致,以滿足學生的需要。關鍵詞: 英語使用;學習方法;學生滿意度;工作量;評核
  • 133Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI 0 IntroductionIn an earlier issue of JMUST, the author[2] studied the learning approaches and out-of-class English use of undergraduates studying at MUST. The statistical results showed a significant, positive correlation between deep learning approach and out-of-class English use, providing some evidence that students might develop a real interest in learning English if they go beyond the classroom to use English in daily life. Since the data were collected from one tertiary institute, and there were significant differences between Macao-born and Mainland-born Chinese students, it was suggested that similar studies should be conducted in other tertiary institutes for confirmation. This paper describes a study that took a further step by using a theoretical model of learning to examine the variables that affect academic attainment and course satisfaction of English learners in the Macao Polytechnic Institute. The findings could be of interest to educators and researchers who strive to develop more suitable English courses to meet the needs of students.1 Literature Reviey1.1 Theoretical Model of LearningThe theoretical model on which this study was tested is the 3P model proposed by Biggs[1]. This model views the learning process as an interacting system of three stages: presage, process and product. As the term suggests, presage factors are those exist before the time of learning: the personal characteristics of students ( e.g. prior knowledge, academic ability, personality ) and the features of the teaching context ( e.g. teaching methods, workload and institutional procedures ). Process factors are about the approaches students adopt during the learning process. A surface approach is regarded as reproducing information to fulfil the minimal requirements while a deep learning approach involves comparing and applying ideas to strive for better understanding. Product factors are the learning outcomes such as assessment scores, students' satisfaction with a course as well as their perceptions of skill development ( Figure 1 ). During the course of learning, the relationship of the variables appears to be a linear one. As indicated by the bold arrows in the model, the students' prior knowledge and perceptions of the learning environment affect their choice of learning approaches which influences the learning outcomes. However, over time, the components in the model may affect each other. For example, the learning outcomes of a subject students took in the previous academic year may affect their choice of learning strategies and their perception of the institution next academic year. 1.2 Previous StudiesThe f ind ings o f s tud ie s examin ing the relationship between presage and process factors have been mixed. In an early study to understand the effects of students' perceived learning environment on their Figure 1 The 3P model of teaching and learning proposed Ay Biggs
  • 134use of learning approaches, Entwistle and Ramsden[3] designed and administered the Course Perceptions Questionnaire (  CPQ ) with a large sample of university students of various majors. Factor analysis showed that students' perceptions of a heavy academic workload associated strongly with surface approach to learning. Yet other factors of perceived learning environment did not associate with deep approach to learning. Crawford et al.[4] used modified versions of the Study Process Questionnaire ( SPQ ) and the Course Experience Questionnaire ( CEQ ) to survey 300 first year science and engineering undergraduates taking mathematics as a subject. They found that students' perception of good teaching and clear goals associated with a deep approach while inappropriate assessment and workload associated with a surface approach of learning. Such findings were supported in later studies[5~6].The impact of presage and process factors on their product counterparts was also of research interest. Diseth[7] conducted a survey with psychology undergraduates. Confirmatory factor analysis on the data collected by CEQ indicated that students' negative perception of teaching quality and workload led to the use of a surface approach, which in turn resulted in low exam grade. Ironically, the structural model showed negative, direct effects of both deep and surface learning approaches on exam grade. Such results might be related to the assessment methods of different courses, as Trigwell and Prosser's[8] study with nursing students showed an association of deep approach with qualitative testing and surface approach with quantitative testing. Duff[9] also found that business students took a surface approach to rote-learning tests and a deep approach to critical thinking tests. Factors affecting students' course satisfaction were studied by Baek and Shin[10] using the Student Course Satisfaction Scale with Korean undergraduates. They found that student's satisfaction in courses might associate with a number of factors including active student participation, small class size and higher expectation on exam grade. However, a similar study with Norwegian undergraduates showed insignificant relationship between exam grade and satisfaction[11]. Taking a structural equation modelling approach, Lizzio et al.[6] found that the strongest predictor of course satisfaction was a learning environment which involved good teaching with clear goals. In summary, although much research has been done to date, the findings are inconsistent, partly because of the use of various research instruments, and partly due to the analysis methods. Consequently, the big picture of learning might have been overlooked. More studies, especially those which take a structural equation modelling approach using standardized research instruments, need to be conducted to ascertain the relationship of presage, process and product factors in learning of various subjects. 1.3 The Present StudyThe present study was the first attempt in the published literature to develop a structural modelling equation approach to examine the relationship of presage ( out-of-class English use and course experience ), process ( learning approaches ), and product ( English grade and student satisfaction ) factors among Macao business undergraduates taking English as a subject. The results of this study could be useful to researchers in this field and could provide useful information to educators responsible for planning curriculum in English education at the tertiary level.2 Method 2.1 Research QuestionsThe relationship of learning approaches, out-of-class English use, exam grade and student satisfaction was the focus of this study. It intended to answer the following research questions: ● Did the hypothesized structural model fit the 3P model? ● What roles did presage and process factors play in students' learning outcomes, as reflected in their exam grades? ● What roles did presage and process factors play in student satisfaction?
  • 135Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI 2.2 Research SettingMacao Polytechnic Inst i tute (  MPI   ) is a government-run tertiary institute recognised by the Macao government. Established in 1991, MPI offers English-medium and Chinese ( Cantonese )-medium academic programmes to meet the needs of the students. In the 2010/2011 academic year, there were 2,651 students ( 85% local, 15% from Mainland China or overseas ) pursuing their bachelor's degrees at six schools [12]. This research project targeted 450 local students who took English courses from lower intermediate to advanced levels in the School of Business. These English courses were offered every semester to help first year to fourth year business undergraduates improve their written and spoken communication skills in academic as well as business contexts. 2.3 Research InstrumentThe instrument of this study was a paper-based questionnaire which contained four parts. Part One asked students for their personal particulars such as gender, place of birth, age group and English exam grade in the previous semester. Part Two asked students about their out-of-class English use ( 4 items ). Part Three was the Course Experience Questionnaire ( 24 items ) while Part Four was the Revised Two-factor Study Process Questionnaire ( 20 items ). Students' out-of-class English use was measured by four items designed by the author. These items measured students' perceived frequency of English use in listening ( radio, TV programmes ), reading (  newspapers, websites  ) , speaking (  speeches, conversing in English with others ) and writing ( emails, letters, instant messaging ). Students responded to each item on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 ( 'never' ), to 5 ( 'very often' ).Students' course experience was measured by an adapted version of the 24-item Course Experience Questionnaire ( CEQ24 ). This form was developed in consultation with the Australian Department of Employment, Education and Training ( DEET ) and has been used by the Graduate Careers Council of Australia ( GCCA ) in the national survey of graduates from 1993 onwards [13]. The subscales 'good teaching', 'appropriate workload' and 'generic skills' consist of 6 items each while the subscales 'clear goals' and 'appropriate assessment' comprise 4 items each. The last item, 'Overall, I am satisfied with the quality of this course', measures student's overall satisfaction of the course. The original items were adapted to specify English course experience. For example, the statement 'This course has helped me to develop my problem-solving skills’ became ‘This English course has helped me to develop my problem-solving skills'. Students were instructed to indicate how they actually perceived the English course they took in the previous semester on a scale ranging from 1 ( 'definitely disagree' ) to 5 ( 'definitely agree' ). Students' approaches to learning were measured by an adapted version of the 20-item Revised Two-factor Study Process Questionnaire ( R-SPQ-2F ). A surface approach ( 10 items ) is defined as the use of reproductive learning focused on the bare essentials of content in order to minimally meet course requirements. A deep approach ( 10 items ) is defined as the use of meaningful learning with content interrelated with previous relevant knowledge in order to attain competence and satisfy personal interest. The scores were derived for each student using the scoring procedures prescribed by the instrument's manual [1,14]. Again, the original items were adapted to emphasize English learning approaches. For example, the statement 'I find that at times studying gives me a feeling of deep personal satisfaction' became 'I find that at times studying English gives me a feeling of deep personal satisfaction'. Students responded to the statement on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 ( 'never true of me' ) to 5 ( 'always true of me' ). The ten variables to be analyzed in this study are presented in Table 1.2.4 ProceduresThe questionnaire was first piloted with 33 students from the target group one month before the main study was conducted. With the light of the students' responses, some questionnaire items on out-of-class English use were rephrased. Reliability check
  • 136was performed on the pilot data using SPSS Statistics 17.0. The Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient of the new 4-item variable out-of-class English use was 0.80, while the reliability coefficients of CEQ24 and R-SPQ-2F were 0.84 and 0.58 respectively. All reliability coefficients fell within the satisfactory range.The main survey was conducted during normal class time. The tutors from 28 English classes were informed about the purposes of this research in advance. With their consent, hard copies of the questionnaire were prepared for their classes. The tutors administered the questionnaire with their students during the break of a regular class period. The questionnaire stated clearly that the general purpose for the research was to investigate into the relationship between students' English learning approach and their English course experience and that the data would be used for research purposes only. The students responded to the questionnaire individually and anonymously. A student representative collected the completed questionnaire forms, placed them into an addressed envelope, and then returned to the researcher via the internal mail system. 2.5 Data AnalysisTo allow for a direct testing of the relationship among all ten variables, this study took a structural equation modelling ( SEM ) approach to data analysis. TaAle 1 The ten variaAles in this studyStage Variable DescriptionPresageOut-of-class English Use Frequency of English use outside the classroom.Appropriate AssessmentStudents' perception of how suitable their performance is evaluated in the English classroom.Appropriate Workload Students' perception of how suitable the amount of work is assigned to the English courses. Clear Goal Students' perception of how clear the objectives of the English course are presented.Generic Skills The process skills such as written communication, problem-solving and ability to plan one's own work.Good Teaching Students' perception of how well their teachers do in the English classroom.ProcessDeep Approach Intrinsic motivation, using strategies to optimize learning.Surface Approach Extrinsic motivation, using strategies to gain qualifications at minimum standard.ProductExam Grade Students' final grade (A to F) of the English course they took in the previous semester.Course SatisfactionStudent's perceived overall satisfaction of the English course they took in the previous semester.Figure 2 Proposed Research Model
  • 137Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI SEM is a powerful statistical methodology which allows researchers to take a confirmatory approach to the analysis of a structural theory. The hypothesized model can be tested statistically in a simultaneous analysis of the entire system of variables to determine the extent to which it is consistent with the data. This methodology is popular among researchers and is suitable for non-experimental research[15]. Figure 2 shows the proposed research model to be tested in the present study.3 Results3.1 Descriptive StatisticsA tota l of 287 (  137 male , 150 female   ) students returned properly completed copies of the questionnaire, which constituted the basis of the analyses to be reported. It was noted that those students who were absent on the day of data collection did not complete the questionnaire. Therefore, those students who took part in this study might not have been properly representative of the full range of academic behaviours; regular absentees might have been under-represented. Any inferences drawn from the present data might therefore need to be guarded. The descriptive statistics of the variables analyzed in this study were calculated by SPSS Statistics 17.0. The Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficients of the presage and process variables were within the satisfactory range ( Table 2 ). 3.2 The Hypothesized Model vs The 3P ModelDid the hypothesized structural model fit the 3P model? To answer the first research question, an overall test of the model using Amos 18.0 was performed on the data. Various goodness-of-fit tests were performed on the proposed structural model to determine if the pattern of variances and covariances in the data was consistent with the 3P model. Using the recommendations in the literature, a good fit is generally indicated by a non-significant result in chi-square test, with root mean square residual ( RMR ) less than 0.08, goodness of fit index ( GFI ), normed fit index ( NFI ) and comparative fit index ( CFI ) greater than 0.95[16], and root mean square error of approximation ( RMSEA ) less than 0.05[17].In this study, the model chi-square test assessing the overall fit of the hypothesized model yielded a non-significant result ( Chi-square = 34.814, N = 288, df = 25, p = 0.092 ). The model-implied covariance matrix did not differ from the observed covariance matrix. Measures of model fit indicated a good fit ( RMR = 0.020, GFI = 0.977, NFI = 0.953, CFI = 0.986, RMSEA = 0.037 ). Therefore, the hypothesized structural model did fit the 3P model. Figure 3 shows the model of best-fit, including significant standardised regression coefficients and covariances.TaAle 2 The descriptive statistics of the variaAles analyzed in this study ( N = 287 )Stage Variable Label No. of survey items Mean S.D. Cronbach's AlphaPresageOut-of-class English Use ENG 4 3.06 0.73 0.70Appropriate Assessment AA 3 3.26 0.65 0.50Appropriate Workload AW 4 3.43 0.62 0.69Clear Goal CG 4 3.38 0.53 0.65Generic Skills GS 6 3.30 0.56 0.81Good Teaching GT 6 3.56 0.48 0.71ProcessDeep Approach D 10 3.00 0.58 0.84Surface Approach S 10 2.61 0.60 0.80ProductExam Grade GRADE 1 3.57 0.74 --Course Satisfaction SAT 1 2.40 0.71 --
  • 138Figure 3 Structural model shoying relationships of out-of-class English use, course experience, learning approaches, English exam grades and student satisfaction ( ** p <0.001; * p <0.05. )To assess the extent of influence that each variable had on other variables, the standardized total effects, direct and indirect effects associated with each of the variables were examined. A coefficient linking one variable to another in the research model represents the direct effect that a variable has, as a predictor, on a target variable. An indirect effect reflects the impact a variable has on a target variable through its effect on other intervening variables in the model. A total effect on a target variable is the sum of the respective direct and indirect effects. Using the recommendations from Cohen[18], standardized estimates with values less than 0.1 are considered small, those with less than 0.3 are medium, values with 0.5 or more are considered large. As shown in Table 3, the variables in this model had medium direct effects and small indirect effects on the target variables. For example, surface approach to learning ( S ) was predicted by out-of-class English use ( ENG ), appropriate assessment ( AA ) and appropriate workload ( AW ), resulting in an R2 of 0.219. This means that together these three variables explained 21.9% of the variance in surface approach to learning in this model.TaAle 3 Standardized direct, indirect, and total effects of the research modelTarget Variables VariablesStandardized EstimatesDirect Indirect TotalS ( R2 = 0.219 )ENG -0.263 - -0.263AA -0.258 - -0.258AW -0.200 - 0200D ( R2 = 0.224 )ENG 0.395 - 0.395AW 0.143 - 0.143GS 0.175 - 0.175Grade ( R2 = 0.146 )ENG 0.177 0.047 0.224AA - 0.046 0.046AW 0.184 0.036 0.220S -0.180 - -0.180SAT ( R2 = 0.347 )AW 0.211 - 0.211CG 0.200 - 0.200GS 0.405 - 0.4053.3 Effects of Presage and Process Factors on GradeWhat roles did presage and process factors play in students' learning outcomes, as reflected in their exam grades? In this model, four variables, namely out-of-class English use, appropriate assessment, appropriate workload and surface approach, had direct and indirect effects on grade. Together, they accounted for 14.6% of the total variance of students' English exam grades ( Table 3 ). The most dominant determinant of grade was out-of-class English use, with medium total ( 0.224 ) and direct effects ( 0.177 ) as well as a small indirect effect ( 0.047 ), mainly through the use of deep ( 0.395 ) and surface ( -0.263 ) approaches to learning. These results indicate that at the presage stage, student factors such as their out-of-class English use affect the learning approaches they take at the process stage. Those students who use English outside the classroom more frequently might take a deep approach to English learning. In contrast, those who use English less frequently in daily life are likely to take a surface approach in their English classroom, which increases their chances of getting a lower grade. The second most dominant determinant of grade was appropriate workload, with medium total ( 0.220 ) and direct effects ( 0.184 ), and a small indirect effect ( 0.036 ), mainly through the use of deep ( 0.143 )
  • 139Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI and surface ( -0.200 ) approaches ( Table 3 ). This was followed by surface approach, with a medium direct effect ( -0.180 ). The last determinant of grade was appropriate assessment, which had a small indirect effect ( 0.046 ). It was noted that appropriate assessment and appropriate workload are covariant variables ( Figure 3 ). A possible interpretation of the above results is that at the presage stage, teaching context factors such as inappropriate workload and assessment of an English course would probably lead to students' use of a surface approach to learning, resulting in low exam grades.3.4 Effects of Presage and Process Factors on SatisfactionWhat roles did presage and process factors play in student satisfaction? Three teaching context variables were predictors of satisfaction. Together, these variables accounted for 34.7% of the variance in student satisfaction in this model. Among them, generic skills had a dominant, direct effect of 0.405 on student satisfaction. This was followed by appropriate workload and clear goal, with medium direct effects of 0.211 and 0.200 respectively ( Table 3 ). It was noted, in this model, that neither out-of-class English use nor learning approaches had any significant effects on satisfaction. These results indicate that teaching context factors like the generic skills of communication, teamwork and problem solving, appropriate workload with clear objectives of an English course might influence students' level of satisfaction in learning English in the classroom. 4 ConclusionsThis study has examined the suitability of the 3P model of teaching and learning to explain the English learning behaviours among business undergraduates in a tertiary institute in Macao. Taking a structural equation modelling approach, this study tested the overall goodness-of-fit of the hypothesized model with the 3P model and found statistical evidence in our sample. This means that there were predictive relationships among the presage ( students' out-of-class English use and course experience ), process ( students' learning approaches ) and product ( students' English exam grade and satisfaction ) stages of English learning. These findings are consistent with previous findings of similar studies[6,7]. Regarding the factors that affect students' grades, the most important element was the student factor: students' out-of-class English use. The structural model of this study showed that out-of-class English use had both direct and indirect effects on students' grades. The direct impact of English use on exam grade is obvious: as authentic radio recordings and business news articles were used as testing materials in this research setting, frequent use of English would be an advantage. The indirect impact of English use on exam grade is interesting: the less frequently students use English, the higher chances they would take a surface approach in the English classroom. The mere hope of reproducing what were taught in class and passing exams resulted in their low achievement in English subjects. The positive association of out-of-class English use with deep approach echoes the author's previous study with MUST students[2]. The findings are also consistent with previous ones regarding the negative relationship of surface approach and academic achievement [3,13,19], and the impact of student factors on attainment [6,10]. Another important factor for grade was the teaching context factor appropriate workload. Those students who perceived their workload to be excessive had a tendency to get lower grades. There was also an indirect effect of workload and assessment on grade. Those students who thought the English course contained heavy workload and assessment were more likely to employ a surface learning approach, resulting in lower grades in English. These direct and indirect relationships of workload, learning approach and achievement were also found in previous studies with mathematics students[4], Hong Kong undergraduates enrolled in different programmes[5], and psychology students[7]. Two interesting issues should be discussed here. First, the present model unveiled some significant, though relatively weak covariance of out-of-class
  • 140English use and students' positive perception of their workload. It is likely that those students who use English more frequently are equipped with higher ability to cope with the coursework assigned by their teachers. Second, students' grades were not predicted by deep approach to learning. This finding further shows that using deep strategies in learning might arouse students' interest in a subject, but it might not necessarily improve their grades. In fact, previous works obtained contradictory results: some yielded positive effects of deep approach on grade[6,20] while others found very weak, negative effects[7]. Regarding the factors that affect students' satisfaction, this study found that teaching context factors like appropriate workload, clear goal and generic skills were predictors. These findings supported the speculations of Baek and Shin[10]: when students take a course in order to improve their competence in that area or wish to acquire basic concepts of the topic, they might show higher ratings in course satisfaction. Consistent with previous findings [7,9], this model did not show any significant covariance between exam grade and satisfaction. A possible interpretation was that when students have learned the knowledge as expected, they were satisfied, regardless of what grade they would get.The finding that appropriate workload was the most important variable that affect process and product factors implies that managing students' perceptions of workload can help them adopt effective learning approaches and improve learning outcomes. When designing an English course, teachers should ensure alignment of course materials, teaching activities and assessment with learning objectives of the English course and the academic programme. Take the English teaching context of Macao as an example, for a business English course within a marketing programme, a writing task of a short business report on promotion of Macao tourism is more relevant than that of a long essay on mid century trading in Asia. Early in the course, teachers can explicitly clarify the learning objectives, expected learning outcomes and related assessment tasks of the course, and make sure students understand what, why and how they are tested. All tasks should be given clear instructions and marking standards. More importantly, teachers should emphasize that the generic skills students learn from an English course can be applied to other courses. For example, students' oral presentation skills can help them prepare for presentations of their final year projects. During the course and towards the end of the course, teachers can ask student for feedback on workload so that timely adjustments can be made. If students know the efforts they make in an English course will pay off, they will have a more positive perception on their workload, higher course satisfaction and better academic achievement.The results of this study supported the author's early study that using English outside the classroom can boost students' interest in learning English in class. Given the fact that English is not frequently used in daily life in Macao, teachers may emphasize how English is used for international and professional communications in the community. For example, as there is full coverage of the internet and mobile networks in Macao, students could write and read English messages and blogs to communicate with their friends around the world. Besides, teachers could invite employers and employees of hotels, casinos and government departments to give talks on how English is used in the work place, so that students would have a better understanding of the English language requirements on the job market and be willing to go beyond the classroom to practice English communication. Cer ta in ly the s tudy might have severa l shortcomings, which could be overcome in future research. Firstly, those students who did not attend their English classes on the day of data collection were not included in the sample. The possible relationship between these students' absence and their satisfaction was not investigated. Nevertheless, there was no evidence of absenteeism among these students, and the response rate of this study was about 60%, which was a fairly high rate. Another limitation of this study was that the data were collected solely
  • 141Ming Yee Carissa YOUNG English Use, Learning Approach, Exam Grade and Student Satisfaction:The Case of MPI through self-reported questionnaire. While this method is popular due to its operational advantage, the data thus collected might reflect the overestimated or underestimated behaviours of the students. It is suggested that self-reported questionnaire might be triangulated with follow-ups such as individual or group interviews, which might allow students to provide more detailed information about their out-of-class English learning and course satisfaction.Given the unique learning environment of Macao, this study collected data from students of one academic department of one tertiary institution. The conclusions thus drawn could not be generalized to all students studying in the tertiary institutions of Macao. Further research with students of different institutions is needed to examine whether or not students' out-of-class English use could positively improve their intrinsic motivation of English learning and academic achievement in English. Only with the joint efforts of researchers could we fully unveil the secrets of motivating Macao students to learn English more effectively.AcknoyledgementThis work was a Macao Polytechnic Institute funded research project ( code: RP/ESCE-3/2008 ).References [1] Biggs, J. Student approaches to learning and studying. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1987. [2] Young, M. Y. C. Learning approach and English use: The case of MUST. Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology, 2(2): 116-124, 2008.[3] Entwistle, N., & Ramsden, P. Understanding student learning. London: Croom Helm, 1983.[4] Crawford, K., Gordon, S., Nicholas, J., & Prosser, M. Qualitatively different experiences of learning mathematics at university. Learning and Instruction, 8(5): 455-468, 1998.[5] Kember, D., & Leung, D. Y. P. Influences upon students' perceptions of workload. Educational Psychology, 18(3): 293-307, 1998.[6] Lizzio, A., Wilson, K., & Simons, R. University students' perceptions of the learning environment and academic outcomes: implications for theory and practice. Studies in Higher Education, 27(1): 27-52, 2002.[7] Diseth, A. Approaches to learning, course experience and examination grade among undergraduate psychology students: testing of mediator effects and construct validity. Studies in Higher Education, 32(3): 373-388, 2007.[8] Trigwell, K., & Prosser, M. Relating approaches to study and quality of learning outcomes at the course level. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 61(3): 265-275, 1991. [9] Duff, A. Quality of Learning on an MBA programme: the impact of approaches to learning on academic performance. Educational Psychology, 23(2): 127-139, 2003.[10] Baek, S.-G., & Shin, H.-J. Multilevel analysis of the effects of student and course characteristics on satisfaction in undergraduate liberal arts courses. Asia Pacific Education Review, 9(4): 475-486, 2008.[11] Diseth, A. Personality and approaches to learning as predictors of academic achievement. European Journal of Personality, 17(1): 143-155, 2003.[12] Tertiary Education Services Office. Data of higher education in Macao: Numbers of staff and students for the academic Year 2010/2011. Macao: Tertiary Education Services Office, 2011. [13] Wilson, K.L., Lizzio, A., & Ramsden, P. The development, validation and application of the Course Experience Questionnaire. Studies in Higher Education, 22(1): 33-53, 1997.[14] Biggs, J., Kember, D., & Leung, D. Y. P. The Revised Two-factor study process questionnaire: R-SPQ-2F. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(1): 148-149, 2001.[15] Byrne, B. M. Structural equations modelling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications and programming (2nd ed.). New York, London: Routledge, 2010. [16] Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternations. Structural Equation Modelling, 6(1): 1-55, 1999.[17] Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Testing structural equation models (K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long Eds., pp. 136-162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993.[18] Cohen, J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988.[19] Entwistle, N., Tait, H., & McCune, V. Patterns of response to and approaches to studying inventory across contrasting groups and contexts. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 15(1): 33-48, 2000.國際交流知名旅遊學者Edith Szivas教授到訪酒店與旅遊管理學院 2013年10月7日至12日,應麥希國院長之邀,世界著名旅遊研究專家Edith Szivas教授訪問了酒店與旅遊管理學院。Edith Szivas教授曾任英國著名公立大學薩裡大學酒店與旅遊博士課程負責人與阿聯酋酒店管理學院教授,現爲世界旅遊組織顧問,主要從事旅遊課程質素認證方面的工作。訪問期間,Edith Szivas教授不僅爲學院博士課程的發展建言獻策,更是爲全院師生帶來了一場關於審視迪拜旅遊業中的中國客源市場的精彩講座。
  • 142 2013,7(2)校園文化澳科大圖書館成為國家科技圖書文獻中心的合作館促進科技文獻資訊資源的廣泛利用,進一步推進兩地文獻保障工作的交流與開展,科大圖書館與國家科技圖書文獻中心於2013年10月18日上午,舉行了「國家科技圖書文獻中心澳門合作館」簽約儀式。國家科技圖書文獻中心(National Science and Technology library, 簡稱NSTL)是經國務院領導批准成立的一個基於網絡環境的科技資訊資源服務機構,是國家科技資訊資源戰略儲備基地,年度經費達數億人民幣。因此,NSTL是我國收集外文印本科技文獻資源最多的,面向全國提供服務的科技文獻資訊機構。擁有印本外文文獻25000多種,其中外文期刊17000多種,外文會議錄等8000多種,居國內首位。同時擁有海量的電子科技資訊文獻。NSTL為擴展兩岸四地的服務,首選澳門科技大學為其澳門地區合作館,對科大圖書館的科技文獻服務能力是一個極大的提升。儀式前,劉良校長、姜志宏協理副校長、戴龍基館長接待來澳出席簽約儀式的NSTL中心主任袁海波先生,NSTL網絡系統建設部主任胡鐵軍先生以及NSTL服務組組長蔡志勇先生。袁海波主任授予科大圖書館 “國家科技圖書文獻中心合作館”的牌匾。儀式上,戴龍基館長和袁海波主任簽訂了雙方合作協議。姜志宏協理副校長和袁海波主任共同啟動了服務正式開通的儀式。澳門大學圖書館、澳門理工學院圖書館、澳門旅遊學院多媒體圖書館、鏡湖醫院圖書館、鏡湖護理學院圖書館、澳門政策研究室的同仁應邀參加了簽約儀式。隨後,蔡志勇先生對科大圖書館參考組館員以及與會的澳門其他圖書館的館員,進行了NSTL資源和服務的使用培訓和問題解答。科大圖書館是中國國家圖書館、北京大學圖書館、中國教育部高校社科人文文獻中心(CASHL)、中國高等教育文獻保障系統(CALIS)、香港中文大學圖書館及臺灣大學圖書館等多家圖書館或文獻保障機構在澳門地區的合作館,並且與兩岸四地眾多著名圖書館開展了館際合作與資源共建共用計劃。NSTL與科大圖書館的合作落實,標誌著科大圖書館又得一有力合作夥伴,意味著科大圖書館的文獻傳遞服務水準可以更上一層次。校園文化王憲主講《臺灣問題和兩岸關係》由澳門基金會贊助,澳門科技大學社會和文化研究所於10月31日舉辦“澳門社會”系列講座,邀請海峽兩岸關係協會駐澳門特別行政區辦事處王憲主任主講“臺灣問題和兩岸關係”。張曙光常務副校長出席了講座並向王憲贈送紀念品。在講座上,王憲深入淺出地分析了臺灣問題的由來,兩岸關係的發展情況,希望年青人多瞭解台灣、兩岸關係的的過去、現在,更主動地關心和推動兩岸關係的良性發展。兩岸三通,ECFA等重要協議的落實,大大加強了彼此間的交往,增進了互信。王憲指出,臺灣問題不單是一個統一的問題,亦是一個捍衛民族尊嚴的問題。中華民族復興的一個重要指標是實現中國的完全統一。臺灣是中國的一部份,這一點是十分明確的,但兩岸統一至今仍未解決,有著複雜的國際、國內因素。兩岸關係需要和平發展,堅持一個中國,促進兩岸同胞的交流。王憲表示,“澳門模式”為兩岸關係的發展作出了重要的貢獻,澳門是“一國兩制”成功的典範,澳門一直在兩岸關係的發展過程中扮演著重要的平台和橋樑角色。澳門明天更美好,平台作用便會更大。最後,王憲希望年青人能多瞭解兩岸關係的歷史,為促進國家和平統一出一分力。
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