ContentsInformation TechnologyResearch on Improving Routing Protocol TO-GO in VANETs …………… Wudong DONG, Jianqing LI (1)MedicineExcipients inhibition of Transporters in Anticancer Nanodrugs ……………………………………………………… Liang LI, Tao YI, Christopher WaiKei LAM (8)Determination of solubility of Scutellarin in different pH phosphate buffer solutions by HPLC …………………………………………………………………………… Laiwa TONG, Tao YI (16)Analysis of Heavy Metals and Toxic Elements in Proprietary Chinese Medicines by Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry …………………… Wai-Ting VONG, Fei SA, Hoi-Hong LO, Ming-Wai CHAN, Wai-Kei LAM (21)Management and TourismThe Study of the Relationships of Macau Real Estate Prices and Macroeconomy …………………………………………………………………………… Jason LEE, Yu SONG (27)A Meta-Analysis of Career Anchors: Future Development for Hospitality Research ………………………………………………………Fusung HSU, Hungche WU, Yong-Jae KO (35)Organizational Political Climate and Employees' Turnover Intention: The Cross-level Mediating Role of Psychological Contract Breach …………………………………………… Po-Chien CHANG (46)The Relationship between Ownership Structure and the Value of Company of China's Listed Financial Institutions …………………………………………………………… Tingxia SUN, Fu CHEN (61)The Performance Evaluation and the Optimal Assets Allocation of Pension Fund - Value-at-Risk Perspective ……………………………………………………… Shun-Ho CHU, Wenchien LIN (67)Study on the Inventory Management of Oil Products in Macau …………………………………… Huajun TANG*, Siyun LIU, Linzhe CHEN, and Shengke FU (76)Humanities and ArtsRethinking Popular Culture: A Cultural Studies Perspective ………………………… Weizi HUANG (84)Moderation of Media Issue Salience: Testing the Agenda Setting Effect within the Elaboration Likelihood Model ……………………………………………………………………………… Xudong LIU (90)Pedagogica ExperienceGeneral Education and Rules of the University: Based on Experience of Macau University of Science and Technology …………………………………… Quan FANG, Jiangming ZHOU, Chuan PANG (103)
1第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 車載自組織網絡中TO-GO路由協議改進研究董武東,李建慶*(澳門科技大學資訊科技學院,澳門)摘要: 路由協議是車載自組織網絡的關鍵技術之一。地理機會路由協議非常適合應用于車載自組織網絡中。本文借助網絡模擬平臺NS2和交通場景仿真工具VanetMobiSim,實現了典型的地理機會路由協議TO-GO,幷針對TO-GO協議傳輸數據包時延較長的不足,提出了一種對TO-GO協議的轉發集進行優化的TO-GO+協議。仿真結果表明,在車輛密度比較大的城市環境中,TO-GO+協議的性能優於TO-GO協議。關鍵詞: 車載自組織網絡;地理機會路由;TO-GO+協議Research on Improving Routing Protocol TO-GO in VANETsWudong DONG, Jianqing LI*( Faculty of Information Technology, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macao, China )AAstractt: Routing protocol is one of the key technologies in Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs). Geographic routing with opportunistic forwarding is applicable to VANETs. In this paper, we implement the typical protocol TOpology-assisted Geo-Opportunistic routing (TO-GO) with network simulator NS2 and mobility simulator VanetMobiSim. To overcome the disadvantage of long latency of packet forwarding with the TO-GO, we propose the protocol TO-GO+ that optimizes the forwarding set of the TO-GO. The simulation results show that the performance of the TO-GO+ is better than that of the TO-GO in urban scenery with high vehicle density. eyyordst: VANET; Geo-opportunistic routing; TO-GO+收稿日期:2012-05-05;修訂日期:2012-05-30。本文得到澳門科技發展基金資助,資助編號:016/2010/A。* 通訊作者:李建慶,男,副教授。主要研究方向:計算機網絡結構、網路協議以及網絡安全等。E-mail: jqli@must.edu.mo,Tel: 8897 21940 引言車載自組織網絡(Vehicular Ad-hoc NETwork, VANET)[1~3] 通過車與車和車與路邊設施間的通信可以改善交通安全、加强交通管理、提供車載應用服務等。車載自組織網絡的主要特點包括:高動態性的拓撲結構、不穩定的網絡連接、獨特的移動模型以及複雜的無綫傳播模型等[4]。這些特性使傳統的基於拓撲的路由協議不適宜在該網絡中使用。根據節點的位置信息制定數據包的轉發策略的地理位置路由協議,由于它不需要建立、維護和存儲路由表,也不需要發送路由更新信息,因此非常適用于拓撲結構變化頻繁的車載自組織網絡。最典型的基于地理位置的路由協議是由 B. Karp 和 H. T. Kung 提出的貪婪邊界無狀態路由協議(Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing,GPSR)[5]。GPSR 假定每個節點都能獲得鄰居節點以及目的節點的位置信息,轉發數據包有兩種模式:貪婪模
2式(Greedy Forwarding)和邊界模式(Perimeter Forwarding)。節點發送或轉發數據包時,首先以貪婪模式轉發給它的一跳鄰居中離目的地最近的鄰居節點。如圖 1 所示,節點 x 發送數據包給節點 D,在它的鄰居節點中,節點 y 離目的地節點D 最近,因此它選節點 y 為下一跳節點,將數據包轉發給節點 y。圖1 貪婪模式在某些情况下,即使源節點到目的節點之間存在路由,按照貪婪模式,也找不到有效路由。如圖 2 所示,D 是目的節點,x 是中間節點。某時刻數據包到達中間節點 x。從圖中可以看出,雖然節點 x 存在到節點 D 的路由(x → w → v → D 和x → y → z → D),但根據貪婪轉發策略,節點 x在所有的一跳鄰居節點中,找不到比自己離節點D 更近的節點,數據包將永遠不能到達目的節點。在這種情况下,貪婪模式失效。圖2 貪婪模式失效針對該問題,GPSR 引入了一種恢復機制,提出了邊界轉發策略。貪婪模式失效後,馬上進入邊界轉發模式,幷且節點按照右手規則轉發數據包。邊界轉發模式期間如果不能返回貪婪模式,就一直照此進行下去,直至數據包到達目的節點。圖 2 中,節點 x 到節點 D 的路由為:x → w → v → D。Lochert 等人對 GPSR 協議進行了改進,提出了 GPCR 協議 [6]。其主要思想是,利用城市道路自然形成的平面圖,數據包按貪婪模式沿著道路轉發,當遇到交叉路口時,則將數據包轉發至位于交叉路口的節點,再由位于路口的節點將其轉發給其它方向的節點,這樣可以避免數據包臨時轉發至錯誤的方向,從而提高路由協議的性能。K. C. Lee 等 人 在 GPCR 基 礎 上 又 提 出 了GpsrJ+ 協議 [7]。當數據包不需要在交叉路口轉向轉發時,可以直接跳過位于路口的節點,從而减少路由跳數。圖 3 是 GPCR 和 GpsrJ+ 協議轉發數據包的示意圖。圖3 GPCR和GpsrJ+在交叉路口的轉發策略1 TO-GO協議及其不足K. C. Lee,U. Lee 和 M. Gerla 等人考慮到城市環境中無綫信道的衰减和乾擾對無綫通信的影響[8],在 GpsrJ+ 協議的基礎上提出了 TO-GO(TOpology-assisted Geo-Opportunistic routing)協 議[9]。TO-GO 利 用 機 會 路 由 [10] 的 轉 發 集(forwarding set),來提高轉發數據包的成功率和增强路由的魯棒性。TO-GO 協議轉發數據包的步驟如下:(1)選定目標(Target)節點。當前收到數據包的節點根據 GpsrJ+ 協議選取下一跳節點,幷將它作為自己的目標節點。根據數據包的目的地不同,目標節點可能是當前節點的位于交叉路口的鄰居節點,也可能是離目的地最近的鄰居節點。
5董武東,等 車載自組織網絡中TO-GO路由協議改進研究所减少,但成功轉發數據包的平均時間不一定减少。爲了保證使用 TO-GO+ 協議轉發數據包的平均時間一定可以减少,還需要滿足一個條件。接下來用前面的實例來加以說明。用 和 分別表示轉發集優化前後的成功轉發數據包的概率,用 和 分別表示轉發集優化前後的成功轉發數據包所耗費的平均時間, 與 之差爲: (10)其中, 和 分別表示優化前後轉發集中第 k 和第 i 節點成功轉發據包的概率, 和 分別表示優化前後轉發集中第 k 和第 i 節點成功轉發據包的所耗費的時間, 表示優化前轉發集中節點 n1 接收到節點 S 發送數據包的概率, 。根據 可推出第一個不等號。當 時, ,則可推出第二個等號。由(10) 可以看出,方括號中第一項大于零的條件是 ,第二項大于零的條件是。只要滿足條件 ,上式一定大于零,即轉發集優化後,一定可以减少轉發數據包的平均時間。 越大,成功轉發數據包的概率减少得越少,轉發數據包的平均時間减少得越多。根據轉發集中節點收到數據包的概率可以算出 。對轉發集進行優化的前提是轉發集中節點數大於 4 個,這時離發送數據包節點 S 最遠的節點 n1 接收到節點 S 發送數據包的概率 一般較小,非常接近于 0,而 的值一般非常接近于 1,上述條件較容易滿足。由于 ,當 較大時,上述條件將不滿足。在這種情況下,簡單的處理方法是不對轉發集進行優化。由于根據(10)推出的上述條件 是一個充分條件,且過于嚴格,因此另一種方法是探討 的必要條件或其它更加寬松的充分條件,根據這些條件,决定是否對轉發集進行優化。關於 條件的進一步分析以及它對路由協議性能的影響將在以後的工作中詳細討論。3 模擬及性能分析3.1 模擬環境配置本文在 Linux 操作系統 Fedora 9 下進行模擬實驗,使用的網絡模擬平臺爲 NS2(Network Simulator version 2),版本爲 2.29。NS2 是由 UC Berkeley 大學開發是一種面向對象的、由離散事件驅動的、開源的網絡模擬器[12]。使用的 MAC層協議為 IEEE 802.11b DCF,數據傳輸速率為2Mbps,無線通信的距離為 250m。本文利用 VanetMobiSim 模擬車輛(節點)在城市環境中的移動軌迹,VanetMobiSim 是由德國斯圖加特大學(University of Stuttgart)專爲車載自組織網絡開發的車輛運動模擬器,它既可以從宏觀描述整體交通環境,也可以從微觀詳細刻畫車輛的運動行爲[13]。配置模擬場景的區域大小爲1000m×1000m,橫向均勻分布四條道路,縱向五條道路,所有道路爲雙向單車道。模擬車輛運動前,車輛隨機分布在所有道路上,速度隨機分布于 0m/s 和最大限速 15m/s (54km/h)之間。車輛的微觀運動使用 IDM_IM 模型 [14],受道路標識牌、紅綠燈等控制,圖 7 爲模擬過程中車輛運動場景的一個瞬間截圖畫面。圖7 車輛運動場景
6無綫信號傳播采用在 2.1 中給出的考慮路徑損耗和陰影效應影響的模型及其參數配置。模擬車輛進行通信前,先讓車輛運動數分鐘,使車輛的運動基本上達到了穩定狀態,然後隨機依次使10 個源節點和 10 個目的節點進行通信,通信數據流速率恒爲 100Byte/s,通信時間持續 20s,同時對傳輸數據包的成功率和傳輸數據包的端對端平均時延進行統計。每次模擬車輛進行通信時間爲200s,最後的模擬結果爲 10 次模擬的平均值。3.2 模擬結果圖 8 和圖 9 描述了車輛數分別爲 100、200 和300 的情况下,分別使用 TO-GO 和 TO-GO+ 兩種路由協議,傳輸數據包的成功率和傳輸數據包的端對端平均時延情况。從圖中可以看出,對于不同的車輛數,TO-GO+ 協議和 TO-GO 協議相比,其傳輸數據包的成功率基本一樣,但傳輸數據包的端對端平均時延均有减少,特別是車輛密度較大時(車輛數爲 300),使用 TO-GO+ 協議傳輸數據包的端對端平均時延比 TO-GO 協議减少了28.9%。這個結果說明,在車輛密度較大的場景中, TO-GO+ 協議的性能明顯優於 TO-GO 協議。圖8 傳輸數據包的成功率圖9 傳輸數據包的端對端平均時延4 結論本文分析了車載自組織網絡的特點,回顧了車載自組織網絡中幾種常用的地理路由協議,重點討論了典型的地理機會路由協議 TO-GO,分析了它的不足,幷對其轉發集進行優化,提出了TO- GO+ 協議。借助網絡仿真工具 NS2 和交通場景仿真工具 VanetMobiSim,對兩種協議的性能進行了模擬研究。仿真結果表明,在車輛密度較大的城市環境中,TO-GO+ 協議的性能明顯優於TO-GO 協議。需要說明的是,本文針對路由協議的改進只適用于特定的場景,仍有很多方面有待進一步研究。首先,本文雖采用了仿真工具模擬車輛的運動,但車輛運動行爲的很多細節的模擬和現實還有一定的差距,如駕駛者行爲對車輛運動的影響。其次,本文以路徑損耗和陰影模型對無綫信號傳播進行了簡化近似。構建更接近實際情况的車輛運動模型和無綫信道模型,以及提出性能更好、適用範圍更廣的路由協議將是今後研究的方向。参 考 文 獻[1] C. Y. Chang, Y. Xiang, M. L. Shi, “Development and status of vehicular ad hoc network,” Journal on Communications, 2007, 28(11):116-126.[2] R. Uzcategui, G. Acosta-Marum, “WAVE: A Tutorial,” IEEE Communications Magazine, 2009, 47(5):126-133.[3] H. Hartenstein, K. P. Laberteaux, “A tutorial survey on vehicular ad hoc networks,” IEEE Communications Magazine, 2008, 46(6):164-171.[4] K. C. Lee, U. Lee, M. Gerla, “Survey of Routing Protocols in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks,” // M. Watfa, “Advances in Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks: Developments and Challenges,” Hershey: IGI Global, 2010:149-170.[5] B. Karp, H. T. Kung, “GPSR: Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing for Wireless Networks,” Proceedings of the Sixth Annual ACM/IEEE International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, Boston, USA. ACM, 2000: 243-254.[6] C. Lochert, M. Mauve, H. Fusler, H. Hartenstein, “Geographic routing in city scenarios,” ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communications Review, 2005, 9(1):69-72.[7] K. C. Lee, J. Haerri, U. Lee, M. Gerla, “Enhanced Perimeter Routing for Geographic Forwarding Protocols in Urban Vehicular Scenarios,” Proceedings of the AutoNet, Washington, D.C., USA. IEEE, 2007:1-10.
7董武東,等 車載自組織網絡中TO-GO路由協議改進研究[8] H. Dubois-Ferriere, M. Grossglauser, M. Vetterli, “Least-Cost Opportunistic Routing,” Proceedings of the 45th Annual Allerton Conference on Communication Control and Computing, Illinois, USA. Curran Associates, Inc., 2007:1-8.[9] K. C. Lee, U. Lee, M. Gerla, “Geo-Opportunistic Routing for Vehicular Networks,” IEEE Communications Magazine, 2010, 48(5):164-170.[10] I. Leontiadis, C. Mascolo, “GeOpps: Opportunistic geographical routing for vehicular networks,” Proceedings of the First International IEEE WoWMoM Workshop on Autonomic and Opportunistic Communications, Helsinki, Finland. IEEE, 2007:1-6.[11] A. Goldsmith, “Wireless Communications” , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.[12] T. Issariyakul, E. Hossain, “Introduction to Network Simulator NS2,” Berlin: Springer, 2008.[13] J. Härri, M. Fiore, F. Fethi, C. Bonnet, “VanetMobiSim: generating realistic mobility patterns for VANETs,” Proceedings of the 3rd ACM International Workshop on Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks, Los Angeles, USA. ACM, 2006: 96-97.[14] VanetMobiSim Project, http://vanet.eurecom.fr.科研進展澳科大教授獲李時珍醫藥創新獎澳門科技大學劉良講座教授、周華副教授、姜志宏教授等,長期從事中藥抗關節炎及免疫調節作用研究,在抗關節炎複方製劑質量控制方法與技術、關節炎模型製作、毒性中藥材安全性控制、產品研發等方面,均取得了明顯進展,在國內外學術期刊發表原創性研究論文數十篇,其研究方法與技術被國內外學者廣泛引用。 最近,該研究團隊的“抗關節炎中藥製劑質量控制與藥效評價方法的創新及產品研發”研究項目,獲得中華中醫藥學會2011年度李時珍醫藥創新獎。 并於2012年3月17日參加了在昆明舉行的隆重頒獎典禮。李時珍醫藥創新獎是經國家科學技術獎勵工作辦公室批准,由中華中醫藥學會設立的科技獎項。 該獎項的設立,旨在紀念偉大的中醫藥學家李時珍,激勵廣大的中醫藥研究工作者自主創新,提高中醫藥科學研究水準,表彰在中醫藥基礎和應用研究中取得的重大創新成果、在本學科或相關學科領域取得突破性進展、並為國內外同行所公認的研究項目。 2008年以來,中華中醫藥學會每年評獎一次並獎勵3~4個項目,今年共有3個研究項目獲獎。粵澳呼吸道病原體新藥聯合研究中心(澳門)掛牌由呼吸疾病國家重點實驗室、廣州呼研所醫藥科技有限公司及澳門科技大學共同組建的“粵澳呼吸道病原體新藥聯合研究中心”於2月20日在澳門科技大學正式揭牌成立。呼吸疾病國家重點實驗室主任、中國工程院院士鍾南山教授,澳門科技大學校長許敖敖教授等主持了揭牌儀式。自2003 年非典型肺炎(SARS)在粵港地區爆發以來,研究防治SARS及相關病毒性疾病的課題,成爲國人關注的大事。粵澳呼吸道病原體新藥聯合研究中心成立的目的,是爲提升粵港澳地區針對呼吸疾病的防控能力,由呼吸疾病國家重點實驗室、澳門科技大學發起,並聯合廣東和港澳醫药界的産學研機構,進行資源整合、優勢互補、統一規劃,就呼吸道病原體新藥研发的相關技術及産品研究建立完善的專業技術研發平臺、展開長期項目合作,建立一個以市場爲導向的具戰略發展性的中心。該中心主要業務特色:以呼吸道感染性病原體爲對象,開展抗病毒藥物篩查鑒定技術創新、創新中藥新药及抗體藥物研製、呼吸道病原體檢測鑒定創新技術及産品研發,最終實現推廣應用。澳門科技大學與呼吸疾病國家重點實驗室自2006年始,在澳門科學技術發展基金的資助下,已聯合開展多項研究課題。雙方發揮各自的科研優勢,在學術和技術上進行深層次的交流與合作。粵澳呼吸道病原體新藥聯合研究中心的成立,將為雙方在粵澳兩地共同開展重大國際研究課題,進一步開展粵澳産學研合作開拓新的局面。
8第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 抗癌納米藥物中藥用輔料對轉運蛋白的抑制作用李 良,易 濤,林偉基(澳門科技大學澳門藥物及健康應用研究所中藥品質研究國家重點實驗室,澳門)摘要: 抗癌納米藥物的微乳、脂質體和納米粒是目前研究最多的藥物劑型,它們處方研究中提高抗癌作用靶向性的關鍵在於研究藥用輔料對P糖蛋白、多藥耐藥蛋白和乳腺癌耐藥蛋白抑制作用的高低。本文首先介紹了抗癌納米藥物的常用劑型以及我們在微乳生物藥劑學方面的研究進展,進而總結了在近年來一些藥用輔料對轉運蛋白抑制作用的研究成果,最後對該領域研究的進一步深入提出了一些建議。關鍵詞: 抗癌納米藥物;轉運蛋白;藥用輔料Excipients inhiAition of Transporters in Anticancer NanodrugsLiang LI, Tao YI, Christopher WaiKei LAM( State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: Microemulsion, liposomes and nanoparticles are the most popular drug formulations in anticancer nanodrugs. One of the key factors for improving their targeted anticancer treatment is the inhibition effect of excipients on the transporters such as P-glycoprotein, multidrug resistance-associated protein and breast cancer resistance protein. This paper described the commonly used nano-formulations in anticancer nanodrugs and our biopharmaceutical studies on microemulsion, then summed up the transporters inhibited by some pharmaceutical excipients in recent years, and finally made some recommendations for further research.eyyordst: Anticancer Nanodrugs; Transporters; Pharmaceutical Excipients收稿日期:2011-10-14;修訂日期:2012-04-15。通訊作者:李良,女,澳門科技大學澳門藥物及健康應用研究所博士研究生,主要研究方向為納米製劑中藥用輔料對轉運蛋白抑制作用的研究,電子郵箱:1009853JCT30002@student.must.edu.mo,電話:853-621980720 引言納米藥物是指運用納米製備技術研究開發的一類新的藥物製劑,與傳統藥物相比,納米藥物製劑的優點在於從納米尺度精確地操縱原子或分子水準的藥物來製備高效低毒的靶向和緩釋藥物劑型。在藥劑學領域,一般將納米藥物製劑的粒徑範圍界定為 10~1000 nm。近年來,納米藥物製劑研究正成為各大製藥公司如輝瑞、諾華、強生、羅氏和葛蘭素史克等的重要方向,據不完全統計,全世界製藥企業作為新型藥物製劑開發的納米藥物立項多達 270 余項,其中已上市和進行臨床研究的藥物共 56 個,而抗癌藥物就有 30 種之多。值得注意的是,現在抗癌納米藥物的主要劑型包括微乳 (microemulsion)、脂質體 (liposome)和納米粒 (nanoparticles)。它們在增加抗癌藥物穩定性方面具有較好的療效,但是在靶向治療中存在著由於許多腫瘤細胞膜上會表達 ATP 結合盒超家族 (ATP-binding cassette, ABC) 轉運蛋白而導
14圖4 LDL對CEM/VLB和CEM/T4兩種細胞質膜上P-gp ATP酶活性的作用2.2.3 固體載體固體自微乳化給藥系統 (S-SMEDDS) 是抗癌納米製劑常用劑型微乳基礎上發展出來的一種新的製劑類型,結合了傳統液體 SMEDDS 和固體製劑的雙重優點,它是在表面活性劑、助表面活性劑、油和模型藥物組成的液體自微乳化給藥系統的基礎上,加入不同的固體載體通過如噴霧乾燥等固化工藝而得到的納米製劑,遇水重分散後可形成粒徑在 1~100 nm 範圍內的微乳 [37]。如果選取的模型藥物是具有較好抗癌活性的藥物,則即可製備得到抗癌納米製劑。在 S-SMEDDS 中,固體載體具有非常重要的作用,它影響了胃腸道消化和 SMEDDS 的載藥能力 [38]。在 S-SMEDDS中常用的水溶性固體載體有 HPMC、Dextran、微粉硅膠和 β- 環糊精等,近年來我們研究發現,Dextran 作為固體載體時能夠增加 S-SMEDDS 在家兔體內的吸收[2],而不同規格 HPMC 在體外的胃分散和小腸脂解實驗中能夠促進胃腸道的吸收[39]。這些研究結果提示我們,在能作為抗癌納米製劑的 S-SMEDDS 的進一步研究中,可以充分結合正在進行的固體載體對轉運蛋白抑制作用的實驗,得出這種類型的藥用輔料在促進吸收機制方面更有意義的成果。3 總結研究資料顯示,抗癌藥物設計時一般會忽略藥用輔料和轉運蛋白之間的相互作用,例如,儘管微乳劑型在製藥公司中廣泛使用,現在還沒有研究微乳中的常用輔料與轉運蛋白之間的相互作用。為了避免藥物臨床研究中處方的不適用性,應該在抗癌藥物設計前進行細胞試驗來研究輔料的作用。但是,輔料和轉運蛋白相互作用的研究特異性很高,不僅每種輔料和每種轉運蛋白之間作用不同,在不同細胞系中進行實驗也會得到不同的結果。所以,雖然抗癌納米藥物在改善藥物生物利用度和靶向性方面的應用前景在多種臨床藥物的研究中已經得到了證實,而提高微乳、脂質體和納米粒這些處於臨床研究的抗癌納米製劑的藥效是當前藥物開發中最值得關注的問題。為了解決靶向治療中的多藥耐藥機制的對抗癌化學療效的制約,研究納米製劑處方中不同藥用輔料對 P 糖蛋白和 MRP 蛋白在癌細胞表面表達的抑制作用以提高抗癌藥物的藥理作用對於同時改進許多抗癌藥物處方具有很大的普遍意義和推廣價值。参 考 文 獻[1] 楊祥良, 曾繁典, 徐輝碧. 2007. 納米藥物, 第一版. 清華大學出版社, 北京.[2] Yi, T., Wan, J.L., Xu, H.B., Yang, X.L., A new solid self-microemulsifying formulation prepared by spray-drying to improve the oral bioavailability of poorly water soluble drugs. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2008, 70: 439-444.[3] Yi, T., Wan, J.L., Xu, H.B., Yang, X.L., Controlled poorly soluble drug release from solid self-microemulsifying formulations with high viscosity hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 2008, 34: 274-280.[4] Ferrari, M., Cancer nanotechnology: opportunities and challenges. Nature Reviews Cancer. 2005, 5: 161-171.[5] Ambudkar, S.V., Kimchi-Sarfaty, C., Sauna, Z.E., Gottesman, M.M., Pglycoprotein: from genomics to mechanism. Oncogene. 2003(22): 7468–7485.[6] Senior, A.E., al-Shawi, M.K., Urbatsch, I.L., The catalytic cycle of P-glycroprotein. FEBS Lett. 1995, 377: 285–289. [7] Higgins, C.F., Molecular basis of multidrug resistance mediated by Pglycoprotein. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 1991, 2: 278–281.[8] Chen, C.J., Chin, J.E., Ueda, K., Pastan, O., Gottesman, M.M., Roninson, I.B., Internal duplication and homology with bacterial transport proteins in the mdr1 (P-glycoprotein) gene from multi-drug resistance human cells. Cell. 1986, 47: 381–389.[9] Balimane, P.V., Chong, S., Biopharmaceutics applications in drug development. In: Krishna-Yu (Ed.), Evaluation of Permeability and P-glycoprotein Interactions: Industry Outlook. 2008, 101–138.[10] Loth, P.T., Lou, H.X., Zhao, Y., Chin, Y.M., Vathsala, A., Significant impact of gene polymorphisms on tacrolimus but not cyclosporine dosing in Asian renal transplant recipients. Transplant. Proc.2008, 40: 1690–1695.
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16第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 HPLC法測定燈盞乙素在不同pH值磷酸鹽緩衝液中的溶解度湯麗華,易 濤(澳門科技大學,中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室;澳門科技大學澳門藥物與健康應用研究所,澳門)摘要: 目的:建立測定燈盞乙素含量的方法,考察燈盞乙素在不同pH值磷酸鹽緩衝液中的溶解度,為納米沉澱法製備燈盞乙素納米混懸液選擇合適的良溶劑和不良溶劑。方法: 採用平衡-高效液相色譜法測定燈盞乙素在不同pH磷酸鹽緩衝液中的溶解度。Agilent Eclipse XDB-C18色譜柱(4.6mm×150mm,5μm),柱溫30℃;進樣量20μL,流動相:乙腈-水-醋酸(21:79:0.1),流速:1.0 mL•min-1;檢測波長:335nm。結果:燈盞乙素對照品在20.12~1006ng範圍內,其峰面積與進樣量之間線性關係良好。燈盞乙素對照品的平均回收率為99.9%,RSD為2.1%。燈盞乙素在pH5.0,6.5,7.0,7.4磷酸鹽緩衝液中的溶解度分別為142.6,1311.5,1949.1,3073.0 mg•L-1 。燈盞乙素在pH8.0磷酸鹽緩衝液中不穩定。結論:此方法測定燈盞乙素含量可靠,簡單,穩定。可用於測定燈盞乙素在不同pH值磷酸鹽緩衝液中的含量。燈盞乙素在磷酸鹽緩衝液中的溶解度隨著pH值增大而增大,在pH7.4中溶解度為pH5.0中的21倍,可分別作為良溶劑和不良溶劑。關鍵詞: 燈盞乙素;溶解度;高效液相色譜法Determination of soluAility of Scutellarin in different pH phosphate Auffer solutions Ay HPLCLaiwa TONG, Tao YI( Macau University of Science technology, State Key of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine; Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau, China)AAstractt: Aimt: To develop the quantitative analyses method for determination of scutellarin, and investigate the solubilities of scutellarin in different pH phosphate buffer solutions to find the solvent and anti-solvent for nano-precipitation preparation of scutellarin nano-suspension. Methodt: The solubilities of scutellarin in different phosphate buffer solutions were measured by solution equilibrium method with HPLC. Agilent Eclipse XDB-C18 column (4.6mm×150mm, 5μm) at 30℃was used. The mobile phase was the mixed solution of acetonitrile-water-acetic acid (21:79:0.1). The flow rate of a mobile phase was set to 1.0 mL•min-1 and the UV detection was performed at 335 nm; injection volume was 20μL. Resultst: A good linearity of scutellarin was in the range of 20.12~1006 ng. The average recovery rate of scutellarin was 99.9% with RSD of 2.1%. The solubilities of scutellarin in pH5.0, 6.5, 7.0 and 7.4 phosphate buffer solutions were 142.6, 1311.5, 1949.1 and 3073.0 mg•L-1 , respectively. Scutellarin was instable in pH8.0 phosphate buffer solution. Discussiont: The method is accurate, simple and reproducible and can be used for determining the solubility of scutellarin in phosphate buffer solution. The solubility of scutellarin increases as the pH value of 收稿日期:2012-4-10;修訂日期:2012-05-11。基金項目:澳門科技大學發展基金(No.003/2011/A)通訊作者:湯麗華,澳門科技大學澳門藥物與健康應用研究所,在讀碩士生,主要研究中藥藥劑方向E-mail: tanglihua1988@126.com ,Tel:62092805
17湯麗華,等 HPLC法測定燈盞乙素在不同pH值磷酸鹽緩衝液中的溶解度0 引言燈盞花素是從菊科短葶飛蓬屬植物燈盞花中提取出來的一類總黃酮,其主要成份是燈盞乙素和少量燈盞甲素 (圖 1),燈盞乙素化學名為 4’,5,6-三羥基黃酮 -7-O-β-D- 葡萄糖醛酸苷。具有祛風散寒,活血通絡止痛之效。用於風寒濕痹痛,中風癱瘓,胸痹心痛[1]。文獻報導[2],燈盞花素能顯著減少腦梗死體積,抗心肌缺血,抑制血栓形成。圖1 A燈盞乙素 B燈盞甲素燈盞乙素既難溶於水又難溶於有機溶劑,口服生物利用度低[3],目前的研究主要集中在為增加其溶解度和生物利用度而研製各種新劑型[4]。納米沉澱法是藥物溶於一種溶液作為良溶劑,將良溶劑注入藥物的不良溶劑,由於藥物在良溶劑與不良溶劑中的溶解度差異,導致藥物析出結晶,而在表面活性劑或高分子聚合物的作用下維持結晶粒徑在納米尺寸。納米沉澱法的優點是製備成本低,簡單,但要求藥物至少要溶於一種良溶劑,而這種良溶劑也必須與藥物的不良溶劑混溶;兩者的溶解度差異越大,越利於藥物結晶析出 [5]。為了采用納米沉澱法製備燈盞乙素納米混懸液,本文建立燈盞乙素的含量測定的 HPLC 方法,測定燈盞乙素在不同 pH 磷酸鹽緩衝液中的溶解度,為選擇良溶劑和不良溶劑提供數據支持。1 實驗部分1.1 儀器與試劑儀器:Agilent 1200series 超高壓高效液相色譜儀,DAD 檢測器;Milli-Q Synthesis 純水機;Memmert W14 恒溫水浴;Allegra X-15R 檯式冷凍離心機;上海精宏 ZD-810 振盪器。試藥:燈盞乙素對照品(中國藥品生物製品檢定所,批號 110842-200605),燈盞乙素原料藥(雲南植物藥業有限公司,批號 20111101);磷酸二氫鈉、磷酸二氫鉀、磷酸氫二鉀、氫氧化鈉、醋酸、0.5M EDTA pH8.0等試劑均為分析純;乙腈、甲醇等試劑均為色譜純;水為重蒸餾水。1.2 實驗方法1.2.1 色譜條件色譜儀:Agilent 1200 series 超高壓高效液相色 譜 儀,DAD 檢 測 器;Agilent Eclipse XDB-C18(4.6×150mm,5μm)柱,流動相為乙腈 - 水 - 醋酸(21:79:0.1),流速為 1mL•min-1,檢測波長為 335nm,柱溫為 30℃,進樣量為 20μL,理論塔板數按燈盞乙素峰計算不低於 4000。系統適用性:燈盞乙素對照品、燈盞乙素原料藥色譜圖(圖 2),表明該色譜條件適用於測定燈盞乙素。phosphate buffer solution goes up and the solubility of scutellarin in pH 7.4 buffer is increased to 21 times as compared with pH5.0 buffer. The pH 7.4 phosphate buffer solution is selected as the solvent and pH5.0 buffer solution as the anti-solvent.eyyordst: Scutellarin; Solubility; HPLC; Phosphate buffer solutions; Nano-precipitation
21第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 ICP-MS檢測澳門市售中成藥中重金屬 及有毒元素的含量黃緯庭,沙 飛,盧凱紅,陳明偉,林偉基(澳門科技大學,中藥質量研究國家重點實驗室/澳門藥物及健康應用研究所,澳門)摘要: 本研究根據中國藥典2010電感耦合等離子體質譜法,樣品以濃硝酸微波消解,然後利用電感耦合等離子體質譜儀(ICP-MS)進行檢測,分別對262個澳門市售中成藥樣品進行了砷、鎘、銅、鉛、汞等元素的含量分析。其中三個口服中成藥樣品中分別檢出鉛含量為283~795 μg/天,一個中成藥樣品檢出砷含量為2220 μg/天,超出了澳門衛生局技術性指示第02/2003號《內服及外用中成藥及傳統藥物重金屬含量標準》中所列明的上限標準。另外有四個中成藥樣品因為其處方當中分別標明含有雄黃和朱砂,檢出砷和汞超出該標準。另一個口服中成藥樣品檢出銅含量為210 mg/kg。建議規定中成藥製造商應在中成藥的標籤和說明書上清晰說明部份藥材成份對人體可能具有一定危害,必須慎用以確保市民用藥安全。同時相關權限部門應制定相關法案,對含有礦物藥的中成藥,探討制訂合理的重金屬限量標準,制定和完善中成藥具體的品質及安全性標準。關鍵詞: 中成藥;重金屬;有毒元素;電感耦合等離子體質譜Analysis of Heavy Metals and Toxic Elements in Proprietary Chinese Medicines Ay Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass SpectrometryWai-Ting VONG, Fei SA, Hoi-Hong LO, Ming-Wai CHAN, Wai-Kei LAM( Macau University of Science and Technology, State Key Laboratory for Quality Research in Chinese Medicine/Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau, China )AAstractt: Following the method of the Pharmacopoeia of People’s Republic of China 2010, total 262 samples were microwave digested with concentrated nitric acid, and then analyzed for arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg) using Agilent 7500a inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Three samples were contaminated with Pb at 283~795 μg/day, while 1 sample was contaminated with As at 2220 μg/day, both exceeding the allowable limits in the technical guideline No. 02/2003 from Macau Health Bureau. Another 4 samples were found to be contaminated both with As and Hg but the contaminants were claimed to be arsenic sulfide and mercury sulfide that had been used as mineral drugs in traditional Chinese culture for centuries. Cu was detected in 1 sample at 210 mg/kg. It is suggested that pharmaceutical manufacturers should state in the labeling and product inserts the potential hazard of taking mineral drugs like mercury and arsenic sulfide. It is highly recommended that the limits of heavy metals in proprietary Chinese medicines which contain mineral drug should be standardized and defined by the national authorities and Macau Health Bureau.eyyordst: Proprietary Chinese medicines; Heavy metals; Toxic elements; Inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)收稿日期:2012-04-12;修訂日期:2012-05-08。資金資助:澳門基金會*通訊作者:黃緯庭,男,公共衛生學碩士,中藥及食物安全與質量檢定中心主任,主要研究方向為中藥及食物安全與質量。E-mail: wtvong@must.edu.mo,Tel: (853) 8897 2615
26農糧組織(WHO/FAO)所訂定銅的每日攝取量標準上限為 12 mg/day[22]。另一方面,由於污染風險低而剛於 2011 年作廢的國家標準 GB 15199-1994食品中銅限量衛生標準,當時規定多類食品中銅含量分別不得超過 5~50 mg/kg。但在沒有具體的中成藥標準和指引下,藥品未能評定為是否超標,只能以攝入量估計及推斷是否會影響市民的健康。建議澳門衛生局考慮將銅元素亦納入其標準當中。除此之外,不同國家或地區藥材中重金屬限量標準不同,得到的中藥材中重金屬污染情況也不同,因此有必要繼續深入開展對中藥材及中成藥中重金屬的系統性研究。包括研究中藥中礦物藥的重金屬或其化合物的含量範圍;重金屬的安全劑量或最小有毒劑量;重金屬與藥物功效和治療效果的關係;從而為制訂統一的中藥材或中成藥重金屬限量標準提供依據,明確制定含有礦物藥的中成藥重金屬限量標準。表7 部份國家或地區中草藥或中成藥 重金屬限量標準 (μg/g)標準類型 鉛 鎘 汞 砷 銅中國藥典2010版(一部)[2] 5 0.3 0.2 2 20藥用植物及製劑進出口綠色行業標準(中國)[16] 5 0.3 0.2 2 20台灣(金銀花、甘草、黃耆、丹參、白芍等)[17] 5 0.3 0.2 2 20香港中藥材標準[18] 5 0.3 0.2 2 -澳門外用中成藥及傳統藥物重金屬含量標準[8] 20 - 0.5 5 150東南亞國家進口中成藥標[19] 20 - 0.5 5 -法國進口中藥飲片標準[19] 5 0.2 0.1 5 -美國FDA藥品與功能性食品標準[19] 1 0.3 0.026 0.02 -新加坡衛生部門[20] 20 - 0.5 5 150WHO對中草藥重金屬限量標準[21] 10 0.3 - - -参 考 文 獻[1] 姜利兵,張建強.土壤重金屬污染的形態分析及生物有效性探討[J].工業安全與環保,2007,33(2):4.[2] 國家藥典委員會編.中華人民共和國藥典(2010年版1部)[S].中國醫藥科技出版社,第1版,2010.[3] Xudong Yuan, Koh Hwee Ling and Chui Wai Keung. The analysis of heavy metals in Chinese Herbal medicine by flow injection-mercury hydride system and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry[J]. Phytochemical Analysis, 2009, 20:293-297. [4] 王躍生,張晶,對中藥成方製劑中重金屬問題的思考[J].中國中藥雜誌,2000,25(6):377-379.[5] 韓小麗,張小波,郭蘭萍,等.中藥材重金屬污染現狀的統計分析[J].中國中藥雜誌,2008,33(18):2041-2048.[6] 張萌,胡文祥,施燕支.ICP-MS法測定某些中成藥中微量元素[J].現代科學儀器,2008,2:51-53.[7] 毛雪華,梁冰.含朱砂中成藥中微量元素的研究與測定[D].成都:四川大學,2005.[8] 澳門衛生局技術性指示第02/2003號,內服及外用中成藥及傳統藥物重金屬含量標準[S].2003[9] 香港中醫藥管理委員會,中成藥註冊安全性資料技術指引附錄[S]. 2004[10] 孫業兵,李強,謝平,等.中藥製劑中重金屬的測定研究評析.中醫藥學刋.2003,21(6):1021-1023.[11] 李啟彬,鞏新玉,楊春廣,等.5種中成藥中鉛,鎘,砷含量測定[J].臨床和實驗醫學雜誌.2008,7(10):110.[12] 梁國剛,張啟偉.朱砂、雄黃中各成分的溶解度對其藥效、毒副作用的影響[J].中國中藥雜志,2002,27(5):391-392.[13] 周躍華,關於含礦物口服中成藥中重金屬及砷品質控制研究的思考[J].中藥新藥與臨床藥理,2008,19(3) :234-237.[14] Lin Haw-Tarn, Wong Sue-Sun and Li Gwo-Chen, Heavy Metal Content of Rice and Shellfish in Taiwan[J], Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 2004,12(2):167-174.[15] 賴齡,劉芳淑,徐雅慧,等.中藥材中重金屬檢驗(Ⅰ)[C] .臺灣藥物食品檢驗局調查研究年報. 2006,24:228-241.[16] WM/T 2-2004藥用植物及製劑外經貿綠色行業標準[S].2005.[17] 台灣行政院衛生署,地龍等中藥藥材含污穢物質之限量[S].2010.[18] 香港衛生署,香港中藥材標準[S].2005.[19] 寇興明,徐敏,顧永祚.微波消解/ICP-MS法測定川黃柏中微量重金屬元素[J].光譜與光譜分析,2007,27(6):1197-1199.[20] Singapore Health Sciences Authority. Guidelines for Raw Medicinal Herbs[S]. 2012.[21] World Health Organization. Quality control methods for medicinal plant materials[S].1998.[22] World Health Organization. Trace elements in human nutrition and health. 1996.學生活動—武術隊武術隊參加第三屆台灣媽祖杯國際邀請賽澳門科技大學武術隊於4月5至9日赴台灣台中市參加“第三屆台灣媽祖杯國際武術大賽”。經過奮力拚搏,奪得6金1銀1銅,共8枚獎牌的佳績。
27第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 澳門房屋價格和宏觀經濟關係之研究黎幸彬,宋 宇(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 本文運用協整和VAR分析方法,對澳門房屋價格與本地生產總值、狹義貨幣供給量、居民消費物價指數和澳門銀行同業拆借利息等重要宏觀經濟變數之間的關係,進行協整和向量自回歸模型分析。研究表明:當消費者物價指數、本地生產總值增長一個百分點時,房屋價格將增加2.84、1.26個百分點。本地生產總值、狹義貨幣供應量在長期對房屋價格的脈衝影響為正,說明兩者對房價的上升具有正向的影響作用。除房屋價格外,消費者物價指數的方差貢獻值最大,且上升迅速,從第1期的0.14%上升到第10期的11.26%達到最大值。關鍵詞: VAR協整分析;房地產;宏觀經濟The Study of the Relationships of Macau Real Estate Prices and MacroeconomyJason LEE, Yu SONG( Macau University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Management and Administration, Macao, China )AAstractt: In this article, we use coordination analysis and VAR(Vector autoregression) model to study the relationships between the real-estate prices and important macroeconomic variables of GDP, monetary supply, CPI, and Macau interbank offered rate. The result of this study shows that when CPI and GDP has increased 1%, the real estate prices will increase 2.8405% and 1.2607%. The response to real estate prices in long term of GDP and monetary supply is positive, means that they are both contributed to the upward movement of real estate prices significantly. Among all the variables except real estate prices itself, CPI contribute the maximum percentage to real estate prices, it moves sharply from periods 1 to 10, from 0.1363%to 11.2618%.eyyordst: VAR (Vector autoregression); Real estate prices; Macroeconomy收稿日期:2011-10-31;修訂日期:2012-02-05。本文受澳門基金會項目《澳門博彩旅遊相關問題研究》項目編號184資助通讯作者:宋宇,男,博士,澳門科技大學行政與管理學院副教授,主要研究方向:房地產經濟學。 E-mail:simonsy@gmail.com,電話:853-88972305、0 引言房地產市場與宏觀經濟的良性發展具有密切關係。房地產市場的鏈條較長,能夠帶動下游數個行業的發展。當房地產市場處於繁榮期,可對鋼鐵、建材、傢俱、裝飾品、水泥、機械等多個原材料及消費品行業產生拉動作用,從而帶動宏觀經濟的快速增長。另一方面,如果房地產市場過熱,市場價格過高,既會影響民生,又會使一個經濟體積聚相當大的房地產泡沫。當房地產泡沫超過臨界點時,房地產抵押貸款者資金鏈斷裂將導致銀行業的壞賬風險。銀行業的壞賬逐漸增加後,風險則由房地產領域轉移到金融領域,引發銀行業的去杠杆化和金融危機。金融危機通過
34者物價指數對房屋價格的影響為負。同業拆息對房屋價格的影響在長期為負。本地生產總值狹義貨幣供應量在長期對房屋價格的影響為正,說明兩者對房價的上升具有正向的影響作用。第三,根據方差分解,消費者物價指數對房屋價格的方差貢獻值最大,且上升迅速,從第 1期的 0.1363% 上升到第 10 期的 11.2618% 達到最大值。本地生產總值的貢獻次之,由 0% 上升到8.0961%。R 由第 1 期的 0% 上升到最後一期的0.6145%。M1 的影響最小,但也呈現上升趨勢,由第 1 期的 0% 到最後一期的 3.65%。本文驗證了已有研究中關於澳門經濟發展水準與房地產價格之間存在相關性的結論[4~5],還表明了居民消費物價指數,狹義貨幣供應量以及利率對於澳門房地產價格的影響關係,具有一定的理論和實踐意義。参 考 文 獻[1] C. Goodhart, Hofmann (2008) House prices, money, credit, and the macroeconomy Oxford Review of Economic Policy24(1)[2] Wensheng Peng, Dickson C. Tam ,Matthew S. Yiu(2010)PROPERTY MARKET AND THE MACROECONOMY OF MAINLAND CHINA: A CROSS REGION STUDY Pacific Economic Review13(2)[3] Rangan Gupta, Marius Jurgilas和Alain Kabundi(2010) The effect of monetary policy on real house price growth in South Africa: A factor-augmented vector autoregression (FAVAR) approach Economic Modelling27(1)[4] 陳燕武,柯慶耀 (2006) 澳門房地產業若干發展因素關系研究 亞太經濟(6)[5] 陳燕武 (2009) 房價與經濟發展水準相互關系的門限協整研究 商業時代(35)[6] 唐志軍,徐會軍,巴曙松 (2010)中國房地產市場波動對宏觀經濟波動的影響研究 統計研究( 2)[7] 蔡曉春.羅江華 (2008) 通貨膨脹與商品住房價格波動的協整關係研究 統計與決策[8] 李巍,譚之博 (2009)通貨膨脹、證券及房地產市場收益——源自中國過度貨幣供給時期的證據 華東師範大學學報(2)[9] 羅來東,侯玉玲 (2005)房地產和股票市場同貨幣供應量協同性實證研究統計研究 (1)[10] 符淼 (2007) 我國房地產投資和宏觀金融資料的協整分析 生產力研究(4)[11] 田成詩,李輝 (2008) 中國房地產市場風險評價:基於房價與宏觀經濟協整的分析 預測(3)[12] 葉衛平,王雪峰 (2005) 中國房地產泡沫到底有多大 山西財經大學學報(4)[13] 張紅,章輝贊 (2008) 通貨膨脹與商品住宅價格關係的實證分析 清華大學學報(3)[14] 蔡曉春,羅江華 (2008) 資產價格波動對通貨膨脹的動態衝擊檢驗 統計與決策( 18) [15] 段忠東 (2007) 房地產價格與通貨膨脹、產出的關係-理論分析與基於中國資料的實證檢驗 數量經濟技術經濟研究 (12)國際交流科大與迪士尼世界再度攜手合作交流及實習應澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院的邀請,美國迪士尼樂園國際招聘公司於3月13日蒞臨科大舉行赴美交流及實習的講座。是次講座由美國迪士尼樂園國際招聘公司國際招聘員Sue Sharpe 女士,以及美國迪士尼樂園餐飲部分區經理Debbie Weinstein 女士於科大禮堂向酒店與旅遊管理學院逾四百名學生介紹迪士尼世界的服務及講解招聘的情況,科大副校長兼酒店與旅遊學院院長張曙光教授出席參加。張曙光教授指出,酒店與旅遊管理學院今年續與美國佛羅里達州立大學簽署合作備忘錄,同意舉辦迪士尼國際學院交流計劃,讓科大學生持J-1美國交流生簽證赴佛羅里達州立大學交流,今年已是雙方合作的第六年。此次的甄選,計劃將選出45 位優秀的學生,成功獲選的學生可赴美國迪士尼世界進行為期半年的專業實習。留美期間,將會在佛羅里達州立大學參與為期十天的旅遊及酒店管理專業培訓,隨後即到美國迪士尼世界進行為期半年的實習,實習期間,學生們也可以選擇參加迪士尼所開辦的各項專業培訓課程。澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院自2003年成立以來,極力拓展學生的經驗學習,除了積極與澳門的各大國際連鎖酒店合作,以爭取學生的實習機會外,更希望與更多的國外著名集團爭取學生們的經驗學習機會,進而拓展學生們的國際視野。
35第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 Received 14 Nov. 2011; Revised 9 Feb. 2012.* Hung-Che Wu, Assistant Professor of Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology. Email: hcwu@must.edu.mo, Tel: (853)8897-2859.A Meta-Analysis of Career Anchorst: Future Development for Hospitality ResearchFusung HSU1,2, Hungche WU3*, Yong-Jae KO4 ( 1. Division of Hospitality Management & Education, Department of Human Development & Family Studies, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei) ( 2. Department of Food & Beverage, Taipei College of Maritime Technology, Taipei) ( 3. Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau) ( 4. Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Management, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA)AAstractt: The purpose of this study was to analyze the existing research articles on career anchors to shed light on the importance of scholarly research with the development of career anchors in the field of hospitality. The data in this study were collected based on journal articles on career anchors published between 1999 and 2011, and then analyzed using meta-analysis. The analysis unit was calculated according to each article. This study used following primary units of analysis including: year of publication, sources of journal articles, research topic, country studied, respondents, and survey methods. The examination of relevant research articles allowed us to develop a deep understanding of the relationship between career anchors and employee career related outcome variables. This study offers future directions of career anchor research for the field of hospitality management.ey yordst: Career Anchor; Meta-Analysis; Hospitality Research生涯定錨之後設分析:未來餐旅業研究之發展許福松1,2,吳宏哲3*,Yong-Jae KO4(1. 國立臺灣師範大學人類發展與家庭研究所餐旅管理與教育組,臺灣) (2. 台北海洋技術學院餐飲管理系,臺灣;3. 澳門科技大學酒店與旅遊管理學院,澳門) (4. 佛羅里達大學觀光休閒運動管理系,美國)摘要: 本研究之目的為分析生涯定錨之相關研究,並提出餐旅業生涯定錨研究之未來發展。本研究收集1999~2011年所發表生涯定錨之相關研究,隨後採用後設分析法進行統整。研究者所使用之分析單位分別為:發表年份、期刊來源、研究議題、研究對象與調查方法等。本研究分析現存有關生涯定錨之研究,藉以強調有關餐旅業生涯定錨發展學術研究之重要性。相關研究結果讓讀者更瞭解生涯定錨與其他變數之關係,並藉以提供餐旅管理學學者未來生涯定錨研究之方向。關鍵詞: 生涯定錨;後設分析;餐旅研究
360 IntroductionCareers have been regarded as the “individually perceived sequence of attitudes and behaviors associated with work-related experiences and activities over the span of the person’s life” (Hall 1976, p. 4) [1]. Alternatively, Arthur et al. (1989)[2] considered careers as the evolving sequence of a person’s work experiences over time. According to Arthur et al. (1999)[3], “some of the career events are predictable on-the-job actions and interactions, and others are adaptive responses or spontaneous contributions to the constantly unfolding situation” (p. 48). In essence, careers play an important role in every individual’s life (Business iHub, 2010)[4]. Individuals start with their careers in the hospitality sector by directly seeking a career opportunity within leading hotel and restaurant sectors and event management fields (Jobzing, 2010)[5]. More specifically, they spend a great amount of time in discovery, seeking a suitable organization to work for, identifying their interests, and developing their job related skills. An occupational self-concept begins to develop as individuals realize who they are, and what kinds of things they can do well (Beck et al., 2003) [6]. As individuals gain experiences on the job, the occupational self-concept is modified based on their perceptions of abilities, motives, and attitudes toward careers. This occupational self-concept is called career anchors (Beck and La Lopa, 2001; Suutari and Taka, 2004)[7~8].In 1978, the theory of career anchors was developed by Schein at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the 1960s. According to Schein (1996), career anchors are defined as “his or her self-concept consists of self-perceived talents and abilities, basic values and the developed sense of motives and needs applicable to his or her career” (p. 81)[9]. Schein (1990)[10] suggested that young adults gain an accurate and stable career self-concept through their job trials and challenges in their first year of careers.People often select their careers based on wrong reasons (Schein, 1990)[10]. As a result, they find that their responses to the workplace are incompatible with their true values, resulting into the feelings of unrest and discontent, and a lack of productivity (Schein, 1990)[10]. Career anchors play a vital role in increasing the employee job satisfaction and stability with an overall job security or consistency in job performance (Feldman and Bolino, 1996)[11]. In addition, career anchors can aid organizations to effectively guide the employees into career directions. This type of career management is a helpful tool for both individuals and organizations.The issue of the employee career anchor has been widely studied in a variety of fields such as information technology (Jiang and Klein, 2000; Jiang et al., 2001; Kim and Cha, 2000; Ramakrishna and Potosky, 2001, 2003)[12~16], education (Tan and Quek, 2001; La Lopa et al., 2009)[17~18], and business (Danziger and Valency, 2006; Suutari and Taka, 2004)[8, 19]. The issue of career anchors, however, has not been systematically examined in the context of hospitality industry with only few exceptions (Beck et al., 2003)[6]. For the further growth of the hospitality industry sector, the authors believe that this is an important issue worth being paid more attention.The purpose of this study was to analyze the existing research articles on career anchors to shed light on the importance of scholarly research with the development of career anchors in the field of hospitality research. The examination of relevant research articles allows us to develop a deep understanding of the relationship between career anchors and key outcome variables. To date only little research has been conducted to explore employee career anchor in the hospitality management field. Through the meta-analysis applied in this study, it is expected to offer the future directions for the hospitality research.1 Literature Reviey1.1 Career AnchorSchein (1971, 1978)[20~21] suggested that career anchors consist of: (a) the individual’s self-perceived talents and abilities, (b) the self-perceived motives of the individual, and (c) the attitudes and values
37Fusung HSU, et al. A Meta-Analysis of Career Anchors: Future Development for Hospitality Researchthe individual perceives that he or she to hold. In general, a career anchor is a combination of perceived areas of competence, motives, and values relating to professional work choices, which gives stability and direction to an individual’s career (Schein, 1990)[10]. An outcome of the career choices is determined by an individual’s career anchors (Coetzee and Roythorne-Jacobs, 2007)[22]. Schein (1978)[21] developed five major types of career anchors driving one’s career decisions. They include: (a) security and stability, (b) autonomy and independence, (c) technical/functional competence, (d) managerial competence, and (e) entrepreneurial creativity. Later, Schein (1996) [9] identified three additional career anchors (i.e., service and dedication to a cause, pure challenge, and lifestyle). Similarly, Suutari and Taka (2004)[8] considered career anchors as a person’s self-concept, consisting of self-perceived talents, values, and the evolved sense of motives as they pertain to the career. Alternatively, the concept of career anchors has considered individuals’ experiences and any changes in work circumstances (Kniveton, 2004)[23].Schein (1990)[10] has identified three additional career anchors, namely, sense of service, geographic location, and lifestyle integration. People anchored in sense of service typically enter occupations because of central values that they desire to embody in their work (Schein, 1990)[10] and have been found to work in the helping professions such as medicine, teaching, social work, teaching, and social work. Those with a lifestyle of integrated anchors desire to develop a lifestyle integrating family and career concerns with an interest in self-development (Igbaria and Baroudi, 1993)[24]. Finally, the desire to stay in one geographic location has been originally considered to be related to safety/security; however, it has been currently recognized as the implications related to family, personal, and career issues (Schein, 1985, 1996)[9, 25].Career anchors have been applied to a variety of work contexts (Ross, 1995a)[26]. They can reflect the fundamental employment orientations and preferences, and the employee prospective tendency towards their work types. In addition, employers can assess the employee career anchor and this information provides them with appropriate incentives to increase retention of employees who possess a variety of motivations (Hsu et al., 2003)[27]. According to Beck and La Lopa (2001)[7], technical career anchors are referred to as the career decisions based on the opportunity of applying and developing technical competencies. Managers scoring high in this category are less likely to leave their field of expertise. For example, the directors of sales and marketing may refuse a promotion to work as a general manager or transfer to another organization, so that they may stay in the marketing functional area.Coetzee et al. (2007)[28] argued that there is a strong and positive relationship between career anchors and organizational commitment. Meyer and Herscovitch (2001)[29] refer to organizational commitment as the stabilizing and obliging force, providing the direction to behavior that binds the person to a course of action. Organizational commitment has been considered as a psychological state that depicts the employee’s relationship with the organization and their decision to continue the membership in an organization (Meyer and Allen, 1997)[30]. Sutherland and Jordaan (2004)[31] argued that it is important for organizations to gain a deep insight into an understanding of the career anchor that a highly skilled and mobile individual seeks in enhancing organizational commitment. To date, few studies have paid attention to the concept of career anchors within the area of hospitality industry employment (Beck and La Lopa, 2001; Beck et al., 2003; Ross, 1995a, b)[6~7, 26, 32].The concept of career anchors, however, has been highly criticized for several reasons. Schein (1978)[21] argued that workers do not firmly develop career anchors until after they have been involved in a working environment for an extended time period. Additionally, career anchors do not only reflect the underlying needs and motives which individuals bring into their adulthood, but they also reflect their values. There cannot be an anchor until there has been work experience, even though motives and values may
38already be present from earlier experience (Schein, 1978)[21].1.2 Career Development in Hospitality ManagementHall (1976)[1] defined careers as “the individually perceived sequence of attitudes and behaviors associated with work-related experiences and activities over the span of the person’s life” (p. 4). Kusluvan and Kusluvan (2000)[33] indicated that being a skilled, enthusiastic and committed work-force has played a vital role in the success of organizations in the hospitality industry. As most of the interactions between customers and clients in this industry are in the form of face-to-face exchange, with the service purchased and consumed at the same time, the standard of service provided is of paramount concern (Richardson, 2010)[34]. According to Baugh and Potts (2007)[35], there is a high labor turnover rate in the hospitality industry. There is, however, a significant proportion of workers and managers who choose to work in this industry for decades or even for their whole working lives. In general, a majority of people entering this industry and advancing up the organizational ladder often can fulfill their professional dreams within the industry. However, the success in the hospitality industry requires people to work hard and have strong perseverance. Entry level jobs are typically low and it may take a number of years before a newly recruited graduate can get to middle management level. Therefore, a lot of people quickly may get disillusioned with the industry and choose to find employment elsewhere where the compensation is more attractive, or where career advancement happens at a faster pace (Mkono, 2010) [36].Beck et al. (2003)[6] indicated that three most dominant career anchors within the hospitality sectors have been found, namely, sense of service, managerial competence, and lifestyle integration. However, the relative importance of each in their current job has not been established, nor has it been reported whether those career needs that were important to the hospitality sector were being satisfied given that the turnover process tends to be triggered initially by dissatisfied employees. Therefore, the issue of hospitality career anchors should attract more researchers to pay attention.Management can recognize that the important life experiences derived from daily management depend on career and professional development (Lyons, 2004) [37]. As hospitality managers develop their careers, they become more aware of themselves, their opportunities and occupational choices, and the consequences of those choices (Beck and La Lopa, 2001)[7]. Hospitality managers should develop high levels of skills in planning, organizing, managing and controlling. In this process, career anchors plays a key role in their career success within hospitality management. Therefore, more systematic research warrants for a better understanding of this issue and its impact (Beck and La Lopa, 2001)[7].2 Methodology2.1 Data CollectionThe data collection of this research referred to Teng and Barrows (2009)[38]. This study applied a review and integration of journal articles on career anchors. The researchers were in search of databases such as Proquest, ABI/INFORM Archive Complete, EBSCO Host Data Base, and Science Direct on Site (SDOS). To begin with, the researchers typed career anchor in the publication titles or keyword boxes on the advanced searching web page of each database. The data in this study were collected based on journal articles on career anchors published between 1999 and 2011. As a result, a total of 23 articles were found and then included into the analysis of this study.2.2 Data Analysis ProceduresThis study employed a frequency method. Each article was coded and counted separately, and then compared later. Several analysis criteria used in this study included year of publication, sources of journal articles, research topic, country studied, respondents, and survey methods as primary units of the analysis (see Table 1). The analysis unit was calculated based on each article. Meanwhile, the researchers extracted specific information about career anchors. Finally, this
39Fusung HSU, et al. A Meta-Analysis of Career Anchors: Future Development for Hospitality Researchstudy counted the number of journal articles based on the number of analysis categories. The researchers then explained the counted number of journal articles.TaAle 1 An Analysis of Characteristics and UnitsCharacteristics Analysis UnitsJournal CharacteristicsAnalysis of the YearAnalysis of Sources of Journal ArticlesResearch Article CharacteristicsAnalysis of Research TopicAnalysis of Country studiedAnalysis of Job PositionsAnalysis of Survey Methods3 Research Findings3.1 Journal Characteristics3.1.1 An Analysis of the YearA total of 23 journal articles on career anchors were published between 1999 and 2011. Of the 23 articles, four of them were published in 2001 and 2009 respectively. In addition, three of them were published in 2000, 2003, 2004 and 2007 (see Table 2). Finally, only one of them was published in 2011.TaAle 2 An Analysis of the Year of Journal ArticlesYear Number of Journal Articles2000 32001 42002 02003 32004 32005 02006 12007 32008 12009 42011 1Total 233.1.2 Source of Journal ArticlesAll of the 23 articles were published in Journal of Business Venturing, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Journal of Computer Information System, and SA Journal of Industrial Psychology (see Table 3).TaAle 3 An Analysis of the Source of Journal ArticlesJournal NameNumber of Journal ArticlesAsia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research 1Career Development International 2Human Resource Development Quarterly 1Information & Management 1International Journal of Hospitality Management 1International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship1Journal of Business Venturing 1Journal of Culinary Science & Technology 1Journal of Computer Information System 2Journal of Convention & Event Tourism 1Journal of European Industrial Training 2Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education 1Journal of Management Development 1Journal of Management Information Systems 1Personnel Review 1SA Journal of Industrial Psychology 3Southern African Business Review 1The Journal of Psychology 1Total 233.2 Research Article Characteristics3.2.1 An Analysis of Research TopicsOne of the commonly and acknowledged descriptive approaches to examining free elicitation and crit ical incident data is content analysis (Kassarjian, 1977)[39]. The result through the content analysis used in this study was descriptive. The researchers therefore applied the title of the article as an analysis unit. Two judges were required to conduct the complex process of card classification. The repeated and similar cards were classified into the same dimension. The reproducibility was used to measure the reliability in this study. After the measurement was made, the reproducibility was over 0.85. Therefore, the result of card classification provided the significance.After 23 articles were analyzed, the researchers identified four topical areas on professionals’ career
40anchors (n=12), outcomes of career anchors (n=6), antecedents of career anchors (n=3) , and the relationship between employees’ career anchors and working environments (n=2) were most frequently examined. The detailed descriptions of major findings were included in the following paragraphs.3.2.1.1 Professionals’ Career AnchorsBeck and Lopa (2001)[7] adapted Schein’s (1978) [21] Career Anchor Inventory (CAI) to the careers of US Hotel Executive Operating Committee members. They found that marketing executive operating committee members were more focused on being technically competent in their careers than other disciplines such as food and beverage and rooms/operations, and staying within the same discipline rather than moving laterally across positions within the hotel. Marshall and Bonner (2003)[40] investigated the relationship between career anchors anddemographic variables such as ages, cultures, genders and employment experiences. A total of 423 students, who graduated from Australia, USA, Africa, Malaysia, and UK, were interviewed. Their findings suggested that the students from Australia, USA, and Malaysia focused on life style anchors. The service/dedication anchor was found to be the most dominant among UK students, while the pure challenge anchor was the dominant one within the students coming from Africa. There were significant differences in career anchors among individuals with different cultural backgrounds.Kniveton (2004)[23] investigated the managerial career anchors in a general management context. A total of 540 managers were interviewed, and a questionnaire was used to measure the relative importance of individual career anchors. Kniveton (2004)[23] found that younger managers were more orientated towards their own skills and what they could contribute, whereas older managers were more inclined to be aware of the limitations of their role in the organization. Therefore, Kniveton (2004)[23]suggested that management should develop unique and customized career designs for different stages of managers. Suutari and Taka (2004)[8] examined the career anchors of global leaders. Their results indicated that a majority of managers made their decisions based on two or three career anchors instead of one dominating anchor. The managerial competence and pure challenge were found to be the most typical types of the original anchors. Owing to the trend of globalization, managers are required to have international responsibilities and thus, work in an international environment. A new finding was the importance of the internationalism anchor among the global leaders. Weber and Ladkin (2009) [41] explored the relation of career anchors with key demographic variables and job specifics of convention and exhibition industry professionals in Asia. They reviewed the key literature related to career anchors, which is followed by a discussion of the findings of an online survey of a sample of 700 convention and exhibition industry professionals in Asia. In their data analysis, they found that the lifestyle anchor was the most dominant career anchor in the majority of convention and exhibition industry professionals. Later, they attempted to examine the relation between career anchors with career identity, revealing that the lifestyle anchor was more important to respondents with a weak career identity, whereas the challenge anchor was more important to respondents with a strong career identity (2011)[42].3.2.1.2 The Outcomes of Career AnchorsPrevious studies on career anchors focused on the relationship between career anchors and characteristic outcomes of jobs such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Coetzee et al., 2007; Danziger and Valency, 2006; Ellison and Schreuder, 2000)[19, 28, 43]. The congruence between individual anchors and working environment leads to positive career outcomes such as job effectiveness, job satisfaction and high retentions while the incongruence is likely to result into job dissatisfaction and high turnover rates (Schein, 1978)[21].In general, previous studies suggested that career anchors have a significant and positive impact on job satisfaction (Danziger and Valency, 2006; Ellison and Schreuder, 2000; Jiang et al., 2001)[13, 19, 43]with only
41Fusung HSU, et al. A Meta-Analysis of Career Anchors: Future Development for Hospitality Researchone exception (Jiang and Klein, 2000) [12]. Researchers argued that an individual’s career desires motivate employees to work hard (Igbaria and Baroudi, 1993; Rue and Byars, 1995)[24, 44]. Hersey and Blanchard (1982)[45] demonstrated that the level of motivation is positively related to job performance and career satisfaction. Therefore, job satisfaction is significantly enhanced when job designs and career anchors are congruent. Management should examine the feature of the employee career anchor in order to place them on a suitable and meaningful job so that their needs can be fulfilled and job satisfaction be enhanced.Schein (1990)[10] referred to security and stability anchor as willingness to conform and to be fully socialized into values and norms of the organization. Individuals with a security/stability anchor tie their careers to organizations that provide them with job security and long-term career stability (Schein, 1978, 1996)[9, 21]. They are unwilling to leave a given organization even though they have to lose some degree of freedom or if their talents go unrecognized (Barth, 1993)[46]. People anchored in security tend to do what is required of them by their employers in order to maintain job security, decent incomes and stable futures (Kolvereid, 1996)[47]. Lee and Wong (2004)[48] pointed out that the security anchor has negative entrepreneurial intentions. Since a business venture involves risks and uncertainties, people desiring a stable job environment prefer to tie their careers to organizations that provide them with job security and long-run career stability.3.2.1.3 The Antecedents of Career AnchorsCareer anchors have been considered to be a key determinant of an individual’s choice of a career or workplace (Coetzee et al., 2007)[28]. Previous research indicated that individuals’ career motives and values have a significant and positive impact on their career decision-making and psychological attachment to an occupation (Feldman and Bolino, 2000; Kniveton, 2004; Schein, 1996)[9, 23, 49].Several studies examined the antecedents of career anchors by focusing on career resources (Coetzee and Bergh, 2008)[50], career consciousness (Coetzee, 2007)[51], and job characteristics (McLean et al., 1991)[52]. Individuals’ repertoires of psychological career resources consist of career preferences, career values, attitudes and competencies that go beyond work-related technical skills (Coetzee, 2008; Gunz and Heslin, 2005)[53~54]. Coetzee and Bergh (2008) [50] suggested that psychological career resources are positively related to people’s life and job satisfaction, their perceptions of general employability, and abilities of dealing with life and career challenges. Individuals’ profiles of psychological career resource also reflect their career consciousness. Coetzee (2007)[51] described career consciousness as people’s conscious, career-related cognitions of their career preferences, values, skills, attitudes, and behaviors identified as helpful guidance in achieving their goals and career success. According to Schein (1990)[10], when individuals’ abilities, motives, and values are mutually interactive in influencing individuals’ career choices and decisions, their repertoire of psychological career resources is related to their career anchors. In this regard, individuals’ psychological resources provide the energy and impetus that facilitate the actual enactment of their career desires. Coetzee and Schreuder (2009)[55] confirmed that psychological career resources are significant predictors of individuals’ career anchors.McLean et al. (1991)[52] defined job characteristics as attributes or factors relevant to job contents or conditions, such as change of work, salary, welfare, and interpersonal relationships among other things. The conceptual basis for job characteristics invention is the Maslow motivation theory that highlights dissatisfying needs as drive potential. Drive potential is activated when one begins making career choices, preparing for work, seeking employment, and simply doing what is expected to meet personal needs (McLean et al., 1994)[56]. While seeking employment, preferences can help individuals in establishing an order of preferred alternatives and to make decisions. If job characteristics satisfied the preferences of the qualified people, organizations would be better able to recruit productive employees and reduce
42turnover rates. Several studies supported that there is a positive correlation between career anchors and job characteristics preferences (Chang et al., 2007; Jiang and Klein, 2000; Jiang et al., 2001)[12~13, 57]. Therefore, our review resulted into the development of a framework that integrates the antecedents and the outcomes (see Fig. 1).Antecedents Outcomes- Career Consciousness- Career Resources- Job Characteristics- Intention to Leave- Job Effectiveness- Job Performance- Job Satisfaction - Organizational CommitmentCareer AnchorsFig. 1 Antecedents and Consequences of Employee Career Anchors3.2.1.4 The Relationship between Outcome of Employees’ Career Anchors and Working EnvironmentsSchein (1974)[58] argued that, if individuals sense that the job or job situation is not consistent with their talents, needs, and values, they will be pulled back into a more congruent environment with the stable self-image. Most people form a strong self-concept, career anchor, which holds their internal career (individuals’ subjective opinions) together even as they experience dramatic changes in their external career (the progression of jobs) (Schein, 1996)[9]. The essence of individuals’ career anchors is important because it represents individuals’ stable characteristics which are formed from the environment changes. It is imperative for top management to understand that job dissatisfaction, alienation, and turnover intention among employees can be reduced if a balance is created between an individual’s career anchor and a working environment (Ramakrishna and Potosky, 2001; Yarnall, 1998)[15, 59].It is also important to understand what kinds of expectations workers have and how organizations respond to those expectations (Järlström, 2000)[60]. Matching up internal personal career development with the external career situation for organizations can increase a sense of consensus between employees and management, ultimately increasing their loyalty to organizations. Igbaria et al. (1991)[61] found that individuals who have a match between their career orientation and their job setting are more satisfied with their jobs and careers as well as more committed to and less inclined to leave their organization than employees lacking such a match. When individuals achieve the congruence between their career anchors and jobs, they are more likely to attain positive career outcomes, such as job effectiveness, satisfaction and stability (Feldman, 1989; Feldman and Bolino, 1996) [11, 62].3.3 An Analysis of Country StudiedOf the 23 reviewed articles, six and four articles focused on the United States and South Africa respectively. Five of them were studied in the context of cross-culture. The rest of 10 studies were conducted in the contexts of Israel, Singapore, Nigeria, Taiwan and UK (see Table 4).3.4 An Analysis of JoA Positions and Survey MethodsThe 23 studies of career anchors published between 1999 and 2011 paid attention to the employees of a variety of sectors. The professional background of the employees involved into those studies includes information system professionals, teachers, undergraduate students, and general business managers (see Table 5).Career anchors were measured based on a qualitative or quantitative method. The survey method was the most commonly tool (i.e., 20 cases of the collected articles), which were applied to investigate respondents’ perceptions of career anchors. Furthermore, the combination of survey methods and semi-structured interviews was used in one article, and the other was a qualitative study using in-depth interviews to collect data (see Table 6).4 DiscussionsThe contribution of this study is twofold. First, this study contributes to the literature on hospitality career anchors by identifying the developmental process of career anchors using meta-analysis. Next, this research aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the relationship between career anchors and key outcome variables. The result of this
43Fusung HSU, et al. A Meta-Analysis of Career Anchors: Future Development for Hospitality Researchstudy can aid hospitality managers to increase the relationship between the development of employees’ careers and their job satisfaction.Career anchors have been described as a pattern of self-perceived talents and abilities, values and motives that influence individuals’ career-related decision (Schein, 1996)[9]. When individuals belong to a dominant anchor, they have long-term and nearly permanent preferences for their work and job environment. Career anchors have been found to play an important role in influencing individuals’ selection of occupations and job settings. Judge and Bretz (1992) [63] suggested that individuals are likely to choose jobs whose value content is similar to their own value orientation. Career anchors can aid organizations to develop a standard for the employee selection. TaAle 4 An Analysis of Country StudiesCountry Number of Journal ArticlesUnited States 6South Africa 4Israel 3Singapore 2UK 1Taiwan 1Nigeria 1Cross-Culture 5Total 23TaAle 5 An Analysis of JoA PositionsSectors of Respondents Number of Journal ArticlesConvention industry professionals 2General Business Manager 1Graduate Student 1Hotel Manager 1Information System Professional 4Information Technology Professional 2Research Scientist and Engineer 1Teacher 3Service Industry Employee 1Undergraduate Student 3Other 4Total 23TaAle 6 An Analysis of Survey MethodsSurvey Methods Number of Journal ArticlesQuestionnaire Survey 21Questionnaire Survey and Semi-structured Interview1In-depth Interview 1Total 23Management should examine the feature of employees’ career anchors in order to place them on a meaningful job and suitable position that their internal demands can be satisfied and increase their job satisfaction. This study reviewed and analyzed the research on career anchors conducted in the past decade. Through the analysis, the researchers identified the developmental process of career anchors in Schein’s several different contexts. In addition, this research also raises future directions for hospitality research. Previous studies on career anchors extensively focused on quantitative research instead of qualitative studies. The collected 20 studies in this study investigated that the employees from different sectors categorized themselves as the anchor they belong to. Those sectors consist of accommodation, education, business, and so on. The rest of research investigated the relationship between career anchors and job characteristic models. Most cases replicated previous studies in different contexts by re-examining similar variables. Those replication studies are used to achieve the suitable and feasible relationship between career anchors and job characteristic models. Most studies followed Schein’s CAI, instead of improving measurement tool of career anchors.In terms of the respondents , in the past decades, the research on career anchors has been conducted in the context of information technology professionals, information system professionals, teachers, undergraduate students, and general business managers (Beck et al., 2003; Jiang and Klein, 2000; Jiang et al., 2001; Kniveton, 2004; Ramakrishna and Potosky, 2003)[6, 12~13, 16, 23]. Only few studies were conducted in the context of the hospitality industry. In consideration of high turnover rates within the hospitality industry, organizations should arrange
44appropriate jobs and positions for employees based on their characteristics of career anchors. A better understanding of career anchors can assist individuals to gain better careers and organizations and to make a job position plan. Therefore, additional research in the context of hospitality industry should focus on the anchors that the employees belong to.5 Limitations and Suggestions for Future ResearchThere are limitations and suggestions for future studies in this study. First, Edgar Schein is the first researcher who develops a theory of career anchor. Schein identified eight major types of career anchors that drove individual’s career decisions until 1996 (Schein, 1996)[9]. Also, more research on career anchors has been published since 1999. Thus, this study reviewed and integrated 23 journal articles on career anchors. Second, the researchers only identified several antecedents of career anchors, namely, personal life styles, psychological career resources and job characteristic preferences. Additionally, career anchors include four major outcome variables, such as professional competence, career satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. This study have identified four topical areas through content analysis and presented the context of the research surrounding career anchors rather than those variables linked with other four topical areas. Future studies suggest that researchers should investigate to which degree the career anchors are related to their antecedents and outcomes within the hospitality industry. The fast growing global hospitality industry calls for additional research efforts on the career anchors within different cultural backgrounds. 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46第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 組織政治氣候與員工離職傾向: “心理契約違反”跨層次中介角色的討論張博堅(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 過去大多數組織政治的研究都侷限在個人層次 (組織政治知覺)的分析與探討,本研究提出一個工作單位 (群體)層次的構念 (政治氣候),並利用一個整合宏觀 (macro)及微觀 (micro)方法的跨層次分析的架構,檢視此特定的系絡情境 (context),如何影響員工的心理契約評價,並進而影響其態度。實徵資料來自於28個組織、56個工作單位 (群體)及 750名員工的組織政治氣候、心理契約違反、離職傾向與相關之人口統計變項,本研究採用層級線性模型 (hierarchical linear modeling; HLM)進行跨層次中介模式 (cross-level mediation)的驗證。根據本研究的分析結果發現,員工的心理契約違反會部分中介組織政治氣候與員工離職傾向間的關係。針對上述研究結果,本研究提出相關的討論與建議。關鍵詞: 組織政治氣候;心理契約違反;離職傾向;層級線性模型;跨層次中介模式Organizational Political Climate and Employees' Turnover Intentiont: The Cross-level Mediating Role of Psychological Contract BreachPo-Chien CHANG( Macau University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau, China )AAstractt: Most previous research about organizational politics is limited to the individual-level analysis and discussion. In this study we proposed a work-unit-level construct, organizational climate, and used a multi-level model integrating macro and micro approaches to examine how this specific context affects individual employees’ psychological contract breach, and then affect individual employees’ turnover intention. Data were collected from 28 organizations, 56 work groups, and 750 work group members who provided the information about organizational political climate, psychological contract breach, turnover intention, and demographic variables. Hierarchical linear modeling techniques were applied to test the full cross-level mediation model. The results reveal that individual employees’ psychological contract breach partially mediate the relationship between organizational political climate and turnover intention. The research and practice implications of the findings are discussed.eyyordst: Organizational Ploitical Climate; Psychological Contract Breach; Thunover Intention; Hierarchical Linear Modeling; Cross-level Mediation Model收稿日期:2012-03-16;修訂日期:2012-04-24。通訊作者:張博堅,男,博士,澳門科技大學行政與管理學院助理教授,主要研究方向:組織政治 、策略性人力資源管理、跨文化研究。E-mail:pcchang@must.edu.mo,電話:(853)8897 2947
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61第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 金融機構所有權結構與公司價值的實證分析孫婷霞1,陳 復2(1. 澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門;2. 紐約大學金融學院,紐約)摘要: 所有權結構和性質是影響公司價值的重要因素之一,而二者的關係仍有不同的解釋。本文針對在中國深滬兩市A股上市的36家金融機構2005年12月~2010年6月的面板數據,進行了敘述性統計、相關性、共線性、多元回歸等實證分析,並進行了虛擬變數、延遲、交互項等可靠性檢驗,探討了中國上市金融機構所有權結構及股權集中度與公司價值的關聯性。最後總結結論,並對中國金融機構股權結構方面提出了建議。關鍵詞: 所有權結構;金融機構價值;股權集中度The Relationship Aetyeen Oynership Structure and the Value of Company of China's Listed Financial InstitutionsTingxia SUN1, Fu CHEN2( 1. Macau University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Management and Administration, Macao, China ) ( 2. New York University, Department of Mathematics, New York, USA )AAstractt: The structure and character of ownerships are important factors in influencing firm's value. Through the empirical model of the multiple regression, we discussed the relevance of ownership structure, ownership concentration and the value of company of China's listed financial institutions. Then, we summarize the results, and put forward some suggestion to the field of ownership of China's financial institutions.eyyordst: Ownership structure; Financial institutions value; Ownership concentration 收稿日期:2012-03-16;修訂日期:2012-06-04。﹡通訊作者:孫婷霞,女,澳門科技大學金融專業碩士研究生。E-mail: suntingxia0831@hotmail.com,Tel: 15344897783 0 引言 自從 2001 年 11 月中國加入 WTO 後,大批外資流入內地金融機構,但是戴志敏、王海倫(2008)[1] 指出外資參股對中國的金融機構還是存在潛在的負面影響。這與聲稱公司在完全不受國家所有權控制下價值最高的言論(Dewenter and Malatesta, 2001; Megginson and Netter, 2001)[2~3] 完全相悖。陳瓊芬 (1995)[4] 研究指出外國法人的持股比例越高,越可提升公司價值,黃金蓮 (2001)[5] 也證實二者呈正向關係。Jensen&Meckling[6] 提出的利益收斂假說認為當股權分散時,公司價值降低,而利益剝奪假說 (Jensen&Ruback, 1983)[7] 則認為股權集中度與公司績效呈負相關,更有學者提出了所有權無關論。Demsetz and Lehn(1985)[8] 通過實證研究證實所有權結構與公司價值無關。所以關於所有權結構與價值的關係,目前為止仍沒統一定論。國內外許多學者已做過許多關於所有權結構與公司價值關係的研究,設計領域也很廣泛,但是金融機構領域的少之又少,樣本選擇也大多是
65孫婷霞,等 金融機構所有權結構與公司價值的實證分析個百分點,將導致ROA增加0.005547倍的標准差。同理可知,SOELG 比例與 SIZE 也存在著交互效應,公司 SIZE 的增加導致 ROA 上升越多;SOECG、SOELG 比例與 LEV 存在著交互效應,SOECG、SOELG 比 例 越 高,LEV 的 增 加 導 致ROA 下降越多。表1 自變數与應變數之間的關係Dependent ROA EPSCONSTANT -0.008(-0.178) -2.398(-5.078***)PSAMB -0.010(-0.548) -0.822(-4.418***)PSOECG -0.525(-4.028***) 1.719(1.259)PSOELG 0.047(2.071**) -0.536(2.265**)PFOREIGN 0.003(0.114) 0.377(1.437)CGS 0.020(4.064***) -0.075(-1.440)SIZE 0.002(1.120) 0.112(5.314***)LEV -0.053(-2.362**) -0.008(-0.035)TAT -0.074(-8.764***) -0.228(-2.575***)Adjusted R2 0.533 0.243Model-F statistic 26.840 11.407Durbin-Watson 1.800 1.319OBS. 261 261注:*表示達10%的顯著水準;**表示達5%的顯著水準;***表示達1%的顯著水準2) 股權集中度的交互項檢驗。因為此前所有權集中度回歸分析中,模型結果 EPS 所得資料較為顯著,所以僅討論 EPS,排除 ROA 和 ROE。將 PFSHSt=PFSHt*SIZEt、PFSHTt=PFSHt*TATt放入模型中。由實證結果得知,交互項 PFSHS,PFSHT 的顯著性雖達到標准,但調整後的 R2 為0.208 和 0.238,表示該模型的擬合度未達到本研究所希望達到的水准,所以不予討論。綜上所述,當 ROA 作因變數時,SIZE 和LEV 通過 SOECG 及 SOELG 比例對 ROA 有一定的偏影響。4 研究結論與建議 根據實證結果與分析,我們發現當國有資產管理機構持股比例愈高時,金融機構經營績效愈差,而地方所屬國有企業持股比例與金融機構經營績效呈正相關,股權集中度愈高,金融機構經營績效愈好。同時,為了使中國金融業更好的發展,本文提出了以下四點建議:第一,改善金融機構股權結構。改變我國上市金融機構幾乎完全國家控股現象,優化股權結構,完善董事會職能,建立更為高效的金融機構管制體系。第二,提高金融機構資產運營的有效性,完善其資產管理體系。由於我國金融機構傾向於政府導向,有效性較低,出現資產周轉率與公司價值成反向影響關係,因此需要不斷規範和完善公司的資產管理體系,以提高資產再創收益的能力。第三,確立有效的業績評價體系。我國目前的業績指標主要是財務指標體系,由於會計資訊披露方面存在人為操縱的問題,不能完全反應公司真實的財務狀況和發展潛力。而且,用財務指標衡量管理層的業績,可能會造成管理層的短期傾向。因此應該建立一套科學的、符合市場規律的業績指標體系。第四,適當提高股權集中度。由於股權集中度在合適的範圍內提高,可以促使公司績效提升,以及使公司在決策,運營,治理等方面發揮最大效用職能,達到提升公司經營績效的目的。参 考 文 獻[1] 戴志敏,王海倫.外資參股國內銀行及其對金融安全的影響.浙江大學學報,2008,(02):P108-115.[2] Dewenter K.L. and Malatesta, P.H.. State-owned and privately owned firms: An empirical analysis of profitability, leverage and labor intensity. American Economic Review,2001,(91):P320-334.[3] Megginson, W. and J. Netter. From State to Market: A Survey of Empirical Studies on Privatization. Journal of Economic.2001.[4] 陳瓊芬.外人直接投資對我國上市公司企業價值關係之研究[D].台灣:國立政治大學企業管理研究所,1995.[5] 黃金蓮.台灣上市(櫃)企業財務績效與外資持股比例之關聯性研究[D].台灣:中原大學會計研究所,2001.[6] Jensen, Mecking. Theory of the firm: managerial behaviour, agency costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics,1976,P83-105.[7] Jensen, M.C. and Ruback, R.S.. The Market for Corporate Control: The Scientific Evidence. Journal of Financial Economics, 1983,11(1-4):P5-50.[8] Demsetz H. and K.Lehn. The Structure of corporate Ownership: Cause and Consequences.Journal of Political Economy, 1985,(93):P1155-
661177.[9] 孫永祥 ,黃祖輝 .上市公司的股權結構與激勵 .經濟研究 ,1999,(12):P23-30.[10] Leland, H. E., and D. H. Pyle. Information asymmetries, financial structure and finance intermediation. Journal of Finance, 1977,Vol.32:P371-387.[11] Kesner. Directors’ s tock ownership and Organizat ional Performance:An Investigation of Fortune 500 Companies. Journal of Management,1987,11(3):P499-507.[12] Stulz, R.M.. Managerial Control of Voting Right: Financing Policies and the Market for Corporate Control. Journal of Financial Economics, 1988,20(1/2):P25-54.[13] Morck.R, Nakamura,M& Shivdasani Abanks. Ownership Structure and Firm Value in Japan. Journal of business, 2000,(10).[14] 陳坤宏.家族企業、聯屬持股與經營績效之研究[D].台灣:國立中央大學財務管理學系研究所,1995.[15] 肖作平.股權結構、資本結構與公司價值的實證研究.證券市場導報,2003,(1):P71-76.[16] Gongmeng Chen, Michael Firth, Liping Xu. Does the type of ownership control matter? Evidence from China's listed companies. Journal of Banking & Finance, 2009,(33):P171-181.[17] 劉國亮,王加勝.上市公司股權結構、激勵制度及績效的實證研究.經濟理論與經濟管理,2000,(5):P40-45.[18] 周業安.金融抑制對中國企業融資能力影響的實證分析.經濟研究,1999,(2):P13-20.[19] 邱厚銘.公司治理對經營績效與購併行為影響之研究-以金融控股公司為例[D].台灣:國立中山大學企業管理學系研究所,2004.學生活動—藝術團藝術團獻藝湯姆斯盃及尤伯盃亞洲區預賽開幕晚宴澳門科技大學藝術團應澳門羽毛球總會的邀請,為2月12日於澳門旅遊活動中心舉辦的“湯姆斯盃及尤伯盃亞洲區預賽”之開幕式和歡迎晚宴獻上一系列精彩節目,並擔任開幕式整個活動司儀及公關禮儀工作。“曲韻悠揚”藝術團獻藝外交部駐澳特派員公署澳門科技大學藝術團兩位同學2月27日晚前往中華人民共和國外交部駐澳門特別行政區特派員公署,為到訪特派員公署的行政長官崔世安及各司長等政府領導一行奉上了精彩演出。潘博煌同學的鋼琴獨奏《蘭亭序》、《波蘭舞曲》,曲韻悠揚,中西音樂的不同曲風,令嘉賓們陶醉其中。潘博煌指法嫻熟,與嶄新的捷克鋼琴完美配合,優美樂符如細細溪流在聽眾心中滑過;之後由潘博煌、深小堅兩位獻上薩克斯風與鋼琴合奏曲目《查爾達斯》,歡快的節奏令現場氣氛高漲,隨著樂曲時而輕快,時而悠揚,現場嘉賓讚不絕口,報以熱烈掌聲。電聲樂隊首場演出圓滿落幕電聲樂隊是2011/2012學年澳科大藝術團新成立的一支樂隊。由電聲樂隊舉辦的黃昏音樂會4月26日在G座籃球場開唱,由下午5點延續到9點半結束,一首首耳熟能詳的歌曲讓在場觀眾興奮不已,現場氣氛熱烈。藝術團參加 “龍騰盛世 福佑中華”節目錄製應湖北廣播電視台節目組的邀請,澳門科技大學藝術團有幸參與“龍騰盛世 福佑中華 —— 壬辰年世界華人炎帝故里尋根節暨拜謁炎帝神農大典”之澳門地區拍攝工作。澳科大藝術團的30位學生作為澳門大學生代表, 5月6日在大三巴牌坊參與了本次節目的外景拍攝。澳科大參與錄製的內容將用於5月16日大典現場儀程四“點燃聖火”環節的電視短片介紹,電視短片取景中國內地、香港、台灣和澳門,由清華大學、香港教育學院、台灣世新大學和澳門科技大學的學生共同參與完成,意在突出兩岸四地大學生齊參與的元素。
67第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 退休基金投資績效評估與最適資產配置 ——風險價值觀點朱順和,林文傑(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 本研究主要針對澳門公務人員公積金制度之退休基金投資績效進行評估分析,根據Markowitz投資組合理論,考量下方風險,嘗試以風險價值之夏普比率、條件夏普比率及修正夏普比率探評估澳門公務人員公積金的投資績效表現,並進一步探討其投資組合之最適資產配置。研究主要结論:面臨2010年爆發歐洲債務危機與美國高額債務負擔問題的影響,澳門公務人員公積金投資組合的環球股票投資基金比重應低於50%,最適資產配置以環球債券投資基金及銀行存款組合為重心。關鍵詞: 退休基金;資產配置;風險價值;條件風險價值;修正風險價值The Performance Evaluation and the Optimal Assets Allocation of Pension Fund - Value-at-Risk PerspectiveShun-Ho CHU, Wenchien LIN( Macau University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau,China )AAstractt: This study is mainly to analyze the investment performance of Provident Fund Scheme (PFS) for Workers in the Public Services in Macau. Based on the portfolio theory of Markowitz, this paper uses Sharpe ratio of Value-at-Risk, Conditional Sharpe ratio and Modified Sharpe ratio to evaluate the performance of the PFS and, furthermore, to study the optimal assets allocation of the portfolio of PFS under the downside risks,. The main findings show that with encountering the effects of European debts crisis and US high debts problem in 2010, PFS should lower the portion of global stock mutual funds below 40% of portfolio and main portion of PFS should focus on global bonds and bank deposits. eyyordst: Pension fund; Asset Allocation; Value-at-Risk; Conditional Value-at-Risk; Modified Value-at-Risk收稿日期:2012-05-15;修訂日期:2012-06-08。本文為課題《澳門公共退休金最適資產配置之研究》的前期研究通訊作者:朱順和,男,博士。主要研究方向:銀行管理及退休金管理。 E-mail:shchu@must.edu.mo,Tel:+8869337288700 引言澳門已成為老年型人口結構的地區,人口老齡化問題日益嚴重,有關的社會福利、醫療服務、社會保障及住房等方面需求增大,財政負擔也日益增加,引起了澳門特區政府和社會的廣泛關注。為此,澳門特區政府近年來推出了多項社會養老措施及政策,例如醫療券計劃、經濟房屋政策、公務人員公積金制度、中央儲蓄制度以及強制性與任意性之雙層式社會保障制度等,期望能進一步完善養老制度的可持續發展。此顯示出澳門人口確實存在著人口老年化及退休養老財政負擔問題,為澳門社會養老機構首要重視的課題。
75朱順和,等 退休基金投資績效評估與最適資產配置 ——風險價值觀點美國國庫券為3.7%、長期政府債券為5.4%-5.75%、長期公司債券為 5.9%、大型企業股票為 9.6%、小型企業股票 11.7%;通貨膨脹率為 3%(Jordan, Westerfield, and Ross, 2011[27])。澳門公務人員公積金投資組合中環球債券投資基金佔70%以上者,其投資報酬率可打敗通貨膨脹(平均周通貨膨脹率為 0.0895%)。澳門公務人員公積金是廣大公務人員的退休生活的保障,澳門退休基金會在面對歐洲債務危機、美國高額債務負擔問題及全球經濟成長趨緩等諸多不確定的影響因素,應遵循安全性及收益性並重的管理與運用原則,尤其首重安全性原則,建議投資組合資產配置除銀行存款外,應增加環球債券投資基金之比重及較少比重之球股票投資基金。参 考 文 獻 [1] The World Bank. Averting the Old Age Crisis. N.Y.:Oxford University Press, 1994. [2] Brinson, G.P., Singer, B.D., & Beebower, G.P.. Determinants of Portfolio Performance II : An Update. Financial Analysts Journal, 1991, 47(3): 40-48. [3] OECD, A.. Pension Markets in Focus, Paris: OECD, 2011.[4] Hu, X., & Chen, L.. An Empirical Research in the Performance Evaluation of Mutual Fund in China based on VaR-Sharpe Ratio. Working Paper, 2009. [5] Bogentoft, E., Romeijn, H.E., & Uryasev, S.. Asset/Liability Management for Pension Funds Using CVaR Constraints, 2001, 3(1): 57-71.[6] Krokmai, P., Palmquist, J., & Uryasev, S.. Portfolio Optimization with Conditional Value-at-Risk Objective and Constraints. The Journal of Risk, 2002, 4(2): 11-27.[7] Favre, L., & Galeano, J.. Mean-Modified Value-at-Risk Optimization with Hedge Funds. Journal of Alternative Investment, 2002, 5: 21-25.[8] Markowitz, H.. Portfolio Selection. The Journal of Finance, 1952, 7(1): 77-91.[9] Roy, A.D.. Safety-First and the Holding of Assets. Econometric, 1952, 20: 431-449.[10] Campbell, R., Huisman, R., and Keodijk, K.. Optimal Portfolio Selection in a Value-at-Risk Framework. Journal of Banking & Finance, 2001, 25: 1789-1804.[11] Jorion, P.. Risk²: Measuring the Risk in Value at Risk. Financial Analysts Journal, 1996, 52(6): 47-56.[12] 丁浩、龐川. 基於非對稱GARCH-VaR模型的中國利率風險度量-對Shibor的實證. 澳門科技大學學報,2011,5(1): 58-67.[13] Basak, S. & Shapiro, A.. Value-at-Risk Based Risk Management: Optimal Policies and Asset Prices. Review of Financial Studies, 2001, 14: 371-405.[14] Mauser, H. & Rosen, D.. Beyond VaR: From Measuring Risk to Managing Risk. ALGO Research Quarterly, 1998, 1(2): 5-20.[15] Artzner, P., Delbaen, F., Ebeer, J., and Health, D.. Coherent Measure of Risk. Mathematical Finance, 1997, 9: 203-228. Unpublished Manuscript, 1961.[16] Rockafellar, R.T., and Uryasev, S.. Optimization of Conditional Value-at-Risk. Journal of Risk, 2000, 2(3): 21-41.[17] Zakamouline, V., & Keokebakker, S.. Portfolio Performance Evaluation with Generalized Sharpe Ratio: Beyond the Mean and Variance. Journal of Finance, 2009, 33: 1242-1254.[18] 邱顯比.林清珮.楊宗庭. 2002.共同基金風險值的評估與應用. 2002 年財務金融學術研討會.台灣財務金融學會.[19] 黃惠萱. 2006. 最適資產配置模型績效之研究-M-V與M-CVaR模型之比較. 台北:銘傳大學財務金融研究所碩士論文.[20] Treynor, J.L.. Toward a Theory of Market Value of Risky Asset. Unpublished Manuscript, 1961.[21] Sharpe, W.F.. Capital Asset Prices: A Theory of Market Equilibrium Under Conditions of Risk. Journal of Finance, 1964, 19(3): 424-442.[22] Linter, J. The Valuation of Risk Assets and the Selection of Risky Investment in Stock Portfolio and Capital Budgets. Review of Economics and Statistics, 1965, 47(1): 13-37.[23] Sharpe, W.F.. Mutual Fund Performance. The Journal of Business, 1966, 39(1): 119-138.[24] Dowd, K.. Adjusting for Risk: An Improved Sharpe Ratio, International Review Economics & Finance, 2000, 9: 209-222.[25] Rachev, S., Jasic, T., & Stoyanov, S.. Momentum Strategies Based on Reward-Risk Stock Selection Criteria, 2007, 31:2325-2346.[26] 符寶玲. 退休金制度與管理. 四版. 台北:華泰書局. 2005.[27] Jordan, B.D., Westerfield, R.W., & Ross, S.A., Corporate Finance Essentials. seventh edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Irvin, 2011.學生活動—國際舞蹈隊國標舞蹈隊成績斐然澳門科技大學國標舞蹈隊3月2日赴馬來西亞首府吉隆坡參加了“2012馬來西亞世界舞蹈錦標賽”,連獲四金。澳門科技大學國標舞蹈隊5月13日赴香港參加了“2011年全年總冠軍頒獎典禮暨全港舞蹈公開賽 (雙倍計分賽)”,取得了5金2銀1銅的優異成績。
76第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 基于澳門石油存貨的庫存管理研究唐華軍*,柳斯韻,陳林哲,傅晟科(澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 隨著澳門經濟的迅速發展,石油產品的需求量不斷增長,同時需求變動也在不斷加大,這使得石油經銷商在澳門唯一公共油庫——九澳油庫的庫存水平居高不下,其庫存成本不斷上升。本文以澳門石油經銷商在九澳油庫的庫存總成本最小化為目標,首先調查統計了2011年澳門石油經銷商的進口量、需求量、銷售量、石油單價等數據,對2011年石油經銷商在九澳油庫的庫存總成本進行了評估,然後运用時間序列法對2011年石油需求量數據進行預測分析,在預測的需求數據基礎上利用經濟訂購批量(EOQ)模型給出了石油經銷商的最優訂購策略,并估算了相應的庫存總成本,輿優化前比較,優化后的库存總成本下降近61.6%。本文所得到的研究結果不僅在理論上豐富了需求預測理論與EOQ模型進行有效整合以提高庫存管理績效的研究方法,為本澳石油庫存管理的研究填補了空白,而且在實踐上也為本澳石油經銷商制定合理的庫存與訂購策略提供了較為科學的決策支持。關鍵詞: 庫存管理;時間序列法;經濟訂購批量模型Study on the Inventory Management of Oil Products in MacauHuajun TANG*, Siyun LIU, Linzhe CHEN, and Shengke FU( Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: With the rapid development of the economy in Macau, the demand volume and variability of oil products increase remarkably, which leads to high inventory levels and inventory related cost. This paper focuses on the optimal inventory policy of oil dealers in Macau. Specifically, it firstly investigates the statistic data such as order quantity, demand, sales, and sale price of oil products from 2008 to 2011, evaluates the total inventory related cost (including setup cost, holding cost and rent) of 2011 in MOT, then applies time series methods to predict the demand of oil products in 2011. Based on the forecasting result, it uses EOQ model to provide the optimal order policy, which leads to a decrease of the total inventory related cost by 61.6%. This study provides oil dealers in Macau with some scientific and practical suggestion to reduce the inventory related cost in MOT. In addition, it provides a set of real data for academia to apply different framework to solve inventory management problems in further studies.eyyordst: Inventory Management; Time Series Method; Economic-order-quantity Model收稿日期:2012-05-08;修訂日期:2012-05-30。*通訊作者:唐華軍,男,博士,澳門科技大學行政與管理學院助理教授,主要研究方向為供應鏈管理、交通優化與綠色物流。E-mail:hjtang@must.edu.mo, Tel: +853 8897 2874。0 前言 隨著澳門經濟迅速發展,車輛輪船等各交通方式數量大幅增長,其石油需求量也日益增加。然而,澳門由於區域狹小,沒有自有石油資源,主要依賴進口石油產品。“九澳油庫”作為澳門唯一的公共油庫,儲存著全澳門石油經銷商的石油產品。各經銷商根據需要將儲存的石油產品分送到他們各自的加油站。為應對不斷增長及變動的石油需求,經銷商不得不增加在九澳油庫的庫
84第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 再思大衆文化:一個文化研究視角黃微子(澳門科技大學人文藝術學院,澳門)摘要: 從對大衆文化和文化研究之間關係的某些典型誤解出發,本文將大衆文化放置在文化研究的視角下進行再思考:回顧了自文化研究進入中國以來的十幾年間,內地學者研究大衆文化的實踐及其局限;力圖厘清大衆文化在當前中國語境中的不同面向;進而探討爲什麽還要研究大衆文化以及怎樣研究大衆文化。關鍵詞: 大衆文化;文化研究;生産機制;研究方法Rethinking Popular Culturet: A Cultural Studies PerspectiveWeizi HUANG( Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: Starting from some typical misunderstandings of the relationship between popular culture and cultural studies, this paper discusses the research practices of Mainland Chinese scholars for popular culture since cultural studies was introduced into China two decades ago, rethinks the meaning and significance of popular culture in contemporary context, and tries to figure out how we can achieve a better understanding of popular culture.eyyordst: Popular culture; Cultural studies; Production mechanism; Research methodology收稿日期:2012-04-30;修訂日期:2012-06-14。*通訊作者:黃微子,女,博士,助理教授,主要研究方向為媒體與文化研究。Email:wzhuang@must.edu.mo, Tel: 853-8897 29610 引言當我覺得有必要重新思索為什麼我們還要研究“大眾文化”的時候,仍不免想起曾經在大衆媒體上轟動一時的一起學界爭吵。 1 爭吵本身不是本文討論的對象,但爭吵當中竟然牽扯到大衆文化和文化研究,則剛好作為我們這個話題的引子。且讓我摘錄如下——文化研究是英語化的大衆文化研究或通俗文1. 事件的起因是四川師範大學教授鍾華在知名的學術刊物《文藝研究》上發表了一篇批評北京師範大學教授季廣茂新書的文章,隨後季廣茂在個人博客上以粗口相向。事件受到《北京青年報》(2008年2月25日)、《新京報》(2008年2月28日)、《京華時報》(2008年3月3日)、《新世紀周刊》(2008年第6期)等媒體的相繼報道,幷被人民網、新華網、中國網等網站轉載。化研究,它怎麽會成爲“文學現象"的“研究範式"?如何讓它成爲“觀照文學現象的一種理論視角和研究手段"?何種“文學現象"?要知道,文化研究不可能成爲什麽“文學理論"的“研究範式",充其量也只能成爲大眾文化或通俗文化的“研究範式";文化研究更不可能成爲“觀照文學現象的一種理論視角和研究手段",充其量也只能成爲“觀照大眾文化或通俗文化的一種理論視角和研究手段"。我研究的是中國現代思潮與文學觀念的變遷問題,與大眾文化或通俗文化可謂風馬牛不相及,鍾華竟然能夠生拉硬拽地湊到一起,本領的確高強。(著重標記為原文所加)[1]
85黃微子 再思大衆文化:一個文化研究視角這段話至少告訴我們兩個事實。第一,這位作者認爲文化研究(“充其量只能”)是研究大衆文化或通俗文化,而不可能“觀照文學現象”。第二,這位作者急於撇清自己和文化研究的關係,“可謂風馬牛不相及”。倘若果真風馬牛不相及,那麼以上無非是一個外行人關於高雅的文學研究優於通俗的文化研究的陳詞濫調。然而不幸的是,這位作者,北京師範大學文學院的季廣茂教授,曾經翻譯過哈特利(John Hartley)的《文化研究簡史》(Short History of Cultural Studies)[2],譯本也正好在他和四川師範大學教授鍾華發生學術糾紛的當年出版。雖然季教授自己幷不認同于文化研究,但既然他以譯著介入國內文化研究的話語實踐,有理由相信他對文化研究的理解也(至少部分地)來源于他所參與的國內文化研究的話語實踐,甚至反映了這種話語實踐的(一部分)現狀,因此值得我們認真對待。2固然,文化研究和大衆文化或通俗文化有著毋庸置疑、無需避諱的密切關係,但是,文化研究是否必然僅僅只能“觀照大衆文化或通俗文化”,“大衆文化或通俗文化”是否絕不包括“文學現象”,却正是本文想要追究的問題。1 什麼是大眾文化:過去的實踐主編“大衆文化批評叢書”的著名批評家李陀在叢書序言裏面這樣界定大衆文化:“它主要是指與當代大工業生産密切相關(因此往往必然地與當代資本主義密切相關),幷且以工業方式大批量生産、複製消費性文化商品的文化形式……這種文化形式除了必然地與大工業結成一體之外,還包括著創造和開闢文化市場,以公司規模的行爲去組織産品的銷售,以及儘快獲得最大利潤等經濟行爲。這使得暢銷小說、商業電影、電視劇、各種形式的廣告、通俗歌曲、休閑報刊、卡通音像製品,MTV、營利性體育比賽以及時裝模特表2. 爭執的另一方鍾華的兩篇相關文章【《文化研究與文學理論的迷失》,載《文藝研究》,2007(11):151-159;《對季廣茂的批評和反批評的回應》,載《粵海風》,2008(3):8-14】當中對文化研究的理解和叙述也幷非沒有值得商榷之處,但這不是本文的重點所在,因此略去不表。演等等,不僅構成大衆文化的主要成分,而且成爲只有在買與賣的關係中才能實現自己文化價值的普通商品。”[3]這套叢書是九十年代末到本世紀最初幾年間國內知識界最重要的叢書之一,它的作者包括戴錦華、王曉明、包亞明和南帆等等國內文化研究的旗幟性人物和活躍的批評家。我幷非說李陀對大衆文化的理解便完全代表了他們的想法,但反觀九十年代以來“大衆文化批評”的實踐,研究和批評的對象却的確以“暢銷小說、商業電影、電視劇、各種形式的廣告、通俗歌曲、休閑報刊、卡通音像製品,MTV、營利性體育比賽以及時裝模特表演等等”爲壓倒性多數。而在中國大陸的語境之下,“大衆文化批評”幾乎等同于文化研究。儘管李陀恰如其分地介紹說:“大眾文化研究是這研究領域(筆者按:即文化研究)的一部分,雖然至今還是其最重要的部分”,[4]但是,他同時又強調:“文化研究的對像是文化……是與今天市場經濟密切聯繫的商品文化,特別是與工業生産方式緊密聯繫的大衆文化。”[5]李陀進一步說:“一般來說,現在我們所說的‘大眾文化’是從英語詞 Popular culture 譯過來的,但有人把它譯為‘民間文化’,而把Mass culture譯為‘大眾文化’,可是又有人把 Mass culture 譯為‘群眾文化’。”[6]他的描述實際上提示我們,在國內的文化批評實踐中,popular culture 和 mass culture 兩股話語是交織在一起的。回顧國內文化研究的歷史,文化研究作爲一種資源、一個視角、一股思潮進入中國之時,也正是九十年代初“大衆文化”風起雲涌之際。“大眾文化”風起雲湧,使得一部分知識分子“無法對它繼續保持可敬的緘默”(戴錦華語)。這部分知識分子之所以轉向文化研究,與 1989 年之後知識界反思八十年代的理論和視野有關,與 1992年以後中國社會出人意料地大踏步走向消費主義這一“政治迫切性”有關,也與知識分子自身地位的變化有關——他們中的許多人將大衆文化看作是官方政治和商業主義的合謀,放逐了原本處
86于聚光燈下的知識分子。出于這種切膚之痛,或許也由于以往所浸染的理論脉絡的影響,令他們更容易認同于西方馬克思主義、法蘭克福學派,特別是阿多諾(Adorno)等人對文化工業的批判。這就是爲什麽國內的文化研究會漸漸走向“大衆文化批評”,走向阿多諾式對文化工業和大衆文化(mass culture)的意識形態批判(儘管往往變成對阿多諾的簡化和斷章取義)。雖然費斯克(John Fiske)關于大衆文化的理論在國內也有譯介,但討論大衆文化中的抵抗(resistance)卻絕不是國內文化研究或大眾文化批評的主流。由于在過去十幾年的實踐中,國內的文化研究的確是以文化工業生産出來的大衆文化爲主要的研究對象,以至于會出現我們在本文開頭所看到的那樣,幷非對文化研究毫無接觸、毫無瞭解的季廣茂教授,在反駁鍾華時言之鑿鑿地宣稱文化研究“充其量只能”研究大衆文化或通俗文化,而不可能“觀照文學現象”,幷强調自己“研究的是中國現代思潮與文學觀念的變遷問題,與大衆文化或通俗文化可謂風馬牛不相及”。在國內,文學研究之所以會成爲文化研究最主要的敵人,也正透露了國內文化研究學者大都出身于中文系的事實,攻擊大部分來自于那些堅持“嚴肅的”、“經典的”文學研究方式的昔日同行。文化研究在他們看來,就只是研究時髦的、速食的、不入流的大衆文化而已。這一方面固然暴露了攻擊者的偏見,但另一方面,也不妨可以是我們文化研究者自省的一個契機。不可否認,許多文化研究的學者,大概是由于先前學科訓練的慣性,每每只是把研究對象從“嚴肅的”“純文學”換作商業的大衆文化文本而已,缺乏方法論上的自覺。由於他們研究的“大眾文化”實際上是流行文化(pop culture),時下一些活躍的文化批評家,總是很及時地對當前的文化熱點(比如某部票房高企的大片、某個媒體廣泛報道的電視節目)進行“文化研究”,進行“解讀”,結果與其說是“大衆文化批評”,不如說是以學術話語對流行文化進行再生産,最終變成文化工業的一個環節。因爲其背後沒有更深層次的關懷和問題意識,反而被媒體工業和流行文化設置了議程(agenda)。體現在文化研究的成果上,我們看到為數眾多的單篇文章或文章結集,而鮮有像《英國工人階級的形成》(The Making of the English Working Class)那樣的專著。我並不是說國內從事文化研究的每一個知識分子皆如此。事實上戴錦華教授就積極投入“和平婦女”、“新農村建設”等社會運動,幷持續關注和介紹拉美的社會革命。但這似乎更體現為一種個體的選擇和實踐,而沒有成為國內文化研究的傳統或趨勢。在大陸,她本人最為人津津樂道的作品仍是對電影文本的分析。2 何種大眾文化:再思索我無意指責國內文化研究事業的先驅者,我相信阿多諾式的“大衆文化批評”成爲文化研究的基本樣貌,一定是某種歷史耦合(conjuncture)的結果。但是經過十幾年的實踐,或許也是時候對文化研究和大衆文化作出重新思考。法蘭克福學派式的“ 大衆文化 ”(mass culture)批評在某種程度上遮蔽了伯明翰學派對“大衆文化”(popular culture)的理解及寄託其上的期許。儘管霍加特(Richard Hoggart)、威 廉 斯(Raymond Williams) 和 湯 普 森(E.P. Thompson)等人也批判美國文化工業生產的大眾文化,但他們最深具影響的工作實際上都在尋找和發掘一種“真正的”(authentic)大眾文化。這種大眾文化是和大眾(特別是工人階級)的日常生活有機聯繫在一起的,是大眾的活生生的經驗,正如威廉斯在《關鍵詞》裏所說的那樣,是“真正由人民為他們自己所生產的”(actually made by people for themselves)。[7]雖然由于現代化和全球化的進程,在中國即使是最偏僻的山鄉如今也很難找到一種絕對完整的“真正的”大眾文化。但是這不是說我們就不能從伯明翰學派的早期實踐中得到啟發。文化研究所研究的大衆文化,仍然可以是遷徙的三峽庫
87黃微子 再思大衆文化:一個文化研究視角區人民、返鄉農民工以至于在快速變化的社會面對自己就讀過的小學消失不見的每一個普通人,他們在日常經驗中以什麽樣的信仰、儀式、文化形式以至情感結構來面對异化了的處境。李陀說:“我們在做大衆文化研究的時候,應該主要依據我們自己的情况來定義它,而不必過于關心它還有個‘洋出身’。”[8]固然,我們的確可以依據自己的情况來定義它,但是它的“洋出身”——如威廉斯在《關鍵詞》所追溯的多重涵義和多樣可能性——未必就對我們毫無用處。儘管李陀承認“大衆文化”這個概念“有它在漢語中過去的歷史”,[9]却沒有對這歷史進行有效的梳理。在我看來,這“過去的歷史”還遠沒有過去。關於“大眾文化”和“大眾”,有三種主要的話語活躍於當代中國的文化生產裏。其一是發軔於五四時期並在八十年代迴響的啓蒙話語,其二是《延安文藝座談會上的講話》所代表的社會主義話語,其三是改革開放特別是九十年代初以來的消費主義話語。儘管這第三種在目前取得越來越顯著的地位,但是由于五四對知識分子(特別是成長和成熟于八十年代的知識分子)的重大影響,由于目前我們仍在中國共産黨治下的“社會主義社會”,前兩種話語也幷沒有失效。只要分析一下對處于風口浪尖的文化明星的指摘和他們的自我辯護,就可以看見這三種話語如何交織在一起。(對這三種話語的歷史回顧及其在當代文化生産中的“使用”請參見我的論文 ‘Uses of “the People” in the Making of Contemporary Chinese Cultural Celebrities’)。[10]至此,我們再回頭去看季廣茂教授的言論,就會發現“文學現象”與“大衆文化或通俗文化”對立是一個荒謬的僞命題。且不說當代大量的“文學現象”與生産“大衆文化或通俗文化”的文化工業(特別是出版和傳媒工業)有著明顯的、不可切割的聯繫,就以季教授研究的“中國現代思潮與文學觀念的變遷問題”來說,也想必要處理到周作人的“平民文學”觀念、鴛蝴派和新感覺派的實踐、三十年代左翼的刊物《大衆文藝》以及毛澤東提倡的“文藝爲工農兵服務”等等一些有關“大衆文化”的“文學現象”吧?實際上,文化研究絕不僅僅研究大眾文化。即使是最“高雅”、最與大衆無涉的文學,我們也可以研究它的製造機制,研究它的獎賞法則,研究文化資本、社會資本和經濟資本在其間怎樣生産和流通。這是文化研究一直都在做的事。文化研究甚至可以不研究“文化”(如果文化指的是文學和藝術的話)。原則上說,文化研究可以研究任何事物,它幷不像傳統學科那樣以研究對象來設定自己的邊界。文化研究是以某些視角(比如著眼於權力關係)、某些價值(比如社會介入、同情邊緣人群)、某些立場(比如反對本質主義和還原主義)來標識自己的身份的。3 怎樣研究大眾文化:立場和方法既然如此,文化研究為什麼還要研究大眾文化?研究何種大眾文化?怎樣研究?現在國內“大眾文化批評”中有一種常見的立場,我會稱之為“政治正確的精英主義”。這種“大衆文化”的批評者,自己在情感上絕不欣賞“大衆文化”,他們最得心應手的就是對“大衆文化”的消費主義層面進行撻伐。但他們(或他們中有的人)也知道就文化研究所信守的價值而言,他們“應該”(在某種程度上)站到“大衆”的立場上,因此他們(有時候)也會努力發掘這些大衆文化文本中一點點“抵抗”的因素和積極的意義。他們所使用的方法大抵是對這些大衆文化文本從符號學上進行“細讀”(close reading),從而進行意識形態批判。由于要及時回應流行趨勢(他們以爲這便是“社會介入”),他們通常做不到福柯式的(Foucauldian)帶有歷史和制度面向的話語分析(discursive analysis)。在我看來,這樣的“大衆文化批評”的成效十分有限。大衆文化之所以值得研究,乃是源于一種理論假設,即它是葛蘭西(Gramsci)所謂“爭奪霸權”(hegemonic struggle)的陣地。因此,不同話語之間的鬥爭十分重要。在國內研究大衆文
89黃微子 再思大衆文化:一個文化研究視角是互相構成的,這是我們研究大眾文化時必須牢記於心的。這樣的實踐可能是在我們原有的學科訓練之外的,是我們不熟悉的,也是困難的。但正因如此,才更值得我們去探索、去建設一種新的對大眾文化的文化研究。参 考 文 獻[1] 季廣茂. 【稍息】駁鍾華:(13)且看拙著與“文化研究”之關係. jiguangmao_新浪博客,[2012-04-14]. http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_55375eee01008hn9.html[2] 約翰・哈特利. 文化研究簡史. 季廣茂,譯. 北京:金城出版社,2008.[3] 李陀. 序//戴錦華. 隱形書寫——90年代中國文化研究. 南京:江蘇人民出版社,1999:3[4] 同上,序第5頁.[5] 同上,序第7頁.[6] 同上,序第9頁.[7] Raymond Williams. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985:237[8] 李陀. 序. 第9頁[9] 同上.[10] HUANG Weizi. ‘Uses of “the People” in the Making of Contemporary Chinese Cultural Celebrities’, presented at Inter-Asia Cultural Typhoon in Tokyo, Japan, 5 Jul 2009.[11] 陶東風. 食利者的快樂哲學//張法等. 會診《百家講壇》. 合肥:安徽教育出版社,2007:44-61學生活動—藝術團飛躍彩虹 ——12週年校慶藝術團文藝晚會為慶祝澳科大校慶12週年,藝術團於3月26日晚獻上一場精心準備的文藝晚會。這是藝術團首次在J座室內體育館舉辦文藝晚會,藝術團隊員將近一年來的訓練成果,以完美的演出呈現給到場嘉賓及全校師生。晚會有幸邀請到中聯辦、外交公署、澳門政府、教育機構等社會各界人士,以及參加12周年校慶活動、學術活動的專家學者、國際人士。現場觀眾逾千人,整場晚會高潮迭起,獲得到場嘉賓高度讚揚和全場一致好評。晚會以合唱團一曲《Over the Rainbow》拉開序幕,星星點點的燭光伴著合唱團女聲們甜美的樂音飄揚,作為藝術團標誌性樂團之一的管弦樂團再現了古典樂《詩人與農夫序曲》這一經典曲目的優雅魅力;民族舞蹈隊奉上了全新改編的古典舞《國風》,磅礴的音樂與紛繁的舞步,展現出的是中國之風,民族之魂。電聲樂隊作為藝術團之新秀亮相晚會,兩首曲風不同的歌曲《那些年》和《It's My Life》將晚會引向第一個高潮,歌曲喚起了嘉賓和校友們對大學青蔥時代的美好回憶,全場觀眾一同揮舞熒光棒,掀起此起彼伏的互動共鳴;武術隊帶來的《乾坤》亦靜亦動,將武術的剛與柔完美結合,短短的幾分鐘卻呈現出中國武術的博大精深;女生獨唱《Autumn Leaves》,伴著輕柔的薩克斯風,歌曲婉轉低沉,直入人心。中樂團是澳門高校中唯一的一支中樂樂團。一曲《漁舟凱歌》,聲聲海螺,陣陣鼓樂,歡快熱鬧的民樂是整場晚會的精彩之一;一貫風靡校園的拉丁舞《恰恰恰》,更是引來陣陣歡呼與掌聲;美聲組的小合唱《為科大乾杯》展示出專業特長生的不俗唱功,鋼琴獨奏《波蘭舞曲》用嫻熟的指法和優美的旋律讓現場觀眾領略到樂器之王的不同凡響。晚會的重頭戲是特別嘉賓京劇大師耿其昌老師帶來的《打侄上墳》、《甘灑熱血寫春秋》,李維康老師帶來的《貴妃醉酒》,以及兩人合作的《坐宮》。四段劇目為演出增色萬分,博得台下一片叫好聲,來校參加國際學術會議的專家戲稱“讓我們感受又享受了一次春晚!”。作為首次登台的女教職員合唱團與藝術團合唱團共同演繹音樂之聲中著名選段《Do Re Mi》,引起現場師生的共鳴。整場晚會在全團隊員和到場嘉賓合唱《澳門科技大學校歌》中落下帷幕。
90第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 收稿日期:2012-05-08;修訂日期:2012-05-30通訊作者:柳旭東,男,博士,澳門科技大學人文藝術學院助理教授。主要研究方向:公共輿論,新媒體心理,網絡報紙。 E-mail:xdliu@must.edu.mo,電話:853-88972962Moderation of Media Issue Saliencet: Testing the Agenda Setting Effect yithin the ElaAoration Likelihood ModelXudong LIU( Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: This study, grounded on the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), examines why some individuals impose salience on one issue while others don’t. Using NES 2004 data and multivariate analysis, the results suggest that routine issues, such as the job and standard living issues, were viewed as salient because the individuals’ pertinence for and involvement in them keep the issue in their central information-processing route, regardless of the media coverage’s intensity on the issue. The study also demonstrates that individuals’ responsibility of thinking also positively influence perceived salience of the issue.ey yordst: Agenda setting; Elaboration Likelihood Model; Responsibility of thinking; Political issue involvement; Credibility; Stakeholder中和媒介議題顯性:在詳盡可能性模型下測試議程設置效果柳旭東(澳門科技大學人文藝術學院,澳門)摘要: 本研究建立在詳盡可能性模型基礎上,調查個人賦予某社會議題重要性而他人沒有如此的原因。使用NES2004資料和多元回歸分析,結果顯示一些常規社會議題,如工作與生活標準問題被認為重要,更多歸因於個人與此問題利益相關以及參與,而與媒體報導的程度無關,顯示該人群將此類議題置於資訊處理的中央路徑。研究還發現個人的思考責任感也正面影響意識中的議題重要性。關鍵詞: 議程設置;詳盡可能性模型;思考責任;政治參與;可信度0 IntroductionThe theory of “agenda setting” serves as a “para-digm”[1] that provides a marketplace of ideas for media effect research[2]. Despite the accumulation of litera-ture on how media can affect the social agenda within different contexts at the social level, limited attention has been paid to how personal factors can moderate or counteract media agenda, whereas the rational individual would unavoidably take into account personal agenda when processing media information. Due to the lack of psychological theory support in
91Xudong LIU Moderation of Media Issue Salience: Testing the Agenda Setting Effect within the Elaboration Likelihood Modelinvestigating agenda building among the public, why the media fail to affect the individual agenda calls for more rationales. Acknowledging the relative lack of research on the form of agenda building on the basis of psychology theory, this study incorporates the Elaboration Likelihood Model in explaining why some view a specific issue as salient while others view it as minor. The study seeks to answer the following general questions: How do individual factors, such as involvement and different degrees of background knowledge, affect whether the individual view the issues transferred by the media as salient? This study applies the job and stand living issue, involved in the NES2004 data, as the vehicle to analyze the rationales. The job and standard living issue is a universal one, pertaining to every individual. People residing in different areas including Macau, have always been managing to maintain decent living standard and quality. 1 Literature RevieyThis section begins with a review of research on agenda setting process of media, exploring the overlooked points of previous studies in terms of issue salience building; then the study proceeds to explore the dimensions and logical correlation of the Elaboration Likelihood Model and simultaneously proposes the research hypotheses. 1.1 Setting Individual Agenda Agenda setting, the transfer of issue salience from media to the public, has sparked many academic works since the theory first evolved[3]. While scholars were expanding agenda-setting theory, they simultaneously studied the variances the theory variables find difficult to explain. One notable feature concerning the agenda setting research is that those pieces of research tended to study the issues that are most frequently covered by the media[4]. In this sense, it is likely that those issues are in fact the most important existent issues, and the importance of these issues will directly affect the public, rather than that the media’s influencing the public to report the salience of these issues. Furthermore, studies have disagreed with the “significant rank order correlation between the media coverage and the public ordering of issues”[5], arguing that issue salience is not in accordance with media exposure. For example, Jochen[6] found that more coverage on international issues did not automatically increase the perceived importance of such issues among the public. Tsfati[7] took into account the perceived credibility of the media that might moderate the agenda setting effect on social or individual level, suggesting that the aggregate-level correlation of media and public agenda was weaker for skeptics of the media; when controlling for demographic and political variables, on the individual level, skeptics also perceived what the most important issue was in their nation differently from nonskeptics, as well. Actually, the public opinion may not be so easily affected by outside information at all[8]. Besides controversies on the effects of media, some assumptions posited by agenda setting theory have not yet been convincingly tested. Despite all the research, we do not have a clear understanding of the process of agenda setting, and of what happens when the issues of importance on the media’s agenda are transferred to the minds of the public. When previous scholars discussed the media’s agenda setting role, they assumed the agenda was at the social rather than at the individual level. Previous studies on agenda setting have suggested that the media can affect public opinion on what is the most important issue at the collective level[9]. This argument simultaneously suggested that the individuals might be influenced by the media on what is an important issue for the country to solve, but they will not be converted to believe that the agenda provided by the media is equal in salience to their individual issues. Upon the individual agenda, the media fails to make a difference: the news media reports occur but the public are inflexible about keeping in line with their own agenda, aloof from the media agenda[10]. The theory proposes that in some cases the individual agenda would be in align with media agenda, but the confluent agenda is just by chance: the individual agenda happens to have
92collided with the media agenda, rather than resulting from the conversion of issue salience with the effect of media coverage. In summary, in terms of individual agenda, the media sometimes encounter difficulties in changing their preset issue preference, but the media can set an agenda context within which the public can present their own ideas. As to what factors block the media’s effect on individual agenda, previous research did not evaluate them. Perhaps the most convincing explanation for the effect of agenda setting is that “this relationship of the media agenda to the public agenda seems to hold under a variety of conditions, for a diversity of issues, and when explored with diverse research methods”[11]. 1.2 ElaAoration Likelihood Model and Agenda Processing To persuade an individual to accept media agenda involves the information processing and attitude change, considering that viewing one specific issue as salient can be considered the first level judgment. However, the attitude building process is not the field agenda setting studies paid much attention to. The reason is that it is difficult to apply one theory to support what the agenda setting theory has assumed. Kosicki[12], for example, found that agenda-setting research fails to make clear its ties and obligations to theories of news work, social constructions of reality, and cognitive psychology more generally. In this case, the factors counteracting the media agenda setting effect should be logically found from cognitive/social psychology theory. To persuade an individual to accept the issue salience transferred by the media is a more difficult and complicated process than what the agenda setting theory generally proposes. One important factor within the process is how much elaboration the individual would invest in processing the media information. The amount of elaboration suggests whether the individual is taking the central route or the peripheral route to evaluate the information. Only within the central route will the individual scrutinize the media information and take relevant issue-related argument seriously[13~14]. The associated rationale is addressed by the Elaboration Likelihood Model. The Elaboration Likelihood Model was introduced to explain the different outcome of persuasion within the individual and organizational contexts[15]. The ELM assumes that the public is relational and changes its attitudes on the basis of the comparison of the present situation and the sources the attitude change needs. The model proposes that the public generally applies two routes to attitude change: the central route and the peripheral route. The central route requests the audience of information to handle positive cognitive activity, referring to previous experience and information and accessing the issue-related arguments in the present information before proceeding to form attitudes and responsive behaviors toward the information. Prior knowledge about the issue, the strength of the issue’s argument as pertinent to communicational information, and actual message content are the key factors crucial to the central route. Another cognition and attitude change route, the peripheral route, requests that the consumer of the information consider the peripheral or secondary cues relevant to the information. Accordingly, the peripheral route calls for the low analysis of non-content elements pertinent to the message (i.e., peripheral cues) as a basis of attitude formation. Peripheral cues involve the secondary or subjective information about the source (e.g., source credibility, source likeability). According to the ELM, motivation is an important factor that predicts which route the audience might take to process the message. Factors that might enhance processing motivation include internal and external dimensions. The ELM infers that if the processor of the message in the information views that message crucial to his or her own issue and the potential consequences or the likely future behavior of the processor, he or she would invest the efforts of cognition to elaborate the information. The proximity between personal situation and the promoted issue involved in the communicational information can strengthen the motivation of information processing. On the other hand, if the processor views the message
93Xudong LIU Moderation of Media Issue Salience: Testing the Agenda Setting Effect within the Elaboration Likelihood Modelas having little or no impact on their lives and potential, or target behaviors, the central route of confirmation strategy by the information provider is blocked. Individuals are less motivated to process low-involvement issues, or issues not relevant to their own situations. The audience tends to spend neither the time nor the efforts to process the message in a low-involvement issue, depending “instead on persuasive suggestions”[16]. In terms of media salience and individual salience, if the audience views the covered issues as relevant to his or her own issue, interpersonal and personal experiences will resonate with media messages. In this case, the audience would focus more on the issues, analyzing the logic of the information argument in the coverage and relating the issue to its own, thus enhancing the salience of this issue in a personal agenda. To assess how the ELM can explain why the public views one issue important, researchers selected the job and standard living issue, one issue that has been long discussed by the media as well as the public. One previous study found that there are concerns about the increased job instability across the US[17]. Simultaneously, job and standard living issues have been routinely important social issues in the US. As early in the 1979 Nation Election Study Research and Development Survey, respondents viewed “guaranteed jobs” and “social security” as two of the six most important issues about which they were concerned[18]. In this case, our study selected the job and standard living issues issue to evaluate the model, evaluating how individual situations can counteract the media in terms of the agenda setting effects. Based on the rationale addressed above, this study first hypothesized: H1t: Individual involvement in the job and standard living issue will positively predict perceiving the issue as salient. According the ELM, the need for cognition is also pertinent to the perceived personal relevance, whereas it focuses on the degree of confidence of obtained information needed for processing the issue viewed as salient. To put it in another way, when the audience is confident that the garnered information is sufficient for one issue, it will pay less attention to this information; thus, the information will exert less, or even no, effect on the audience. In terms of the media agenda and individual agenda issue, if the audience has long viewed one specific issue as salient to either the self or to the society as a whole, the ensuing coverage on the issue will not supplement the storage of the information, and accordingly the surplus coverage will no longer transfer more salience to the public. Although the clear-cut manner of the exposure for each issue still deserves more future study, the crucial point, the peak of information storage which can make a difference in attitude building, does exist. For the job and standard living issue, the need of cognition is salient for the stakeholders of this issue. For example, those who have suffered from unemployment will find it more pertinent for them to learn about relevant information, therefore viewing this issue as important. But what should be noted is that the need to know cannot be affected by media coverage, but can instead be affected by individual experience. This argument is in line with Weaver, Graber, McCombs and Eyal[19], who proposed that “when individuals are experiencing the real-life impact of major issues, they hold little need to be told by the mass media that such matters are important.” Is this case, the salience the audience credits to one issue is not transferred from current media coverage, but from his own previous judgment or experience, or transferred from previous coverage. To put it in another way, when the coverage of the issue disappears, the perceived salience of the issue will not dwindle or disappear. Based on this argument, the study hypothesized: H2t: The degree of stake holding will positively predict perceived salience of the job and standard living issue. The lack of immediate or potential consequence of one issue is likely to lead to low credit among the public on its salience, but in some cases the model might not work. Some social issues, such as terrorism, would attract unanimous attention across society, although some groups of people do not feel the threat
94of attack. Here, social rather than individual factors affect the motivation or likelihood of elaboration. The factor is more related to the perceived social agenda transferred by media. These issues will not produce immediate or potential consequences to the audience, but if the issue is crucial to the responsibility of the citizen toward the society as a whole, the audience will also process the information through the central route, fostering message arguments and decision-aiding facts that are needed for resulting in such an attitude. Just as the output of questioned turnout rate is always above the real turnout rate in political elections, the sense of duty or the social desirability related to an issue would induce the public to view some long existing issues, such as terrorism, abortion, gay and lesbian rights, minority discrimination and gender equality, as important issues challenging the society and the government. As for the salience of the issue transferred by the media at social level, the public will come to a relatively coincident decision on what is the most salient issue the country faces. This study thus hypothesized: H3t: Responsibility of thinking will positively predict perceived salience of the job and standard living issue.The involvement is one factor that predicts the application of processing strategy, while the ability to process the message is a predominant factor that can differentiate the application. If the audience did not garner the knowledge and previous information to refer to, they would refer to the “ephemeral cues,” in which media credibility plays a important role. One previous study found that trusted sources could better predict the formation of attitude[20]. In terms of the way a perceived source credibility of media can moderate the agenda setting effect, recent research found that although media’s agenda setting effects are accurate, the hierarchical skepticism of the public on different media moderates these effects: the higher the skepticism, the less the audience will be in line with the media’s agenda rank indicated by its coverage. Iyengar and Kinder[21] also found that those believing in the impartiality and accuracy of the media coverage are more influenced by media coverage. The relation between the credibility of source and the agenda setting effect can be explained within the ELM model: when the audiences are not confident with their ability to process the information, they tend to follow “ephemeral cues” to result in their attitudes; the credibility of the source can guarantee bigger amounts of energetic cognition behaviors, because in this case the media serves more like an “expertise” that can induce more elaboration likelihood[22], and thus the media can exert more power on the audience in terms of transferring its agenda. In the case of skeptics of the media, the reference of “peripheral cues” would stop, and accordingly the media would not change those individuals’ attitudes on this issue. Thus the study hypothesized: H4t: Skeptics of the media coverage credibility will negatively predict perceived salience of the job and standard living issue. The ELM also proposes that the ability to elaborate is another factor that predicts the elaboration likelihood and the information processing strategy. One study found that the more knowledge the individual has, the more likely he or she will elaborate on issue-relevant messages[23]. If the audience has prior knowledge or experience to refer and is confident with handling the information processing, the elaboration likelihood will increase; otherwise, it will decrease. This argument can explain why concrete issues showed stronger agenda setting effects than abstract issues[24], considering that when the confidence of handling the abstract issues decrease among some audiences, so does the cumulative perceived social agenda. One recent study on the media’s role as issue salience transfer also found that those who lived in the “battlefield,” in which the candidates competed for votes, had significantly more issue knowledge and thus have more issue salience than citizens from other states[25]. The study hypothesized: H5t: Individual’s background knowledge in the job and stand living issue will positively predict perceived salience of the job and standard living issue. The ELM proposes that attitude changes based
95Xudong LIU Moderation of Media Issue Salience: Testing the Agenda Setting Effect within the Elaboration Likelihood Modelon elaboration are more stable and resistant to change than those with less or no liberation. On the contrary, because the cognition changes through empirical route only apply the cues relevant to the empirical feature of the message, the cognition is vulnerable and subject to change on the condition that the information disappears or changes. When people process the information using the central route, they call for more prior information and analyze the content’s argument within all relevant available information pertinent to the issue; the deep participation and involvement of the issue analysis can strengthen their memory. In terms of the issue’s salience difference at a social or an individual level, the social agenda, if it is not immediately related to the individual’s life, arouses less elaboration. The private agenda, however, due to its importance in individual life, would call for more elaboration, and is more likely to be processed using the central route. Actually, the agenda setting effect, in terms of social agenda, is the product of processing information available in memory, which has been levied by the media message consumption[26]. In a more extreme sense, they are “trapped” into conforming to the media’s agenda through overwhelming abundance of information[27]. When the coverage ceases, the memory of the information will fade gradually, and accordingly, over a period of time, the salience of one specific issue would also disappear. The literature reviewed might explain why some issues, like the job and standard living issues becomes routine salient issues among the public, both on the individual level and on the social level. The study thus hypothesized: H6t: Media exposure, when controlling for other factors, will not influence perceived salience of the job and standard living issue.How individual factors moderate the effect of media in setting personal agenda is demonstrated by the elaboration mediated agenda setting model (see Figure 1). As suggested, the model predicts that media exposure, when controlling for other individual factors, might impose little influence on people’s perception of issue salience, especially when the issue is a routine one that people have been experiencing. In the agenda setting process, individual’s elaboration depth, which is influenced by personal factors, indirectly moderates media exposure’s impacts on perception of issue salience.Figure 1 ElaAoration Mediated Agenda Setting Model2 Research MethodTo examine how indiv idual fac tors and involvement can influence the issue importance perception, this study uses data from the 2004 American National Election Studies (NES), a nationwide, large-scale survey randomly conducted in-person and by telephone. The dependent variable in this study is the perceived salience of job and standard living issue, operationally defined as the degree to which the respondent views the issue as important. The NES survey asked the question, “How important is the issue of job and standard living?” and requested the respondent select from the five-score options, 1 meaning “extremely important” and 5 meaning “not at all important.”One independent variable is the media exposure, operationally defined as the time spent last week on TV watching, radio listening, newspaper reading and Internet information browsing. For each kind of media, the NES contains an 8-point scale measure how much time spent, with possible responses ranging from 0 (no exposure) to 7 (exposure every day). The researchers did not create a composite variable to represent media exposure, because the separate measure of the dimension of media exposure can
96present more information about how different groups of people focus on specific media. Degree of stake holding is defined as the extent to which the people involved is affected by the job and living standard issue in US. This variable involves several dimensions. In terms of gender difference, women, in comparison to men, are more likely to be moved out of labor force or be moved to part-time jobs[28]. The unsustainable job opportunity would cause women to be more concerned about the job and living standard, and thus more likely to view this issue as salient. In fact, it has been found that women are slightly more likely to attach greater weight to economic evaluations and social spending[29]. Race is another factor that affects one’s viewpoint on the importance of job and standard living issue. In comparison to whites, black youth employment rates have headed downward over the past thirty years[30]. Contrary to the social stereotype that the difference in employment rate across races was due to the young black community’s voluntary idleness, Peterson found that the blacks are as concerned about their jobs as their white counterparts[31]. In this case, we can conclude that African Americans would be more concerned about the job and standard living issues than whites, because of higher unemployment rates and the higher risk of losing their current jobs than other groups of people. One previous study also finds that age is a negative predictor of job concern, suggesting that older employees who sense job insecurity are likely to report less emotional concern about this issue, which might be because older people can better absorb financial threat or would even view the loss of a job as an opportunity for early retirement[32]. Background knowledge is another independent variable, operationally defined as the general information found in terms of the social job and standard living issue. This study applies education to measure background knowledge, assuming that people with more education will garner more information about the job and standard living issue than those less educated. The study recoded the outcome of the question of in the 2004 NES, which asked about the highest education the respondent received, using an eight-point ordinal score, with 0 representing no education and 7 representing a graduate-level degree. Involvement is an independent variable that is more controversial in terms of the dimension of the concept. On the one hand, because of the relevance of the stakeholders to the job and standard living issue, they are more involved. In this case, the measure of the degree of stake holding is simultaneously measuring the concept of involvement. On the other hand, involvement can be measured from a reaction to the job-and-living-related-situation perspective. The respondents’ personal evaluation of the social and economic situation might affect the degree to which they will view the job and standard living issue as important. Tausig and Fenwich found that the realization of the increased job demand and increasingly inadequate pay can contribute greatly to mental concern[33], which in the end can result in distress among the public on a social level. Turner found that the personal concern about unemployment is relatively high when regional economy is receding and when regional unemployment is high, while what affects living standards also involves the previous inflation situation and future inflation expectation[34]. When the inflation rate is high, the living standard will reactively decrease. In case of the job and standard living issue, it is reasonable to argue that respondents’ personal evaluation on previous year’s economy and employment as well as the expectation of the next year’s economy and inflation situation would contribute to how they would be concerned about the job and standard living issue. The NES contains a 5-point scale which measure the knowledge about the situation of past year’s economy, with possible responses ranging from 1 (much better) to 5 (much worse). The 2004 NES also contains two uniform measures dealing with the respondents’ concerns about the past year’s inflation situation. The NES contains a 5-point scale measure of how much the respondent worry about the job loss, with possible responses ranging from 1 (very much) to 5 (not at all). Furthermore, this study assumes that the
97Xudong LIU Moderation of Media Issue Salience: Testing the Agenda Setting Effect within the Elaboration Likelihood Modelinvolvement of the job and standard living issue is also related to public issue interest: the more a person is interested in discussing political topics, the more likely he or she would get involved in the job and standard living issue. The study thus applied political interest to measure one dimension of issue involvement. The 2004 NES contains a 7-point scale measure of the respondent’s interest in political issue discussing, with possible responses ranging from 1 (discussing political issues once a week) to 7 (discussing politics every day). The study assumed that if the job and standard living issue is involved in the topics, the public will discuss it because the issue has become a routine social issue, rather than a new one. The more the individual is interested in discussing political issues, the more chance he or she would be involved in the issue of job and standard living. Responsibility of thinking was measured by two items. The NES contains a 5-point scale to measure responsibility by asking, “How much do you like or dislike responsibility for thinking?” Respondents were asked to circle a number on a 5-point continuum that ranges from 1, for very much, to 5, for not much at all. Credibility of news media is another independent variable, operationally defined as the degree to which the public views the information of media as trustworthy. The 2004 NES contains a 5-point scale measure of the respondents’ evaluation of media information credibility, with possible responses ranging from 1 (almost always) to 5 (none of the time). 3 FindingsWe applied a multiple regression to assess the effect of the personal involvement in the job and standard living issue, degree of stake holding, knowledge of the issue, responsibility of thinking, media exposure, and perceived credibility of the media on the dependent variable, perceived salience of the job and standard living issue. The factors in the regression model accounts for 12% of the variance in perceived salience of the job and standard living issue. The statistics suggests that media exposure, when controlling for other variables, is not a statistically significant predictor of whether or not the individuals will view the job and standard living issues as important. H6 is supported, implying that the media fails in transfer issue salience. Among the media technologies selected, only listening to political talk radio imposes marginal effect on the audience’s perceived salience of the issue (β=-0.13, p>0.05). The finding suggests that listening to politics-related talk radio still serves an important role in helping the public to learn about political issues. But in terms of the agenda setting effect, the relationship between the intensity of talk radio exposure and issue salience is negative; the more spent on listening to talk radio, the less likely the people might regard this issue as important. H6 is thus supported. The data suggests that because of the overexposure, rather than underexposure, of the issue within media context, people have been familiar with the issue, and follow-up information regarding this issue cannot add to the effect of agenda setting on the public.The output of data also suggests that, in line with what ELM has predicted, credibility of the media predicts the degree of the sense of importance of the job and standard living issue (β=-0.14, p<0.05), suggesting that the more the public believe in the media, the more they will view the issue as important. H4 is thus supported. The findings imply that when people are not familiar with the issue, the credibility of media can serve as a peripheral cue to decide whether to adopt the issue’s salience as transferred by the media. In terms of the relationship between individual factors and the salience of the job and standard living issue, two findings stand out. The first finding is that, in accordance with what H3 has suggested, the degree of stakeholding is significantly correlated with the degree to which the respondents will view this issue as important. As expected, the race dummy variable perfectly predicts how much the stakeholders will view the job and standard living issue as important (β=-0.31, p<0.01). African Americans, who have long
98been suffering from the job and standard living issue, will view this issue as more important than other groups have. Age is one factor that will affect the attitude toward job and standard living issue salience, and the finding is in compliance with what the literature has suggested: the older the person, the less likely he will be concerned about the issue, although the difference is rather minor (β=-0.01, p<0.05). Household income is also statistically related to the attitude on the issue, with those with higher incomes viewing this issue as not important (β=0.09, p<0.01). Therefore, H2 is supported. The findings are in line with what the ELM proposes: the more relevance of the issue, the more the individual will elaborate it on a central processing route, and accordingly, will view the issue as more salient.The second finding is that the dimensions the study applied to measure the involvement of job and standard living issue are marginal but significant predictors of the rank of the importance of the issue. As the regression analysis suggests, the more time the individual spends on political issue discussing, the more he will view the issue as important (β=-0.03, p=0.08), meaning that involvement in the political issue would also increase concern about the issue. As discussed in the literature review, the expanding inflation would decrease the living standard, and the individual’s evaluation of the inflation indicated the involvement of the individual in the standard living issue. The output suggests that when concerns about future inflation increase, people will think of the job and standard living issue as more important (β=0.07, p <0.05). While when the respondents are more in favor of reducing foreign import, which is connected to job opportunities, they would also view the job and standard living issue as important (β=0.03, p<0.05). In summary, increased issue-involvement predicts the increased attention to the job and standard living issue; thus, H1 is supported. What is interesting in the finding is that, compared with the involvement variable, demographic variables are more salient predictors of the perceived salience of the job and standard living issue. This might be because personal situation concern is more important in dictating whether the individual will contemplate the issue seriously: when the issue is more relevant to his own situation rather than to society as a whole, the individual will be likely to consider the issue via the central route. Education is one direct channel through which a person can attain information about the issues, which is why this study used “education level” as one dimension to measure background knowledge. Interestingly, although education level is related to issue salience perception, the direction is negative: those with higher education are less likely to view this issue as important (β=0.17, p <0.05). This is because the educated suffer less from unemployment, and accordingly they are not as concerned about this issue as the poorly educated. When the stakeholder variables are controlled, the education would not work. H5 is thus not confirmed. The fourth finding is that responsibility for thinking cannot significantly predicate the issue’s salience perception (β=0.05, p>0.05), when all other variables are controlled. Accordingly, H3 is rejected. 4 Discussion and ConclusionWhy issue salience perceived by the public cannot always be affected by media salience is complicated, and cannot be explained with only one approach. Although to consider which issue is more important to the society than to individuals seems to be an simple psychological preference, the process is actually a low level attitude accumulation process, in which what factors dominate in convincing the public to lean in favor of one issue rather than another issue is the main logic underlying the preference. For a routine salient social issue like the job and standard living issue, one problem is that society has been discussing it for a long time, and relevant policy making has exposed individuals to this issue to a high degree; the issue remains in the central route of the individuals’ attitudes and cannot be viewed outside of their routine lives. It should be noted that once the opinion about the salience of the issue was
99Xudong LIU Moderation of Media Issue Salience: Testing the Agenda Setting Effect within the Elaboration Likelihood Modelset, it become an consistent attitude, which caused the public to exhibit more constant opinions[35]; these opinions simultaneously involve what they will regard as salient in the future, because the consistent opinion track would request the cognition and attitude molding process to refer to previous attitudes on one issue. In this case, when the public is asked to review the salience of the issue, outside factors cannot easily be taken into account in the attitude change process; rather, the “stereotyped” perception that is embedded in the individual’s mind dominates information processing and decision making. When an opinion about what issue is salient is set, the role of media as an agenda setter is weak. The media cannot impose more influence on the issue among the public, meaning that the over-exposure to the coverage of one specific issue becomes a waste of time and ink. On the basis of the 2004 NES data, this study found no significant relation between media exposure and the perceived salience of the job and standard living issue. Some might argue that the insufficient coverage of this issue might explain why the media does not work on this issue. But a simple article search in the Lexis-Nexis database, using the key work “job” together with “standard living”, reveals more than three hundred news articles concerning this issue were published in 2004, and relevant articles that involve the two words separately might double that figure. The volume of coverage on the issue suggests that the public is exposed to this issue almost every day. As a matter of fact, when one issue becomes routine throughout society, it also becomes the media’s routine work to cover relevance. It is likely that when the coverage stops, the agenda setting effect of media on some issues might wane gradually and disappear at one crucial point of time. Although what issues might wane still requires more study, this study implies that for some issues, for example the job and living standard issue, which are imbedded in the minds of society and are transformed into one criterion of a democratic society, the waning speed will be substantially slower, or even become static. Logically, media as an agenda setter might impose more influence on those unfamiliar with the issues, because they are generally more vulnerable to information, and “novices have their minds full just coming to terms with the meaning of what is being said; in a sense, they are swept away”[36]. But for those immersed with the issue or those who possess mature agendas, either set by the media or through other communication channels, media might not dictate individual agenda. Furthermore, the findings in this research empirically assess a holding assumption that has been overlooked in agenda setting theory. As discussed in the literature section, previous agenda setting theory has assumed that the media can transfer issue salience to the public on the social level, but it cannot change the individual agenda. Why media fails to change the individuals mind in terms of issue salience, however, sparked little research. This study incorporated the ELM model to explain the relationship between personal involvement, knowledge, responsibility, and the perception of issue salience. This study, by applying this model, rather than studies of the agenda setting effect from the media perspective, takes the public’s capacity of interacting with media agenda into account. The individual in this study is defined as a rational audience, who would conduct most of his/her attitude building on the basis of the benefit of the agenda for the individual himself and the knowledge needed in issue evaluation. The supported hypothesis suggested that, when the individual’s engagement level with the issue was deep, he or she would be more likely to consider the issue in a centrally psychological track, and therefore view the issue as more important. According to Downs, the public attention to domestic issues can be divided into five stages, in which the media can play a more important role in the “alarmed discovery” stage, while the public interest might gradually decline in the fourth stage, partly because of the shrinkage of media coverage[37]. In reality, the decline of issue salience can only be suggested by a specific group of people. For some groups, the perceived salience might never disappear. For example, African Americans might view the job and
100standard living issue as salient from one generation to the next, unless the issue is solved satisfactorily. What should be noted is that, although the intensity of media coverage cannot contribute to whether the audience will view the issue as salient, the credibility of media does contribute. In the “alarmed discovery” stage, the credibility of media can predict how likely the individual will read the news articles with interest. On this stage, the credibility of the media serves as a “peripheral cue,” and referring to the cue helps the individual decide whether to accept the media’s agenda. If the individual is suspect of the truthfulness of the media, the tendency to access the news will decline, and accordingly the agenda setting effect will fail, even in the “alarmed discovery” stage. In summary, the credibility of media affects society well before the issue becomes a routine issue at the individual level, but it will persist as an assumption even after the issue becomes routine.In fact, what personal involvement can do is more than just keep the individual agenda consistent; it can also counteract the media’s effect in setting agenda on the social level. In terms of the case selected for study, the job and standard living issue is stationed within the central cognition route of the adults, moderating the individuals’ decisions and attitudes toward other relevant issues in association with this issue, such as vote choice. Furthermore, the accumulation of salience of this issue among the individuals propels the issue to the social level. In this case, the individual and social agendas are convergent. Because people are motivated to process issues of high personal involvement or relevance, even some social issues cannot get into the central elaboration route, and accordingly the issues would not be affected by factors outside individual motivation based on personal situation. In summary, in terms of some social salient issues, like the job and standard living issue, the perceived importance might not be due to the media coverage, but due to the absolute accumulation of individual agenda, mainly caused by personal involvement or relevance. The media might serve more as the “fire alarm” role, reminding the public of issues that have existed on the social level, rather than serve as a agenda setter: whether this issue’s salience would be revealed at an individual instead of a social level relies totally on the individual.In the case that one issue cannot get sufficient involvement from the individual, there might be two possibilities, which lead to different outcomes for “issue salience.” First, the respondent might view it as responsible to review the issue attentively. In this case, he or she would tend to review the issue from a society-benefit perspective, viewing those that can benefit within society as salient. In fact, some issues feature “consistent” salience only because of the successful perception of the responsibility of thinking. Accordingly, the individual might review the issues in a favorable light instead of considering his or her own issue, because people like to see themselves as good citizens[38]. The findings cannot support the hypothesis regarding the responsibility of thinking, because the job and standard living issue has become a routine social issue and thus the responsibility of thinking become not important in evaluating this issue. When a new issue arises, the responsibility of thinking might play a more important role in assess it. We can find examples from the respondent’s reaction to “the race equal issue.” To deal with the “responsibility of thinking,” the media can potentially increase the agenda setting effect by reintegrating the social interest related to the issue. On the other hand, the individual might overlook the issues and always view this issue as unimportant. The intentional ignorance of the issue would smother the agenda setting effect of media completely. More research is needed in order to evaluate the relationship between responsibility of thinking and issue salience. This study has its limitations. Previous research has found that if the individual is not familiar with one issue, the moderate repetition of a message by the me-dia can influence his ability to process issue-relevant argument[39]. The repetition of coverage by the media gives the audience background information through continuous message circulation and presents the audi-ence the chance to refer to prior knowledge, which in
101Xudong LIU Moderation of Media Issue Salience: Testing the Agenda Setting Effect within the Elaboration Likelihood Modelthis case is mostly the storage of previous coverage information in one’s mind, rather than prior individual experience or knowledge. In the end, the single news item might not have an effect, but the cumulative ef-fect of many stories over a long period will make a difference. The argument seems to suggest that, by providing the individuals more chance and time to digest and store the information transferred, moderate coverage can result in better agenda setting effect, be-cause the stored information increases the efficacy of individuals to process relevant issues. Due to the limi-tation of the data, this study cannot compare whether moderate coverage can match intensive coverage in transferring issue salience. Future researchers might conduct an experiment or a panel survey to evaluate the validity of the effect. The second limitation is associated with the sec-ond-hand data. One obvious issue is that one in some cases should adjust the research design to accom-modate the data available. In this study, the NES data made measuring some variables related to the ELM model difficult. Although we coded the NES data with caution and measured the variables using previous researchers’ approaches to extend the measurement validity, second-hand data still might influence the findings. The second-hand data in this study have the benefits of a reliable survey design. Some question-naire items, however, might not be ideal in measuring the variables involved in the current study. For exam-ple, we only have one item measuring responsibility of thinking, which is subject to reliability deficiency, considering that one item cannot tackle all dimensions of the variable. 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103第 6 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.6 No.12012 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30 , 2012 通識教育與大學之道 ——以澳門科技大學為例 方 泉1,周江明2,龐 川3(1. 澳門科技大學法學院,澳門;2. 澳門科技大學社會和文化研究所,澳門) (3. 澳門科技大學行政與管理學院,澳門)摘要: 近代以來,西方大學為迎接人文精神的回歸,提出通識教育的理念。今天,全球頂尖大學無不在通識教育上作出巨大投入。在此多元化時代,大學作為教育和研究基地,承擔著建立全社會共同文化基礎的巨大責任,而通識教育的基本內涵與目的正在於傳承與溝通。澳門科技大學率先在澳門高校中設立富有特色的通識教育課程體系,並輔以豐富的第二課堂作為實現通識教育的重要路徑。九年來,通識教育為澳門科技大學帶來豐碩成果。澳門高校應藉通識教育,使學子吸收東西方社會的文明經典,養成健全人格,培育出兼具全球視野和本地特色的人才。關鍵詞: 通識教育;專業教育;第二課堂;校園文化General Education and Rules of the Universityt: Based on Experience of Macau University of Science and TechnologyQuan FANG1, Jiangming ZHOU2, Chuan PANG3( 1. Faculty of Law, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China ) ( 2. The Institute for Social and Cultural Research, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China ) ( 3. Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China )AAstractt: In the early of last century, Western universities raised the concept of general education to meet the return of the human spirit. Today, almost all of the world's top universities make a huge investment in general education. In this pluralistic era, as a base for education and research, the university bears enormous responsibility to the establishment of the common cultural foundation, while the basic meaning and purpose of general education is heritage and communication. Macau University of Science and Technology took the lead in Macau universities to set distinctive general education curriculum, supplemented by the wealth of the second classroom as an important path. Nine years later, general education brings fruits for MUST. Local colleges and universities should nurture the talents of both global perspective and local specialties via general education, so that the students absorb the classic civilization of the Eastern and Western societies and develop a healthy personality.eyyordst: General Education; Specialty Education; The Second-classroom; Campus Culture收稿日期:2012-06-22;修訂日期:2012-07-09。*本文係三位作者發表在《澳門日報•蓮花廣場》(2012年3月14、21及28日)的3篇文章“通識教育與大學之道"“在實踐與探索中前進路"“通識敎育應與時俱進"的修訂整理稿,獲《澳門日報》同意刊登。通訊作者:周江明,男,法學碩士研究生,E-mail: jmzhou@must.edu.mo,Tel: 88972139。
1040 引言英國詩人約翰 • 梅斯菲爾德曾不吝美辭地歌頌大學的美好、輝煌與不朽,他說,“沒有什麽事物比大學更加美好。當防線坍塌,價值崩潰,當水壩決堤,洪水為患,當前途灰暗,古道模糊,只要大學仍在,人們探索美滿的自由思想就仍會給人類帶來智慧。”1如今,當大學的學科專業急速擴張,當就業市場可以決定一個學科專業的繁榮與蕭條,當大學從高等教育與學術研究基地變成就業培訓所,當我們越來越不明白、也不屑於明白“大學之道,在明明德”為何意時,我們必須重新思考一個需要再次明確的問題——大學是什麼?大學之道何在?1 通識教育與大學之道1.1 近現代大學通識教育的“源”從西方源流來看,“大學”的拉丁詞源原義为“合眾為一”,它一開始就是人們聚集一處,尋找知識和傳播知識的地方。知識領域的劃分就是大學學院劃分的依據,與關於人、社會、自然,以及關於對人的靈魂和肉體的關懷的知識相對應,大學最初包括人文學院、社會學院、科學學院以及神學院與醫學院。在中國,最早的類似大學的機構據說可以追溯到五帝時期的成均和上庠,University一詞在近代中國早期被翻譯為“書院”,後來統稱為“大學”。縱向上看,無論是西方的大學,還是中國的大學,雖則作為知識的尋找與傳播之地歷久未變,但其基本教育思想一直處於變動當中。西方的大學早期以培養宗教人員和政治領袖為目的,主要傳播宗教知識;中國的大學早期著重培養官員和文人,因此著重教授經史子集。近代以來,隨著大學的世俗化與實用化,尤其到晚近時期,大學教育愈加專門化、市場化,以致所有的大學都面臨是否應回歸大學本來之道的追問。畢竟,大學是人類研究和教育的基地,1. 譯自 John Masefield, A University Stands and Shines, 作者1946年被謝菲爾德大學授予桂冠詩人證書時的演說,http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.87481!/file/YU3.pdf她不應僅滿足於培訓工匠,更應培養大師,進而培育全社會共同的精神文化基礎。近代以来,西方大學的基本教育思想出現了兩次重大轉向:一是十九世紀末由傳統人文教育轉向自然科學主導的專業教育,“德國模式”漸成主流;以及隨後於二十世紀初以提出通識教育的形式迎接人文教育的回歸,主要以美國大學的通識教育實踐為主要標識。二十世紀三十年代的芝加哥大論戰(Chicago Fight)不僅直接影響到美國高等教育的歷史走向,其影響力亦已波及全世界。這場論戰的結論指出,教育不單只傳授知識,更要培養健全的人格。它將美國的大學從德國模式的發展趨向上拉回人文教育的跑道。二次世界大戰甫一结束,哈佛大學的一個特別委員會發表了一份關於大學教育的著名報告——《自由社會的通識教育》(General Education in a free society)。這份報告指出,通識教育的核心在於保持博雅及人文的傳統。今日論及通識教育時言必稱之“哈佛模式”,即濫觴於此。這份報告的實質是芝加哥論戰所建立的基本理念的延續和確認,並從操作層面上進行全面整理。此後,美國的大學紛紛加入建設通識教育的行列,雖在通識教育的內涵、目的的表述及其課程設置上各有起伏變化,但總體上沒有偏離第二次轉向的跑道。1.2 大學通識教育的“本”“General Education”本意是指“共同教育”或“共識教育”,中文一般譯為“通識教育”。在社會離心力不斷強化的多元化時代,大學承擔著建立全社會共同文化基礎的巨大責任,通識教育的基本內涵與目的就在於傳承與溝通。所謂傳承,即將文明核心價值理念和人類共同的文明成果以知識的形式,通過通識教育傳承下去,大而言之,使整個人類文明不至斷裂地延續下去,小而言之,是令按一定方式生活在一處的人們擁有共同的文化根基;所謂溝通,即通過通識教育,在學科專業數目劇增、學科專業瑣細化的知識爆炸年代,為不同的專業人員建立共同的價值觀念和文化語境。
105方泉,等 通識教育與大學之道 ——以澳門科技大學為例 在專業門類與社會分工如此精細的所謂專業主義(specialism)時代去講求通識教育,似乎是一個矛盾。實際上,越是如此的時代,通識教育的需求就越是緊迫。知識領域的區分本來就是人為的,知識門類的細化需要以共識作為基礎,正如哈佛報告中所說的,大學不僅在培養專家,也是在培養公民。斯坦福大學也認為通識教育有助於培養學生的社會責任感。 2 我們看到,很多科學家一生都在為他們的科學發明不被濫用而奔走。無論人類進入網路資訊時代,還是生物技術時代,無論何種專業知識領域,人類文明的核心價值必然包含於其中。實踐證明,美國的頂尖大學都是特別強調本科通識教育的大學,這些大學強調通識教育絲毫沒有削弱其專業教育及其研究水準,通識教育在這些頂尖大學的實踐證明了一個簡單的道理——“磨刀不誤砍柴工”。通識教育的核心在於文明的傳承,但如果把傳承簡單地理解為守舊不化則是對通識教育的誤解。通識教育的內容在於文明經典,核心在於對傳統的尊重和肯定,但其精神卻在於開放及不斷創新,即整個人類在過去文明成果的基礎上不斷適應、改變和發展。1.3 現代大學通識教育的實例分析1.3.1 以美國的大學為樣本傳統上美國大學的通識教育都有特定的核心課程 CIV(Culture, Idea and Value)。各個大學的核心課程表並不完全相同,但在基本知識領域方面,無論其數量如何,主體內容则基本一致。以1946 年的哈佛報告為例,當中建議課程應覆蓋人文學科、社會科學和自然科學領域。現在,哈佛大学的核心課程主要分為美學、文化、倫理學等八個領域3,斯坦福大學則分人文、學科拓展以及公民教育三個領域。4無論領域的具體劃分有何不同,但總體上皆以閱讀西方歷代經典著作為主。核心課程被視為西方文明經典的匯總,是西方核2. http://studentaffairs.stanford.edu/registrar/students/ger-purpose3. Report of the Task Force on General Education,p74. http://studentaffairs.stanford.edu/registrar/students/ger-area-reqs心價值的體現,美國大學的通識課程之所以不惜物力時間,就是希望所有接受高等教育的青年都能夠建立“西方文明認同”。一些批評的觀點認為,這種以西方文明為一統的課程設置扼殺了文明的多元化。斯坦福大學曾將核心課程名稱由單數改為複數(Cultures、Ideas and Values),在西方經典外,加入少量非西方經典,在當時引起軒然大波。儘管如此,多元化的調整應已漸成趨勢。1.3.2 港台高校的示例台灣大學關於通識教育的基本理念及課程設置和美國的大學類似。台灣大學七十年代起開始注重通識教育,基於“通才教育”的通識教育理念,強調通識教育的目的在於建立不同學術領域之間對話、溝通與融合的可能性,避免傳統與現代之間、全球化與本土化之間的斷裂,並為學生奠定終身學習的基礎能力。從課程設置上看,包含共同教育課程,即國文、外文、體育、服務,及狹義的通識教育課程,後者包括文學與藝術、歷史思維、世界文明、道德與哲學思考、公民意識與社會分析、量化分析與數學素養、物質科學、生命科學八個知識領域的課程。5與此相比,香港的大學對通識教育的基本理解則強調人格培養,如香港中文大學聯合書院認為,“通識教育應注重人格培養,建立積極的人生態度及價值觀”。6 但具體在通識課方面的要求並不太多。以香港中文大學新亞書院為例,要求學生修讀共六個學分之書院通識課程即可。 72 澳門高校實現通識教育的思考2.1 深刻理解現代通識教育的本質和目的現代意義上的通識教育雖經由西方的大學首先提出,但如果將其理解為傳統文明經典教育,則中國的大學在这个方面並非空白。中國古代教育機構對經史子集的傳授實際上就是廣義上的通5. http://coursemap.aca.ntu.edu.tw/course_map/ge.php6. http://www.uc.cuhk.edu.hk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=61&Itemid=105&lang=zh7. http://www.na.cuhk.edu.hk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10&Itemid=13&lang=tw
106識教育。當然,彼時的經史子集不單是通識教育的內容,亦是專業教育的內容,甚或是教育的全部內容。晚清政府曾公佈過我國第一個現代大學方案,其中包括以中國古典文明教育為核心的經學科,不過,在與傳統決裂的心態下,民國政府刪除了經學科的內容。8此後,這種反傳統倒成了傳統,以至今日我國的大學生很少知道“國學”為何物。近年來,一些學者的不斷呼籲激起了人们对通識教育再認識的热情。不過,這種再認識往往流於表面,或者表現為熱衷搬弄“哈佛模式”等美國大學通識教育理念及課程,或者提出不同於“通識教育”的其他中文翻譯,這些現象一方面固然可喜——一定程度上反映出對高等教育現狀的不滿與反思;另一方面又令人不無擔憂——因为缺乏對西方大學 General Education 的深刻理解,爭論極易淪為概念的纏訟與炒作,而於深入認識及實踐無益。例如,一些人認為 General Education 是指全面能力的培養,應當譯為“全面教育”。實際上,無論就其初衷,抑或觀其實踐,General Education 的原意就是某種共識教育,使接受大學教育的人均應具備某種“共同知識”。例如,哈佛大學在 2007 年版的通識教育報告中指出,“通識教育就是自由主義教育的公共臉龐”。9易言之,在哈佛大學看來,學子們應當接受的“共識”是自由主義。顯然,這種“共識”教育與能力的全面培養是兩個不同的問題。此外,亦有不少人談論“全人教育”( Holistic Education)、“通才教育”,這些概念和美國大學所提出的通識教育也有些差別。對此,提倡“通才教育”的台灣大學將通識教育作廣義和狹義兩個層次的理解亦未嘗不可。總之,現在的問題恐怕不是絞盡腦汁地想出新譯法或“新概念”,亦不在於爭辯哪種提法更高明,而在於就“通識教育”的內涵及目的本8. 參見甘陽,《大學之道與文明自覺》,2 0 0 5年6月2 2日在清華大學的演講。百度文庫,http://wenku.baidu.com/view/163f07d776eeaeaad1f330c2.html9. Report of the Task Force on General Education,p3身形成深刻理解基礎上的共識。如前文所述,美國大學的通識教育課程之所以佔用學分較多、學時較長,且其核心課程長期以來變化不大而表現出較高穩定性,無非在於其遵循對“共同知識”的教育與傳承這一基本內涵和目的,即對代表並詮釋西方文明精神與基本價值的西方經典的學習與傳承。換成一般性表示,通識教育的目的即在於人類社會文明經典的學習和傳承。正如每一個走進澳門科技大學的學子,首先都會接受校訓教育——“格物,意誠”,一切從“格物”開始。2.2 制定具有特色的通識教育課程體系無論在哪一份世界大學排名榜單上,top10、top20 總是被美國的大學佔據大半壁江山。參照US News & World Reports 2011 的排名,全世界大学排名前十位有六所美国大学,前二十位有十三所美國大學。 10 由此,美國的大學成為世界各國大學發展建設的範本並不足為奇,尤其在現代大學通識教育的實踐方面,美國大學的開創性地位更令其通識教育核心課程受到追捧。然而,在深入瞭解美國大學的通識教育理念及實踐後,我們就能清楚地看到,對其 CIV 課程直接“拿來”只是盲目的表面模仿,並非對通識教育的真正理解與實踐。通識教育培養的是文化自覺和文化自信,培育的是社會的共同文化根基。如果說美國大學的通識教育培養的是西方文化自覺和文化自信,培育的是西方社會的共同文化根基,因而其 CIV 課程主要是指西方文明經典,那麼,相對應地,中國大學的通識教育培養的就應當是中華文化的自覺與自信,主要課程則應當是中華文化的文明經典,修補一再斷裂的中華文化根基。與此同時,我們也看到,美國大學在晚近時期已經在 CIV 課程上發生悄然變化,雖仍以西方文明經典為主導,但也列入東方文明經典。因此,我們也可以對應參照,將中華文化經典和西方文明經典納入主要課程。以台灣大學的通識課程為例,在“哲學與10. http://www.usnews.com/education/worlds-best-universities-rankings/top-400-universities-in-the-world