ContentsHumanities and ArtsChinese Cultural Context …………………………………………………………………… YU QIUYU (1)Western Marxism and Cultural Research in the 20th Century ……………………… Zhiqing ZHANG (18)A Study on the Costumes in the Portrait of Matteo Ricci ………………………………… Lan WANG (23)A Discourse on Xiao Dezao’s Poems …………………………………………………… Fang ZHANG (32)Information TechnologyStatistical Morphological Filter to Remove the Impulse Noise ……………………………………………………………………… Xiaoping LU, Xiaolin TIAN (36)Space Science and TechnologyDesign and Implementation of the Calculating System for the Orbital Dynamics of Asteroids …………………………………………………………Guangyu LI, Haibin ZHAO, Yinshen GU (43)MedicineAnalysis of Melamine in Pre-Packaged Food by Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry ………………………………………………………………… Wai-Ting VONG, Wai-Kei LAM (50)Management and TourismComparative studies on inflation determinants between Thailand and Indonesia ………………………………………………………………… Mingyuan ZHU, Kwoping TAM (57)Perceptions of Organizational Politics and Employees' Turnover Intention: The Cross-level Moderating Role of Group Interaction …………… Po-Chien CHANG, Jui-Ching CHIEN, Tong-Ming LIN (67)Key Success Factors for University Students in Global Management Challenge (GMC):An individual-level analysis ……………………………………………… Yongdong SHI, Yang PENG, Lin ZHANG (82)A Social Interpretation of People’s Choice of Heroes: A Case Study …………………… Wenying LIU (92)The Heterogeneity of Hospital Cost Shifting:the Case of the BBA of 1997 in the USA ……………………………………………………………………………… Jing Hua ZHANG (104)
1第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 中國文脈余秋雨一中國文脈,是指中國文學幾千年發展中最高等級的生命潛流和審美潛流。這種潛流,在近處很難發現,只有從遠處看去,才能領略大概,就像那一條倔強的山脊所連成的天際線。正是這條天際線,使我們知道那個天地之大,以及那個天地之限,並領略了一種註定要長久包圍我們生命的文化儀式。因為太重要,又處於隱潛狀態,就特別容易產生誤會。因此,我們必須開宗明義,指出那些最常見的理論岔道,不讓它們來幹擾文脈的潛流——一、這股潛流,在絕大多數情況下,不是官方主流;二、這股潛流,在絕大多數情況下,不是民間主流;三、這股潛流,屬於文學,並不從屬於哲學學派;四、這股潛流,雖然重要,但體量不大;五、這股潛流,並不一以貫之,而是時斷時續,斷多續少;六、這股潛流,對周圍的其他文學現象有吸引力,更有排斥力。尋得這股潛流,是做減法的結果。我一向主張,研究文化和文學,先做加法,後做減法。減法更為重要,也更為艱難。減而見筋,減而顯神,減而得脈。減法難做,首先是因為人們千百年來一直處於文化匱乏狀態,見字而敬,見文而信,見書而畏,不存在敢於大膽取捨的心理高度;其次,即使有了心理高度,也缺少品鑒高度,與多數轟傳一時的文化現象相比,“得脈”者沒有那麼多知音。大膽取捨,需要銳利斧鉞。但是,手握這種斧鉞的人,總是在開山辟路。那些只會坐在涼棚下說三道四、指手劃腳的人,大多不懂斧鉞。開山辟路的人沒有時間參與評論,由此造成了等級的倒錯,文脈的失落。等級,是文脈的生命。人世間,仕途的等級由官階來定,財富的等級由金額來定,醫生的等級由療效來定,明星的等級由傳播來定,而文學的等級則完全不同。文學的等級,與官階、財富、實效、傳播等因素完全無關,只由一種沒有明顯的標誌的東西來定,這個東西叫品位。其他行業也講品位,但那只是附加,而不像文學,是唯一。總之,品位決定等級,等級構成文脈。但是,這中間的所有流程,都沒有清晰路標。這一來,事情就麻煩了。環顧四周,現在越來越多的“成功者”都想以文炫己,甚至以文訓世,結果讓人擔憂。有些“儒商”為了營造“企業文化”,強制職工背誦古代那些文化等級很低的發懵文言;有些電視人永遠在繪聲繪色地講述著早就應該退出公共記憶的文化殘屑;有些當代“名士”更是染上了古代的“嗜痂之癖”,如魯迅所言,把遠年的紅腫潰爛,贊之為“豔若桃花”。
18第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 “西方馬克思主義”與20世紀文化研究張志慶(澳門科技大學人文藝術學院,澳門)摘要: 文化研究自20世紀60年代興起,至今在歐美諸國廣為應用和傳播。在其發展過程中,“西方馬克思主義"對它具有多方面的深刻影響,可以說,“西方馬克思主義"很大程度上決定了歐美文化研究的理論品質和研究方法。關鍵詞: 西方馬克思主義;文化研究;理論品質Western Marxism and Cultural Research in the 20th CenturyZhiqing ZHANG( Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macao University of Science and Technology, Macao, China )AAstractt: Having emerged since the 1960s, cultural research is now widely applied and spread in America and European nations. In its development process, western Marxism has impose profound influence on it in many respects. To a large extent, western Marxism determines the theoretical quality and research methods of the research of American and European cultures.eyyordst: Western Marxism; Cultural research; Theoretical quality收稿日期:2012-04-11;修訂日期:2013-01-02。通訊作者:張志慶,男,博士,教授,主要研究方向:歐美文化與藝術;比較文化與文學。E-mail: zgzhang@must.edu.mo; Tel: +853 88972989一“西方馬克思主義”是一個寬泛的概念。概而言之,它指20世紀20年代產生,然後迅速發展,具有了國際性影響的一種社會思潮。這種社會思潮實質上是在 20 世紀社會巨變、思想巨變的背景下,對傳統馬克思主義學說及其實踐的重新理解和闡釋。兩次世界大戰,蘇聯為代表的社會主義國家的建立及其在發展過程中暴露出來的問題,科學技術、大眾文化的迅猛發展及其日益顯現出的與傳統人文精神的矛盾;弗洛伊德學說、結構主義、存在主義、闡釋學、解構主義等思想和哲學的不斷湧現……這一切促使人們,尤其是西方的思想家、哲學家、政治家、學者教授們對馬克思主義產生了新的理解並試圖用新的理解來說明或指導 20 世紀的社會實踐。“西方馬克思主義”思潮本身,因人因地因時而表現出很大的不同。但是,從整體上看,也表現出一些共同特徵,如對從考茨基到列寧的馬克思主義以及蘇聯模式的社會主義的批判和否定;有著從文化角度研究馬克思主義的傾向,理論與研究方法上的批判性、革命性和實踐性等。對“西方馬克思主義”需要作具體的分析和批判,但作為一種社會思潮,從整體上看,“西方馬克思主義”具有理論上的合理性和實踐中存在的巨大意義。美國學者法蘭西斯 • 福山(Francis Fukuyama, 1952–)在前蘇聯解體的前夕就提出了
222000年版。[5] Hoggart, Richard. The Uses of Literacy, New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1992. [6] 弗裏德里克•傑姆遜《後現代主義與文化理論》,北京:北京大學出版社,1997年版。[7] 路易•阿爾都塞《保衛馬克思》,北京:商務印書館,1984年版。[8] Chris Barker《文化研究:理論與實踐》,臺北:五南圖書出版股份有限公司,2004年版。學術動態澳科大文化研究所舉辦 “中西文化的精神差異與現代轉型”國際學術研討會澳門科技大學社會和文化研究所於12月1日~2日舉辦了“中西文化的精神差異與現代轉型”國際學術研討會。參加會議主題發言的十多位學者分別來自中國內地、香港、澳門、臺灣以及美國、芬蘭等國家和地區,均為國際著名的中西文化研究專家,他們依據儒家經典和基督教理論,針對中西人性論、生死觀、善惡觀、天人(或神人)關係、稱義與成聖、終極關懷、啓蒙歷程等重要問題發表學術論文,從不同角度闡明中西文化的精神差異、並對中西文化的現代轉型歷程進行深入探討。此前,參加本次國際學術研討會的武漢大學教授郭齊勇、香港中文大學教授溫偉耀和澳門科技大學特聘教授趙林已進行了三場關於中西文化精神差異和現代轉型的對談。對談錄音稿經修訂後,由上海人民出版社出版,書名為《傳統氤氳與現代轉型——中西文化三人談》。該書出版後在學術界產生了廣泛的影響。本次會議可以看作是三人對談的深化與拓展。可以預期,本次學術會議必將在兩岸四地和國際學術界產生重要的影響。會議發表的論文以及討論錄音稿經修改之後將集成一部中西文化比較文集,2013年由上海人民出版社正式出版。社會和文化研究所計劃以後每年召開一次相同主題的學術會議,以期形成一個中西文化比較研究的學術共同體,從而在國內和國際學術界產生不斷擴大的後續影響。“第十一屆中藥全球化聯盟研討會”在澳門隆重舉行由“中藥全球化聯盟”舉辦、澳門科技大學承辦的“第十一屆中藥全球化聯盟研討會”於8月21日在澳門隆重開幕。為期三天的“研討會”,匯聚了來自世界著名大學的知名學者,他們圍繞實證中醫藥研究數據分析、中醫藥教育、中醫藥研究與產業發展國際合作、中藥資源、中藥活性分析與作用機理、中藥產品研發、中醫臨床研究、針灸研究、生物資訊學與數據分析等領域進行了深入研討。其中特別注重創新性研究和經驗交流、 如何建立適合中醫藥研究特點的新技術和新方法以及國際性合作平臺。澳門回歸以來,澳門的中醫藥事業得到了長足發展,在中醫藥標準化、規範化、現代化方面取得了顯著成績,形成了富有澳門特色的中醫藥發展和服務模式,得到了澳門民眾的廣泛認同。澳門科技大學是澳門發展中醫藥的先鋒,從2001年起,大學致力於全面發展中醫藥教育、研究及醫療服務,迄今已建立了完整的中藥學高等教育課程體系和中西醫合作的醫療服務設施與專家隊伍。在研究方面,2011年國家科技部批准建立中藥品質研究國家重點實驗室,為澳門提供了發展中醫藥研究的國家級平臺,為大學提升研究品質並達致國際先進水準注入了最強勁的動力。近年來,中央政府和特區政府對澳門發展中醫藥特別重視,也給予厚望,故在澳門召開這一中醫藥研究峰會是十分必要的和及時的,它對於推動澳門中醫藥研究的國際合作將會產生歷史性積極作用。“中藥全球化聯盟”(Consortium for Globalization of Chinese Medicine,簡稱“聯盟”或CGCM) 於2003年12月由16個成員機構發起組成,澳門科技大學劉良講座教授為發起人之一。 “聯盟”旨在集成世界範圍內中醫藥研究學術界和產業界的智慧和力量,推動中醫藥研究與合作的國際化,使傳統的中醫藥造福於全人類。 目前,已有20多個國家和地區的129個知名教研機構和醫藥企業加盟。
23第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 《利瑪竇像》服飾考汪 藍(澳門科技學院人文藝術學院,澳門)摘要: 《利瑪竇像》是迄今我們所知的最早的一幅由中國人繪製的油畫作品,由澳門畫家游文輝1610年5月在利瑪竇彌留之際於北京完成。1614年經耶穌會士金尼閣帶回羅馬耶穌會教堂。該畫對於“西畫東漸"的意義重大,此前已有不少文章從歷史學的角度對這幅作品進行研究。本文試圖用圖像學的研究方法,對作品進行全新解讀。通過對利瑪竇著裝的全面考量、對明代服飾特點的剖析及對利瑪竇服飾的社會性和象徵性的探討,使人們對這幅油畫有一個更深刻的理解與認識。關鍵詞: 利瑪竇;耶穌會;東坡巾;直裰[1];象徵性;圖像學;西畫東漸A Study on the Costumes in the Portrait of Matteo RicciLan WANG( Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: The Portrait of Matteo Ricci is as far as we know the first oil painting by Chinese. It was finished by a Macau Chinese painter Emmanuele Yu Wen-Hui, also known as Pereira on Matteo Ricci’s deathbed in Beijing in May, 1610 and was brought back to the Church of the Gesù in Rome by a Jesuit called Nicolas Trigault in 1614. This painting had a great significance in the trend of “the influence of western paintings on Chinese paintings.” Many articles on the study of this painting were produced from the perspective of history. This paper attempts to interpret this painting by the application of Iconology research methods and explore a deeper understanding of it through the comprehensive analysis of Matteo Ricci’s dressing mode, the characteristics of the costumes of the Ming Dynasty as well as the sociality and symbolism of Ricci’s costumes.eyyordst: Matteo Ricci; the Jesuits; Dongpo hood; Zhiduo[1]; Symbolism; Iconology; The Influence of Western Paintings on Chinese Paintings收稿日期:2012-04-24;修訂日期:2012-06-05。汪藍,男,博士,副教授,研究方向:西方近現代美術史。E-mail: lwang@must.edu.mo Tel: 66612011 1 《利瑪竇像》《利瑪竇像》(圖 1)是迄今我們所知的最早的一幅由中國人繪製的油畫作品。該畫於 1610 年5 月由一直追隨在利瑪竇身邊的耶穌會澳門畫家遊文輝[2] (Manoel Pereira,1575 ~ 1633) 在利瑪竇彌留之際,經眾教友的再三懇求下,於北京完成。[3]金尼閣在《利瑪竇中國札記》中記載道:“他們再三請求,終於說服了一位畫家修士(游文輝)畫一張利瑪竇神父的肖像,作為他們大家的安慰。"[4] 該畫後經金尼閣[5]於 1614 年帶回羅馬,此後一直收藏於羅馬耶穌會教堂。
24圖 1 游文輝,《利瑪竇像》,明代,布面油畫, 1610年,羅馬 耶穌堂藏2010 年,《利瑪竇像》在利瑪竇逝世 400 周年之際,再次回到中國這片土地。利瑪竇——這位對中國近代史产生重大影響力的西方人,其紀念展在繼梵蒂岡、北京、上海、南京四個城市巡迴展覽之後,於 2010 年的 8 月 7 日在澳門藝術博物館拉開帷幕。這一天,也是他四百年多年前遠渡重洋,歷盡千辛萬苦從歐亞大陸的最西端亞平寧半島帶著神的旨意來到歐亞大陸的最東邊——澳門的日子。從此年輕的利瑪竇再也沒有回到過他的家鄉——義大利的馬切拉塔。《利瑪竇像》是一幅人物肖像畫布油畫。游文輝的這幅作品,既生動地表現了耶穌會在中國的開拓者利瑪竇的形象特徵、衣著打扮和神態舉止,更重要的是通過這幅畫形象地反映了作為耶穌會傳教士的利瑪竇,在 16、17 世紀之交的明代末年進入中國後所遭遇的困惑、思變、順應,最後形成具有自己獨特風格的“文化傳教”理念;同時我們也可以從中一窺畫家受文藝復興後期西方繪畫藝術的影響及對中國明代人物肖像畫的借鑒和融合。《利瑪竇像》整個畫面呈冷色調,分上下兩部分。其上為利瑪竇呈四分之三側面拱手而立的半身肖像,其下為三行關於利瑪竇生平介紹的拉丁文題字。畫中利瑪竇面容安詳、謙恭,雙目凝視遠方,雙手攏於袖中,拱手置於胸前。略顯格式化的灰白連鬢鬍鬚垂於胸前,頭戴“東坡巾”,帽後的兩條飄帶垂於雙肩,身著斜襟“直裰”,一派明代文人士大夫的儒服打扮。1.1 畫面部分畫面中作為主角的利瑪竇在深沉的冷色調背景中顯得特別突出,在深色的巾帽和富有厚重感的衣服的圍繞下,利瑪竇的臉部在白色衣領的襯托下,成為畫面中最為明亮醒目的中心。從“東坡巾”後斜搭在肩上的黑色飄帶更加劇了這種環繞的效果。略微偏暖色的面部處理細膩簡潔,而衣紋的明暗厚重、深沉而概括,圍繞著胸前呈放射狀,既表現了衣服質地的厚重肌理,也暗示了觀賞者視覺的心理走向。整個人物從頭上戴的東坡巾到交叉在胸前的雙臂,都用深色來環繞和勾勒,這種明度上的對比和整體環繞的手法,使得人物和背景產生距離和空間感,也使得人物顯得更加清晰而突出。整幅畫面表現手法簡潔、概括,人物突出,構圖穩定。1.2 文字部分在畫面的下方部分,有細窄的三行拉丁文的題字:P-MATTHEUS RICCIUS MACERATENSIS, QUI PRIMUS E SOCIETAE JESU EVANGELIUM IN SINAS INVEXIT OBIIT ANNO SALUTIS 1610. AETATIS, 60.利瑪竇,生於馬切拉塔,首位將福音帶到中國的耶穌會成員。於 1610 年逝世,享年 60 歲。[6]畫中文字內容可以看出利瑪竇逝世於 1610年。他在 5 月 3 日得了病,就在這天信徒李之藻(1565 ~ 1630)博士派了給他自己看病的醫生來照料利瑪竇神父。但是,一切都已經太晚了,長期的勞累、奔波,特別是最後幾天接待慕名而來的赴京趕考的學子,忙得他連吃飯的時間都沒有,
32第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 論蕭德藻詩作張 芳(澳門科技大學,澳門)摘要: 南宋詩人蕭德藻在南宋前期的詩壇上名聲顯赫,深受時人和後人的推崇。儘管流傳下來的詩作不多,然而其詩內容豐富,特色鮮明,隻言片語亦顯示出其較高的創作水平與獨特的藝術風格。關鍵詞: 蕭德藻;隱逸、憂患與悠閑;學江西詩派與自出機杼A Discourse on Xiao Dezao’s PoemsFang ZHANG( Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: Xiao Dezao was a famous poet in the early of Nansong Dynasty. Xiao Dezao’s poems which came down was fewer than those of others, but Xiao Dezao’s poems depicted much in life and had vivid features, and showed upper produce lever and particular art style. eyyordst: Xiao Dezao; Learn Jiangxi faction and innovate收稿日期:2012-08-23;修訂日期:2012-10-18。作者簡介:張芳(1983–),女,漢族,南京師範大學戲劇戲曲學碩士畢業,澳門科技大學通識教育部語文組講師,研究方向為戲劇戲曲學。E-mail:839654956@qq.com,Tel:13532268651(珠海),62738710(澳門)0 引言蕭德藻,字東夫,自號千岩老人,福州閩清人。宋高宗紹興 21 年(1151 年)進士。孝宗乾道(1165 ~ 1173)中,爲烏程縣令,隨移家居之,一度隱於屏山,那裏千岩競秀,故自號“千岩老人”。淳熙 4 年(1177 年)爲龍川縣丞,官終福建安撫司參議。(參見《全宋詩‧蕭德藻小傳》)其詩當時曾親自編訂結集,題名爲《千岩摘稿》,幷寄請楊萬里爲序。《直齋書錄解題》著錄“《千岩擇稿》七卷,外編三卷,續編四卷”。然其詩久佚。清人光聰諧《不爲齋隨筆》丁卷曾搜集其詩共 11首,殘句若干。《全宋詩》輯錄其詩 12首,殘句亦若干。1 蕭德藻詩歌主題:隱逸、憂患與悠閑南宋詩人蕭德藻在南宋前期的詩壇上名聲顯赫,曾一度列名中興四大家,與尤袤,陸游和范成大幷稱,深受時人和後人的推崇。然而蕭德藻詩集多散佚,流傳甚少,我們只能管中窺豹,大略瞭解其內涵。《全宋詩》收錄蕭德藻詩 12 首,每首都達到了較高的藝術水平,細細品味每首詩,則信蕭確實能與尤、范、陸相比肩,正如前人所言:“百分僅存其一,然片羽一鱗猶見龍鸞之章采。”[1] (卷十六)蕭德藻詩主要表現作者的厭棄仕途,高潔不群,嚮往歸隱的情懷。《次韻傅惟肖》是作者對
36第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 統計形態濾波算法消除脈衝噪聲盧曉平1,2,田小林1(1. 澳門科技大學資訊科技學院,澳門;2. 澳門科技大學通識教育部,澳門)摘要: 脈衝噪聲是圖像退化中很常見的一類。目前基於空間域上消除該類噪聲的方法有很多種,常用的空間濾波器如二維中值濾波,自適應形態濾波等。本文從數學形態學角度出發,結合統計學的概念提出一種新的濾波算法來對脈衝噪聲退化的圖像進行復原。算法通過比較目標像素鄰域不同形態方向的方差來選擇一個最優方向,幷計算該方向的均值作爲目標像素的還原值。最後通過與另外幾種最近提出的脈衝降噪算法進行對比,證實該算法在消除脈衝噪聲上具有更好的還原效果。關鍵詞: 脈衝噪聲;圖像降噪;形態學;統計Statistical Morphological Filter to Remove the Impulse NoiseXiaoping LU1,2, Xiaolin TIAN1( 1. Faculty of Information and technology, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China ) ( 2. Department of General Education, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: Impulse Noise is a very common noise in image corruption. There are many denoising algorithms to remove this type noise, such as mathematical morphological filter and median filter. In this paper a new efficient algorithm is presented by combining both morphological filter and statistical theory. Through comparing the variances of different morphological directions of the neighborhood for corrupted pixel this algorithm selects the best direction and updates the pixel value by the mean of this direction. Experiments results confirm the effectiveness of this algorithm by comparing with the other methods proposed recently.eyyordst: Impulse Noise; Image Denoising; Morphology; Statistics收稿日期:2012-04-10;修訂日期:2012-06-13。基金項目: 澳門科學技術發展基金會資助(019/2010/A2)盧曉平(1982―),男,講師,博士(2010年澳門科技大學在讀博士)。主要研究方向:數學反問題,圖像降噪,形狀反演。E-mail:xplu@must.edu.mo.0 介紹圖像復原中很重要的一個研究方向就是關於噪聲退化圖像的復原。噪聲模型通常可以分爲基於空間域的噪聲(一般用噪聲概率密度函數描述)和基於頻域的噪聲(一般用噪聲的各種傅立葉特性來描述)。常見的空間域噪聲有高斯噪聲、均勻噪聲、脈衝(椒鹽)噪聲[1]。由於噪聲的影響,圖像像素的灰度值會發生改變。若出現的退化僅僅是隨機加性噪聲,則可以描述爲這裏 表示原圖像, 表示隨機噪聲, 表示退化後的圖像。
37盧曉平,等 統計形態濾波算法消除脈衝噪聲脈衝噪聲作爲一類很常見的噪聲,通常發生在數據傳輸錯誤或圖像采集中電子設備异常等情况中。由於脈衝噪點常比圖像信號的强度大,因此脈衝噪聲一般量化爲圖像中的極限灰度。對於 8比特數字灰度圖像,其動態範圍爲 0 ~ 255。脈衝噪聲干擾的像素點灰度值一般爲 0 或 255,就像椒鹽粒隨機撒在圖像上一樣,故此得名。因此,脈衝噪聲對原圖像的退化模型可以描述如下, 其中 P 表示脈衝噪聲的噪聲概率密度,用來表示一幅圖像被噪聲退化的程度[2]。關於脈衝噪聲的降噪方法有很多種。由於脈衝噪聲的非周期性,很難用基於頻域的噪聲模型來還原[3]。因此對於脈衝噪聲,常用的降噪方法是基於空間域上來進行[4~5]。標準的二維中值濾波(MedFilt)可以通過計算噪聲圖像在模板上的中值來得到原圖像的近似值[6],在噪聲密度較低的時候還原效果比較好,而且因其計算量較小而有廣泛應用。 H. Ibrahim 等人在中值濾波基礎上提出了自適應中值濾波[7](SAM),使得降噪中的模板可以根據噪聲密度 P 進行自適應改變,確保模板中未被噪聲退化的像素數量不少於 8 個,從而大幅度提高降噪的效果。自適應中值濾波(SAM)算法有效地保留了中值濾波優點的同時,通過調整模板大小提高了對於噪聲密度 P 達到 70% 以上退化圖像的還原效果,結果令人滿意。N. S. P. Kong 等人從實驗結果上給出了該算法的性能分析[8],幷與常用的脈衝降噪算法進行對比,驗證自適應中值濾波算法較好的還原效果;而且也通過融合加權思想改變模板各點的取值來進一步提高該算法的降噪效果。雖然自適應中值濾波在噪聲密度超過 70% 時能較好地還原圖像,但從細節上容易發現,該濾波在邊緣特徵上還原的幷不好,特別地在顔色反差較大的地方,失真明顯。余旺盛等人通過信號點的向外自適應生長來消除脈衝噪聲,提出信號點自適應生長算法(AGA) [9]。該算法避免了中值的計算,通過真實信號點的向外擴展來實現降噪,計算複雜度相對較低,還原效果也令人滿意。A. N. Rao 等人則從數學形態學角度提出了一種新的穩定優化形態濾波(OMF)來對脈衝圖像降噪 [10]。該濾波加入了對於模板水平、垂直兩個方向上的 PE、SE 及中值的對比,選擇最優值來作爲還原值。從而在還原過程中較好地保留了原圖像的邊緣細節。但是該濾波使用的模板是 3 行 3 列的固定大小,在噪聲密度比較小的時候還原效果比較理想,而對於噪聲密度比較大的情况其還原效果就無法令人滿意了。 爲了提高穩定優化形態濾波(OMF)在噪聲密度較高時的還原效果,作者通過融合自適應思想,提出了改進後的自適應形態濾波(AOMF) [11],幷在第一節中給出了算法的簡要描述幷進行了算法實驗結果分析。實驗結果驗證了該濾波在處理不同噪聲密度的退化圖像都較原穩定優化形態濾鏡有較大提升。然而自適應形態濾波在噪聲密度大於 70% 時還原效果依然不是很好。爲了更好地解决噪聲密度較大的退化圖像降噪問題,本文第二節提出一種新的濾波——統計形態濾波(SMF)。該濾波結合了自適應中值濾波(SAM)的思想,確保模板中有效像素點的個數不少於 8 個。爲了保留原圖像的邊緣細節,進一步考慮模板的不同形態方向,選擇一個最可能的取值方向進行還原。第三節實驗結果對比了中值濾波、信號點自適應生長算法、自適應形態濾波、自適應中值濾波、統計形態濾波五種濾波的還原效果,幷從信噪比上進行了數值比較,驗證了本文所提出的統計形態濾波在不同噪聲密度下有更好的還原效果。1 自適應形態濾波(AOMF)1.1 算法描述基於空間域上消除脈衝噪聲的方法通常都分爲兩步。第一步是先標記噪聲位置。例如一幅 8
38比特數字灰度圖像,根據脈衝圖像退化模型,對於灰度值爲 0 或 255 的像素進行標記。其他灰度在 0 到 255 之間的像素不做標記,默認爲沒有被脈衝噪聲退化的像素。第二步,對於被標記的像素點應用各種濾波進行復原。爲了符號使用上的統一,假定所有濾波算法要處理的圖像是一幅 8 比特數字灰度圖像在密度爲 P 的脈衝噪聲退化下得到的噪聲圖像 N. 後面算法也都以此定義。A. N. Rao 等人於 2010 年提出的穩定優化形態濾波(OMF) [10] 是基於二維中值濾波進行適當優化得到的一種穩定算法。主要考察標記點 附近的一個 3×3 模板=++++++1,1,11,11,,1,1,1,11,1jijijijijijijijijiNNNNNNNNNM在確定好的模板 M 中,計算如下 PE,SE 的值。最後通過比較 PE,SE 以及模板中值 Median 來確定目標像素的灰度值。具體方式爲當中值 Median介於PE,SE之間時用中值作爲目標像素的灰度值;否則用 PE,SE 的均值作爲目標像素的灰度值。PE 計算模板所有行與列最小值中的最大值,可以用來消除灰度值爲 0 的噪聲;而 SE 則計算模板所有行與列最大值中的最小值,用來消除灰度值爲 255 的噪聲。對於噪聲密度 P 比較小的退化圖像 N,穩定優化形態濾波(OMF)能够較好地還原圖像。但是當 P 比較大時,由於模板中有效像素(未標記)很少,OMF 濾波還原效果幷不好。在文獻 [11] 中對這一現象做了詳細的說明與實驗,幷進一步結合自適應的思想提出了改進算法—自適應形態濾波(AOMF)。該濾波可以自動調節模板大小,以確保每個模板中有效像素的個數不小於 8 個。這樣對於噪聲密度較大的情况,由於保證了模板中有效像素的數量,可以得到較好的還原效果。具體算法過程描述如下,自適應形態濾波算法(AOMF): ● 讀取圖像 N,檢測幷標記被退化的像素; ● 對於被標記的像素 ,讀取 n×n 模板 M(初始化 n = 3),如果 M 中未標記像素個數少於 8,則 n = n+2,直至 M 中未標記像素個數大於等於 8; ● 計算 PE,SE,以及模板的中值 Median. ● 更新該標記像素的灰度值: If (PE <= Median <= SE) N(i , j)= Median Else N(i , j)=(PE+SE)/ 2 End if1.2 算法實驗爲了量化地比較 OMF 和 AOMF 的去噪還原性能,我們用下式計算各方法還原脈衝噪聲退化圖像後的信噪比(SNR) (dB)其中 F 表示原圖像,R(N)表示被脈衝噪聲退化後的圖像 N 在不同方法還原後的圖像。E(F)表示原圖像 F 像素灰階的期望值。顯然,信噪比越高,表示該方法還原性能越好。我們選擇 Lena 灰度圖像對兩種形態方法進行實驗。如圖 1 所示,分別對 Lena 圖像添加40% 與 80% 的脈衝噪聲。然後對退化後的圖像分別應用穩定優化形態濾波(OMF)與自適應形態濾波(AOMF)進行還原。圖 1 顯示,加入了自適應過程的 AOMF 濾波較 OMF 濾波有了很大的提升。不僅加強了算法對低噪聲密度退化圖像的還原效果,而且對於噪聲密度達到80% 的退化圖像依然可以還原出原圖的基本輪廓。
424 結論本文通過將自適應思想引入穩定優化形態濾鏡(OMF),大幅度提升了原方法在噪聲密度比較大的情况下的還原效果。進一步通過將自適應與形態學知識結合,提出了一種效果非常好的脈衝噪聲退化圖像的還原方法——統計形態濾波(SMF). 該方法通過對不同模板方向的方差進行比較,選擇出一個可能性最大的方向來作爲目標像素復原的取值方向。爲了確保每個模板中有效像素個數不少於 8 個,我們設定模板大小爲5×5,7×7 兩種。當噪聲密度小於 68% 時選擇前者,否則選擇後者。最後從實驗對比可以看出,統計形態濾波能很好地還原各種噪聲密度退化的圖像,特別地對於噪聲密度比較大的情况,較好地彌補了其他方法在圖像邊緣細節上保留不足的缺陷。而且實際中可以根據圖像的紋理特徵自行選取不同的模板方向,以獲得更好的還原效果。 致 謝作者感謝余旺盛先生提供信號點自適應生長算法(AGA)的測試代碼。參 考 文 獻[1] Gonzalez R E, Woods R E. Digital Image Processing [M].3rd ed. USA:Pearson Education, 2010:333-411.[2] 章毓晋. 圖像工程[M](第2版). 北京:清華大學出版社,2006:183-213.[3] 周登文,申曉留. 鄰域小波係數自適應的圖像降噪[J]. 中國圖像圖形學報, 2008, 13(11): 2112-2116. [4] S Q Yuan and Y H Tian. Difference-type noise detector for adaptive median filter[J]. Electronics Letters, 2006, 42(8):454-455.[5] Z F Deng, Z P Yin and Y L Xiong. High probability impulse noise removing algorithm based on mathematical morphology [J]. IEEE Signal Processing Letters, 2007, 14(1):31-34.[6] R C Gonzalez, R E Woods, S L Eddins. Digital Image Processing Using MATLAB[M]. USA:Pearson Education, 2004:103-143.[7] H Ibrahim, N S P Kong and T F Ng. Simple adaptive median filter for the removal of impulse noise from highly corrupted images [J]. IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, 2008, 54(4):1920-1927.[8] N S P Kong, H Ibrahim. The Effect of Shape and Weight Towards the Performance of Simple Adaptive Median Filter in Reducing Impulse Noise Level from Digital Images [J]. 2010 2nd International Conference on Education Technology and Computer (ICETC), 2010 V5:119-121.[9] 余旺盛,侯志强. 信號點自適應生長算法和圖像脈衝噪聲的抑制[J]. 中國圖像圖形學報,2011,16(3):336-341.[10] A N Rao, B S Rao, J S Kiran. A Robust Optimal Morphological Filter to Remove Impulse Noise In Images[J]. International Journal of Information Technology and Knowledge Management, 2010, 2(2):237-239. [11] 盧曉平. 自適應優化形態濾波算法消除圖像的脈衝噪聲[J],澳門科技大學學報,2011,5(2):8-12.[12] W Luo. Efficient removal of impulse noise from digital images [J]. IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, 2006, 52(2):523-527.[13] S J Ko and Y H Lee. Center weighted median filters and their applications to image enhancement [J]. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, 1991,38(9):984-993. 校園文化2012/2013學年第一學期校園文化活動一覽表序號 日期 主題 主演(主講) 主辦110月9日晚、10日晚“京城第一劇”——《雷雨》 國家話劇院澳門基金會及中國國家話劇院主辦、澳科大協辦210月10日—11日“筆墨千秋情,同心一家親——海內外百名畫家寫意延安”澳門展中共陝西省委統戰部、中共延安市委、澳門基金會、澳科大主辦,澳門書畫研究院承辦3 11月11日 蘇州評彈國內著名蘇州評彈藝術家盛小雲等多位名家連袂演出澳門基金會贊助、澳科大主辦4 11月17日 澳門科技大學音樂會 臺灣著名歌唱家范宇文教授 澳門基金會贊助、澳科大主辦5 11月29日 專題人文講座——還從莫言獲獎說起 當代著名作家王蒙教授 澳科大主辦6 12月2日 大學音樂會 澳門樂團 澳門樂團、澳科大主辦
43第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 小行星軌道動力學計算系統的設計和實現李廣宇1,2,趙海斌2,顧寅申1(1. 澳門科技大學太空研究所,澳門;2. 中國科學院紫金山天文臺,南京)摘要: 本文介紹了小行星軌道動力學計算系統的設計和實現,論述了系統總體結構、基礎資料庫構成、時空參考系變換、小行星軌道數值積分,以及潛在威脅小行星與地球碰撞概率計算和危險評估等問題。關鍵詞: 資料庫;時空參考系;軌道計算;碰撞概率;危險評估Design and Implementation of the Calculating System for the OrAital Dynamics of AsteroidsGuangyu LI1,2, Haibin ZHAO2, Yinshen GU1( 1. Institute of Space Science, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )( 2. Purple Mountain Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China )AAstractt: The design and implementation of the calculating system for the orbital dynamics of asteroids was presented in this paper. The architecture of the calculating system, the database structure, the reference systems transformation between space and time, the numerical integration of the orbit of the asteroids, the impact probability between the potential hazardous objects and the earth together with the relative risk assessment were discussed respectively.eyyordst: Database; Reference systems transformation; Orbit calculating; Impact probability; Risk assessment收稿日期:2012-11-30;修訂日期:2012-12-19。項目名稱:太陽系小天體天文觀察及太空探測研究,編號:019/2010/A2。李廣宇,男,教授,專業領域:天體力學、天體測量學。E-mail: gyli@must.edu.mo,Tel: +853 8897 19200 引言1801 年 1 月 1 日,意大利天文學家 Giuseppe Piazzi 發現了第一顆小行星穀神星(1),1999 年3 月 2 日,第 1 萬顆小行星 1951SY 獲得正式编号,兩個世紀裏發現小行星愈萬顆。1994 年發生了彗木碰撞事件,人类第一次直接觀測到大規模的天體相撞。事件表明地球面臨着天體碰撞的潛在威脅。1995 年在紐約召開了預防近地天體撞擊地球的國際會議,各國科學家和有關人士會聚一堂,共商對策。此後,小行星的發現呈井噴式增長。至今年底,發現小行星的總數已近 59 萬顆,其中近 34 萬顆獲得永久編號。近地天體的搜索發現和研究是小行星研究的重點。1930 年 1 月 30 日,Eros(433)從離地球2500 萬 km 的地方飛過,這是人類發現的第一顆近地小行星。此後 1932 年發現了 Appolo(1862)和 Amor(1221) ,1976 年發現了 Aten(2062),這三顆小行星接近地球軌道的方式各有特點,被採納為近地小行星按轨道分類的標準。20 世紀末時發現近地小行星的數量只有 877 顆,如今這個數字已經擴大了十多倍,達到將近 9400 顆。彗木碰撞後美國宇航局(NASA)斥鉅資支持美國的近地天體搜索計劃,囊括了 80% 以上近地天體的發現。NASA 還提出在 2020 年前對 90% 直徑大於
49李廣宇,等 小行星軌道動力學計算系統的設計和實現[4] 李廣宇. 紫金山天文臺臺刊1986, 5,1.[5] Muinonen, K., Bowell, E. Icarus, 1993, 104, 255.[6] Bowell, E., Muinonen, K. Earth-crossing asteroids and comets: Ground-based search strategies. In Gehrels, T., editor, Hazards Due to Comets &Asteroids, Univ. Arizona Press, Tucson, 1994.[7] Chodas, P. W., Yeomans, D. K. Predicting close approaches of asteroids andcomets to earth. In Gehrels, T., editor, Hazards Due to Comets & Asteroids,Univ. Arizona Press, Tucson, 1994.[8] Chodas, P. W., Yeomans, D. K. In The Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy9 and Jupiter, ed. K. S. Noll, Cambridge University Press, 1996.[9] Chodas, P. W., Yeomans, D. K. Orbit Determination and Estimation of Impact Probability for Near Earth Objects, Paper 99-002 in 21st Annual AAS Guidance and Control Conference, 1999.[10] Milani, A. Icarus, 1999, 137, 269.[11] Milani, A., Chesley, S. R., Valsecchi, G. B. A&A, 1999, 346, L65.[12] Milani, A., LaSpina, A., Sansaturio, M. E., Chesley, S. R. Icarus, 2000, 144, 39.[13] Milani, A., Sansaturio, M. E., Chesley, S. R. Icarus, 2001, 151, 150.[14] Milani, A., Chesley, S. R., Sansaturio, M. E., Tommei, G., Valsecchi, G. B.Icarus, 2005, 173, 362.[15] http://www.minorplanetcenter.org/iau/mpc.html[16] 須重明,吳雪君. 廣義相對論與現代宇宙學,南京師範大學出版社,南京,1999.[17] Dennis D. McCarthy, D. D. & Petit G. (ed.) 2004, IERS Conventions (2003), IERS Conventions Centre[18] Petit G., Luzum, B. (ed.) 2010, IERS Conventions (2010), IERS Conventions Centre[19] 李廣宇. 天球參考系變換及其應用,科學出版社,北京,2010.[20] Standish. 1998, JPL Planetary and Lunar Ephemerides, DE405/LE405. JPL Interoffice Memorandum 312.F-98-048. http://iau-comm4.jpl.nasa.gov/de405iom/de405iom.pdf.[21] Guangyu Li, Haibin Zhao, Yan Xia, Fei Zeng,Yongjie Luo. 2006, PMOE Planetary/ Lunar Ephemeris Framework, proceedings IAU 248 symposium, Shanghai.[22] 趙海斌. 近地小行星探測和危險評估,中國科學院紫金山天文臺博士學位論文,1998.學生活動中醫藥學院學子“深港澳臺南山論壇”再奪殊榮繼去年參加“第四屆深港澳臺博士生南山學術論壇”取得佳績後,中醫藥學院與中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室(澳門科技大學)博士生今年再獲殊榮。在讀博士研究生李良於11月23~25日參加了由清華大學深圳研究生院舉辦的“第五屆深港澳臺博士生南山學術論壇”,並榮獲生命科學分論壇優秀論文三等奬。論壇以“深研博學、創新未來”為主題,吸引來自兩岸四地包括清華大學、臺灣新竹清華大學、北京大學、中國科學院、香港大學、香港中文大學、香港科技大學、澳門大學和澳門科技大學等三十餘所著名高校與科研機構的百名博士研究生參與。論壇共設有生命學科、工程學科、電氣資訊、人文社科四個分論壇,經過組委會評選,來自清華大學、香港中文大學、中國科學院及澳門科技大學等高校和研究機構十四篇論文的作者受邀在生命科學分論壇中進行了報告交流。來自中國科學院、北京大學、香港中文大學和清華大學的數十位專家評委點評了論壇報告。最終清華大學的三名同學獲得了該論壇的一、二等獎,澳門科技大學的李良同學以及香港中文大學和清華大學的另外兩名同學一起獲得了論壇的三等獎。李良的獲奬顯示科大中醫藥學院和中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室的中藥博士研究生學術水平已得到兩岸四地高等院校的充分肯定。澳科大辯論隊參加第16屆外研社杯全國英語辯論賽獲三等獎澳門科技大學辯論隊英語組任可和周蜜同學在郭昕老師的帶領下,於7月15日至19日前往北京參加第十六屆“外研社 亞馬遜杯”全國英語辯論賽,榮獲全國三等獎。 第十六屆“外研社 亞馬遜杯”全國英語辯論賽由外語教學與研究出版社和劍橋大學出版社聯合主辦,中國英語教學研究會、英語口語聯盟、《英語學習》雜誌、國際教育辯論協會協辦的國內水準最高、影響最大的全國性英語辯論比賽。 本屆賽事有近百所高校的200多支代表隊參加為期五天的角逐。澳科大兩位參賽隊員憑借敏捷的思維、清晰的結構和機智的辯駁,最終榮獲全國三等獎。 澳科大辯論隊英語組雖然是資歷最淺的一支校隊,但隊員們堅信在訓練和比賽中可以得到鍛鍊和成長,取得更多更好的成績。
50第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 GC-MS法檢測澳門市售包裝食品中三聚氰胺的含量黃緯庭,林偉基(澳門科技大學,澳門藥物及健康應用研究所,中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室,澳門)摘要: 自2008年9月發現國內有奶類產品中摻雜有三聚氰胺後,世界各地衛生部門無不即時對食品中之三聚氰胺含量問題加以密切關注。三聚氰胺檢測一般較常用的方法是氣相色譜質譜聯用法(GC-MS)及液相色譜質譜聯用法(LC-MS)等。雖然GC-MS方法的靈敏度不及LC-MS,但GC-MS儀器價格較低,一般大多數實驗室財力可以負擔。所以GC-MS方法相對較普及,同時亦能滿足標準限量值的檢測需要。本研究中選用了GC-MS方法,並參考國家標準GB/T 22388-2008進行優化,建立了可通用於多類食品樣本的三聚氰胺檢測方法。由2008年9月至2010年8月,在澳門各大超級市場抽取了242個奶粉、鮮乳、乳製品和其他包裝食品樣本,調查研究其中三聚氰胺不同程度污染,以評估對澳門市面上出售的各種相關食品的安全水平。研究發現其中20個在2008年或以前生產的樣本檢出三聚氰胺,根據澳門執行的臨時管理限量值,樣本中不合格超標樣本共4個,佔整體樣本數量約2%。關鍵詞: 三聚氰胺;食品安全;GC-MSAnalysis of Melamine in Pre-Packaged Food Ay Gas Chromatography – Mass SpectrometryWai-Ting VONG, Wai-Kei LAM( State Key Laboratory for Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China )AAstractt: Since the alert in September 2008 of melamine adulteration of milk products in China, health authorities worldwide have been seriously concerned with melamine content of all foods affecting safety. Melamine is generally measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Although GC-Ms methods are less sensitive than LC-MS, GC-MS is less expensive and financially more affordable to most laboratories. Therefore GC-MS is comparatively more popular and fulfills the requirement of standard limit value. Our universal GC-MS method applicable to a wider scope of food samples was developed and optimized on the basis of National Standard GB/T 22388-2008.From September 2008 to August 2010, 242 samples were collected from the supermarkets in Macau including milk powder, milk, dairy products and other packaged food samples. The concentration of melamine in each sample was measured for assessing contamination. In this study, melamine was detected in 20 food samples which were all produced earlier than 2008. According to the current government limit in Macau, 4 samples were found contaminated and the rate was about 2%.eyyordst: Melamine; Food safety; GC-MS收稿日期:2012-10-15;修訂日期:2013-01-14。資金資助:澳門基金會* 通訊作者:黃緯庭,男,公共衛生學碩士,中藥及食物安全與質量檢定中心主任,主要研究方向為中藥及食物安全與質量。E-mail: wtvong@must.edu.mo,Tel: (853)8897 2615** 本文為作者碩士論文“澳門市售包裝食品中三聚氰胺污染研究分析"內容整理而成
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57第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 比較研究泰國和印尼通貨膨脹的影響因素朱明淵,譚戈平*(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 本文通過實證模型比較研究泰國和印尼通貨膨脹影響因素,樣本時間段為1998年第一季度至2011年第二季度。文章通過建立向量誤差修正模型,考察了消費物價指數、國內生產總值、貨幣供應量、短期存款利率、實際匯率和出口額這六個宏觀經濟變數存在的關係(長期均衡關係及其一階差分之間的短期誤差修正關係)。本文的證據表明,經濟增長與通貨膨脹呈長期顯著正相關關係,泰國和印尼通貨膨脹和存款利率存在短期負相關關係,通貨膨脹短期具有慣性。然而,本文的證據指出匯率及出口對兩國通貨膨脹有不同的影響。 最後本文為經濟高速發展的新興國家在控制通貨膨脹方面提出幾點政策建議。關鍵詞: 通貨膨脹;Johansen協整檢驗;向量誤差修正模型;方差分解Comparative studies on inflation determinants between Thailand and IndonesiaMingyuan ZHU, Kwoping TAM( Faculty of Management & Administration, Macau University of Science & Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: This study analyses and compares inflation determinants between Thailand and Indonesia from 1998 to 2011. Long-term and short-term relationships between CPI, GDP, M1, saving interest rate, real exchange rate and exports have been identified via vector error correction models. Empirical evidence suggests that economic growth has a positive assocation with inflation in the long-run, while interest rate has a negative assocation with inflation in the short-run. Furthermore, inflation itself exhibits inertia in the short-run. However, evidence in this study indicates that real effective exchange rate and exports can have different impact on infaltion between Thailand and Indonesia. Last, this study provides some useful policy implications for the emerging economies to curb inflation.eyyordst: Inflation, Johansen co-integration test, Vector error correction model, Variance decomposition收稿日期:2012-04-26;修訂日期:2012-07-09。通訊作者:譚戈平,男,經濟學博士。電郵:kptam@must.edu.mo,電話:853-88972239。0 引言經濟增長與通貨膨脹有著密切的關係,正如菲力普斯曲線所述,高速的經濟發展往往伴隨著相對較高的通貨膨脹。但是嚴重的通貨膨脹又會阻礙經濟的發展,通貨膨脹已經成為困擾發展中國家健康發展的難題。經濟高速增長是通貨膨脹的主要影響因素嗎?經濟增長與通貨膨脹之間的長期與短期之間有何種關係?通過對泰國與印尼這兩個國家的比較研究,本文為新興經濟體的通貨膨脹研究提供借鑒。澳門經濟近年來經歷著經濟快速發展與通貨膨脹同時出現的情況,本文亦為之提供一些有用的參考。泰國和印尼都是東盟成員國,在 1997 ~ 1998年東南亞金融危機中都遭受了沉重的打擊,隨後在 2000 年引入了新的貨幣政策——基於通貨膨脹
58目標(Inflation Targeting)的貨幣政策。採用通貨膨脹目標制後,在樣本區間內我們可以看到兩個國家的通貨膨脹率、利率的波動率和匯率的波動率有明顯下降。但是,在經濟復蘇的過程中又遇到了各種挫折,例如,國內政局不穩定、海嘯、H1N1 甲型流感、2008 年國際金融危機等一系列事件,讓這兩個國家在復蘇的道路上前進得十分坎坷。通過實證研究,本文為發展中國家控制通貨膨脹、保持經濟持續健康發展提供政策建議。本文的研究特色和創新點在於:首先,本文選取了兩個經濟發展程度相似但又存在區別的東南亞國家進行通貨膨脹比較研究,從而找出發展中國家應對通貨膨脹的共同經驗。其次,研究模型是基於 Ender(2010)[1] 貨幣供給模型,而且根據研究對象泰國和印尼的具體情況增加了兩個宏觀經濟變數(實際匯率和出口額),本文的實證研究結果顯示這兩個國家的各個宏觀變數之間確實存在長期協整關係。並且從向量誤差修正模型中的短期修正係數來看,有不同程度的負向修正;從長期協整方程變數係數和方差分解的貢獻度來看,泰國和印尼有不同的實證結果,泰國的實際匯率對於通貨膨脹的影響最為顯著,然而印尼的短期存款利率對於通貨膨脹的影響最為顯著。1 文獻綜述1.1 影響通貨膨脹的宏觀經濟因素近年來,關於研究影響通貨膨脹因素有大量的文獻,大部分文獻認為經濟增長、通貨膨脹自身波動、利率、實際匯率、出口是影響通貨膨脹的主要因素。本文在前人研究的基礎上,通過建立 VECM 模型比較研究泰國和印尼的通貨膨脹影響因素,找出六個變數之間長期均衡和短期波動關係,為經濟高速發展的國家和地區提供參考。Friedman(1977)[2] 認為高通貨膨脹率可能導致更易變動的通貨膨脹率預期,由此產生未來通貨膨脹變化中更強的不確定性,這意味著出現嚴重通貨膨脹時期採取的無規則的經濟政策行為將會引發更加顯著的通貨膨脹不確定性。Payne(2009)[3] 通 過 建 立 ARIMA- GARCH 模 型, 研究分析泰國通貨膨脹波動與通貨膨脹的關係,發現通貨膨脹目標制的使用可以降低通貨膨脹自身波動(如通貨膨脹不確定性)對於通貨膨脹的衝擊影響,格蘭傑因果檢驗結果顯示通貨膨脹率上升會增加通貨膨脹的不確定性。Ghosh and Rajan(2009)[4] 研究泰國和韓國外匯對國內通貨膨脹傳導機制,研究發現外匯因素是宏觀經濟的影響因素,並且外匯對泰國國內消費物價水準和進口價格的影響大於韓國。Kubo(2008)[5] 利用 VAR方法研究泰國的貨幣政策傳導機制,發現利率在短期內控制通貨膨脹功效顯著。Ghosh and Rajan(2007)[6] 比較研究亞洲開放經濟體韓國、泰國和新加坡,出口價格對通貨膨脹的影響,發現匯率傳導機制直接對國內通貨膨脹有影響,同時有效匯率是調節通貨膨脹的工具。Buiter and Miller(1982)[7] 認為實際匯率的過度波動能比其他政策更加快速地降低國內通貨膨脹率。Calvo, Reinhart and Vegh(1995)[8] 以巴西、智利和哥倫比亞為例,實證研究發現低估實際匯率與高通貨膨脹率有關係。Kamin(1996)[9] 以墨西哥為例,通過建立誤差修正模型研究發現決定墨西哥通貨膨脹的因素為,第一,真實的實際匯率非貿易市場出清時的匯率之間的差;第二,過去通貨膨脹的持續影響。Gylfason(1999)[10] 利用世界銀行 1985 ~ 1994 年 160 個國家的橫截面數據研究出口、經濟增長的決定性因素,研究發現高通貨膨脹率和豐富的自然資源往往與低出口和經濟緩慢增長聯繫在一起。1.2 通貨膨脹目標制研究通貨膨脹目標制的文獻有很多,通常是比較採用通貨膨脹目標制的發達國家和發展中國家的政策實施效果。例如,Prasertnukul, Kim and Kakinaka(2010)[11] 對亞洲四個採用通貨膨脹目標制的國家,分別是印尼、韓國、泰國和菲律賓,研究發現採用通貨膨脹目標制後這四個國家的匯率波動率下降,匯率波動率下降後可以達到通貨膨脹穩定的最終目標。Reza and Goo(2010)[12] 以
65朱明淵,等 比較研究泰國和印尼通貨膨脹的影響因素匯率制。泰國是典型的“小型開放經濟體”,貨幣當局擁有較少的國際貨幣儲備,因此在“不可能三角”中優先考慮資本自由流動與貨幣政策獨立性目標,因此實行了有彈性的管理浮動匯率制。然而,泰銖的持續升值削弱了出口產品的國際競爭力,資本管制的非對稱性增加了金融市場的不確定性體現出管理浮動匯率制的局限性。另外,在全球流動性過剩的背景下,匯率預期將國外流動性引入國內,形成“泰銖升值預期——外部資金流入——流動性過剩——物價上升”的邏輯演進。泰國經濟復蘇迅速,發展前景良好,泰銖有升值預期,緩慢升值,吸引了國內外資金進入房地產和股票市場,推高資產價格,資產價格上揚帶來的流動性偏好、財富效應和資產負債表效應,易於產生物價的上漲壓力。在匯率持續升值的情況下,資產價格上漲預期也較強,只要資產價格上漲的預期收益(扣除風險溢價),超過其他投資管道收益(如銀行存款利息或真實經濟投資收益),資產價格將暴漲,名義利率和預期通脹率也將隨之雙雙上揚。相反,印尼的實際匯率與通貨膨脹之間呈負相關關係,即印尼盾升值會降低通貨膨脹率,但是從 t 值來看關係不顯著。當印尼盾走強,使印尼國內進口成本下降,從而一定程度上會使通貨膨脹得到緩解。但是,印尼外貿出口占經濟增長比重小,因此關係不顯著。2)與泰國的數據比較,印尼的出口相對比較薄弱,但是印尼出口卻與通貨膨脹呈顯著正相關關係6。泰國是出口導向型的經濟,但是出口與通貨膨脹關係不顯著。原因可以解釋為,泰國的出口始終在經濟中佔有重要地位,無論是發生金融危機還是不發生金融危機,出口占整個經濟的比重一直很高,因此,出口額的變化並不會影響到通貨膨脹的變化。然而,印尼的情況與泰國不一樣。印尼的經濟結構中,國內消費一直占主導,出口是薄弱環節,6. Word Bank數據表明,從2000年至2010年泰國的貨物和服務年度出口總額占GDP比重基本在64.2%~76.4%,而印尼為24.1%~40%。如果出口增加,會促進經濟快速增長,從而增加通貨膨脹率。另外,印尼出口的產品種類也與泰國不同,印尼主要是以初級原料為主,例如棕櫚油、礦物燃料、橡膠和金屬等。但是,國內在經濟發展過程中也需要這些初級原料,因此會產生國內供不應求,原料價格上漲,引起成本推動型的通貨膨脹。所以,印尼的出口與通貨膨脹呈顯著正相關關係。5 政策建議從泰國和印尼兩個國家的實證結果分析可以看出,在發展經濟的同時也要注意防止發生嚴重通貨膨脹。當然,適度的通貨膨脹是能夠促進經濟增長的。因此,筆者提出了以下政策建議:1)轉變經濟發展方式,由粗放型向集約型轉變。同時,要調整和優化經濟結構,促進消費、投資和出口這三駕馬車齊頭並進、協調發展。泰國要增加國內消費,降低外貿依存度;印尼應該提供穩定的投資環境,增加出口,促進國民經濟又好又快地發展。2)靈活運用多種貨幣政策工具,提高貨幣政策有效性。泰國一直以出口導向為經濟引領點,大量的外匯儲備,國外遊資進入泰國的股市、房地產,出現泡沫,資產價格劇烈波動。因此,需要適當控制貨幣供應量的增長率,並不是說,貨幣供應量與通貨膨脹關係不顯著,就可以任意發行貨幣,應該要使貨幣供應量與國民經濟發展相適應,充分考慮貨幣乘數,靈活使用公開市場業務、存款準備金等貨幣政策工具。3)在整頓金融體制和金融機構改革方面,在推行經濟自由化和金融自由化的過程中,應該注意防範金融風險。4)完善國家法律和金融制度,提高央行貨幣政策的獨立性,從而提高貨幣政策工具的有效性。同時,應該提高貨幣政策制定和實施的透明度,央行在建立相應的巨集觀經濟模型,來對未來的通貨膨脹、匯率趨勢、貨幣需求量等經濟指標時,模型細節和應用也向公眾開放,從而使得公眾對
66未來貨幣政策有正確的預期,通貨膨脹水準可以得到很好的控制。5)建立良好的央行信譽。作為執行通貨膨脹目標制的國家,央行定期發佈通貨膨脹報告,向公眾說明通脹目標執行情況,如果發生目標偏離,要解釋偏離原因和調整恢復的時間計劃,並隨時準備回應政府和公眾疑問。央行信譽的建立與央行的獨立性密切相關。央行提供的通貨膨脹報告必須如實反映問題,不能有人為的修改,維護好央行的信譽,保持獨立性。參 考 文 獻[1] Enders, W. (2010), Applied Econometrics Time Series, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p357.[2] Friedman, M. (1977). Nobel lecture: inflation and unemployment, JSTOR: 451-472.[3] Payne, J. E. (2009). Inflation targeting and the inflation -inflation uncertainty relationship: Evidence from thailand. Applied Economics Letters, 16(3), 233-238.[4] Ghosh, A. and R. S.Rajan(2009). Exchange rate pass-through in Korea and Thailand: Trends and determinants. Japan & the World Economy, 21, 55-70.[5] Kubo, A. (2008). Macroeconomic impact of monetary policy shocks: Evidence from recent experience in Thailand. Journal of Asian Economics, 19, 83-91.[6] Ghosh, A. and R. S.Rajan (2007). A comparative analysis of export price pass-through in three open asian economies: Korea, Singapore and Thailand. Global Economic Review, 36(3), 287-299.[7] Buiter, W. H. and M. H. Miller (1982). Real exchange rate overshooting and the output cost of bringing down inflation, National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, Mass., USA.[8] Calvo, G. A., C. M. Reinhart and C. A. Vegh. (1995). Targeting the real exchange rate: theory and evidence, Elsevier. 47: 97-133.[9] Kamin, S. B. (1996). Real exchange rates and inflation in exchange-rate based stabilizations: an empirical examination, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (US).[10] Gylfason, T. (1999).Exports, inflation and growth, Elsevier. 27: 1031-1057.[11] Prasertnukul, W., D. Kim, et al. Exchange rates, price levels, and inflation targeting: Evidence from Asian countries, Elsevier. 22: 173-182.[12] Reza, Y. S. and S. Goo. (2010). Effectiveness and commitment to inflation targeting policy: Evidence from indonesia and thailand. Journal of Asian Economics, 21, 113-128.[13] Neumann, M. J. M. and J. V. Hagen (2002). Does inflation targeting matter? Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis. 84: 127-148.[14] Ammer, J. and R. T. Freeman (1995). Inflation targeting in the 1990s: the experiences of New Zealand, Canada, and the United Kingdom, Elsevier. 47: 165-192.[15] Taylor, J. B. (2000). Low inflation, pass-through, and the pricing power of firms, Elsevier. 44: 1389-1408.校園活動澳門科技大學成功舉辦第二屆運動會由澳門科技大學學生會主辦,澳門基金會、高等教育輔助辦公室贊助的澳門科技大學第二屆運動會於11月2日及4日在學校田徑運動場舉行,586名學生參加了兩天共19項賽事。陳曦副校長在開幕致辭中表示,大學重視學生的體育運動,認為這是一項在大學必不可缺的培育工作,透過運動培養學生追求卓越的人文精神。閉幕禮上,許敖敖校長祝賀獲獎運動員並感謝一直支持澳科大工作的各友好單位,感謝澳門田徑總會和澳門拔河總會擔任個人賽和團體賽的裁判,讓運動會的公平與正規得到了充分的保障。他勉勵科大學生會再接再厲,弘揚體育,並期望學生會能像奧運會聖火傳遞那樣將運動會一屆一屆傳承下去,成為澳科大的優秀校園文化景觀。創業就業發展中心2012/2013學年第一學期組織校園活動一覽表序號 校園活動 日期 主題 主講者1 創業就業講座 9月25日做行動的夢想者 ——當代大學生就業創業與生涯發展中國青年政治學院副校長、國際勞工組織 KAB創業教育中國研究所所長李家華教授2 校友分享會 9月28日四位校友分享自己的大學生活 與就業發展過程中的經驗中國電信(澳門)公司、中國銀行澳門分行、澳門電信、銀河集團四位校友3 創業就業講座 10月12日 如何在大學中脫穎而出 對外貿易大學公共管理學院廉思副教授*說明:校友分享會為創業就業中心與校友會聯合總會合辦
67第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 組織政治知覺與員工離職傾向: “群體互動”跨層次調節角色的驗證張博堅1,簡睿清2,林桐銘3(1. 澳門科技大學 行政與管理學院,澳門;2. 育英醫護管理專科學校老人服務事業管理科,臺灣) (3. 國立中山大學人力資源管理研究所,臺灣)摘要: 過去組織政治知覺的研究,要不是局限在有關政治知覺對員工的態度和行為的影響關係,就是探討影響此關係的調節效果,而且焦點都僅集中在個人層次的分析。然而,基於組織具巢套的特性及互動論的觀點,本研究提出一個可能存在的群體影響因素——群體互動,並且使用層級線性模型分析其和政治知覺、員工離職傾向間的影響關係,以期延伸既有的組織政治知覺理論模型至不同層次。本研究樣本來自於1170個員工,101個工作群體,結果顯示組織政治知覺及群體互動對員工離職傾向具顯著之直接影響效果,而且,群體互動在政治知覺與員工離職傾向之間扮演跨層次調節的角色。針對上述結果,本研究提出相關的討論與建議。關鍵詞: 組織政治知覺;互動論觀點;群體互動;層級線性模型;離職傾向Perceptions of Organizational Politics and Employees' Turnover Intentiont: The Cross-level Moderating Role of Group InteractionPo-Chien CHANG1, Jui-Ching CHIEN2, Tong-Ming LIN3( 1. Macau University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau )( 2. Yun-Ing Junior College of Health Care & Management, Department of Senior Citizen Service Management, Taiwan )( 3. National Sun Yat-sen University, Institute of Human Resource Management, Taiwan )AAstractt: Previous studies of employees’ perceptions of organizational politics (POP) have not fully emphasized the effects and influencing mechanisms of higher level factors. Instead, they concentrated mostly on individual level analysis. However, the inherited nested and multi-level nature across organizations might shape the permeating context which can have inevitable impacts upon employees’ attitudes and behavior. In this study, we extend the original theoretical framework of POP with formal consideration of one cross-level factor (i.e. group interaction) and apply interactionist perspective and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to analyze the relationship among POP, turnover intention, and group interaction. The results, based on 1170 employees constituting 101 work groups, revealed that both individual- level (POP) and group-level (group interaction) factors were significantly associated with individual employees’ turnover intention. Meanwhile, group interaction moderates the relationship between POP and individual employees’ turnover intention. The research and practice implications of the findings are discussed.eyyordst: Perceptions of organizational politics (POP); Group interaction; Interactionist perspective; Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM); Turnover intention.收稿日期:2012-03-28;修訂日期:2012-06-26。通讯作者:張博堅,男,博士,澳門科技大學行政與管理學院助理教授,主要研究方嚮:組織政治、策略性人力資源管理、跨文化研究。E-mail:pcchang@must.edu.mo,電話:(+853)8897-2947
79張博堅,等 組織政治知覺與員工離職傾向: “群體互動”跨層次調節角色的驗證出的調節變項(群體互動)來看,它亦扮演一個關鍵性的情境影響角色,因為儘管員工往往對於充滿政治氛圍的工作情境產生負面回應,但工作單位中的管理者 / 領導者如能積極地促進群體內互動行為的品質或頻率的發生,它就可減少員工對於因許多不合法、自利的政治活動所塑造出的政治環境所帶來的負面影響,在管理實務上的具體做法例如讓員工能參與群體目標的設定、群體決策、群體運作的過程和成果分享、自主管理等,其目的無非是希望讓員工能有表達意見的機會,同時感受到自己的控制力及對於環境的瞭解程度增加,因而減少其對工作環境中模糊性及不確定性的感知(即降低環境所帶來的壓力),提高工作滿足,降低離職傾向。除此之外,工作單位中的管理者 / 領導者亦可透過一些非工作場合的社交活動(例如野餐、郊遊、球類運動等),增進員工彼此間的溝通及瞭解,因為這類型的活動往往被認為是較不具競爭性,且通常是促進員工在工作上能有更進一步高品質及密切互動的絕佳良方。因此,基於本研究所得到的結論,我們建議管理者 / 領導者於管理實務上除了致力於在有關績效評估、資源分配、管理決策等的公平性外,更不應該忽略群體成員內部互動的特性,如此才能讓員工更願意留下來繼續為群體努力。6 研究限制與後續研究建議立基於前述理論基礎的推演與實徵資料的蒐集與驗證,本研究雖然在結果上已獲得了實徵分析結果支持研究理論的證實,然而仍有一些不足與限制的地方,以下茲將針對各點提出說明與建議。(1)本研究主要是採橫斷性(cross-sectional)的研究設計,它可能會限制因果關係推論上的正確程度,因此,建議後續研究者可採用縱貫性(longitudinal)的研究設計,以讓因果關係的驗證能更令人信服。(2)本研究為了避免因樣本數過少所導致研究結論上的範圍限制(range restriction)(Bliese, 2000[4]),特別針對四個不同產業、45 個組織中隸屬於同一主管之下的員工作為研究對象。但是,嚴格來說,所得的結論在外部效度上仍然有其推論應用上的局限性。建議未來研究應該可以拓展至更多不同類型的產業,以使相關結論有較高的外部適用性。(3)不可諱言地,本研究的分析結果極有可能受到共同方法變異的影響,然而,於研究進行中,本研究仍盡力克服此問題,例如在事前的預防措施上,利用 Podsakoff, ManKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff(2003)[52] 所提問卷編排設計法中的受訪資訊隱匿法、題項意義隱匿法、反向題項設計法進行問卷編排工作,同時,於事後的補救措施上(即問卷施測後),亦採用 Harman's 單因素檢定法(Harman's one-factor test)來進行檢測,從檢測結果發現,並未僅存在單一因素,而且,第一個重要因素也並未解釋大部分的變異,因此,初步判定本研究受共同方法變異的影響不大。參 考 文 獻[1] Albanese, R., & Van Fleet, D. D. (1983). Organizational behavior: A managerial viewpoint. New York: The Dryden Press.[2] Atinc, G., Darrat, M., Fuller, B, & Parker, B. W. (2010). Perceptions of organizational politics: A meta-analysis of theoretical antecedents. Journal of Managerial Issues, 4, 494-513.[3] Beaty, J. C., Cleveland, J. N., & Murphy, K. R. (2001). The relation between personality and contextual performance in “strong” versus “weak” situations. Human Performance, 14, 125-148. [4] Bliese, P. D. (2000). Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis. In K. J. Klein & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations: Foudations, extensions, and new directions. 349-381. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass [5] Brouer, R. L., Harris, K. J., & Kacmar, K. M. (2011). The moderating effects of political skill on the perceived politics-outcome relationships. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32, 869-885.[6] Cammann, C., Fichman, M., Jenkins, D., & Klesh, J. (1979). The Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript, Universityof Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.[7] Chang, C. H., Rosen, C. C., & Levy, P. E. (2009). The relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employee attitudes, strain, and behavior: A meta-analytic examination. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 779-801.[8] Chen, Y. Y. & Fang, W.C. (2008). The moderating effect of impression management on the organizational politics-performance relationship. Journal of Business Ethics, 79, 263-277.[9] Cropanzano, R. S., Howes, J. C., Grandey, A. A., Toth, P (1997). The
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82第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 影響大學生GMC比賽成績的關鍵因素 ——個體差異的視角石永東,彭 楊,張 琳(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 論文從個體差異的視角探討了影響大學生GMC比賽成績的關鍵因素。通過對澳門賽區146位參賽大學生的問卷調查,研究發現:自主參賽行為、學業成績會對比賽成績有顯著正向影響;參賽態度、個性特質中的外傾性、宜人性、盡責性對自主參賽行為有顯著正向影響;個性特質中的神經質對自主參賽行為有顯著負向影響,開放性對自主參賽行為沒有顯著影響;校園文化在態度與自主參賽行爲的關係中起到了正向調節作用。這些發現深化了對比賽績效管理的研究,對提高大學生GMC比賽成績具有一定實踐意義。關鍵詞: 世界管理挑戰賽;GMC;比賽成績;影響因素;澳門ey Success Factors for University Students in GloAal Management Challenge (GMC)t: An individual-level analysisYongdong SHI, Yang PENG, Lin ZHANG( Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: This paper investigated the key success factors for university students in Global Management Challenge (GMC) from the individual perspective. Data were obtained from 146 players from Macao SAR, China. Results of regression analysis revealed that (1) the player’s self-regulated behavior and academic achievement were positive related to his score; (2) the player’s attitude and the extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness of personality trait were positive related to his self-regulated behavior; (3) the player’s neuroticism was negative related to his self-regulated behavior while the openness had no significant relation with his self-regulated behavior; (4) the perceptions of campus culture positively moderated the relationship between the player’s attitude and self-regulated behavior. This study extended the research on competition performance management, as well as deepened insights into the ways for university students to improve their scores in the GMC.eyyordst: Global Management Challenge; GMC; Competition Performance; Factor; Macau收稿日期:2012-03-15;修訂日期:2012-10-02。*通訊作者:石永東,男,管理學博士,澳門科技大學行政與管理學院助理教授,主要研究方向為客戶關係、戰略管理。E-mail: ydshi@must.edu.mo,Tel: +853-889720410 引言世界管理挑戰賽(Global Management Challenge,簡稱 GMC)被譽為“企業管理奧林匹克大賽”,上世紀 80 年代初起源於歐洲,為一年一度的國際賽事[1]。在過去 30 年裡吸引了來自 30 多個國家和地區,超過 40萬名學生及企業管理人員參加比賽。中國大陸賽區 2011 年有來自全國超過 130 所高校的近 2000 支隊伍參賽 [2]。澳門從 1996 年起參賽,並由澳門科技大學代表隊摘得 2007 年度世界冠軍的桂冠[3]。
89石永東,等 影響大學生GMC比賽成績的關鍵因素 ——個體差異的視角性對自主參賽行為的關係呈顯著正相關且盡責性的影響最大,神經質對自主參賽行為的關係呈顯著負相關,開放性對自主參賽行為沒有顯著的影響,參賽態度對自主參賽行為有顯著正向影響且影響較高。另外,本研究還發現校園文化在參賽態度對自主參賽行為的影響中起到正向調節作用,即校園文化越積極,態度對自主參賽行爲的正向影響效果越大。這些發現揭示了影響大學生參加世界管理挑戰賽比賽成績的內在規律,豐富了比賽績效管理的理論研究。與前人的研究比較而言,本研究結論對Schoenecker 等 人(1997,p.483)[8] 的 觀 點“ 高GPA 的組會有更好的比賽成績”從個體層面上提供了實證支持。不同於 Gosenpud 和 Miesing(1992)[11] 將 44 個因素作為獨立自變量的研究方法,本研究通過建立模型,探討了個性、態度、行為、比賽成績之間的相互關係。關於個性和比賽成績的關係 , 本研究採用了大五個性量表,並探討了各個維度與自主參賽行為、比賽成績的關係,這不同於 Gosenpud 和 Washbush(1996)[12] 的測量方法和發現。同時,本研究揭示了文化在態度和行為關係中的調節作用,這拓展了 Ritchie 等人(2012)[10] 關於團隊文化對比賽成績的影響機制的研究。從實踐的角度看,本研究成果對提高大學生GMC 比賽成績具有一定指導意義。澳門高校每年都有眾多學生參加 GMC 比賽,並取得令人驕傲的成績。2010 年澳門科技大學的參賽隊伍 Venetian力壓群雄,從眾多優秀的隊伍中脫穎而出,繼2007 年和 2009 年,再次摘取澳門賽區冠軍,最終榮獲國際比賽亞軍。本研究成果可以指導大學生通過小組成員的個性、態度、學習成績和自主參賽行為四方面的認識,合理組成最佳團隊,建立小組成員之間互信互助的信念,發揮成員的最大潛力,共同努力取得理想的比賽成績。同時,學校營造支持 GMC 的積極校園文化則有利於參賽學生在比賽中能更好地發揮自己的能力並取得好成績。4.2 研究局限與後續研究建議本研究受調研條件、時間、財力和學術水平上的限制,有諸多不足之處: (1)目前學術文獻中對 GMC 比賽成績研究的成果不多,因此可供直接借鑒的理論成果有限。本研究的理論基礎有待進一步加強。(2)本研究雖然綜合了文獻研究、焦點小組訪談、專家修正和因子分析等方式設計量表的結構和內容。但是難免存在不規範或不科學之處,略顯粗糙,從而使研究結論有一定的偏差。(3)在樣本選取上,只選取了澳門科技大學參加比賽的學生作為樣本,並且樣本量也較小,在研究範圍和對象上存在一定的局限性。後續研究如果能選擇多個大學的參賽學生,會使樣本更具代表性。參 考 文 獻[1] 北京理工大學MBA教育中心組. 北京理工大學GMC冠軍歷程與實戰指導.北京:機械工業出版社出版, 2008.[2] 新華網. 2011GMC國際企業管理挑戰賽中國區總冠軍決出. http://news.xinhuanet.com/edu/2012-01/10/c_122565940.htm[3] 澳門管理專業協會. 世界管理挑戰賽. http://www.gmc-asia.com/challenge/html/MACAU_ENG/M_01_introduction.htm[4] Chin J., Dukes R., Gamson W., Assessment in Simulation and Gaming: A Review of the Last 40 Years. Simulation & Gaming, 2009, 40(4): 553-568.[5] 李智. GMC在企業決策支持系統課程教學中的應用.中國管理信息化,2007,10(6):78-80.[6] 蕭曉東. 管理模擬教學的發展與創新. 經濟管理,2001,22:76-80.[7] Anderson, J. R., The Relationship Between Student Perceptions of Team Dynamics and Simulation Game Outcomes: An Individual-Level Analysis. Journal of Education for Business, 2005, 81 (2): 85-90.[8] Schoenecker T. S., Martell K. D., and Michlitsch J. F., Diversity, Performance, and Satisfaction in Student Group Projects: An Empirical Study. Research in Higher Education, 1997, 38(4): 479-495[9] Hornaday R. W., Curran K. E., Formal Planning and the Performance of Business Simulation Teams. Simulation & Gaming, 1996, 27(2): 206-222.[10] Ritchie W. J., Fornaciari C.J., Drew S.A.W., and Marlin D., Team Culture and Business Strategy Simulation Performance. Journal of Management Education, 2012 [in press][11] Gosenpud J., Miesing P., The Relative Influence of Several Factors on Simulation Performance. Simulation & Gaming, 1992, 23 (3): 311-325.[12] Gosenpud J., Washbush J., Total Enterprise Simulation Performance as a Function of Myers-Briggs Personality Type. Simulation &
90Gaming, 1996, 27(2): 184-205.[13] 何俊虎. 影響我國優秀殘疾田徑運動員運動水準的主要社會因素分析[D]. 北京:北京體育大學,2000:14.[14] Zimmerman B. J., Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 1990, 25(1): 3–17.[15] Zimmerman, B. J., Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice, 2002, 41(2): 64–70.[16] 張立沖.研究生認識論信念對學習行為影響的實證研究[D].大連理工大學,2009:20-21,50.[17] Allport G., The functional autonomy of motives. Classics in the History of Psychology, C. D. Green Eds. York University, Toronto, Canada, 1937: 141-156.[18] McCrae R. R., Costa Jr. P. T., Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 1997, 52(5): 509–516.[19] Matthews G., Deary I. J., Personality traits. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.[20] McCrae R. R., John O. P., An introduction to the Five-Factor Model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 1992, 60: 175-215.[21] Chatman J. A., Barsade, S. G., Personality, organizational culture, and cooperation: Evidence from a business simulation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1995, 40(3): 423-443.[22] 張小紅. 美國醫學生在校學習成績與畢業後成績的相關性研究. 國外醫學(醫學教育分冊),1994,15(3):128–131.[23] 彭厚鵬, 羅五金等. 對我校1176名本科畢業生的跟蹤調查和品質評價.醫學與社會,1997,10(4):58–60.[24] Baron R., Byrnt D., Suls J., Exploring social psychology, 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1989: 79–82.[25] Upmeyer A., Attitudes and behavioral decisions. Springer-Verlag New York Inc., 1989: 1–2.[26] Thomas R., Koballa J., Attitude and related concepts in science education. Science Education, 1988, 72(2): 115–126.[27] 馬靜玉. 試論校園文化與大學生成才的關係.國家教育行政學院學報,2006,8:22–25.[28] 汪茂華.初中生科學態度的測量研究[D]. 廣西:廣西師範大學, 2007:12–16.[29] Aiken L. S., West, S. G., Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA., 1991.附錄:影響GMC比賽成績的因素調查問卷親愛的同學:您好!為了深入研究影響大學生參加 GMC 比賽成績的因素,請您配合我們的調查,完成下面的問卷。請您根據自己的實際情況,在每題的空格內勾選。我們保證不會將調查內容告知他人,僅用作本研究使用,請您放心填寫。十分感謝您的合作!有關對個性的認識,在您認同的等級上打“√” 非常同意 同意不同意 也不反對反對 強烈反對1.我喜歡有很多朋友在我周圍 5 4 3 2 12.我是非常活躍活潑的人 5 4 3 2 13.我總喜歡一個人獨自做事 5 4 3 2 14.我認為自己不是特別的“情緒高昂” 5 4 3 2 15.我寧願與他人合作而不是與他人競爭 5 4 3 2 16.我知道很多人喜歡我 5 4 3 2 17.如果我不喜歡誰,我會讓他知道 5 4 3 2 18.我經常與我的家人或合作者爭辯 5 4 3 2 19.如果我做出了承諾,我會想方設法的實現 5 4 3 2 110.我總是讓工作積極的有效的完成 5 4 3 2 111.有時我沒有做到我應有的可信和可靠 5 4 3 2 112.我感到做工作時總是缺乏條理性 5 4 3 2 113.我經常感到無助希望別人能幫我解決問題 5 4 3 2 114.我經常感到緊張和神經過敏 5 4 3 2 115.我很少憂愁和沮喪 5 4 3 2 116.我不是一個自找煩惱的人 5 4 3 2 117.我經常在探索理論或抽象概念中感到快樂 5 4 3 2 118.我對藝術和自然都很有興趣 5 4 3 2 119.我很少注意不同環境產生的心情和感覺的變化 5 4 3 2 120.我不喜歡浪費時間在幻想不能實現的事情 5 4 3 2 1
92第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 Received 16 Apr. 2012; Revised 18 Jul. 2012.Wen Ying Liu, Lecturer, Department of General Education, Macau University of Science and Technology. E-mail: wyliu@must.edu.mo, Tel: 88972811 (office) , 66317424 (mobile phone)A Social Interpretation of People’s Choice of Heroest: A Case StudyWenying LIU( Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau, China )AAstractt: People’s choice of heroes and heroines in a society reflects their mentality, their social value orientations, and the overall social reality of the time when the heroes and heroines are chosen. From the perspective of choice of heroes and heroines, this paper examines the heroes and heroines selected by a group of college students in order to seek a macro look at the society and the time, in which the students live, as well as a micro look at the characters, qualities, and characteristics that the students regard as being heroic. It has been found that the choices of heroes and heroines have presented a great diversity: heroes today are chosen from a variety of fields, of which the most chosen three are sports athletes, entertainment artists, and writers; of all the heroes the most chosen of all is Yao Ming; heroes today are chosen based more on individual identity instead of cultural identity; the selected heroes today have crossed national boundaries; the choices of heroes in local Macau students have embodied distinctive features of Macau culture; heroes are much more preferred than heroines; among the chosen heroes, there is a great number of heroes who have passed away but are still remembered and worshipped by the young, with Lei Feng being the favorite of the category; the edges between “celebrity” and “hero” tend to be increasingly blurry. This paper then attempts to discuss an emerging cultural wave – the “I” culture, the social implications and driving forces behind the diversity in choices of heroes, and the dynamic definition of the word “hero”.ey yordst: Diversity in the choice of heroes; the driving forces; the “I” culture; the dynamic ‘hero’ concept “英雄選擇”的社會解讀:案例分析劉文英(澳門科技大學, 氹仔偉龍馬路,澳門)摘要: 英雄代表著一個社會群體的價值取向,映射著一個時代的社會現實。本文分析了由大學生選出來的英雄人物,從英雄的角度來宏觀審視當今社會現實,同時微觀分析當今中國青年視為“英雄"的人物個體, 尋找他們具備的英雄特徵以及他們折射的社會現實意義。研究發現當代中國青年的英雄選擇呈現出多元化、多樣化特徵:當今英雄來自於不同領域,其中體育運動員、演藝人員、和作家是被選最多的三個領域;姚明是被選最多的英雄個體;英雄選擇更多基於個體認
93Wenying LIU A Social Interpretation of People’s Choice of Heroes: A Case Study 0 Introduction Nowadays, the lament that “we live in a time without heroes” has gained a lot of support among Chinese. At the same time, we hear an opposite opinion, which holds that instead of having no heroes we are actually living in an era when everyone has a chance to be a hero and therefore there are simply too many heroes to have a single one stand out easily1. These two distinctive views represent the different parties of an on-going debate among journalists, intellectuals, educators, politicians, and even ordinary people. Heated discussions have taken place in different forms on the Internet, in newspapers, or even in TV programs, yet they seem hard to reach an agreement on “whether or not there are still heroes in today’s China?” This paper takes this discussion to an academic level, approaching the question with hands-on data and thick analysis.T. A. Hsia in his the Heroes and Hero Worship in Chinese Communist Fiction in 1963 examined many popular Chinese fictions of the 1950s and 1960s from the perspective of hero portrait, revealing the intricate relationships of art and ideology.[1] His analysis of the common characteristics and gradual changes in the heroes and heroines portrait of that period has presented a clear picture of the societal and political reality of China at that time, which helps us to understand the society better by seeing the heroes and heroines whom people in this society have selected to worship. A similar view was expressed by Lin (2011) in Chinese Semiotics: Socio-semiotics: “a ‘hero’ in history is more than a special individuality, 1. The views are summarized based on the following sources: (1)誰說我們今天是“沒有英雄的時代” http://blog.ipart.cn/blog/blog_new_diary_viewmore.php?u=6698371&d=35; (2)“一個沒有英雄的年代”, http://news.163.com/06/1231/08/33LKKGPO000121EP.h tml ; (3 ) “中國,怎麼可以沒有英雄?”ht tp : / /house .focus.cn/showarticle/2454/503131.html; (4)“沒有英雄的榜樣,讓中國的年輕人怎麼成長”http://club.china.com/data/thread/1011/2737/19/29/7_1.html a token of an age, a symbol of a culture or a main character of a historical period; what’s more, it also reflects the relative natural outlook (relative natürliche Weltanschauung), or a special social reality”.[2]Despite the poverty of hero-themed studies on Chinese, hero and hero worship have long become an interest of researchers. Not only have heroes and heroines been portrayed, created, analyzed, criticized, and acclaimed by many, but also heroes of all times have been extensively compared and studied so as to reveal the significances of heroes to all societies and the changes that have happened in hero worship throughout history[3~5] (Carlyle, 1840; Harris, 1994; Klapp, 1949). With a close at the focuses of westerner’s approaches to hero and hero worship at different stages, we are surprised to find that the laments that we are having today about hero decline and extinction and relevant debates are exactly what western researchers were arguing about in the late half of last century. They had the same doubts on whether there were still true heroes in their times, which were similarly responded positively by some and negatively by others [5~7] (Klapp, 1949, Smith, 1973; Rolling, 1983). Unfortunately, even until today their doubts have not yet been cleared for good, though they are seldom asked any more. It is not because they don’t have the doubts any more, but because they have found it simply meaningless to ask the questions; after all, if we lay eyes on the media, we do have new heroes and heroines emerging every day. However, as is said: “Heroes today are not born. They are packaged. They are thrust upon us by marketing strategies” [8] (Gerzon, 1982), not all people can have the chance to recognize these newcomers as heroes or heroines for soon they will be replaced and therefore forgotten. In time, the hope to answer the question “whether there are still true heroes” has worn out, and the trend of hero 同而非文化認同;英雄選擇不受疆域所限;澳門本地同學的英雄選擇體現了澳門文化的獨有特徵;男英雄的受歡迎程度遠遠大於女英雄;很多已經去世的英雄仍然受人稱頌,以雷鋒為最;“英雄"和 “名人"的界限模糊重疊. 本文接著討論了新興的的文化趨向,即“我"文化,英雄選擇多樣化特徵的社會驅動因素,以及動態化的“英雄"概念。關鍵詞: 英雄選擇多元化;驅動因素;“我"文化趨向;動態化的“英雄"概念
94studies has shifted from the phenomenon of hero and hero worship itself to certain specific types of heroes, athletic heroes[9~10], for instance(Burton, 2001), and to hero in relation to other disciplines or fields such as heroes and athletes, heroes and celebrities, hero and media, heroes and psychology, and heroes and marketing[4,10~12,9] (Harris, 1994; Shuart,2002; Strate, 1994; Burton, 2001). The variation and evolution in studies of heroes echo with the changes of social reality in which the heroes and heroines are chosen. The combination of fast developing economy and fast and abundant flow of information have revolutionized the traditional ways by which heroes are identified, portrayed, or constructed[13~15].With the same societal changes taking place in China at the present time and the advancement of globalization, we can not help wonder if the same changes have happened in Chinese’s perception of heroes (heroines) and if there are some other distinctive features in choice of heroes or heroines that are unique to Chinese, especially the youths. There is a Chinese saying that goes “out of the chaos come heroes”, but with the absence of war and other solemn social chaos – the traditional birthplaces of heroes and the presence of new chaos caused by flooding information in this new age, where do today’s heroes come from? Also as another Chinese saying goes, “the times produce their heroes”, then who are the heroes of our time and what special qualities do they have?This paper aims to address these questions by examining the heroes and heroines selected by a group of Chinese college students, of the total sample of 676 at Macau University of Science and Technology, among whom 471 are from mainland China and 196 are local Macau citizens. It is expected that studying their choice of heroes and heroines will help throw some light on the choice of heroes or heroines of the Chinese youth or ambitiously all Chinese today. The inspiration of doing this study came in an unexpected way. At the end of last semester, in the final exam of one of the classes that this author taught students were required to write a composition to introduce “a hero (heroine) in your own culture” and explain why they think he (she) is a hero (heroine). The results we received were so intriguing and revealing that they motivated this author to desire to read more into their choices of heroes and heroines. Later this author went on and gained access to more results of other students whom this author didn’t teach but had taken the same exam for the same course. 1 The Choices of Heroes and Heroines1.1 Categories of the Heroes (Heroines) To approach the previously mentioned questions on where heroes today come from and who the heroes of our time are, the heroes (heroines) gathered from the subjects are first classified into different categories based on the industries or fields in which they are portrayed as heroes (heroines) by the participants, and then the categories are ranked so as to reveal heroes of which category are the most popular among students, results of which are shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 The Popularity and Size of Each CategoryWe find that today the sources of heroes lie in sports athletes, entertainment artists, writers, family and friends, political and military leaders, Lei Feng-like prototype role-models, outstanding contributors to science and technology, grassroots, and appealing figures of other fields. The popularities of these categories decrease from the most popular to the least popular in the sequence of appearance. The top three types of heroes are sports heroes, entertainment
95Wenying LIU A Social Interpretation of People’s Choice of Heroes: A Case Study heroes, and writer heroes, the total popularity of which accounts for 63.2% of all. It means that the other six categories each share a slim part of the rest of the 36.8 percent of supporters. What’s also worth noticing is that sports heroes occupy an overwhelmingly dominant percentage in popularity, which is more than half of the total of the top three and almost one third the total of all types of heroes and heroines, making this category undoubtedly the most favorite heroes.Subsequen t ly, based on the r ank ing o f popularities of the categories it might be fair to say that different heroes mean differently to and therefore possibly impact differently on the twenty-year-old Chinese youths today, the age group which the subjects of this study belong to and therefore to some extent represent. However, can we go on and draw conclusion that since sports heroes are the most popular heroes they have the biggest influence on the young people? When we look closely at the heroes and heroines presented to us in all categories, we find that the number of individual separate heroes in each category varies to a large degree. As is shown in Figure 1, the number of individual separate heroes of one category is not in proportion with its popularity; the category that has the largest size in its number of heroes does not coincide with the category that has the largest popularity among students; the former is the category of entertainment artists while the latter is that of sports athletes. Also shown in Figure 1 is that with the decline in the popularity of the categories, the size fluctuates. So which category of heroes is more influential, the most popular one or the largest one? The answer may vary to different people, and then what exactly makes a difference to people’s choices of heroes and heroines? Some guesses would be their interest, life experience, living surroundings, accessible information, and so on. For example, for a young man who has a strong interest in sports, he is more likely to voluntarily choose a sports hero, for another young man who doesn’t know who Lei Feng is, he is less likely to choose Lei Feng as his hero, and for another young man who lives in a place where there is no access to the Internet, he is less likely to choose a media-created hero. So what exactly are the factors that influence the young’s choices of heroes? and to what extent? These are questions that this study can not answer accurately, but if time allows, a follow-up study can be done to approach these questions more closely. At this moment, limited by the data, it will be more sensible if we focus mainly on the heroes’ side to see what are the characteristics they share as heroes or heroines that demand respect currently.1.2 The Heroes (Heroines) Figure 1 presents to us the fact that as a collective group, heroes of different categories vary in popularities and differ in size of the number of component individuals. However, when looking at the heroes as separate individuals closely, we have found that as a component individual, each hero contributes differently to the popularity of his (her) category. For instance, in some categories, the biggest contributor contributes more than half of the entire popularity of his category such as Yao Ming to sports athlete heroes (54%) and Lu Xun to writer heroes (65%). In order to have a better understanding of the distributions of popularity contribution in each category, we try to figure out the weighted average contribution of each category. We count every vote a hero gets as one weight so the more votes he gets the higher weight he has, and then we count the total votes each category gets as the sum weight of this category. We then divide the sum weights by the number of individual heroes of each category to find out the weighted average contribution in each category, the results of which are shown in Figure 2. We can see from Figure 2 that in terms of weighted average, the separate individual heroes of categories such as sports athletes, LeiFeng-like heroes, and family and friends weigh much more than those of other categories, so we can probably infer that every individual in these three categories means more to his own field than other separate individuals to their own categories.Figure 2 has also shown the star contributor in
96each category, who are Yao Ming in sports athletes, Jackie Chan in entertainment artists, Lu Xun in writers, My Father in family and friends, Mao ZeDong in political leaders, Lei Feng in prototype role models, Steve Jobs in contributors to science and technology, an unknown philanthropist singer in grassroots, and Li Kashing in other unidentified categories. It is easy to spot that these people coincide with the representative big names that we know in the social fields of modern China. Of all the big names presented in Figure 2, we can see that Lei Feng is the one that has the greatest impact on his own field, followed by Lu Xun and Yao Ming separately to their fields. This interesting finding can throw some light into the recently emerging controversy on whether Lei Feng continues to be an admirable hero today. Figure 2 seems to say that the answer is “YES”, especially for those who are looking for prototype role models to be heroes. For them, Lei Feng is still their favorite choice of heroes. Figure 2 The largest ContriAutor in Each Category1.3 Culture1.3.1 The “I” CultureAlong with the categories and individual heroes, another thing that has intrigued us a lot in the data is how students nowadays perceive the words: “your culture”. The writing task of the final exam, from which the data and inspiration for this study derive, is “a hero (heroine) in your own culture”. We are not sure whether it is intentional or not, but for us, the word “own” in the topic statement has a strong implication of writing about a Chinese hero, given all the participants are Chinese. However, from a student’s perspective, when he sees this topic, all he sees is that he needs to write about “a hero (heroine) in my (our) own culture”. But what is “my (our) own culture”? Is it an equivalent of “Chinese culture” for a student? Well, the answer seems to be “No”, Chinese culture is not equal to “my (our) own culture”, not at least for the involved students here because we have found that not all heroes (heroines) they have chosen are Chinese. To be exact, there are 21 percent of heroes who are non-Chinese and there are 25 percent of students who have chosen a non-Chinese hero. Due to the ambiguity in the topic statement, the percentages here can not reflect the whole picture of what nationality means to hero selection, but it does tell us something about how students nowadays see themselves as an individual. The fact that there are non-Chinese heroes chosen by so many Chinese students means that at least some of our youths today have not counted “nationality” as being essential in their definition of “my (our) own culture”. Choosing a non-Chinese hero obviously has ignored the implication of writing a Chinese hero by the word “own”. One potential reason for this might be that students don’t understand the word “own”, but this can not be true simply because all the students taking this final exam were studying in an intermediate level of English course, which means that “own” should have long been in their vocabulary knowledge for some time. Then what is it that has caused the students’ inability to catch the implication? Now, let’s try to think from the students’ perspective to see how they understand the topic “a hero in my (our) own culture”. To start, since the English word “you” can either indicate an individual or a group, the topic can first be interpreted differently as my culture or our culture, in both of which “I” am an individual. Then who am “I” as an individual? “I” am a Chinese but at the same time “I” am also a 20-year-old person living in the 21st century with the Internet and globalization going on around “me”. As a result, for those who are only conscious of his Chinese identity as an individual, “I” am Chinese and
97Wenying LIU A Social Interpretation of People’s Choice of Heroes: A Case Study “I” am going to write about a Chinese hero, but for those who have realized or who have naturally grown up being aware of his both identities, “I” am going to write about a person whom “I” see as a hero (heroine) with no regard of his (her) nationality. So for many students, who “I” choose to be a hero is an individual matter that has nothing to do with “my” nationality or the hero’s nationality. This increasing consciousness of “I” as an individual independent of national boundaries, of course, is too ideal a scenario, but the existence of this trend has represented the emergence of new understanding of “culture”, which we call the “I” culture since everything in this culture revolves around “I”. To understand this culture, first we need to be aware of the living surroundings where we live at this moment. Other information about nationality and hero selection that might mean something is that the categories where non-Chinese heroes (heroines) appear mainly lie in sports athlete, entertainment artists, and outstanding figures in science and technology. These three fields are the fields that are most heavily influenced by globalization and information technology. In addition, the rise of the “I” culture in Chinese youths also has something to do with the shift from collectivism to individualism in Chinese people’s mentality and Chinese social ideology, but to fully explain which will need help from other perspectives such as politics, history, psychology, etc. So due to the limitation of relevant knowledge and the focus of this paper, we do not plan to make the attempts here.The essence of the “I” cul ture has been summarized in Lin’s Socio-semiotics: Chinese Semiotics “A hero nowadays is no longer a historic figure, but instead a symbol of potential individual way of life that others may still don’t understand or have not experienced. A hero in the past belongs to history, a nation or a community, while a hero today exclusively belongs to an individual.”(Lin, 2011)1.4 Macau Culture in the Mirror of the Hero ChoiceOf the 676 subjects of this study, 196 are local Macau residents and the rest are from mainland China. Since one’s choices of heroes and heroic values are linked with one’s culture and Macau culture has been widely credited with combining the western culture and the eastern culture, we want to see if in the choice of heroes for the local students we will find something unique that distinguishes Macau culture from Mainland culture. So we compared the categories of heroes of the two groups, the results of which are shown in Figure 3.Figure 3 The Difference in Choice of heroes Aetyeen Locals and MainlandersIndeed, we have found some distinctive features in the two sets of choices: (1) different from mainland students whose favorite heroes are sports athletes, the favorite heroes of local Macaunese are entertainment artists; (2) the categories of heroes that are more popular in local Macaunese than in mainlanders are those of entertainment artists, family and friends, science elites, grassroots heroes, and other unidentified heroes; (3) the categories of heroes that are less popular in local Macaunese than in mainlanders are those of sports athletes, writers, and LeiFeng-like heroes; (4) the category that is equally popular in both local Macaunese and mainlanders is that of political and military leaders; (5) the biggest variations in the two sets of choices lie in the categories of entertainment artists and writers; (6) Yao Ming, Jackie Chan, Lu Xun, My Father, Lei Feng, and Steve Jobs remain the most influential hero even among local
98Macaunese; (7) Sun Yat-sen taking the place of Mao Ze Dong, has become the most chosen hero for local students in the category of political leaders, and (8) Stanley Ho and God, join Li Ka-shing, becoming representatives of the unidentified type of heroes each with 2 votes. These similarities and variations between the two sets of choices remind us of the fact that Macau culture is an eclectic one, combining elements of mainland Chinese culture, especially Cantonese culture, Hong Kong culture, and western culture. The impacts of these factors are mirrored in the hero choices of Macau youth. In sports, Yao Ming and Liu Xiang are their favorite heroes. In their arguments on why the two are heroes, the reasons that the author summarized based on the data include they are the first Chinese who have done something extraordinarily in certain sports events, they have set new records in history, and they have increased their sense of honor and pride in being a Chinese. These arguments represent an angle of their cultural recognition of being at least partly Chinese. In political and military heroes, unlike Mao Ze Dong being the favorite of mainlanders, Macaunese like Sun Yat-sung the best, which is easy to understand when it’s put in a geographic or historic context: compared to Mao Ze Dong, Sun Yat-sung certainly is more recognized in the southern Cantonese area of mainland China where he was born and campaigned for revolutionary activities, and he has personally lived in Macau and therefore has had an additional personal attachment to Macau. This variation from the mainlanders’ choice of heroes represents the heavy influence of Cantonese culture on Macau culture. In the category of entertainment artists, none of the chosen heroes is a mainlander but almost all are Hong Kong-made, which tells the huge impact of Hong Kong culture on Macau citizens. In addition, the fact that the category of entertainment artists is the most popular category among all also coincides with the nature of the type of economy that Macau has, which is an economy that’s based on tourism that offers services to help people from all over the world relax and be entertained. Together with the unique history of Macau being a Portuguese colony in history, this also explains another fact that except in the categories of family and friends and writers, in all genres of heroes they have identified names that are non-Chinese which proves that the huge population of foreign tourists may have left a touch in the construction of Macau culture.1.5 Other VariaAles1.5.1 GenderThe gender preference of heroes over heroines has been overtly prominent in the choices of heroes studied. There are only 23 percent of heroines in all the 167 heroes, and among the 667 subjects, there are only 10 percent who have chosen heroines. The dis-preference of heroines actually does not come as a surprise because after all even from history we can only name so few heroines, the reasons of which are complicated, combining biological, traditional, historical, social, and other factors. 1.5.2 Posthumous HeroesAnother thing that we think is worth mentioning is that the heroes (heroines) who are no longer with us are not forgotten, and they are still remembered and worshipped by many youths today. There are 68 posthumous heroes (heroines) out of the total 167, chosen by 242 students out of 667. Those who claim that Lei Feng - the iconic hero for Chinese in the latter decades of last century is not a hero any more, may find it disappointed that the most selected posthumous hero happens to be Lei Feng. 1.5.3 Celebrity HeroesAnother important phenomenon that’s worthy of a closer look is the dominant percentage of celebrities as heroes (heroines): of the 167 heroes only 24 are non-celebrities, chosen by 83 students out of 667. This is not a fresh phenomenon exclusively for MUST. freshmen. Actually the phenomenon of more and more celebrities being regarded as heroes (heroines) have been studied by many scholars, some from the point of view of pop culture, some from the point of view of communication, and others from the point of view of marketing ( Rollin, 1983; Shuart, 2002; Strudler,
99Wenying LIU A Social Interpretation of People’s Choice of Heroes: A Case Study 2006). Due to the important social implications of celebrities as heroes, this paper will include a special discussion on this topic in the 2.2.3.2 Discussiont: Diversity and Dynamics2.1 The Social Driving Forces of the Diversity in Hero (Heroine) Selection A hero is a mirror of the social reality in which he or she is chosen. The kind of heroes people choose correlates with such factors as their life experiences, likes or dislikes, approval or disapproval, needs, demands, and desires in their real lives, so the diversity in the selection of heroes here represents the overall reality of the society in which we currently live. As is shown in the previous analysis, heroes today come from different walks of life, with different backgrounds and characteristics. The fact that 167 heroes (heroines) are chosen by 667 subjects means that on average every four people has one different hero (heroine). This seems to tell us that instead of having no hero, we are actually having a great variety of heroes (heroines). However, when Hsia was studying hero worship in China in 1960s, all the heroes shared great resemblance as if they were off the same assembly line, a typical image of which has been a selfless soldier who was deadly loyal to Chairman Mao and would not surrender to the enemy even when confronted with death. We wonder what has caused the changes in the choice of heroes of the people. Since we are sure that changes don’t happen for no reason, we believe that the changes that have happened in Chinese political policies, economic mechanism, psychological mentality, and media technology and environment, and other social aspects are the things that are responsible for the diversity in hero selection for Chinese today. 2.1.1 Political ChangesWith China’s opening-up in the 1980s, came the wakening up of people’s self-awareness, accompanied by the shift from collectivism to individualism. The old heroes worshipped by Chinese as a collective group, most of whom were imposed on the people by ideology propaganda, had lost their shrines and therefore gradually declined or even been abandoned. This explains the current debate on whether the Lei Feng Spirit has gone out of date. Some say “Lei Feng has already disappeared”, while others say “Lei Feng spirit lives on”. Both of the two tones represent the fact that China is right now going through the process of restructure in its moral value systems.22.1.2 Psychological appealOn the other hand, if we look at the history of hero existence of all nations from the ancient to the present, we find that people of all times have a natural desire for heroes (heroines), whom they can worship and whom they secretly and subconsciously hope would save them from the unfairness and injustice that they encounter in their daily survival. “Hero worship” and “hero complex” have somehow managed to persist throughout different ages and different nations. This is one of the reasons that movies like Superman have gained worldwide popularity. In China, the awakening of self-awareness has strengthened people’s sense of individuality, which led them to question their hero choices while at the same time look for new heroes. 32.1.3 Information TechnologyWhat has answered Chinese people’s growing needs for new heroes is the fast development of science and technology, which makes it handy to find potential hero candidates. We now live “in such an information-driven society where a hero has lost his battlefield. Nowadays almost all things have been devalued and flattened or even redefined as simple transmission and reception of information (Lin, 2011). However, the media can create a hero overnight and it can also create its replacement over the next night; or when closely examined, the newly-elected hero has had his shameful flaws or records of misbehaviors dug out and therefore been dethroned from the honor of hero the next day (Cuthbert, 2005). 2. More information on the debate can be found on these two websites: http://cpcchina.chinadaily.com.cn/special/2012-02/26/c o n t e n t _ 1 4 6 9 3 5 6 4 . h t m ; h t t p : / / w w w. c h i n a . o r g . c n /opinion/2012-02/28/content_24752379.htm 3. A lot of film studies and studies on media effects have demonstrated the worldwide hero craze. For example, http://www.qikan.com.cn/Article/bfcm/bfcm200906/bfcm20090622-1.html
100To make things even more complicated, since a hero today is only to do with an individual and there are numerous individuals in this world, it is only natural to see numerous heroes (heroines). Each individual needs to have the required heroic information to identify his (her) hero (heroine), but the information that he (she) gets everyday differs due to his (her) surroundings and accesses to different channels of information transmission, the result of which is that in the explosion of information, every individual determines a different hero (heroine) based on the information he (she) has received from his (her) most accessible media. As a result, somehow between the need of finding new heroes and the tireless offer of hero candidates by the information diggers, makers, and transmitters, the Chinese now end up with a great diversity of heroes, old and new, male and female, Chinese and non-Chinese, elite and grassroots, and above all, a large number of celebrity heroes.2.2 The Dynamics of the meaning of “hero” 2.2.1 The Core Elements of the word “hero” The data presented the following points to be the most cited and most desirable qualities of being a hero (heroine) by the subjects of the study: ● Experience of adversity overcome by hard work and exceptional courage, mostly born in a poor family but grown to be successful and rich; ● Perseverance in getting through difficulties by never giving up; ● Talents that tell him (her) apart from the rest of the people in his (her) own fields, such as Yao Ming in basketball field, Jay Zhou in music field, and Lun Xun in writer’s field; ● Great achievements in career or fortune, mostly in justifying celebrity heroes; ● CharitaAle actions and efforts made for philanthropy purposes, mostly about rich people donating money to help the poor; ● Positive influence as a role-model whom he (she) looks up to and wish to become in the future; ● Patriotic Aehaviors and achievements that increase his (her) pride of being a Chinese, especially those who wrote history by being the first Chinese to achieve one particular greet course; ● Other qualities that are likable, lovable, admirable, and influential, which explain the fact that the most commonly used words for expressing affections to his (her) hero (heroine) are “like” , “love” , “admire” , “influenced me”, etc. These qualities give us a general picture of the qualities that young Chinese today see as being heroic, and the number of which also once again justifies the diversity in their choices of heroes and heroines. 2.2.2 “hero” as a Dynamic ConceptThe word “hero” is not one that can be explained in simple words, but the above section has listed the core meaning of the concept, which contains divinity, fearlessness of dangers, surviving adversity with hard work and fortitude, display of great valor, willingness for self sacrifice, deep care and concern for fellow human beings, excellence in one way or another, etc. These qualities seem to apply to heroes of all cultures and times. For instance, in the period of Three Kingdoms in ancient Chinese history, Liu defined “Ying Xiong”, the equivalent of “hero” in Chinese as “the grasses that excel others on a grassland are “Yings” and the beasts that lead others in a group are “Xiongs”, so can human beings be divided in the same way to differentiate the intellectual and the martial in the sense that people who excel by smartness and intelligence are “Yings” and people who excel by guts and valor are “Xiongs.”[2] This Chinese definition of “hero” makes it clearer that there should be different types of heroes: the intellectual and the martial at least. It means that a hero doesn’t have to possess both physical excellence and intellectual excellence to be a hero. We then can further extend it by saying that a hero doesn’t have to possess all of the essential qualities listed above to be a hero. As long as one or more of these elements has been outstanding and
101Wenying LIU A Social Interpretation of People’s Choice of Heroes: A Case Study striking enough, the identification of a hero can be triggered and a hero is born in someone’s eyes, so the definition of “hero” is not a closed one but an open and dynamic one. An easy way to help perceive the dynamics of “hero” is to picture that the above quoted qualities of a hero are like the electronic components of an electronic circuit, connected in parallel not in series, which means that the functioning of the electronic circuit doesn’t require all the components to work altogether at the same time. Similarly, a hero doesn’t have to possess all the component qualities listed for a hero to be a hero; as long as he excels outstandingly in one or more of the desirable qualities for a hero, he deserves adequately to be called a hero.In the past, the living conditions for human beings were so hard that there were non-stop daily living struggles, massive hungers, devastating disasters, destroying wars, lack or absence of medical cares, and other severe chaos that made it easier for heroes of exceptional physical strengths and bravery to shine. Nevertheless, at the present time, we have overall peace and much more benefits brought about by the accumulative intelligence and forces of our forefathers and the soaring of science and technology, which has decreased the number of battlefields and the chances by which heroes of great valor can stand out. In time, valor has been over-shined by other attributes of a hero such as great compassion for fellow human beings in philanthropy attempts, physical excellence in sports activities, and intelligent excellence in breakthroughs of science. Of course, this doesn’t mean that valor as a heroic quality is not appreciated any more; on the contrary, people are desperately looking for a hero with great courage, which is why the lament of “there are no heroes any more” prevails in the sense that people of this claim are simply looking for the classic valor type of heroes whose birthplaces and stages unfortunately have dimed for various reasons. With the diming of heroes of valor, other types of heroes, celebrity heroes, for instance, begin to take the stage.2.2.3 The Overlapping Edges of “hero” and “celebrity” The fact that 85.8 percent of the heroes (heroines) involved here are celebrities and the fact that 87.4 percent of the involved young people here have chosen a celebrity to be their heroes are striking. We wonder what separates “hero” from “celebrity” after all, and what is driving the overlapping of these two concepts.On how to distinguish “hero” from “celebrity”, Rollin (1983) seemed to have provide a convincing enough answer: “The hero was distinguished by his achievement; the celebrity by his image or trademark. The hero created himself; the celebrity is created by the media. The hero is a big man; the celebrity is a big name”. However, we are afraid that the differentiation doesn’t resolve so easily. In our world, achievements can not help us distinguish heroes from celebrities because we do see many celebrities present huge achievements in their fields such as Liu Xiang, Jackie Chan, or even Lady Gaga who has broken so many records, big achievements as an entertainer, right?; vice versa we do see heroes who have an image or have become trademarks, for instance, when we talk about Lei Feng, we visualize him as a person with revolutionary spirit and readiness to help people, wearing the famous Lei Feng hat, a big noble smile, and worn-out socks; or when we go and join a “red-themed” tour for travelling, we are mostly brought to the houses where heroes lived in, the classrooms where heroes studied in, the paths heroes’ feet once stepped on, or even the favorite dishes heroes loved; aren’t these heroes being trademarks? What’s more, nor can self-creation and media-creation distinguish heroes from celebrities for the same reason that we are seeing so many heroes (heroines) created by the media and so many celebrities who have created their own fame and achievements. Just try to imagine if it is possible to tell which way Yao Ming is created as a hero by, himself or the media? Or does it make more sense to say that Yao Ming is created as a hero by himself and the media? After all, without his natural physical advantages, his own hard work, and his talent, there is no way that Yao can have the achievements that make him a hero, while without the
102media telling us what achievements Yao Ming have made and how significant they are, people wouldn’t have known that Yao is the one that suffices the hero that we are looking for. For the third distinction Rollin has drawn about “hero” and “celebrity” that “the hero is a big man; the celebrity is a big name”, we once again use Yao Ming as an example. Many of the great achievements which students have listed to prove that Yao is a hero have shown that Yao is not only a big name but also a great man.Now, it seems that to try to differentiate the two terms doesn’t seem to work in explaining the blurry edges of “hero” and “celebrity”, and then we might just as well turn around to find out the things that the two share in common to see if there is a possibility to connect the two. When it comes to two things being mixed and confused, there must be something that the two share in common. An etymology dictionary explains that the word “celebrity” dates back to the late 14th century and it evolved in the pattern of “‘solemn rite or ceremony,’ from O.Fr. celebrité ‘celebration,’ from L. celibritatem (nom. celebritas) ‘multitude, fame,’ from celeber ‘frequented, populous’ , meaning ‘condition of being famous’ is from c.1600; that of ‘famous person’ is from 1849.” From this detailed explanation, we see “celebration” and “condition of being famous” that potentially can connect “celebrity” with “hero” because in both of the two types of figures we can find qualities that are worth us singing and celebrating and because in both cases there are conditions that need to be satisfied to deserve the title. Resultantly, we can say that it is some of the shared qualities possessed by some “celebrities” with “heroes” that have led to the overlapping of the two terms, and hereby many heroes and celebrities today have double identities of being a hero and a celebrity concurrently. The same reason holds for the persistence of LeiFeng as a hero today. To further examine the LeiFeng spirit, we find that the essence of LeiFeng spirit coincides with some of the desirable qualities of a hero such as compassion to help fellow comrades, willingness to sacrifice his own benefits including life for his mother country and other people’s well-being, as well as fortitude in pursuing a cause and belief. In the lack of great valor-type of heroes, heroic qualities like these in Lei Feng are sufficient to satisfy some Chinese’s hero quests and therefore make LeiFeng continue to exist as a hero.3 ConclusionFrom a social context, this study attempts to interpret the choices of heroes by Chinese college students, which has demonstrated a great diversity. We think that who the students regard as heroes reflect their perceptions of the society and the world, and their value orientations, so the paper has also tried to discuss the social changes in the living surroundings of the students such as China’s increasing opening-up to and communications with the outside world, globalization, and information explosion brought about by science and technology, which we think are driving the transformation of the youth’s hero values today. The people whom the students see as heroes reflect how these young people identify themselves individually, nationally, mentally, socially, and culturally at present or in future. The findings help to understand better young Chinese’s mental reality and raise our awareness of the social reality which we live in, and put in perspective some of the different voices we hear, social phenomena we see, and social problems we worry nowadays. They can also throw some light on the principles and methodologies of value education of youths today. At the time, many Chinese adults have shown concerns about the moral reality of the young, and new terminologies referring to the young such as “post-90s”, “the affluent second generation”, and “tall-rich-handsome” carry negative messages that criticize the value judgment of the modern Chinese youth. What’s worse, the moral degradation is not just happening to the young; instead, to an extent it is happening to the entire society so that “Even simple questions like ‘should we help the fallen old’ become a national
103Wenying LIU A Social Interpretation of People’s Choice of Heroes: A Case Study debate.”4 This study shows that there is still hope that we can stop the moral deterioration of the Chinese society because we have found that at least in terms of judgment of heroes, the young still dominantly appreciate admirable qualities, which if we can make full use of, we may have a chance of bringing in some real positive energy into the youth’s formation of positive natural outlook.This paper has its weaknesses: (1) the researcher was inspired by the data first and then went on to do the research so the data sample were not results of careful design; (2) the data themselves are mostly textual and therefore a lot of hidden messages were not presented in a more convincing quantitative way; (3) the data could have other different interpretations from other disciplines such as psychology, cognitive science, and above all, linguistics which are not present in the paper; (4) like any attempt to analyze a social symbol such as “hero”, which , to cite Carlyle’s (1840) wisdom words, “is a large topic; deserving quite other treatment than we can expect to give it at present. Too clearly this is a topic we shall do no justice to in this place”.4. A Guide to Reviving the Lei Feng Spirit by Gong Wen: http://www.china.org.cn/opinion/2012-02/28/content_24752379.htmReferences [1] Hsia T. A. Heroes and Hero-worship in Chinese Communist Fictions. The China Quarterly, 1963, 13:113-138.[2] Lin Xin Hua. Chinese Semiotics: Socio-semiotics Shang Hai: Chinese Publication Group: Oriental Publication Center, 2011.[3] Carlyle, T. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History. London: Oxford, 1840.[4] Harris, J. Athletes and the American Hero Dilemma. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1994.[5] Klapp, O. Hero Worship in America. American Sociological Review, 1949, 14 (1): 57 -63.[6] Smith, G. The Sport Hero: An Endangered Species. Quest. 1973. 19 (1):59-70.[7] Rollin, R. The Lone Ranger and Lenny Sputnik: The Hero as Popular Culture. The Hero in Transition. Bowling Green: BGU Popular Press, 1983.[8] Gerzon, M. A. Choice of Heroes: The Changing faces of American manhood. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982.[9] Burton, R., Farelly, F., & Quester, P. Exploring the Curious Demand for Athletes with Controversial Images: A Review of Anti-Hero Product Endorsement Advertising. International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, 2001, 2 (4): 315-330.[10] Shuart, J. A. The Athlete as Hero and Celebrity Endorser [D], ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 2002.[11] Strate, L. Heroes: A Communication Perspective. American Heroes in a Media Age. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1994:15-23[12] Strudler, K. Media Sports Stars and Adolescents: A Statistical Analysis of Mediated Sports Stars Based on Self-concept Congruity. The Sport Journal, 2006, 9(3).[13] Balswick, J. & Ingoldsby, B. Heroes and Heroines among American Adolescents. Sex Roles, 1982, 8 (3): 243-249.[14] Campbell, J. The Hero With a Thousand Faces. Princeton: Univ. Press, 1968.[15] Cuthbert F. A. Community Journalism: Hope for a Society Without Heroes, Proceedings of the Media Ecology Association Volume 6, Sixth Annual Convention, June 22-26, 2005, Fordham University. http://www.media-ecology.org/publications/科研進展澳門首屆科學技術獎 科大成果豐碩獲表彰近年來, 澳門特區政府大力推動科學研究工作, 為澳門經濟適度多元發展提供人才、知識和技術支援。與此同時, 澳門的科研人才隊伍與實力、研究條件與設施、研究水平與成果均得到了明顯提升。2011年, 特區政府專門設立了“澳門科學技術獎”, 每兩年評獎一次, 以此表揚和激勵優秀的科研團隊及成果。首屆澳門科學技術獎勵頒獎典禮於10月18日舉行, 澳門科技大學喜獲科學技術獎三項, 包括兩項自然科學獎和一項技術發明獎。在全澳“研究生科技研發獎”三十個頒獎項目中, 澳科大奪得十一項之多。科研成果常常需要較長時間的研究數據積累, 論文發表和生產應用更加需時, 故對建校僅僅12年的澳科大來說, 這次獲獎別具意義: 一則表明大學推行的教學與研究並重的發展策略是十分正確的, 二則說明大學在某些研究領域已經達致先進水準, 這對加速大學科研發展是極大的鼓舞和鞭策。
104第 6 卷 第 2 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.22012 年 12 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology Dec 30 , 2012 收稿日期:2012-08-08;修訂日期:2012-10-05。﹡通訊作者:姓名,張靜華,女,經濟學博士,助理教授,主要研究方向:財務管理、醫療金融管理和政策分析。E-mail:jhuzhang@must.edu.mo,Tel:+853-88972986The Heterogeneity of Hospital Cost Shiftingt: the Case of the BBA of 1997 in the USAJing Hua ZHANG( Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: Hospital cost shifting means that a hospital raises the price charged to privately insured patients to offset its financial loss due to a price cut by a public payer. Using a panel data set from the Healthcare Cost Report Information System (HCRIS) during 1996 to 2002, this study applies quantile regression to examine the heterogeneity of hospital cost shifting after the implementation of the BBA of 1997 in the USA. This study finds that there is an increasing tendency of cost shifting by hospitals from lower quantile to higher quantile of financial loss caused by the BBA of 1997. However, the increasing trend of cost shifting at high quantiles is flatter than that at low quantiles. The findings help to improve the effectiveness of future health care reimbursement reform by focusing on highly responsive groups.ey yordst: Cost shift; Heterogeneity; the Balanced Budget Act of 1997; Financial loss醫院成本轉嫁的差異性:以美國1997平衡預算法案為例張靜華(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 醫院成本轉嫁指醫院對普通病人群(通常是持自費健康保險的病人群)提高收費價格,以求彌補政府醫療償付價格削減所帶來的損失。本研究重點考察美國1997年平衡預算法案實施後醫院成本轉嫁行為中的差異性。本研究從美國醫療成本報告資訊系統(HCRIS)抽取1996年至2002年的醫院財務管理面板數據,以長差分法為基本模型,採用分量回歸方法進行分析。本研究發現,对於1997美國平衡預算法案帶來的財務損失,處於損失高分量位的醫院比低分量位的醫院在更大程度上轉嫁醫療改革成本;但是該成本轉嫁遞增的趨勢從低分量段轉向高分量段過渡時逐漸變弱。本研究的結果有助在醫療償付改革中針對高反應度群體制定更加合適的政策措施,從而提高施政效率而達到預期效果。關鍵詞: 成本轉嫁;醫院財務策略;美國1997年平衡預算法案;財務損失0 IntroductionCost shifting has been a hotly debated issue among health care industry and policy-makers in the USA since 1980’s after the Prospective Payment System (PPS) was adopted to reduce the Medicare reimbursement. Cost shifting in health economics refers to a phenomenon of healthcare service price change. Cost shifting occurs when a hospital raises the price charged to privately insured patients after it
105Jing Hua ZHANG The Heterogeneity of Hospital Cost Shifting: the Case of the BBA of 1997 in the USAsuffers financial loss from a reimbursement price cut by a public payer (such as Medicare or Medicaid in the USA) (Morrisey 1994[1], Ginsburg 2003[2]). Cost shifting is a dynamic phenomenon and is different from price discrimination, which charges a higher price to a payer with inelastic demand (Morrisey 1994)[1].Cost shifting is a policy issue of importance for healthcare reform, because it decides who eventually bears the cost of health care expenditure (Lee et al., 2003)[3]. Given the US congress’s efforts of cutting the healthcare expenses, if hospitals shift the loss from the Medicare reimbursement cut to privately insured patients by raising their prices, the cost of private health insurance companies will rise and result in a higher proportion of Americans without health insurance. Eventually there will be an even greater social burden as the result of lacking preventive healthcare (Fuchs 2009)[4]. Obama administration cited hospital cost shifting to justify the individual health insurance mandate required in the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA, or Obamacare) in 2010 (Cogan et al, 2011)[5].A large volume of research on hospital cost shifting focuses on evidences of cost shifting and largely mixed results have been reported (Morrisey, 1994[1]; Frakt, 2011[6]). Few studies have been done on the heterogeneity of hospital cost shifting, despite that exogenous financial pressure from the reimbursement cut may have different impacts on hospitals, which may make different decisions to do cost shifting. Using the research opportunity from the price cut due to the Balanced Budget Act (BBA) of 1997 in the USA, this study focuses on examining the heterogeneity of hospital cost shifting at various points of the conditional distribution. Specifically, this study examines whether hospitals in high quantiles of exogenous financial loss do more cost-shifting than hospitals in low or moderate quantiles. This study adds to the existing literature in several ways. First, this study uses quantile regression method, which is robust to outliers and does not need to assume the data’s normal distribution. Therefore, this method can generate more reliable results than the traditional OLS regressions. Second, unlike previous literature that examines an average policy effect, this study focuses on the heterogeneity of hospital cost shifting at various points of the conditional distribution, therefore it gives a full picture of the distribution of hospitals’ response. Third, the findings promote the understanding about the factors that can influence a provider’s cost shifting decisions. The results support the hypothesis that hospitals do cost shifting due to quality constraint and efficiency-enhancing constraint in providing healthcare service. Fourth, the policy implication of this study is of general relevance for the undergoing healthcare reform worldwide. This paper is organized as follows: Section 1 introduces Medicare’s reimbursement system and the effect of the BBA of 1997 on it; Section 2 reviews the conceptual framework of cost shifting and related empirical findings; Section 3 introduces the databases used in this study and the sample generating process; Section 4 is for the empirical methodology and Section 5 analyzes the results. At last, Section 6 and Section 7 provides the conclusion and discusses the limitation of this study as well as the future research directions.1 PPS and the BBA of 1997Medicare is a socia l insurance program administered by the United States government. It provides health insurance coverage to the persons who are aged 65 and over; to those who are under 65 and permanently physically disabled or who have a congenital physical disability; or to those who meet other special criteria (Newhouse 2002)[7]. To slow the rapid growth of its healthcare spending after it was launched in 1965, Medicare adopted a PPS in 1983 to reimburse service provided by hospitals (Newhouse 2002)[7]. PPS adopts a per-case reimbursement mechanism, under which inpatient admission cases are classified into relatively homogeneous categories called Diagnosis-Related Groups (DRGs). A predetermined and fixed amount is paid to each
106DRG (CMS, 2012)[8]. The average PPS payment for hospital i at time t can be calculated using the formula in Equation (1) (Research Data Assistance Center, 2006) [9]:PPS paymentit = [base payment rate]it × [CMI]it × [adjustments]it (1)Where, base payment rateit = (base payment)it-1 × (1 + update factorit )CMI = Case Mix Indexadjustments it = (1 + IMEit + DSHit ) × (1+ OUTit )IME = Indirect Medical Education adjustment;DSH = Disproportionate Share adjustment;OUT = Expected Outlier Share for Costs.The base payment rate is increased by an update factor (commonly known as the inpatient hospital market basket) for every year since 1981. These update factors are intended to account for annual inflation and to maintain incentives for hospitals to be efficient. CMI is one of the most commonly used indicators of the intensity of hospital resource utilization in health services research.IME is an added-on adjustment designed to reflect the higher patient care costs of teaching hospitals relative to non-teaching hospitals. An approved teaching hospital, which has residents in an approved graduate medical education program, receives IME adjustment. DSH is an add-on payment for hospitals that have met the condition of treating a high-percentage of low-income patients. OUT is made for outlier cases, which are some particular cases incurring extraordinarily high costs. To qualify for outlier payments, a case must have costs exceeding a fixed loss outlier threshold.After the implementation of the PPS in 1983, the Medicare healthcare spending continued to grow between at an average rate of 9 percent per year, greater than the annual growth rate of GDP, which is 5 percent (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 2010[10] ). To further slow the growth of Medicare spending, the BBA of 1997 was enacted. The BBA of 1997 affected all core factors of reimbursement price. First, it tried to reduce the update factor of the standardized amount in the base payment. It ruled that the applicable percentage change in the standardized amounts was 0% for FY 1998, and the base payment should grow slower than the market basket by 1 - 2 percentage points for all hospitals in all areas for FY1999 to FY2002. Out of the concern that the IME adjustment overpaid teaching hospitals relative to their additional teaching costs, the BBA reduced the level of the IME multiplier over a 4-year period. BBA reduced the DSH payments by 1 to 3 percentage points for each year during 1998-2002. Additionally, BBA also reduced the OUT payment by reducing the base payment, or by setting a higher outlier threshold. In short, a teaching hospital that is taking many severely sick low-income patients may suffer a significant reimbursement cut upon the implementation of the BBA of 1997.The savings f rom al l hospi ta l Medicare reimbursement was estimated to be about $72 billion for the period of 1998 to 2002 and $119 billion for the period of 1998 to 2004 (American Hospital Association, 2000)[11]. Even though the 1999 Balanced Budget Refinement Act and the 2000 Benefits Improvement and Protection Act subsequently relaxed or delayed several original BBA provisions, the financial pressures brought to PPS hospitals by BBA of 1997 were still substantial. Such a major Medicare reimbursement cut hence provides a very good opportunity to study hospital cost shifting empirically.Facing the substantial reimbursement cut by Medicare, hospitals have a variety of choices when making response decisions. For example, hospitals may manage to become more efficient and absorb the major part of the reimbursement cut. Though hospital efficiency enhancement is the policy goal desired by the policy makers, in the reality, hospitals may choose to reduce service inputs, such as hospital beds or nurse staffing (Cutler, 1998[12]; Bazzoli et. al., 2004[13]). Hospitals may reduce Medicare patients’ service volume or intensity (Dranove and White,1998[14]). Apart from all of these possibilities, hospitals may also engage in cost shifting. Lack of competition in the health care sector permits cost shifting to occur
107Jing Hua ZHANG The Heterogeneity of Hospital Cost Shifting: the Case of the BBA of 1997 in the USA(Morrisey, 2003) [15].2 Literature revieyHospital cost shifting has been an important research topic since 1980’s. There is a large body of literature on this topic. Morrisey (1994) [1] systematically reviewed the studies before the mid of 1990’s. Frakt (2011)[6] did a critical review of the literature on hospital cost shifting since 1996. 2.1 Conceptual literature revieyTheoretical models of hospital behavior have ambiguous predictions as to whether, and under what circumstances, hospitals will shift costs to private payers. Profit-maximization models support that cost shifting should not occur because a profit-maximizing hospital has already fully exploited its market power by choosing the optimal services quantity provided to the public and private patients (Hay, 1983[16]; Foster, 1985[17]).However, the profit-maximization assumption in these models may not be appropriate for the Non-For-Profit (NFP) hospitals, which accounts for more than 60% of the hospitals in the USA (Zwanziger, 2000)[18].Utility-maximization models argue that a NFP hospital tries to maximize the total social utility (Newhouse, 1970[19]) and has unused market power (Morrisey, 1994[1]). Therefore a NFP hospital is capable of cost shifting in response to reductions in public payer payment (Dranove 1988[20], Cutler, 1998[12]). Based on the utility-maximization model, quality-efficiency constraint hypothesis argues that hospitals face the quality constraint and efficiency-enhancing constraint in providing healthcare service and could not restrain costs as quickly as payments were adjusted (Guterman, Ashby & Greene, 1996) [21]. As a result, a NFP hospitals may do cost shifting in order to maintain the service quality or to fulfill its charity goals (Cutler, 1998[12] ; Zwanziger et al, 2000[18]). One of the empirical implications of quality-efficiency constraint hypothesis is that the NFP hospitals in higher quantile of payment cut may have greater incentive to do cost shifting because they may be more likely to maintain their quality reputation and the charity service goals.2.2 Empirical literature reviey Majority of empirical studies of hospital cost shifting focus on the evidence of cost shifting and have found mixed results. There is one arm of researches providing evidence that dynamic cost shifting is not a significant problem during 1980’s (Zukerman, 1987) [22] or in 1990’s (Cutler, 1998[12]; Dranove & White, 1998[14] ) after the implementation of PPS. There is another arm of studies reporting that hospitals raised prices to partially or fully offset government cutbacks during 1980’s and early 1990’s (Dranove, 1988[20]; Cutler, 1998[12]; Zwanziger et al, 2000[18]; Zwanziger & Bamezai, 2006[23]). Wu (2010)[24] provided strong evidence that after the BBA of 1997, hospitals were able to shift part of the burden of Medicare payment reduction to private payers. Few empirical studies have been done on the heterogeneity of hospital cost shifting. Wu (2010)[24] studies the heterogeneous variation by ownership type or teaching affiliation only. This study is the first one to use quantile regression method to examine the heterogeneity of hospital cost shifting at various points of the conditional distribution. The finding from this study promotes the understanding about the motivation and the decision making of hospital cost shifting. The quantile regression analysis also exceeds the average treatment effects to provide a detailed full picture of hospital cost shifting distribution for relevant policy makers. 3 Data The main data resource for this study is the Healthcare Cost Report Information System (HCRIS) maintained by the Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS). To receive reimbursement for health care services delivered to Medicare patients, PPS hospitals are required to submit an annual cost report in a standardized electronic format to CMS. These datasets are updated at the end of each calendar quarter and are available on the last day of the following
108month. CMS released Hospital 2552-96 Cost Report Data files for fiscal years 1996-2010. Because BBA was passed in 1997 and came into implementation since fiscal year 1998, I use the cost report data for fiscal years 1996-2002. I include the data of 1996 in my research to compare how hospital’s strategies change after BBA. 2002 is the last year when the BBA of 1997 still had strong impacts.I obtained the total number of Medicare patient discharge, inpatient revenue and other hospital financial information from HCRIS database. I also extract the transfer-adjusted CMI from PPS Payment Impact Files 1996-2002 maintained by CMS. The transfer-adjusted CMI is adopted because it can better reflect the average level of actual patient severity in a hospital. The hospital characteristics data are obtained from American Hospital Association annual surveys.Because the data in Medicare HCRIS database often contain extremely high and low values, the dependent variable, the change of private price, is censored at the 5th and 95th percentile (Dafny 2009[25], Wu 2010[24]). The final sample includes 3696 hospital-year observations, having 683 to 800 observations in a single year during 1998 to 2002. There are in total 928 unique hospital ID, among which 421 hospitals have five-year continuing observations, 245 have four-year observations, 135 have three-year, 79 have two-year and 48 have one-year observations.4 Methodology and Models4.1 Quantile regression methodQuantile regression method has been widely applied to analyze the heterogeneity in empirical studies. The quantile regression method generates an estimate of the conditional quantile functions through minimizing a sum of asymmetrically weighted absolute residuals (giving differing weights to positive and negative residuals) (Koenker & Hallock, 2001)[26].Based on Buchinsky (1998)[27], the empirical equation in a quantile regression model is,yi = x'i βθ + μθi, i = 1, …., n (2)with Quantθ ( μθi | xi) = 0 (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1) where yi is the dependent variable of interest, xi is a l×1 vector of independent variables. βθ is an unknown parameter vector associated with the θ th quantile. μθi is an unknown i.i.d. error term, represents that the θ th quantile of residual (μθ) conditional on xi is zero. βθ is estimated by solving a liner programming problem. (Koenker and Hallock, 2001)[26].There are many ways to estimate Ω θ, the asymptotic covariance matrix for βθ such as bootstrapping, order statistics and kernel estimators. This study uses bootstrapping to generate robust standard error for the estimated coefficient. When estimating the asymptotic covariance matrix, bootstrapping method randomly draws sampling from the empirical distribution of the data. Therefore, it is a consistent estimator, disregarding of the independence assumption between the residuals and the parameters (Buchinsky, 1998 )[27]. I use the ‘sqreg’ command in STATA 11 to realize this estimation. ‘sqreg’ estimates simultaneous-quantile regression along with Monte Carlo bootstrap estimates of the confidence intervals. It produces the coefficients for each quantile and obtains an estimate of the variance component estimation (VCE) via bootstrapping. The VCE includes between-quantile blocks. In this way, I can test and construct confidence intervals comparing coefficients describing different quantiles.Quantile regression has many advantages over the traditional OLS regression. An OLS regression is based on the mean of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable, therefore it needs to make the assumption that the exogenous variables have homogeneous impacts on the conditional distribution. In the case where the exogenous variables influence the parameters of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable other than the mean, an OLS analysis with homogeneous assumption will not be helpful. Instead, quantile regressions provide snapshots of different points of a conditional distribution, therefore describe the whole picture of the distribution (Koenker & Hallock, 2001 )[26]. 4.2 Long-Difference modelI use Long-Difference model to identify the
109Jing Hua ZHANG The Heterogeneity of Hospital Cost Shifting: the Case of the BBA of 1997 in the USAdynamic change of private patient price. Long-Difference model takes the difference between the base period and the study period. Because the correlation between two far apart periods is usually much smaller than that between two adjacent periods, the Long-Difference model is less inconsistent in solving auto correlation problem of the error term than the first-difference model (Griliches & Hausman 1986)[28]. Since Long-Difference model also provides the flexibility of including other control variables, such as hospital characteristics and market dummies (Morrisey 1994[1]), it is widely used in existing hospital cost shifting studies (Dranove 1988[20] , Dranove & White 1998[14], Wu 2010[24]). The underlying model of private price now is assumed to bePit = αt + β Medicare priceit + δt Xit + σi + εit (3)The difference of the prices in Periods t and s can be expressed as Pis-Pit = (αs-αt ) + β (Medicare priceis -Medicare priceit ) + ( δs Xis-δt Xit ) + ( εis-εit ) (4)The terms (δs Xis-δ t Xit ) in Equation (4) for changes in hospital characteristics can be further decomposed as δs Xis- δt Xit = δs Xis- δs Xit + δs Xit - δt Xit = δs ( Xis - Xit ) + ( δs - δt ) Xit = δs ∆Xis + ∆δs Xit (5)where δs measures the current effect of any change in hospital characteristics, while ∆ δs represents the changing effect on the initial level of X. After Equation (5) is plugged into Equation (4), the final estimation equation can be simplified as ∆Pis= ∆αs+β ∆Medicare priceis + δs ∆Xis + ∆δs Xit+ μis (6)where t is the base year 1996 and s is any year during the period from 1998 to 2002.4.3 VariaAlesThe dependent variable is the change in average private patient price in a year. All prices are inflation-adjusted to dollars in 2002. The average private patient price is calculated as total non-Medicare inpatient revenue divided by total non-Medicare inpatient discharges. Even though non-Medicare inpatients may also include Medicaid patients, I have to use non-Medicare inpatients as the closest estimation of private patients because CMS HCRIS data does not report revenues by Medicaid or other payers separately. I define the total net private inpatient revenue as the difference between the total net inpatient revenue and Medicare inpatient revenue. In the same way, the total private inpatient discharges are defined as the non-Medicare inpatient discharges, which are the difference between total inpatient discharges and Medicare inpatient discharges. The total inpatient revenue and total discharges exclude both swing bed and Skilled Nursing Facility (SNF). Based on a BBA impact simulator constructed by the AHA, I construct an exogenous BBA Financial Impact Index (BBA Index) to measure the average potential loss for each inpatient admission (BBRA’s amendment reflected). The index is the difference between a simulated PPS price assuming no BBA impact and a Laspeyres PPS price. Because the Laspeyres price holds hospital behavior or operational variables fixed, the BBA Financial Impact Index reflects the actual policy changes made by BBA only. This method is similar to those used in Cutler (1998)[12], Shen (2003)[29], Volpp et al (2005)[30] and Wu (2010)[24]. The sign of the coefficients of the BBA Index is expected to be negative if a hospital does cost shifting, in which it sets the private price higher in face of an expected loss from the BBA of 1997.Medicare patient share is calculated as the proportion of Medicare patient discharge numbers to the Total patient discharge numbers. A hospital with relatively higher Medicare share may be under greater financial pressure when Medicare cuts the payment rates, therefore this type of hospitals may have stronger incentive to shift cost. However, if Medicare patient accounts for majority of the patient groups in a hospital, that hospital may not have chances available to shift loss due to Medicare patients to private patients.Hospital financial ratios include the debt and current ratios. The debt ratio is defined as the ratio of the Total Liability to the Total Asset. It describes
110the capital structure of a hospital and is among the best measures of financial distress (Dafny 2005[31], Das 2009[32]). The current ratio indicates the ability of a hospital to meet its short-term obligations with cash or other assets that can quickly be converted to cash (e.g. patient accounts receivable). Since the debt and current ratios can also be interpreted as total debt ratio and short-term debt ratio, they may be correlated with each other. Therefore, I include in the estimation equation only one of the financial ratios a time. I use the debt ratio in the basic specification, and use the current ratio for robustness tests. I expect that a hospital with greater financial distress pressure and larger BBA financial shock has a greater incentive to get engaged in cost shifting.I use CMI and occupancy rate to measure hospital operational characteristics. Medicare CMI captures the price variations due to the patient severity in each hospital. Because private patient CMI is not reported in HICRIS, I also use Medicare CMI as a proxy for private patient severity (Dafny 2009[31], Wu 2010[24]). I use the occupancy rate as a proxy of operational performance of the hospitals. Because hospitals may change the Medicare Case Mix and occupancy rate as a response to the Medicare price change, I fix both Medicare CMI and occupancy rate on 1996 level.I control hospital ownership types in the form of non-for-profit, for-profit and the government hospitals. The base group is for-profit hospital. I include dummy variables to indicate a teaching hospital.Because joining a network may have positive effect on hospital pricing (Burgess, 2005)[33], I use dummy variables to indicate a hospital’s system membership and network participating status as indicated by the AHA data. Since a hospital in highly centralized networks may have better financial performance than those belonging to decentralized networks (Bazzoli et al, 2000)[34], I also use a dummy variable to indicate whether a hospital is in a centralized network or not.The size of a hospital is controlled by using bed-size category variables. The base group includes small hospitals with fewer than 100 beds. Group 2 includes middle-size hospitals with beds from 100 to 299. Large hospitals have more than 300 beds.Hospital market competition is measured by Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), which is calculated as the summation of market share squared. The market share is calculated using hospital bed numbers and the market is defined at the zip code level. I do not explicitly control HMO penetration because hospital cost shifting decision is not significantly affected by the HMO penetration or the change of HMO penetration (Wu, 2010 )[24]. I include county dummies to control geographical fixed effects, as well as year dummies for year fixed effects. 5 Empirical Analysis and ResultsTable 1 shows the descriptive statistics of variables used in this study. There is no significant difference between the Medicare patient share in 1996 and 1998 to 2002. Hospital financial status did not change significantly over the studied period. Comparing with those in 1996, the Transfer-Adjusted-Case-Mixed-Index slightly increased by 0.026 points, while occupancy rate decreased by 3.5 percentage points and hospitals downsized by 11.3 beds or by 5.8% on average. Among the hospital institutional characteristics, the percentage of system hospital increased by 3 percentage points, network participating increased by about 1.7 percentage points, while the percentage of centralized hospital system, accreditation and teaching status decreased slightly. These small changes could be caused by hospital behavioral changes or reporting errors. HHI shows that the hospital market structure during research period were stable.Figures 1 to 3 show the distribution of the change of private price, BBA Financial Impact Index (price) and the share of Medicare patients. The change of private price and the share of Medicare patients are close to normal distribution. The distribution BBA Financial Impact Index (price) is skewed to the right due to a few observations of very large value.
111Jing Hua ZHANG The Heterogeneity of Hospital Cost Shifting: the Case of the BBA of 1997 in the USATaAle 1 Descriptive statistics of hospital and market characteristicsDependent Variable1998-2002 1996Mean S.D. Mean S.D.Change of Private Price 606.5 -1,267BA Financial Impact (price) -456.3 -294.9Medicare Patient Share (%) 43.3 -10.7 43.7 -10.7Debt Ratio 0.474 -0.46 0.474 -0.259Current Ratio 2.519 -2.886 2.486 -1.716TACMI 1.32 -0.201 1.294 -0.182Occupancy 52.00% -0.159 55.50% -0.161Beds 184.8 -136.5 196.3 -142.9Bedsize group 1 (<100) 24.80% -0.432Bedsize group 2 (100<299) 55.80% -0.497Bedsize group 3 (300<) 19.40% -0.395System Membership (=1) 47.80% -0.5 44.80% -0.497Network (=1) 32.70% -0.469 30.90% -0.462Centralized system (=1) 24.60% -0.431 26.70% -0.442In urban (=1) 67.60% -0.468Accredited (=1) 93.80% -0.242 94.70% -0.223Teaching status (=1) 21.80% -0.413 24.00% -0.427Non-For-Profit 73.10% -0.444For-Profit 12.40% -0.33Government 14.50% -0.352HHI 0.952 -0.145 0.959 -0.134Change of HHI -0.007 -0.084Observations 3,696 683 Figure 4 shows the trends of the BBA Financial Impacts and the change of private price. While the expected financial loss increases during the study period from 1998 to 2002, the change of private price also increases proportionally.Figure 1 DistriAution of change of private price.Figure 2 Distribution of BBA financial impact.Figure 3 DistriAution of share of Medicare patients.Figure 4 Time series of BBA Impact and Private Price.I first run OLS regression to estimate the average cost shifting effects during 1998 to 2002. In Table 2, Columns (1) reports the estimated coefficients of the BBA financial impacts on the change of private price, without controlling for hospital financial status. Column (1) indicates that for every one dollar of expected price cut by the BBA of 1997, hospitals on average increased the private price by about 88.3 cents. In Column (2), both debt ratio and the current
112ratio in 1996 were included. Column (3) and (4) report the result. when the debt ratio or the current ratio in 1996 was included one a time. The estimated impacts of the BBA in these specifications are very similar with those reported in Column (1). The coefficients of Medicare Patient Share are consistently significant in all specifications. The coefficient of current ratio of 1996 is statistically significant only when it is included without the debt ratio of 1996, while the TaAle 2 The impact of BBA on change of private price during 1998-2002 (OLS)Variables (1) (2) (3) (4)BBA Financial Impact (price) -0.883***[-5.43]-0.897***[-5.46]-0.896***[0.164]-0.894***[0.163]Medicare Patient Share (%) 18.601***[5.28]18.409***[5.20]18.468***[3.538]18.430***[3.526]Debt Ratio 96 -21.387[-0.16]-80.541[135.098]Current Ratio 96 33.586[1.53]32.539*[19.734]Tacmi_1996 156.0[0.63]127.3[0.51]136.254[250.928]137.226[248.530]ch_tacmi 1,059.5**[2.55]1,087.1***[2.59]1,063.5**[414.8]1,075.2***[414.7]Non-For-Profit -57.95[-0.53]-51.22[-0.45]-65.378[110.105]-57.937[107.992]government 77.78[0.57]75.33[0.52]62.397[139.319]69.85[136.397]teaching status (=1) 93.18[1.00]92.93[1.01]92.909[92.824]91.742[92.801]Bedsize group 2 (100<299 ) -8.45[-0.10]-5.95[-0.07]-11.561[88.161]-4.852[87.684]Bedsize group 3 (300< ) -149.30[-1.12]-144.22[-1.08]-152.148[133.538]-143.664[133.675]HHI_1996 582.04**[2.32]587.30**[2.35]577.679**[250.204]588.046**[250.368]Change of HHI 884.08**[2.38]818.48**[2.17]877.929**[371.793]822.482**[374.960]Ocupancy ratio 96 206.32[0.83]251.90[1.00]227.402[250.755]244.137[247.756]System Membership (=1) -62.64[-0.93]-61.39[-0.92]-62.981[66.934]-60.479[66.683]network (=1) -111.14*[-1.71]-115.92*[-1.78]-112.143*[65.104]-116.089*[64.974]centralized system (=1) 88.21[1.18]96.70[1.28]90.898[75.020]96.64[75.287]accredited (=1) 13.21[0.11]0.6942[0.01]8.885[116.412]3.812[116.945]Observations 3,696 3,696 3,696 3,696R-squared 0.207 0.209 0.207 0.209Note:1. Time and area fixed effects are included in all of the specifications. 2. Robust standard errors are clustered by hospitals and reported in brackets, *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
113Jing Hua ZHANG The Heterogeneity of Hospital Cost Shifting: the Case of the BBA of 1997 in the USAcoefficients of debt ratio are not significant in any specification. Together, these results imply that the changes of private price are only highly correlated with the exogenous financial impact variable, but not the fundamental financial condition. Therefore, the private price change identified here is not an artifact of other confounding factors.I estimate quantile regression at four quantile points: 0.20, 0.40, 0.6 and 0.80. The standard errors were bootstrapped repeating 200 times under a fixed seed. The results from the quantile regression are reported in Table 3. Because the BBA Financial Impact is financial loss and has a negative value, when its coefficient has negative sign, this actually means that the private price increases upon expected financial loss. Figure 5 illustrates the estimated coefficients of the BBA Financial Impact together with their confidence intervals constructed with bootstrapping method.Figure 5 The Impact of BBA on change of private price during 1998-2002 (quantile regression).As shown in Table 3 and Figure 5, hospitals in each quantile of BBA Financial Impact have increased private patient price significantly and these coefficients increase as the quantile gets larger. The increase of the private patient price varies from 76.7 cents among hospitals in the lower quantile to one dollar among hospitals in the higher quantile. Given TaAle 3 The impact of BBA on change of private price during 1998-2002 (quantile regression)Variables Quantile 0.2 Quantile 0.4 Quantile 0.6 Quantile 0.8BBA Financial Impact (price) -0.767***[0.161]-0.963***[0.149]-1.062***[0.225]-1.082***[0.166]Medicare Patient Share (%) 9.876***[3.273]14.730***[3.062]22.358***[2.606]30.121***[3.727]Debt Ratio 96 -169.358[166.261]-14.967[163.605]4.355[93.483]-9.38[78.460]Current Ratio 96 11.609[26.150]28.264[21.527]27.672[24.643]45.435**[20.604]TACMI_1996 -114.213[228.877]-96.207[218.466]44.64[254.173]580.051**[235.773]Change of TACMI 544.445[423.672]1,061.234***[367.729]1,419.755***[340.938]1,008.471**[443.380]HHI_1996 132.829[297.224]246.553[183.763]403.885**[188.439]649.322**[255.043]Change of HHI 357.097[240.058]307.842[339.919]803.160*[461.455]893.302***[284.546]Ocupancy Ratio 96 583.080***[199.290]236.113[207.430]-60.616[246.519]-185.869[246.061]System Membership -237.089***[68.632]-51.553[53.486]-5.461[68.602]64.529[56.523]Observations 3,696 3,696 3,696 3,696Note: 1. Not reported here, this quantile regression equation also included ownership, hospital size by total bed number, system membership, network status, accreditation status and whether it is in a centralized system. None of them, except those in low quantile is significant. Time and area fixed effects are included in all of the specifications. 2. Robust standard errors are generated by bootstrapping and reported in brackets. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
114the increasing tendency of cost shifting, hospitals demonstrate a declining marginal propensity to cost shift. When BBA Financial Impact increases from quantile 0.2 to quantile 0.4, the estimated private price change increases by 26% (=(0.963-0.767)/0.767), while it increases by only 10% and 2% respectively when BBA Financial Impact increases from quantile 0.4 to quantile 0.6 and from quantile 0.6 to quantile 0.8. The horizontal lines in Figure 5 represent the estimated coefficients and confidence intervals from the OLS regression results. The solid curves in Figure 5 connect the quantile regression coefficients. The shaded areas represent the 95% confidence intervals. Figure 5 reveals that the quantile regression estimates of Private Price Change in lower and higher quantiles largely deviate from the OLS regression results. Additionally, the range of confidence interval is stable before it reaches the 0.6 quantile but it widens abruptly after 0.6 quantile. This evidence implies that the responses of hospitals in the higher levels of BBA Financial Impact have higher variations than those with lower levels.Quantile regression results in Table 3 also show that Medicare Patient Share is consistently highly significantly across all quantiles. Though significant at 10% level in the OLS regression, except for those in the higher quantile, the coefficients of Current Ratio of 1996 are not statistically significant in the lower and the median quantile. This means that the marginal significant effect of the current ratio detected by OLS regressions is simply the result biased by the observations of top 20%.6 Discussion and conclusionT h i s s t u d y f o c u s e s o n e x a m i n i n g t h e heterogeneity of hospital cost shifting after the implementation of the BBA of 1997 at various points of the conditional distribution. During the period of 1996 to 2002, hospitals on average were able to shift about 88% of the expected financial loss of the BBA to private patients. Further, the results from quantile regression clearly indicate the heterogeneity of hospital cost shifting amount across various parts of the distribution of BBA Financial Impacts. There is an increasing tendency of cost shifting by hospitals from lower quantile to higher quantile of financial loss.This finding is consistent with the quality-efficiency constraint hypothesis based on the utility-maximization model. As suggested by the reimbursement formula by the BBA of 1997, a typical hospital in higher quantile of payment cut de facto is a NFP hospital that is a teaching hospital, taking many severely sick low-income patients and caring its high social reputation. While hospitals in lower quantile of payment cut may absorb part of payment cut by reducing service cost or reducing quantity of charity service provided, hospitals in higher quantile of payment cut may face greater cost constraint due to their quality and charity goals as the most determined NFP hospitals. For these reasons, hospitals in the higher quantile of financial loss do more cost-shifting than those in lower quantiles. The empirical results also shows that the increasing trend of cost shifting for hospitals at high quantiles is flatter than that at low quantiles. This finding suggests decreasing marginal propensity to shift cost and this tendency is also consistent with the quality-efficiency constraint hypothesis. Once a NFP hospital has enough resources to keep the service quality or charity quantity beyond the constraint, it stops to shift more cost to private patients.The results have important policy implications to current debate in the US about further health service price reduction as proposed in the Affordable Care Act of 2010. After a series of major reimbursement cut in health service price, hospitals may have reached the bottom line of cost reduction. Further price cut will not be effective to control the rising cost, but will only push hospitals, especially those NFP hospitals in high quantile of the payment cut to do more cost shifting. To reach the long run cost control goal, policy makers need to think out of the box and consider other non-price regulation policy, such as performance-based payment system as discussed in McClellan (2011)[35].The policy implications of this study are relevant to the undergoing healthcare reform in China too.
115Jing Hua ZHANG The Heterogeneity of Hospital Cost Shifting: the Case of the BBA of 1997 in the USADuring recent years, while increasing the public health funding significantly, Chinese government also put emphasis on controlling healthcare costs and implemented various initiatives, such as restricting the length of physician prescription to seven days for outpatients. However, these cost control efforts may be easily offset by various types of hospitals’ cost shifting strategies, such as shifting more patients from outpatient departments to inpatient departments. Heterogeneity among health providers in China is also great and should be fully taken into consideration when policies are proposed. 7 Limitation and future studyOne limitation of this study is that its empirical estimation did not control for potential quality changes because HCRIS database does not contain this type of information. If some new medical technologies were adopted in private patient treatments coincidently after the implementation of the BBA of 1997, a higher private price change may be observed. However, this case should not be considered hospital cost shifting because in this case a higher health service price is usually associated with a better health outcome or greater patient satisfaction. Future study of hospital cost shifting will adjust for the health service quality improvement by combining with other patient outcome database. Additionally, if we consider a hospital as a revenue maximizor, hospital revenue loss due to Medicare price cut might be used to measure the expected exogenous financial loss and to generate more information about the size of cost shifting.References [1] Morrisey M. A. Cost Shifting in Health Care: Separating Evidence from Rhetoric? Washington: The AEI Press, 1994.[2] Ginsburg P. B. 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119•信息短文•聯合實驗室的成立將大大地促進澳門在中藥研究領域開展最前沿的創新研究,將為闡明中藥有效成分的化學和療效提供更充分的保證。”科大醫院臨床檢驗室連續取得國際認證科大醫院臨床檢驗室於9月3日通過由NATA及RCPA主持並進行的現場考核,連續獲得ISO:15189的國際認證。NATA(National Association of Testing Authorities, Australia; 澳大利亞國家檢驗機構協會)為全球最大實驗室認證權威協會之一。它是澳洲政府核准,專為檢驗室與檢驗設備業提供認證的機構。RCPA (The Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia, 澳大利亞皇家病理學院) 與NATA聯合發出的認證,彰顯認證的醫學檢驗室具備高度專業及技術水平。在評審結果宣佈會議上,NATA-RCPA的評審主任高度讚揚臨床檢驗室的優秀運作水平。現時科大醫院的臨床檢驗室是全澳門唯一獲得國際認證的醫學檢驗室。並且國際認證亦為檢驗室提供了一個獨特的資格,即:可以從事多城市的國際藥物臨床測試,是為一所先進且具成效的國際藥物臨床測試中心。中國科學院與澳科大攜手研究深空探測工作7月,中國科學院陰和俊副院長一行來訪澳門科技大學,對科大的月球與行星科學研究工作進行考察。在參觀澳科大太空科學研究所後,陰副院長充分肯定了科大所作出的成果,認為在探月工程應用研究工作中,澳門科技大學太空研究所的研究成果覆蓋面寬,是成果最多的單位之一。澳科大太空研究所不僅有新的研究發現,還與美國等國家的研究結果作對比,進而提出了理論上的分析與思考。他表示國家非常重視月球與深空探測工作,很快將發射嫦娥三號、四號衛星。他欣喜地看到澳科大所作出的成果,並認為澳科大已擁有一支很好的學術團隊做月球探測研究。對於今後的工作,陰副院長指出中科院將與澳科大密切合作,成立國家深空探測的核心團隊。他要求該團隊及時彙報研究成果,並根據探測經驗,指導後續載荷的研製和組織。陰和俊副院長還見證了,由國家天文臺嚴俊臺長和澳門科技大學許敖敖校長就《中國科學院國家天文臺與澳門科技大學關於聯合共建“中國科學院深空探測科學研究中心”》協議書的簽訂。聯合科學研究中心的建設將加大澳門對國家高科技項目參與的深度,有利於澳門特區科技品位的提升。教學動態酒店與旅遊學院2012/2013學年第一學期教學講座一覽表序號 日期 主題 主講1 11月1日 重塑美高梅 美高梅中國控股公司行政總裁兼執行董事Grant Bowi學生2 11月3日 澳門賭場設計與城市發展方案 澳門市政及民政研究所高級顧問Francisco Vizeu Pinheiro博士