澳門學刊 目錄 淫戒、奸罪、社會生活與《道僧格》“和合婚姻”條/段知壯 ...................................................... 1 商鞅變法對新時代全面依法治國的歷史借鑒及對策/張鵬程 ..................................................... 10 平等 VS 公平:國民待遇的價值內涵/張秀潔 ........................................................................... 20 論明代中期“中國海商”的國際地位/潘洵 .................................................................................. 29 臺北市幼稚園佈局的空間分析/施超 ......................................................................................... 38 The Strategies for the Building of Mental Image Flash in Translation Cognition/ Wang Zhifeng ............................................................................... 56
澳門學刊 9 Refrain from the lust, Sexual crime, Social life and "Hehe marriage" in Regulations relating to Daoist and Buddhist Personnel DUAN Zhizhuang Abstract: The provisions in the restoration of Regulations relating to Daoist and Buddhist Personnel which is devoted to religion as legal norms appeared in Tang Dynasty among various scholars is very wide, in addition to the provisions of the criminal, but also include the administrative provisions, civil provisions, and religious constraints. The article focuses on analyzing the refrain from the lusts in Buddhism, sexual crime and social life of the monks in Tang Dynasty, and tries to look back on the original meaning of "Hehe marriage", considering that it refers to the prohibition of matchmaking marriage of Buddhist monks. Keywords: Refrain from the lust;The sexual crime;Regulations relating to Daoist and Buddhist Personnel;Hehe marriage.
澳門學刊 18 者實行依法處理或者政策范圍內的調整。要按照法治社會建設的要求和標準處理行政和社會事務,確保人民的安全感和積極性,使整個社會能夠重新煥發生機和活力。這是歷史發展的必然,也是社會進步的選擇,曾經的電信壟斷與今天有著競爭態勢的通訊業相比發生了天翻地覆的變化,這便是最好的證明。而利益在社會管理和政治統治中占據重要地位,商鞅提出“民之于利也,若水之于下也,四旁無擇也”;1而韓非子則更直接,認為人性“皆喜貴而惡賤”,2法家的人性“好利惡害”的觀點對當前的社會發展階段和人民的思想境界狀況有著重要的現實意義,這也是建設法治社會的重要現實需求因素。 四是促進法治與德治的結合。道德建設是依法治國的重要支撐,依法治國必須與以德治國相結合。商鞅變法正是因為缺乏禮教——倫理道德教育,一味追求法律帶來的暴力,最終導致失敗。后世的統治者以此為戒,對此非常重視,一方面注重法令的完善和執行,保障人民安居樂業,為統治者提供穩定的人、財、物;另一方面也加強倫理道德教育,在促進社會穩定的同時鞏固其政治統治,特別是認同教育,兩者互相促進,密不可分。在今天,全面推進依法治國,思想道德建設也是必不可少的要素,習近平總書記多次強調依法治國和以德治國相結合,指出“法律是成文的道德,道德是內心的法律”,重視并理解法律和道德在國家治理和社會管理中的地位和功能,“法安天下,德潤人心。法律有效實施有賴于道德支持,道德踐行也離不開法律約束。法治和德治不可分離,也不可偏廢國家治理需要法律和道德協同法力。”3因此,要圍繞新時代全面依法治國的要求,加強道德建設。在社會主義核心價值觀和社會主義核心價值體系的引導下,加強以社會公德、職業道德、家庭美德和個人品德為重點的道德教育,不斷提高人民的道德素質。同時在全面依法治國推進過程中,要實現與道德的有機結合。這一過程要特別發揮領導干部的作用,“領導干部既應該做全面依法治國的重要組織者、推動者,也應該做道德建設的積極倡導者、示范者。”4以身示范是最大的思想道德教育,因此,領導干部帶頭學法、模范守法成為全面依法治國的關鍵,領導干部學法經常化、制度化是實現依法治國的重要途徑和保障。 The Historical Reference and Countermeasures of Comprehensive Rule of Law in the New Era from SHANG Yang's reform ZHANG Pengcheng Abstract: Shang Yang's reform is a successful rule of law practice that integrates social reforms with the rule of law, realizing social stability, richening the country and strengthening the army. Its establishment of authority, top-level design and strict implementation ensure the success of the reform, but it was too harsh and lacked enlightenment, which was thought-provoking. Its success and failure provide a useful reference for today's rule of law, and is conducive to the implementation of deepening reform comprehensively. In the new era, the system of rule of law which is suitable for China should be formed by strengthening the legal system construction, deepening the reform of the judicial system, eliminating the resistance in the reform and combining the rule by 1 石磊(譯注):《商君書·君臣》,北京:中華書局,2011 年,第 163 頁。 2 韓非子(戰國):《·韓非子·難三》,長春:吉林大學出版社,2011 年,第 328 頁。 3 習近平:《習近平談治國理政》(第二卷),北京:外文出版社,2017 年,第 133 頁。 4 《堅持依法治國和以德治國相結合 推進國家治理體系和治理能力現代化》,載于《人民日報》,2016 年 12 月 11 日,第 1 版。
澳門學刊 19 law with administering country by morality. Thus it can provide guarantee for the socialist construction and the realization of the China Dream. Keywords: Shang Yang's reform; the rule by law;the rule of law; governance
澳門學刊 28 The Value of National Treatment: Equality or Justice ZHANG Xiujie Abstract: On March 15, 2019, the Second Session of the 13th National People's Congress passed the Foreign Investment Law of the People's Republic of China. Compared with the original relevant laws, the biggest change in the law is the State adheres to an administrative system of pre-establishment national treatment, plus a negative list for foreign investment, which causes the author to think about the value of national treatment, equality or justice. Equality is a principle of even distribution, fairness gives everyone what they deserved. This article analyses the basic concept of national treatment, relevant provisions in the main agreements of the WTO and exceptions in Intellectual Property Conventions etc., and states that no matter when it was originally changed from a commercial practice to a statute law, exceptions in Intellectual Property Conventions and other International Treaties, or provisions of actual clauses in the main agreements of the WTO, the national treatment is more about fairness and the pursuiting of fairness. Keywords: National treatment, equality, fairness
澳門學刊 34 落中除了來來往往的船上人員外,有城防司令、王室大法官、法官、市政議員、死者及孤兒總管、度量衡及市場物價監察官、書記官、巡夜官、收稅官及我們國中的各種各樣的手藝人、四個公證官和六個法官。每個這樣的職務需要花三千克魯札多購買,有些價格更高。這里邊三百人同葡萄牙婦女或混血女人結婚。有兩所醫院,一座仁慈堂。它們每年的費用高達三萬克魯札多。市政府的歲入為六千克魯札多。一般通行的說法是,雙嶼比印度任何一個葡萄牙人的居留地都更加壯觀富裕。在整個亞洲其規模也是最大的。當書記官們向滿剌加提交申請書和公證官簽署某些契約時都說:‘此忠誠的偉城雙嶼,為我國王陛下服務。’” 1 曾經很多人質疑這段話的可信性,但現在發現傳教士克路士、旅行家曼里克等也留下了類似的記載,證實平托沒有夸張。從記載來看,葡萄牙人掌握了島上的行政、司法等重要權利,連交易也采用葡萄牙的度量衡,這就意味著他們占據了雙嶼島的主導權,許棟、王直等中國海商則處于從屬地位。筆者認為之所以出現這種局面,最根本的原因就在于“中國海商”缺乏資本。 由于當時寧紹一帶的海上交易皆“主于余姚謝氏”,而謝氏又不償其直,使得許棟無法償還葡萄牙人的貨款,只能另想辦法。“丙午,許二、許四自許一、許三事故,所欠番人貨物無償,卻以奸黨于直隸、蘇松等處地方,誘騙良民收買貨財到港。許二許四陰唆番人搶奪,陽則寬慰被害之人,許償貨價。故被害者不知許二許四之謀,但怨番人搶奪。自本者則舍而去之,借本者思無抵償不敢歸。乃隨許四往日本國,賈以歸。舟至京泊津,遭騙之人竟以番人搶騙財貨之故告于島主,島主曰:‘番商市中國,敢搶中國人財,今市我國,莫不懷虜矣。’即殺番人,乃以薪粒等物給許四,使送華人以歸。許四自思,初欠番夷貨物,又失番夷商賈。歸,竟不敢向雙嶼。與沈門林剪、許獠等合蹤,劫掠海隅民居。…明年丁未,林剪自彭亨誘引賊眾駕船七十余艘至浙海,會許二、許四合為一蹤,劫掠沿海地方,而謝文正公遷第宅為之一空…”2 這次中葡海商間的糾紛,平托也有記載:“那里有一個出身高貴、正直的人利馬橋人氏蘭薩羅特·佩雷拉。據說此人賒給了幾個不講信用的華人價值一萬克魯扎多的貨。他們提走了貨物,但未付錢,再也沒有露面。所以他想從那些沒有欠他錢的人身上挽回這筆損失,于是糾集了十五個游手好閑、不務正業的葡萄牙人,甚至更差的人,于一天晚上襲擊了距那里兩里遠的一個名叫西帕通的村子。在那里搶劫了住在那里的十幾家戶,搶了他們的妻子,毫無理由地殺死了十三個人。這件惡事第二天很快就在當地傳開了,居民到主管法律的總兵那里去告狀。為此立了項目,將民訴寫了狀子遞呈政府巡按御史,這一官職如同總督。”3 這兩條史料都表明許四因為害怕葡人追究責任,最后沒有回到雙嶼島,這也從另一個角度說明雙嶼島的主導權掌握在葡萄牙人手中。丙午年是嘉靖二十五年,這年許一被抓,許三被殺,由此引發的一連串事件,導致了兩個嚴重且不幸的后果:1.“中國海商”將好不容易建立起來的貿易基地拱手讓給了葡萄牙人,自己則墮落成海盜。2.余姚謝氏被焚,促使明政府加強海防,朱紈率領大軍掃平雙嶼港。 雙嶼島之戰后,葡萄牙人撤離,許棟不知所終,王直成了海商集團的頭目,繼續在浙江沿海從事走私貿易。 1 C.R.Boxer.Fidalgos in the Far East,1550-1770, Fact and Fancy in the History of Macao,The Hague, 1948, p4. 2 鄭舜功,《日本一鑒·窮河話海》卷 6《海市》,載于百度文庫。這段文字聶德寧、廖大珂等人都曾引用,注為“《日本一鑒·窮河話海》卷 6《流逋》”,筆者查《海市》中也有相同記載。 3 費爾南·門德斯·平托著,金國平譯,《遠游記》。澳門:澳門基金會,1999 年,699 頁。廖大珂先生認為平托《遠游記》所記與鄭舜功《日本一鑒》所記是同一事件,即余姚謝氏事件,見《葡萄牙人在浙江沿海的同上與沖突》,載《南洋問題研究》2003 年第二期。筆者同意這個結論。
澳門學刊 37 On the International Status of "Chinese Maritime Merchants" in the Middle Period of the Ming Dynasty PAN Xun Abstract: Chinese sea merchants refers to the armed groups that are mainly Chinese and engaged in business and robber activities in southeastern coast of China in the middle and later period of the Ming Dynasty. They are also known as the Japanese pirates in history. This paper reexamines the business activities of "Chinese maritime merchants" based on factors such as capital, buying and selling channels, trading market and related historical data. It is found that the Chinese pirate group, represented by Xu Dong and Wang Zhi, had a subordinate position in international trade and not been granted equal dialogue with Portuguese businessmen due to the lack of commercial capital, stable buying and selling channels, trading bases and necessary conditions for independent operation. Keywords: Japanese Pirates, Chinese Sea Merchants, Capital, Buying Selling Channels, Trading Market
澳門學刊 39 2.空間分析 社會區位學是“針對社會學問題、綜合應用以生態學為中心的宏觀理論和以空間為中心的研究方法的一門學科,主要研究與地理生態學相關的特殊情境中的社會行為。”1而空間分析是社會區位學的一種研究方法,用來分析空間資料的相關技術統稱為空間分析,它從空間資料中通過分析演算法提取有關地理物件的空間形態、空間分佈、空間位置等資訊。社會區位學者們大多關注空間分佈、形成與結構等課題,在過去幾十年間,發展了許多計量方法以描述、辨別不同資料在空間分佈與形態的差異。2而計量型的空間分析與一般統計分析的最大差異在於對空間特性的考量,除了一般數值資料的計算與統計分析之外,也分析具有地理特性或空間關係的資料如距離、鄰近等。總體而言,學者們對空間議題的思考模式觀念大致包括:地物是如何分佈的?地物的分佈呈現何種形態?哪裡是群聚的位置?地物與其屬性值之間是否有關聯?如何運用推論統計進行地理空間分析? (二)文獻回顧 1.空間分析相關文獻回顧 以區位為中心的空間分析研究起源於地理和經濟學領域,工業革命時期,一些最早的區位理論是專門為了解決利潤最大化而衍生出來的。這種流派主要關注城鎮的層次結構,認為“無論是通過農業用地還是城市地區的發展,空間或位置的合理使用是最大化收益的一種重要方式。”3芝加哥學院的Galpin C.J於 1915 年在《農業社會的剖析》(Anatomy of a Agriculture Community)中研究發展了同心圓模型,首先將個人行為和空間位置聯繫了起來。4Von Thunen在《孤立的國家》(Isolated State)中提出了經濟最大化和接近聚集模型(Zonal Model of Proximity and Economic Maximization),這個模型在工業革命初期發展起來,其為了最大限度提高農民在社區潛在利潤,主要關心中心城市覆蓋的各種土地空間的系統性安排。1933 年,Christaller在同心圓模型的基礎上提出了中地理論(Central Place Theory,簡稱CPT),發展了一個城市相對位置的等級結構,指出城市在規模和多樣性上都與生產必需品和非必需品有很大的關聯。 前幾種模型都主要關注經濟利益的驅動而忽視了人口的角色,而August Losch是最早試圖將經濟生產和規模變化與人口變化聯繫起來的早期學者。Losch的區位經濟學(The Economic of Location)認為人口是經濟變化的主要原因之一,一旦人口積極參與到地方的組織結構模型中來,就會出現非等級、非標準化的空間與距離之安排。他在 1937 年的《人口週期作為商業週期的原因》(Population Cycles as a Cause of Business Cycles)中還指出人口變化尤其是新興城鎮的人口迅速增長,會通過遷移迴圈對商業活動產生重大影響,成功地把經濟發展的滯後性與前期的人口增長聯繫起來。5 除此之外,空間分析理論的早期發展中還有其他一些重要貢獻,比如 1889 年,Charles Booth通過手工地圖繪製 1800 年代期間城市中的貧窮群體,他製作的地圖提供了早期階級隔離、貧困聚集以及與社會城鎮人口組織之間相關關係的歷史證據。6Alfred Weber於 1909 年在《工業區位理論》(Theory of the 1 Jeremy R.Porter, Frank M.Howell(2012). Geographical Sociology: Theoretical Foundations and Methodological Applications in the Sociology of Location. New York: Springer Science Business Media. 1,6. 2 溫在弘:《空間分析方法與應用》,臺北:雙葉書廊,2015,2。 3 Jeremy R.Porter, Frank M.Howell(2012). Geographical Sociology: Theoretical Foundations and Methodological Applications in the Sociology of Location. New York: Springer Science Business Media. 14. 4 Galpin, C. J(1915). The social anatomy of an agricultural community. Madison: University of Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station.34. 5 Losch, A (1937). Population cycles as a cause of business cycles. Quarterly Journal of Economics.51.4. 649–662. 6 Booth, C (1889). The Inhabitants of the Tower Hamlets (School Board Division). Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. 50. 326–401.
澳門學刊 40 Location of Industy)中建立了經濟最大化理論——包括與運輸、勞工和其他經濟負擔相聯繫的最小成本模型,其模型主要依靠空間距離作為產品重量、勞動成本、生產資料和商業競爭的分析變數。John Snow應用地圖從視覺上辨識出水的供應和死亡率之間的關係,他在 1949 年的《霍亂的傳播模式》(On the Mode of Communication of Cholera)中指出霍亂通過污染的食物和水來進行傳播。 自從地理資訊系統(GIS)出現以來,空間分析的應用越來越廣泛,包括識別犯罪模式、追蹤疾病爆發等。Joseph Wartman和Nicholas E. Malasavage在 2010 年的《城鎮災害聚集辨識的空間分析》(Spatial Analysis for Identifying Concentrations of Urban Damage)中討論了 2001 年秘魯南部地震後編制的城市災害清單中PPA技術的應用和結果的解釋。1Victor Lavy對迦納地區的基礎教育資源的需求狀況進行了調查,運用主成分分析對道路系統、交通流量、學校規模以及教育資源需求等因素進行建模,開啟了區域經濟與教育之間的關係研究,並指出區域內的基礎教育資源的教學品質、收費標準、服務範圍和交通條件是居民關心的重要因素。2 在國內公共設施空間分析方面,魏宗財、甄峰以深圳市 112 處文化設施為研究物件,探究深圳文化設施的分佈特徵,指出其區際差異大,總體上呈現以特區內為核心,特區外為邊緣地帶的分佈格局,進而得出區域經濟、人口分佈、交通區位、政策等因素是造成現有分佈格局的重要原因。3臺灣臺北市少年輔導委員會于 2005 年發佈的市政府計畫研究報告《臺北市 89 至 93 年少年犯案數值與空間分析》中用SPSS等軟體探討了少年加害者、被害者與發生地點之距離,以及所形成犯案熱點分佈狀況與活動場所、捷運路線等之關係,得到研究結論:少年盜竊案件與少年經常活動地點有關,而與住家無關;少年暴力案件發生地點距離被害者住家較近,屬於有計劃性犯案行為;少年高犯案熱點的分佈與捷運路線網路分佈有關,距離捷運在 1 公里左右較多;活動場所分佈愈多,發生少年案件機會愈高,也愈容易形成高犯案熱點。4 2.教育資源空間分析相關文獻 1999 年,Raymond Taylro,Michael Vasu和James Causby運用GIS對北卡羅萊那州約翰斯頓縣的學校進行了總體規劃,通過減弱交通因素的影響力進而降低了就學的交通成本,對學區規劃進行了重新調整。5Mike Sagle 以堪薩斯州Overland Park的Blue Valley School學區為例,結合紐約市土地利用現狀圖建立了空間資料庫並做空間分析,利用GIS來確定新校址,從而提高了學校空間規劃的合理性。6 國內方面,溫愛花通過分析高等學校佈局、高等教育發展、高等學校規模同經濟、人口的關係,研究了雲南省高等學校空間佈局的結構變化,並在此基礎上探求高等教育資源與人口、經濟、地理環境等因素之間的關聯;7王偉、吳志強應用Mapinfo7.0 對濟南市區 97 所小學的空間佈局狀況進行了較為深入的 1 Joseph Wartman, Nicholas E. Malasavage (2010-10-20). Armando Carlos de Pina Filho and Aloisio Carlos de Pina (Ed). Spatial Analysis for Identifying Concentrations of Urban Damage. Methods and Techniques in Urban Engineering. http://www.intechopen.com/books/methods-andtechniques-in-urban-engineering/spatial-analysis-for-identifying-concentrations-of-urban-damage. [2017-12-23]. 2 Victor Lavy(1996). School Supply Constrains and Children's Educational Outcomes in Rural China. Journal of Development Economics. 51.2.291-314. 3 魏宗財,甄峰:《深圳市文化設施時空分佈格局研究》,載於《城市發展研究》,2,2007,8-13。 4 臺北市少年輔導委員會:《臺北市 89 年至 93 年少年犯案數值與空間分析》,臺北市政府 94 年度計畫研究報告。 5 郭全:《基於 GIS 的城市基礎教育資源佈局均衡性研究——以蘭州市城關區中小學為例》,蘭州:蘭州大學學位論文,2011。 6 Slagle M (2000). GIS in Community-Based school Planning: Decision Making, Cooperation and Democratization in the Planning Process. Cornell University: http://www.crp.cornell.edu.[2017-05-21]. 7 溫愛花:《基於 GIS 的雲南省高等教育空間佈局結構變化研究》,載於《雲南開放大學學報》,3,2013,29-33。
澳門學刊 54 參考文獻: [1] 段慧瑩,馬祖琳:《社會變遷中私立幼兒園未來發展議題與策略探究》,載於《幼兒教保研究期刊》,10,2013,1-17。 [2] 郭全:《基於 GIS 的城市基礎教育資源佈局均衡性研究——以蘭州市城關區中小學為例》,蘭州:蘭州大學學位論文,2011。 [3] 臺北市少年輔導委員會:《臺北市 89 年至 93 年少年犯案數值與空間分析》,臺北市政府 94 年度計畫研究報告。 [4] 臺 灣 法 規 資 料 庫 : 《 幼 稚 教 育 及 照 顧 法 》 , 臺 灣 法 規 資 料 庫 : http://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?PCode=H0070031,2018-01-16。 [5] 溫愛花:《基於 GIS 的雲南省高等教育空間佈局結構變化研究》,載於《雲南開放大學學報》,3,2013,29-33。 [6] 王偉,吳志強:《基於 Voronoi 模型的城市公共設施空間佈局優化研究——以濟南市區小學為例》,載於《和諧城市規劃——2007 中國城市規劃年會論文集》,2007,2529-2533。 [7] 魏宗財,甄峰:《深圳市文化設施時空分佈格局研究》,載於《城市發展研究》,2,2007,8-13。 [8] 溫在弘:《空間分析方法與應用》,臺北:雙葉書廊,2015,2。 [9] Booth, C(1889). The Inhabitants of the Tower Hamlets (School Board Division). Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. 50. 326–401. [10] Christaller, W (1966[1933]). C. E. Baskin(Trans). Central places in Southern Germany. Engle Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. [11] Galpin, C. J (1915). The social anatomy of an agricultural community. Madison: University of Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station.34. [12] Jeremy R.Porter, Frank M.Howell(2012). Geographical Sociology: Theoretical Foundations and Methodological Applications in the Sociology of Location. New York: Springer Science Business Media. 1,6. [13] Joseph Wartman, Nicholas E. Malasavage (2010-10-20). Armando Carlos de Pina Filho and Aloisio Carlos de Pina (Ed). Spatial Analysis for Identifying Concentrations of Urban Damage. Methods and Techniques in Urban Engineering. http://www.intechopen.com/books/methods-andtechniques-in-urban-engineering/spatial-analysis-for-identifying-concentrations-of-urban-damage. [2017-12-23]. [14] Losch, A (1937). Population cycles as a cause of business cycles. Quarterly Journal of Economics.51.4. 649–662. [15] Slagle M (2000). GIS in Community-Based school Planning: Decision Making, Cooperation and Democratization in the Planning Process. Cornell University: http://www.crp.cornell.edu.[2017-05-21]. [16] Snow, J (1949). On the mode of communication of cholera. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Press. [17] Victor Lavy(1996). School Supply Constrains and Children's Educational Outcomes in Rural China. Jounal of Development Economics. 51.2.291-314.
澳門學刊 55 [18] Von Thunen, J. H (1966[1826]). P. Hall (Ed). Isolated state. Oxford: Pergamon Press. [19] Weber, A (1929[1909]). Carl J. Friedrich(Trans). Theory of the Location of Industries. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Spatial Analysis of the Layout of Kindergarten in Taipei ——Based on the Calculation of Taipei's Data by R Software SHI Chao Abstract: This study used R to establish and deal with a database, conducted spatial analysis of the layout of kindergartens in Taipei, including network distribution, buffer analysis and density analysis. On this basis, this study analyzed the relationship between the spatial distribution of kindergartens and the geographical environment and population distribution in Taipei, then compared the utilization of preschool education resources in different regions. The results show that the spatial distribution of public and private kindergartens in Taipei is relatively balanced, the scope of institutional services can achieve full coverage, but the overlapping coverage exceeds the standard, resulting in low resource utilization. It is suggested that the reform of preschool education needs to optimize resource allocation by merging adjustments to reduce the number of kindergartens in over-covered region. Keywords: Taipei, Kindergarten, Spatial Analysis, R Software
澳門學刊 56 The Strategies for the Building of Mental Image Flash in Translation Cognition* Wang Zhifeng∗ Abstract: MIF(Mental image flash) is the decoded image in one's brain corresponding to the activation of a word. In English language comprehension, a great number of Chinese English learners have to interpret the meaning with the help of Chinese, and can not decode directly from English language. In translation practice, they convert words from one language to another language without the appearance of MIF. The author put forward the strategies for the building of MIF from lexical level to syntactical level, and then to pragmatic level; reexamined the previous translation theories; put forward the deficiency and improvement for the previous theories; and made some attempts on the building of translation theories. Keywords: Translation process; Mental image flash; Building strategy 1. Introduction What is mental image flash? The author defined MIF(Mental image flash) as the decoded image in one's brain corresponding to the activation of a word. If the author say, "Please do not think about a girl in a pink skirt", although the author asks the reader not to think, actually there will be a picture flashing in your mind, which is called Mental Image Flash (MIF for short in the following). In translation practice, we often convert the words from one language to another language without the appearance of MIF. The domestic research on MIF is quite less for demand and langging behind the international level. The author searched for "Translation Mental Image Flash" and "Translation MIF" in CNKI(China National Knowledge Infrastructure), no paper has been found. The author studies the building strategies for MIF in translation cognition so as to help translators produce high-quality translations and make us have a new understanding of translation itself. This research will make up the shortage of the research in this field, and it is of revolutionary significance to both theories and practice. 2. Research approaches of MIF 2.1 Philosophical approach Philosophy is a subject about world outlook. Human beings know the world through language, which is also the expression of world outlook. Translation is the transformation of world outlook because different languages have different ways of thinking in different cultures. Philosophy studies how we recognize ourselves and the world. In the past, the body-mind dualism separated the body from the mind. The modern French philosopher Descartes was regarded as the first person to demonstrate the mind-body dualism from the perspective of philosophical epistemology (Abrams, 2016). The embodied philosophy emphasizes that human knowledge comes not only from the brain but also from the body. "The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience", * Fund Project: This paper is the outcome of a major research fund project of postgraduate in Xi'an International Studies University: "The Strategies for the Building of Mental Image Flash in Simultaneous Interpretation" (Project number: syjs201701). ∗ Wang Zhifeng, postgraduate of Xi'an International Studies University, research field: translation theories and practice
澳門學刊 57 published in 1991 by Varela and Tompson et al., argues that cognitive production originates from physical experience (Varela & Tompson: 1991). In recent years, embodied philosophy has become the frontier of philosophy. The paradigm of embodied cognition boldly questioned the various defects of the philosophical basis of the duality of body and mind in traditional cognition. Researchers of embodied cognition devoted themselves to escaping from the grotesque separation of body and mind and reshaping the theoretical framework of the integration of body and mind. Similarly, our foreign language acquisition comes from our body's experience. We understand language not only through the brain, but also through the body. 2.2 Psychological approach The author here expands the concept of MIF, that is, MIF refers to not only the picture in one's mind, and it is based on our five senses of vision, hearing, taste, touch and smell. Image is the picture of one thing appearing in one's mind when the thing is not in front of one's eyes(Peng, 2013: 284). Psychology regards imagery as the reproduction of the perceived image that has been stored (memory image), or a new image (imaginary image) transformed by processing (Wang, 2016: 132). In psychology, image refers to not only pictures from our sense of vision, but also from images of other senses, for example, the feeling of pain belongs to the images from the sense of touch. In linguistics, we have sound image, which is a sound presentation from the sense of hearing. Mental image and mental image flash can not be the same, it is not because the original image flashes fast and then become mental image flash, but because of the short of time, the image will experience selection, transformation, modification, and other processing, then become different from the original. Although some MIFs can not be seen, we can feel them. Since we can feel them, they are originated from our bodies. For example, the feeling of happiness or the feeling of pain is also MIF. Body movement is an integral part of complete perception. The body plays a decisive role in the process of perception formation(Ye, 2017: 24). Our actions have a great impact on thinking and reasoning, and in the interaction of brain, body, and experience (especially emotional experience), our mentality is formed(Beilock, 2016: 11). Therefore, these feelings can't be separated from our body and exist independently. We might have a smile and a subconscious movement like jumping happily when we are happy and we might grit our teeth when we suffer pain. In psychology, embodied cognition is the revolution of cognitive science. Research on embodied cognition has proved that learning cannot leave the body. To a large extent, our conscious experience is written in the muscles (Dempsey & Sham, 2013: 590). From the perspective of embodied themes, the body plays a constitutive role in the cognitive process (Kuhle, 2017). Although the off-body cognitive theory acknowledges that sensorimotor information can influence the accessibility of concepts, it is not a necessary condition for conceptual representation (Dove, 2009; Parisi, 2011). Embodied cognition also found that finger perceptual movement is closely related to quantitative representation (Patro, Nuerk & Cress, 2015; Stapel, Hunnius, Bekkering & Lindemann, 2015). Vallée-Tourangeau, Steffensen and Silota (2016) confirmed that the solution of creative problems does not depend on cognitive abilities such as working memory through the experiment, but is strongly influenced by factors such as task ecology, individual action history and so on. The process of translation is a creative one, especially literary translation. Therefore, the building of MIF requires the participation of individual behavior, which is accomplished in the interaction between individual, ecological environment and society. 2.3 Linguistic approach Geeraerts (2016: 71), former president of the International Association of Cognitive Linguistics, argues that the achievements of cognitive linguistics research have been remarkable. From the initial marginal position, it has
澳門學刊 58 developed into one of the mainstreams in the field of linguistics nowadays. In terms of academic output and academic influence, there seems to be a tendency to catch up with generative linguistics. We form our language in the process of understanding the world and we also know the world through language. Cognitive linguists Lakoff and Johnson (2003) once pointed out that human beings formed the concepts of "up" and "down" because of the gravity of the earth and the way they walk upright. Learning a language is learning a new way to observe and understand reality (Bylund & Athanasopoulos 2015: 123). In recent years, cognitive linguistics has been combined with neuroscience to study language from the perspective of neurocognition. Language is a unique psychological and neural ability. The psychological development of language learners is based on the growth and development of the nervous system. It is the result of the combination of neurophysiological factors and social environmental factors (Yan, Y. & Wang, 2013: 88). Neurolinguistics is also a branch of linguistics. Its research helps us to understand the process of language processing and promote the development of linguistics, especially psycholinguistics (Cui, 2015: 7). The author proposed that through MIF test, it can be found that whether there are reasonable neural connections between Chinese words and English words, and between MIFs and words in one's brain. The author gave the reader a word "car" and allowed the reader to think up as many words as possible in the shortest possible time. If we haven't built English thinking, the number of English words that we can think of is extremely limited. For Chinese English learners and native speakers, the connections between words, and the connections between words and MIFs are quite different in their brains. The situation of English native speakers is as follows: Figure I We found that for English native speakers, not only the connections between English words but also the connections between English words and MIFs in their brains are closely connected. We also found that in such a short span of ten seconds, many Chinese English learners could not think of so many English words related to the word "car". The situation of Chinese English learners is as follows:
澳門學刊 59 Figure II We found that there is no connections between English words and MIFs for many Chinese English learners. Since we have built the connections between Chinese and MIFs, what we are only required to do is to build the connections between MIF and English. Like building highways, the author's dashed lines drawn on the figure represent the roads to be built for learners. Schmid (2016) argued that for the development of cognitive linguistics, we should do whatever we should do, such as empirical-based conceptual semantic studies and usage-based linguistic studies. Zlatev (2016) predicted that in the coming decades, cognitive linguistics may be integrated with generative cognitive science and cognitive semiotics to study mind and meaning from a phenomenological perspective. Langacker (2017) holded that the study of cognitive grammar heralds a social turn, because the interaction between speaker and listener is an inherent feature of language units abstracted from usage events. Compared with generative grammar, cognitive grammar pays more attention to meaning rather than form. Translation requires understanding of meaning. Langacker (1999, 2000) proposed that meaning is conceptualization. Linguistic meaning is regarded as the result of the mental activity of human brain based on physical culture and social culture (Langacker, 2000: 27). A lot of learners haven't built the concepts in English, therefore, to understand English concepts they have to transfer English words to concepts in Chinese. Even if the concepts have been built, they are imperfect, incomplete, half-baked, bitty or fragmented, resulting in the difficulty of the appearance of MIF when they try to understand English text. The author here Take a sentence for example, eg. He parked the car over there. When one hear or read this sentence, a car will flash in his mind, but the car is similar to a toy car, whose wheels couldn't move. Then the immovable car galloped on the road and suddenly stopped there in his mind. That's how we understand English. In addition, there is no person in the car in his mind, that is, a car without a person has stopped there. The picture flashes so quickly that we didn't realize. If the sentence is taken into a context, that is to say, if we encounter discourse cohesion: eg. He parked the car over there, then he came out of the car. The sentence means that the driver wants to come out of the car, but there is no driver in the car in one's mind, that is to say, it's just an empty car. The car is similar to a toy car we played with when we were young, and even the windows could not be opened. The reason is that when we were learning English in young ages, there was a Chinese word or a picture corresponds to an English word in the textbook, which is an immovable car. Firstly, this
澳門學刊 60 method is lack of mental scanning. Secondly, we haven't built the connections between verbs and kinesthetic nerves. Thirdly, English thinking hasn't been built. Figure III If we hear or read Chinese “一輛車停在那里”, we will think of the red light in the rear of a car, but it is not easy to think of the red light when we hear English "He parked the car over there". In translation, red light is also the basis for the metaphor. The author here discusses the relationship between MIF and concept. Concept is a generic term for a class of things with common attributes (Peng, 2012: 289). Many scholars study a person's image of one thing formed in a long term, that is, what a word refers to in the real world or the imaginary world, while what the author studies is "flash" of image rather than "concept". MIF is so fast that we can hardly realize, thus it is so thorny that many scholars are reluctant to study. MIF may be a series of images activated at the same time. MIF might come from one or several concepts selected from multiple concepts and also might be the result of extracting, changing, and integration of concepts. 2.4 Neuroscience Researchers have explored the cognitive neural mechanism of abstract semantic knowledge from several perspectives, such as the lack of perceptual experience for the influence on specific concepts (Bi, Wang & Caramazza, 2016; Peelen, He, Han, Caramazza & Bi, 2014), abstract functional knowledge of specific concepts (Leshinskaya & Caramazza, 2014, 2015) and metaphorical usage (Jamrozik, McQuire, Cardillo & Chatterjee, 2016) etc., in which abstract words as a typical representative of abstract semantic knowledge are widely concerned and studied. In the conceptual acquisition task of healthy adults, researchers found that in learning concrete and abstract conceptual tasks, when they used feature judgment task to test academic performance, the use of microphone (which requires oral production) performed better than the use of keyboard for abstract concepts; while the use of specific concepts showed the opposite pattern (Borghi, Flumini, Cimatti, Marocco & Scorolli, 2011), suggesting that abstract concepts acquisition are more dependent on language. In addition, language experience can also influence the representation and processing of concepts through the relevance of the co-occurrence of words (Barsalou, 2016). The effect of external environment on word processing is also reflected in the latest double coding theory (Paivio, 2007) and the semantic control module/brain area in the conceptual neuroanatomical model (Lambon, Jefferies, Patterson & Rogers, 2017; Xu, He & Bi, 2017). The studies on the cognitive neuro-representation mechanism of abstract concepts can help us have a deeper understanding of the brain cognition of the world and the mental processing of language, and provide a reference for the studies of language and translation. 2.5 Cognitive transaltion studies Although Spanish translator Martin (2010:169) proposed the subject of Cognitive Translatology, she believes that it is still in its infancy and immature stage, belonging to the pre-paradigm stage. Cognitive translatology refers to translation studies based on cognitive science, especially cognitive psychology and cognitive linguistics.
澳門學刊 61 Researchers use the theories and methods of cognitive science to explain translation phenomena, reveal the cognitive process of interpretation and translation, including the translator's psychological process, and further reveal the essence and rules of translation. The author here discusses the relationship between MIF and translation. Translation is a language practice that reproduces the content of one language form with another language form (Feng, 2010: 3). Our conceptions of the neural mechanisms of language have developed in tandem with our understanding of the nature of the language faculty as a cognitive system (Friederici & Chomsky, 2017: 713). When we hear or read a word, for example "apple", we will immediately responded to the English word with the Chinese word “蘋果”. Many of us believe that this transformation has completed the translation. In fact, in idealized translation, English and Chinese are not directly corresponding, that is to say, MIF is located in the intermediate position. The problem is that we are accustomed to bypass MIF in translation cognition, and the author calls the phenomenon "absence of MIF". Cognitive translation is a newly emerging discipline that places human cognition and human subjectivity at the center of the causal chain (Halverson, 2013: 65-66). Martin (2010: 177) holds that translation is a creative imitation. The author will also discuss the creativity of translation at MIF level in the following. 3. The building of MIFs at lexical level We divide words into nouns, articles, pronouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Next, the author will analyze the strategies for the building of MIFs of words in different parts of speech. The MIFs of some words are composed of MIFs of multiple words, therefore the building of MIFs should be carried out step by step: The first step is to build the MIFs of the words with concrete images; the second step is to build the MIFs of the words synthesized by the MIFs of multiple words with concrete images; and the third step is to build the MIFs of abstract words. 3.1 The MIFs of nouns and adjectives Why the author put nouns and adjectives together? We all know that adjectives are used to modify nouns. The meaning of an adjective can not exist independently with the modified subject. We can find examples around us to build MIF, like "library", the author's MIF of "library" can be built by using the image of library of Xi'an International Studies University (XISU). The MIF of "classroom" can be built by using the image of the classroom in the teaching building of XISU. Taking classes is the main activity in the classroom, thus the MIF of "class" is based on the MIF of "classroom". The MIF of "class" can be divided into several MIFs, namely the MIFs of "teacher", "student", "teach", "learn", "knowledge" and so on, which will be further analyzed in the following. MIFs come from what we have seen and heard or sensed through other senses, that is, from our own experience, thus the author builds MIFs in the way based on our own life in order to acquire the second language like native speakers. One's brain has to go through the processing procedure from concrete images to abstract images, instead of directly being input abstract concepts. That is to say we can accomplish this process based on the examples around us in our life.
澳門學刊 62 3.1.1 Less-than-ideal idealized cognitive model The MIF of vocabulary is based on the idealized cognitive model. Lakoff proposed the Idealized Cognitive Model (ICM) in 1982 and 1987, which refers to the abstract, unified and idealized understanding of the speaker's experience and knowledge in a particular field of culture (Lakoff, 1987). The author gave a group of students a word "girl" and allowed them to think of as many words as possible related to this word in 10 seconds, as a result, the number of words that many students could think of is quite limited. If the word is the Chinese “女生” rather than the English "girl", they will think of a lot of words like: 眨眼,捂嘴笑,長發,裙子,苗條,可愛,巧克力 and so on. Some idealized cognitive models constructed by some scholars are less than ideal in language processing. Like the idealized cognitive model of a person, it is a contour without enough elements about a person's inner world. For example, for the word "girl", our cognition for a person is not only to preceive what he or she looks like. Some girls look like boys and some boys look like girls, therefore just building a contour of a girl can't solve the problem. When the external features are indistinguishable, they can not be identified. This is the root cause of our indistinguishable he/she in language production. To build the MIF of "girl", it is the best to build a girl who is beautiful in apperance, slim in figure, white or pink in dress, lovely in behavior, excellent in learning, gentle in characteristic and kind in personality, so that the idealized cognitive model of "girl" is much concret, complet and ideal. The processing from concrete to abstract concepts should be completed by one's brain itself, and directly inputting abstract doesn't work. We are supposed to build MIF from concrete to abstract layer by layer, first we are supposed to build the MIF of "girl", next build the MIF of "student", then build the MIF of "person". In this process, it is better to build the MIF of a schoolgirl, instead of a student without distinguished sex. The more concrete the MIF is, the better the effect of MIF will be. 3.1.2 The building of complete MIF The author studied the building of MIF of girl, and we here will build MIFs from a girl to a person. Man is the sum of all social relations. "I take classes." means I'm a student. "I teach students translation." means I'm a teacher. "I often go shopping." means I'm a customer. People will have many social roles, the sum of which is one person in sociology. We are required to build the MIF of each role and combine them into a whole, which is the MIF of "I". Each role has its own behavior, thus the MIF of these roles should be dominated by the behavior of these roles. What does the inner world of a person include? It includes human nervous system, sensation, perception, consciousness and attention, memory, thinking, language, motivation, emotion, ability, personality, learning and development. After building the body, we need to build a person's inner personality. When one hear or think of a person's name, this person's MIF should be present in his mind, which is different from other person's MIF. Kosslyn (1973,1975) studied mental scanning. Mental scanning in one's brain, like CT scanning, captures these features above. We are required to consciously pay attention to these features in ordinary life. Each time we pay attention to these features, a mental scan will be completed and these features will be recorded in related nerves at the same time. When we perceive these features, we are supposed to express our thoughts and feelings in English simultaneously to make words or sentences shaped in related nerves.
澳門學刊 63 Chinese girl has Chinese style. The author wants to build the MIF of "girl" in China. Under the great cultural background, girls in China should be gentle and virtuous, which are the beauties we pursue in our traditonal cultural. Beauty has an ethical meaning, for example, a person's moral integrity and virtue are the beauties we pursue. In Chinese philosophy, the meaning of beauty is very extensive, for example, the beauty of masculinity, the beauty of the feminine, the magnificence of beauty, and so on, "古道西風瘦馬 (On an ancient road, in the piercingly cold west wind, a lean horse goes wearily)" is also a kind of beauty, therefore Chinese "beauty" is not the same as "beautiful" and "beauty" in English. So Chinese "good" and English "kind" are different. Only in this way can we build "a kind girl" in China with Chinese style. A person must be in his or her life in a society. When building the MIF of "girl", we are supposed to make this girl enter into her life. That is to say, first of all, this girl is a student, next we place her in social life, so that the MIF of "girl" we built will be alive. Idealized cognitive model is only an abstract model of something, while MIF should be concret and practical. Each person has his aesthetic tendencies and aesthetic standards, thus the MIF one built is his own. That is to say, the MIFs of girl in each person's brain are different and has its own characteristics. Just as everyone's drawing will be different from each other when everyone draws a girl. The more connotation one's own appreciation of beauty is, the more aesthetic style one has, which is also an aspect of the translator's style. For example, “春風十里不如你”, many translators will consider how to express “春風” , then use the expression of the comparison structure to compare "spring breeze" and "you". But in most of time, one thing we describe is the most beautiful in our eyes, and other things have no such qualifacation to compare with, and people also do not want to compare. That is to say, there is a sense of "天生麗質難自棄,一朝選在君王側。回眸一笑百媚生,六宮粉黛無顏色。(Endowed with natural beauty too hard to hide, One day she stood selected for the monarch's side. Turning her head, she smiled so sweet and full of grace that she outshone in six palaces the fairest face.)" Once the MIF of girl is built, we will process the MIF in cognition and translate “春風十里不如你” into "You are unique in my eyes." 3.1.3 Person pronouns triangle We are required to ask ourselves a question, who am I? We are supposed to think about all the roles we paly to build the MIF of "I", and other person pronouns "you, he, she" and so on are the reflection of "I". When we hear or read the sentence "I like him.", three person pronouns "I, you, and him" will appear in cognition, instead of just two person pronouns "I" and "him". When you utter this sentence "I like him.", it implied that there is a listener "you". "I" and "he" are salient, while "you" is not salient in cognition. The author put forward a "I, you, and him" person pronouns triangle. If there are two person pronouns in a sentence, the remaining person is just not "salient" and acts as the background. Some people argue that when it comes to the person pronoun "me", like "I speak to myself", there is no other person pronouns in cognition. Actually, speaking to yourself is to look at yourself from another angle, for example, one will say to himself "You are great!" Take another example: eg. He should drink some water. At this time, the subject is "he", and the verb origin is used for predicate verb. A number of people argue that the verb after "should" must be restored to verb origin, which is just a part of the explanation of the use of verb origin. From cognitive prespective, the author argues that at this time the activated personal pronoun is "I", that is, if I were you, I would drink more water. Like the word "ought", it shows that we often delineate a frame or standard in advance starting with I on the critic's point of view, thus at this time the MIF is in "I, you and him MIF unity". For another example "Will you go to the park?" is just like this.
澳門學刊 64 3.1.4 MIFs of polysemous words If a word bears multiple meanings, of course this word will have more than one MIF, thus it is necessary to build more than one MIF. Take the learning of the word "apple" for example, when you hear this word, the MIF of "apple" might flash in your brain, but there are various situations for the activation. The first one: A picture of Apple. Second: Apple brand mobile phone and tablet computer. Third: Steve Jobs and his corperation. Fourth: Apple is the metaphor of love for somebody, like an apple of one's eye (掌上明珠 Chinese idom counterpart). Fifth: The gift of God, Adam's apple. Sixth: Newton discovered gravity. It can be seen that the MIFs appears diffferently when we meet different contexts. 3.1.5 From the MIFs of ikonic words to the MIFs of abstract words Fillmore (1997) analyzed the Frame semantics, such as "buying things", naturally involves four basic factors namely buyers, goods, sellers, and money. In the same framework, different perspectives caused the salience of different relationships of the elements, therefore different expressions will come into being, and people will choose different words, which indicates the semantic relationships between several verbs (Ungerer & Schmid, 1996: 208). If the author gives the reader a word "class", what will the reader think of? According to the author’s research, "class" has the core elements of "teacher", "student", "teach", "learn" and "knowledge". The word "learn" here is definitely learn knowledge, teacher and student are interactive because "teach" and "learn" are interactive, that is, teacher "teach" and student "learn". Concepts may intersect and integrate, thus MIF is interacting in this process, and then the whole meaning is activated. From an ecological point of view, cognition takes place in the daily activities of solving problems. Cognition is "lived" to guide action: The material of cognition originates from life, the result of cognition acts on life, and it is the embodiment of the organism's adaptation to environment. In such a process, the body's interaction with the environment shapes the cognition (Ye, 2017: 24). For the MIF of "life", first we are required to build the basic needs of life, namely food, clothing shelter(housing) and travel. The MIF of "life" can not be seperate with people, person is the main body of life, the author former also analyzed the building of a person in the building of the MIF of "girl". If we have built a person's MIF, we are required to add in the MIF the various activities that people are engaged in, for example, draw the MIF of "class" into the MIF of "life". in this way the MIF of some abstract words can be built. For another example, we often say "economic depression", which is based on the MIF of "life". When we hear or read this expression, the related words "economy", "demand," "supply" and "market" will be activated, and the meaning of the whole article can be activated when we translate an article about this theme. 3.2 The MIFs of verbs and adverbs Adverbs modify verbs to describe the state of actions, thus we build the MIF of verbs and adverbs together. 3.2.1 Mirror neurons In early 1990s, it was found that when monkeys were carrying out simple goal directed behavior, such as reaching for a piece of fruit, a group of neurons in their brains would be activitated. What surprises us is that the monkeys' neurons in their brains would also be activitated when they watch other people doing the same thing. Since these newly discovered neurons seem to allow viewers to directly reflect the behavior of others in their
澳門學刊 65 brains, people call them "mirror neurons". (Peng, 2012: 344). Mirror neurons indicate that cognition is consistent with body movement. The actions of the body to the world create our thinking and understanding process (Ye, 2017:19). Therefore, we are supposed to express in words or sentences related to it when we are watching a person's behavior to make the words or sentences related neurons connect with the mirror neurons. The author's examples in the article are based on this theory. 3.2.2 Total Physical Response Total Physical Response, TPR for short, was proposed by American psychologist James Asher in the 60s, advocating the link between "language" and "body movement". The concrete realization is that language learners respond with physical action when they hear a foreign language instruction. Gradually they will build natural language thinking ability. For example, to learn a verb "jump", they are supposed to take an action "jump" while saying this word. The MIF of a verb will be remenbered in our activity related nerves, instead of the mere perception of a simple picture. Therefore, we are required to build a link between the nerves of these words and these activity related nerves by taking actions while hearing or saying these words. In education and teaching, Dewey advocated "learning from doing" and emphasized the influence of physical action on learning effect (Ye, 2017:19). We learn language through physical activity, that is a right brain activity, and the left brain is stimulated to produce language or more abstract language processes when learning with the right brain reach a certain amount (Richards and Rodgers, 2000: 87) . Premier Zhu Rongji said, “這些年來我們跨了很大一個臺階” Some translators might think of the word "step" if they hear the word “臺階”. If the MIFs have been built and connected with each other, we can translate into "We made a big progress in these years." The author stated that in the former part of the paper that we are suposed to build MIF in life, instead of shutting oneself up in a room making a "car". “跨了很大一個臺階” means we ascended steps and each step is not a small one. If you have such experience, for example, some steps are really high, may be about fifty or sixty centimeters high, thus the sense of ascending on the step is no longer the distance of one step. For something beyond the scope of its characteristics, the MIFs of similar field in one's brain will be activated, which is the advantage of MIF to us. If there is no MIF in the similar field, the MIF will be converted into an abstract MIF. For example, “把這個機器弄上去, you will not know whether you use "carry" or "lift" for a while if you can't move it up or lift it up, therefore, this sentence can be translated into "get this machine up." In fact, there are many kinds of translations for “這些年來我們跨了很大一個臺階.” Our country is becoming strong like a powerful man, who became strong from a child. Through association and imagination, translation can be creative at MIF level. This sentence can be translated into "We ascended a high step in development in these years." or "We ascended a high step in national strength in these years." If the MIF of "progress" we built is just moving forward in a horizontal plane, it is hard for us to think of the word "progress" in this translation. “臺階” is vertical path, while "progress" is often horizontal path. The author argues that we can translate the vertical path schema into a horizontal path schema, which will be discussed in the latter part of the paper. 3.2.3 The MIFs of adverbs For one adverb, it might be required to build different MIFs in different contexts, the same adverb will be influenced by the context. Take the MIFs of "away" in different contexts as an example, we are lack of MIFs,
澳門學刊 66 even if we have built MIFs, they are incomplete. The MIFs of "away" in different contexts may have different situations: 1. When we fight against SARS, keeping away for about 2 meters of distance is called "away". 2. A student is going home, when he get out of the classroom, the distance of a few steps belongs to "leave away". 3. Students have graduated from the school, and being out of the school is "away". The MIF in English learning is fuzzy, which is caused by fuzziness in Chinese and our habit of thinking. We haven't built such neural connections according to context, thus the discourse in comprehension is not coherent in space cognition. 4. The construction of MIFs at syntactic level Since MIFs have been bulit at lexical level, they are requirerd to be integrated into sentences. 4.1 Spreading activation model Spreading Activation Model is proposed by Collins and Loftus (1975). However, unlike hierarchical network models, it abandons the hierarchical structure of concepts and organizes concepts with semantic links or semantic similarities. Now, the author analyzes the MIFs of a sentence: My class at Harvard business school help students understand what good management theory is and how it is built. The MIF of "My class" includes several core MIFs, namely the MIFs of "teacher", "student", "teach", "learn", and "knowledge". In like manner, the MIF of "teach" also includes the MIF of "teacher", "student", "teach", "learn", and "knowledge". It can be seen that the content of "teach" is the following " help students understand" in this sentence. Although we haven't read the following "help students understand", the MIF of "student" has been activiated. The MIF of "class" has a classroom location, thus the MIF of "class" is in the MIF of "school". Although we haven't read the following "My class at Harvard business school", the MIF of "school" has been activiated. If the whole concept of "class" is activated when we perceive this word, it will be very easy and quick for us to link the concepts in different parts of the sentence. Only when MIFs are activiated and integrated, can we understand sentences easily and quickly. For the word "understand", it is the process of "learn", that is, the MIF of "learn" includes the MIF of "understand". "Manage" can be used to manage a company, manage time, manage people and manage things, from which we will abstract and form a concept of management. The activated "learn" will integrate with the activated "manage" to produce the concept of "learning management". 4.2 Billiard-ball model and stage model Langacker (1991) proposed a billiard-ball model: An organism or an object A (the Energetic Head ) impact another organism or object B (the Tail of the Action Chain) in a movement in certain space, A passes its energy to B, and B has a certain reaction or state change under the effect of force. In this model, there are four main components: space, time, object and energy, the former two constitute a scene (Setting), the objects exist in space, the energy interaction changes with time. Figure IV
澳門學刊 67 He also proposed a Stage Model: the viewer, like an audience who watching an actor's performance from the stage, forms a visual attention area in front of his eyes, known as "Onstage Region". Both the stage props and the background are in this area, but the audience's attention is often concentrated on the stage performance of the actor. Figure IV 4.3 Hourglass model The author proposes an hourglass model. The two cones of hourglass are interconnected, and thing A and thing B can be transformed into each other. At MIF level, not like the way that A is A and B is B in billiard-ball model, actually A or B is activated by each other at the same time. Figure V When A has an impact on B, A becomes a part of B and B becomes a part of B. Although the sand is becoming less in one side, the space is becoming larger. When the sand leaks in the hourglass for just an hour, things are going through some time. The hourglass has time and space, which are features that billiard-ball model hasn't. The hourglass model is more explanatory than billiard-ball model proposed by Langacker (1991, 2002). The space in hourglass refers to mental space because we use the real world space to understand mental space metaphorically. The sand is in a certain space, which is appropriate to the explanation of cognitive grammar because cognitive grammar is called space grammar before. Everything is from mental space which can be abstract in cognition, such as the gains of knowledge the loss of youth, thus the space part of the author's hourglass model is the metaphor of gains and losses. The hourglass model covers the Force-dynamic model
澳門學刊 68 proposed by Talmy (1985, 1988) because energy is conserved in gains and losses. If A gives energy to B, A will lose energy and B will gain energy. The hourglass model also covers stage model because there is a viewer in hourglass model which is the same as that in stage model. The author put forward MIF unity of SVO, for example, when we hear the word "reading", its MIF might be: A girl is reading a book in a library. In the sentence "I read books", these three words correspond to three MIFs of them, but the author argues that in the verb MIF itself contains the sender of the action and the bearer of the action, that is, the MIF of the word "read" contains two MIFs of words "I" and "book", which are originally in a whole. Based on the hourglass model proposed by the author, the author calls the whole "MIF unity of SVO", that is, we just further clarify the subject and object and make them concrete beacuse the the sender of the action and the bearer of the action is activiated when the verb is activiated. Take a sentence for example: I read a book. The book entered my space, that is, the book became a part of me. And I entered the space of the book, that is, I became a part of the book to make it valuable, otherwise the book is just on the shelf. In this way, the subject became a part of the object and the object became a part of the subject. Take another sentence for example: “你這個人我讀不懂”, which can be translated into: You are a hard book to read. 4.4 Event-domain cognitive model Wang (2017) proposed the cognitive analysis method of "Event-domain Cognitive Model" (ECM for short in the following). People often use "Event Domain" as a unit to experience and understand the world and store it as a piece of knowledge in their brains. A basic Event domain(E) consists mainly of two core elements: Action and Being. A behavior, including dynamic and static behavior (such as presence, location, judgment, etc.), is composed of many specific sub-actions or sub-bahavior (such as A1, A2…An in the gragh). A Being is composed of a lot of individuals (such as B1, B2... Bn in the gragh) and A Being can consists of entities such as people, objects, tools and so on. It can also include abstract or fictitious concepts (children gradually master abstract and fictitious concepts on the basis of their understandings of concrete objects). An action or a Being can also contain many typical characteristics or categorical information D or C. Figure VI An Event consists of multiple elements, thus we divide an event into several elements to build MIFs. For example, a communication can be a discussion between a student and a teacher. Communications includes lectures, discussions, debates and other elements. These elements all share the same information, that is, they both
澳門學刊 69 have speakers and hearers, they are oral or written, and they are face-to-face or remote communications. The listener may have reactions and feedbacks. Reactions and feedbacks are different, for example, sometimes silence is also a response, but reaction is not necessarily feedback. Usually, the speaker and listener will have feedback, interaction, question and answer. Then the building of the MIFs of such abstract words should not only reflect different classifications and elements, but also reflect hierarchy in cognition. 4.5 Figure-ground alignment The figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration(Talmy 2000). In order to distinguish between static and dynamic figure/ground relations, Langacker (1987) uses the term trajector for a moving figure and landmark for the ground of a moving figure. For example: a. There's a cat [figure] on the mat [ground]. b. Batman [figure] was standing on the roof [ground]. c. We [trajector] went across the field [landmark]. d. He [trajector] 's going to London [landmark]. Like the word "fly", there might be a bird or plane flashing in your mind when you hear or read this word. In second foreign language teaching, we were often told that "fly" is an intransitive verb. We have learned that there are five basic sentence patterns: SV, SVO, SVP, SVO1O2, SVOC. Where does this "fly" go to? What we might think of is to fly higher, fly further and fly to a more beautiful place. When we discuss the SV structure, for example, “他呀,遠走高飛了”, although there is no adverbial in this sentence, but the sentence can be added the adverbial and translated without being subject to sentence patterns. Creative translation is to create at MIF level, thus this sentence can be translated into: "He has flown for his dream." 4.6 MIF and sentence comprehension The author here applies the thories above to sentence comprehension. Take a sentence as an example: 一鍋飯吃了 28 個人 (28 people ate a pot of rice). We divide this sentence into 3 parts 一鍋飯吃了 28 個人 ↓ 一鍋飯,吃了,28 個人。 In front of the word “吃了 (ate)” , of course, the subject must be one or several persons. In fact, there is the MIF of a person in the MIF of “吃了”. The MIF of a person will be activated when the MIF of “吃了” is activated. 一鍋飯吃了 28 個人。 ↓
澳門學刊 70 一鍋飯,吃了,28 個人。 ↓ 一鍋飯,一群人去吃了,共 28 個人吃完了。 Some scholars may ask where “一群人 (a group of people)” come from. “一鍋飯 (one pot of rice)” and “28 個人 (28 people)” together will activate the concept of “一群人 (a group of people)”. One's brain is experiencing parallel processing at this time. That is to say, following the stream of language, when you just hear “吃了”, the MIF of "a group of people" hasn't been activated, one's brain has to wait for the perception of “28個人” and copy the subject MIF of “吃了” according to the number. 一鍋飯 吃了 28 個人 一鍋飯 28 個人 吃了 Of course, these two sentences are totally different in cognitive aspect. For the first sentence, there is a feeling or emotion of stressing the number of persons, thus the MIF of the “28 個人” will be processed for the second time. “一鍋飯” will activitate the MIF of multiple people, because one person can not eat up a pot of rice. For the word “吃了”, no matter what its subject is, before the subject is produced, the subject of the plural people will be activate, thus here the author used “一群人” in front of “吃了”. That is to say the subject has not yet appeared, but MIF is ready. Because when you hear a word, although it appears at the beginning of a sentence, you can't say that is the subject, thus you have to wait for when the being ready of the MIF. Referring to Chomsky's transformational generative grammar, the author also constructs a surface structure and a deep structure in Chinese, and we can understand a sentecne through transfering the surface structure into a deep structure when we activate MIF. Another example: 臺上坐著主席團(The presidium is sitting on the stage). ↓ 在臺上,有一群人坐著,他們是主席團。 Some scholars proposed that there is a "place subject" 臺上 (on the stage) in this sentence, in that way, is place subject a subject or a place adverbial? It is still unknown to us, anyway, it is a concept that these scholars "innovated". When we just hear the word “臺上”, we have already realized that there might be some persons with higher status on the stage. MIF has a presupposition, that means “臺上” itself is the place where important persons are present, and the seat has already been seated by an important person in the MIF of seat, which is just not salient in cognition. “主席團 (presidium)” in the following will further strengthen the concept and make these persons salient. 4.7 Image schema Mark Johnson (1987) proposed image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and moter programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience (Johnson, 1987:16). Image schemas include (1)center-periphery schema; (2)containment schema; (3)cycle schema; (4)force schema; (5)link schema; (6)part-whole schema; (7)path schema; (8)scale pattern; (9)verticality schema.
澳門學刊 71 In simultaneous interpretation, information visualization should have its cognitive foundation. Such a cognitive basis enables the human brain to restore the abstract linguistic symbols to specific images and the relationships between images (Zuo and Liu, 2011:59). Image schemas can help integrate MIFs and form a series of memory information to improve the quality of interpretation and translation. The author has given the example of "car" before, the car can be driven on the road, thus the MIF of "drive a car" can be built. When we hear or read a phrase "drive a car", the image schema of "on the road" can be activated. This is a path schema, on which metaphorical MIFs can be built based. Image schemas can be transformed into each other. The example in the former part "We made a big progress." is translating the vertical path schema into a horizontal path schema. In essence, whether moving forward or upward is a kind of progress. Therefore, a translator is required to transfer between image schemas in translation. 4.8 Pragmatic meanings The difference between pragmatics and semantics lies in whether or not context is taken into consideration. Pragmatic meanings depend more on contexts (Hu, 2007: 185). If a sentence has pragmatic meaning, we are supposed to build the MIF of pragmatic meaning. Take a sentence as an example: can 20 yuan schoolbag and 200 yuan schoolbag be the same? Implied meaning: There is a big distance in life quality between 20 yuan schoolbag and 200 yuan schoolbag. The MIF of "life" is an abstract MIF, including food, clothing, shelter(housing), travel and so on. The author stated before, if we have built MIF according to classification and hierarchy from one person to his study, work and life, it would be easy to understand the pragmatic meaning. 5. The building of the translation theories of MIF centrism 5.1 MIF centrism theory The author puts forward a translation theory, which is MIF centrism. MIF centrism theory means that the center of the translation process lies in the extracting, changing, integration and transformation of MIFs, which are the processes that a translator must experience in translation cognition. The author argues that we can reexamine the previous translation theories and build our own theoretical systems. If we have built MIFs and made them resonablely connected with each other, we will bypass the contradiction between literal translation and free translation because MIF is the embodiment of meaning, which has surpassed the meaning of a word or sentence on the surface. If MIFs haven't built for translators, they might have the tendency to literal translation, that is, to catch the meanings of words literally from texts. If translated Chinese is just very coincide with English origin, we often call that a good literal translation. The author argues that understanding English with the help of Chinese will bring us a big help, but it will also bring the interference to the proccessing of MIFs. When we discuss whether a translation is faithful to the source text, the faithless translation is often reprocessed and created at MIF level. Taking Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" translation norms as an example, to achieve "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance", we are required to process MIF in the conversion of source language and target language. To achieve "faithfulness", we are supposed to make the MIFs of source language and the MIFs of the target language match in meaning, that is to say, they are not necessarily the same, but they must be functionally equivalent. To achieve "expressiveness" is to extract, change, and integrate MIFs reasonably, and
澳門學刊 72 make them more smooth in MIF processing. And "elegance" is a sense of beauty created at MIF level when we have appreciation of beauty. 5.2 MIF and translator's style In essence, style refers to the regular characteristics of language users in speech or composition, and these characteristics are relatively stable in a certain period and within a certain range (Huang, 2018: 77). The author agrues that each person's MIF is different, thus different translation styles can be formed. For the same word, for example, "pinetree" is a tall forest tree with leaves like needles, however, each person's MIF is different form others'. Some people assumed that pinetree is tall, straight and forceful, thus they will add some spiritual elements in the MIF. They assumed that pinetree is the symbol of their own. For example, "When winter comes, will spring be far away?" Shelley's poem has his own incarnation of his spirit. Some translators have short and succinct sentences in their translation. There are many detailed literal translation and free translation in Hawkes' translated "A dream of Red Mansion", the detailed processing of MIF could be done, adding flavors or colors of MIF which doesn't have in source text, then a lot of beautification has been done. Take a sentence in "A Dream of Red Mansion" for example.“尤三姐一面淚如雨下,……(sixty-sixth episode)” Yang Xianyi translated it into "Her tears falling like rain, ......", while Hawkes translated it into "The tears were pouring down her cheeks, ......" It can be seen that Hawkes used a detailed literal translation. His translation is equal to the combination of "burst into tears" and "tears falling like rain." The author believes that English native speakers have built the connections between MIFs and English words, therefore they are able to activate more MIFs in translation under the thinking patterns of native language to achieve successful translation. 5.3 MIF and simultaneous interpretation Visualization is a method of interpreting. It is suggested that students focus on the meaning of the speech, not the words, by the way of imagination. (Seleskovitch. & Lederer, 2013:13). Simultaneous interpretation is an "almost" simultaneous translation without interrupting the speaker. An interpreter interprets the last sentence at the same time when listening to the next sentence, that is "two uses with one mind". According to the principle of psychological attention distribution, to do two things at the same time, one of things must be proficient to automation level, which is the state of the unconscious behavior. For example, when one rides a bicycle while talking, he could not realize that he is riding a bicycle. An interpreter interprets the last sentence while listening to the next sentence at the same time, that is doing two things at the same time. For a simultaneous interpreter, his translation has been very proficient to unconscious level, thus he uses his main concentration and energy to listen to the next sentence. The author argues that his MIF processing is also unconscious, just like our processing of Chinese language. In simultaneous interpretation, the source language is converted to MIF, and then expressed in another language according to the integration rules of MIF. The effect of MIF not only plays an important role in the field of linguistics and translation studies, but also plays an important role in the field of memory. For an interpreter or translator, the most fundamental is language comprehension and memory formation. No matter how long a sentence or discourse is, if an interpreter can successfully use image memory, of course, it would be very helpful for relieving memory pressure and enhancing instant memory in simultaneous interpretation. 5.4 The building of MIF in literary translation In the above, the author discussed the benefits of the building of MIF for literary translation. It is advisable to build the most basic life MIFs at first; second, build the MIFs of literary rhetoric; then discuss translation theories,
澳門學刊 73 translation strategies, translation techniques and translation aesthetics step by step. The essence of literary translation is creation and rewriting, thus it is necessary to create at MIF level. The author argues that the cration of is to create the elements that is not present in the MIFs in source language. In addition, it is indispensable to take intercultural communication consideration, which is concerned with the dissemination and acceptance of translation in foreign countries. In this aspect, we are required to see whether the MIFs in a translation is accepted by foreigners in cognitive process and consider how to change, convert, and integrate MIFs in translation to achieve the implementation of dissemination. Take a sentence as an example: "Teacher opens the door, but you must enter by yourself (師父領進門,修行在個人)". If we imagine what’s in the room? You can imagine there might be some treasures in the room. Then this sentence can be transferred into "Teacher opens the door of knowledge, but you must look for the treasure by yourself." Therefore, this sentence can be translated into “老師為你打開了知識的大門,但你必須自己去探尋寶藏”. It can be seen that this translation has more literary flavor. The building of MIF can make translation more creative, because the translation will be created at MIF level before the expression of MIFs in words. 6. Conclusion For a long time, we believes that concepts are often abstract, which leads to the difficulty of the formation of English concepts for a short time. In English language comprehension, a great number of Chinese English learners have to interpret the meaning with the help of Chinese, and cannot decode directly from English language, omitting the middle MIF processing. For free translation, it is necessary to understand the original text without the help of Chinese and then express the meaning in Chinese, and vice versa. Of course, the abstract concept must be extracted from MIFs in English in many cases in our experience. In cognition of abstract concepts, there are always concrete images in our mind helping our understanding, instead of absolute abstract understanding. What the best kind of MIF is to be inputted for an abstract concept, the author has analyzed in the article and enumerated some examples, but it is still a long way to go in this field. The building of MIF enables us to decode English directly to achieve translation freely. The author put forward the building strategies from lexical level to syntactical level, and then to pragmatic level; reexamined the previous translation theories; put forward the deficiency and improvement for the previous theories, and made some attempts on the building of translation theories. There are numerous studies in cognitive linguistics, but the author argues that the abstruse theories can not only be put on the shelf in a study room. The operation of cognitive linguistics is also a problem, which the author solves in this paper and later. The author brings the frontier researches of philosophy, psychology, cognitive linguistics and neuroscience to the field of translation, and strives to make it more easy and acceptable for readers to understand in writing papers so as to enable more learners to benefit from the author’s academic researches for a long time. The author believes that scholars must have a broad mind, that is to say, our researches are not only for ourselves, but also for more learners who are still on the road to academic excellence. We have always been discussing the gap between theories and practice. The author believes that theoretical progress is a progress, but further progress is to make theories operable. We are eager to climb the peak, we are also required to go down the altar, to do a mission work to make the profound theories understandable and operable. That is the process of experiencing low, high and then low position for a scholar and his academy. The author will strive to make more practical academic contributions in the future.
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