4斯維加斯的餐飲消費就達89億美元5。使遊客餐飲消費增加的主要的原因除了美國人可支配收入增加而外,更重要的是遊客旅遊全過程的餐飲消費都必須在拉斯維加斯完成。遊客高消費為拉斯維加斯的餐飲業發展創造了有利的條件。於是著名餐館紛紛進入該城。比如,沃爾夫崗‧派克1992年在拉斯維加斯開辦了斯帕哥餐館(Spago Restaurant)拉斯維加斯分店,梅高美1993年開了拉加斯(lagass’s) 新奧爾良海鮮館和馬克‧米勒的草原狼咖啡屋。今天來自紐約的奧里歐利餐館(Charlie Palmer of Aureole)、大圓圈餐館(Sirio Maccioni of Le Cirque)、丹尼爾餐館( Daniel Boulud of Daniel)、來自新奧爾良的愛米麗餐館(Emeril Lagasse of Emeril's)、來自落杉磯的諾布餐館(Nobu Matsuhisa of Nobu)和瓦倫丁諾餐館(Piero Selvaggio of Valentino)都進入了拉斯維加斯。法國的《美食》雜誌(Bon Appétit)今年3月評選的美國最火爆的50家餐館中,拉斯維加斯佔了5家6,在美國所有城市中名列榜首。因而拉斯維加斯除了賭城的名聲外還建立起了美食之城的形象,品牌效應和高檔化服務提高了遊客的消費水平。 住宿39%餐飲30%當地交通8%購物16%觀看表演6%觀光1% 圖1 2004年拉斯維加斯遊客在當地除博彩之外的消費支出 但澳門餐飲業的遭遇則完全不同。由於與周邊地區距離太近,到澳門的遊客並不在餐飲上有很大的消費,因此遊客的大量增加並不能使澳門的餐飲業同步增長。從 1994 年到 2003 年(目前能得到的最新餐飲統計資料),赴澳遊客增長了57%,遊客的人均消費增加了 10%。按理餐飲業的營業額增長應該達 63%(遊 5 根據 Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority 公佈的遊客消費資料和遊客數量計算。 6 這 5 家餐館都是賭場餐館,它們分別是百樂宮的米謝爾‧米那餐館(Michael Mina),愷撒酒店的麥薩烤肉餐館(Mesa Grill Las Vegas);米高梅酒店的什布亞餐館(Shibuya),曼德勒灣的 Fleur De Lys,硬岩石酒店的西蒙廚房酒吧。
6資料來源:根據澳門統計暨普查局和珠海統計年鑒資料圖 2 澳門與珠海餐飲業零售總額比較 由於遊客在澳門的消費偏低和部分澳門居民到珠海消費,澳門的餐飲業佔澳門 GDP 的比重比很多地方都低,儘管澳門還是一個以旅遊爲主的城市。從下圖可以看出,澳門餐飲佔 GDP 的比重低於內地的平均水準(5.48%,2004)7,還不到廣東省(6.22%)8的一半,也低於美國(4%,2004)9和香港(3.95%,102003)的水準,僅比新加坡高(2.3%,2003)11(見圖 3)。 7 根據中國烹飪協會公佈的 2004 年全年餐飲業零售額和中國統計局公佈的 2004 年全國 GDP 得出。 8 根據中國烹飪協會,“2004 年餐飲市場運行情況及 2005 年趨勢分析",www.ccas.com.cn。 9 Folkes, G., Allen Wysock, Current Trends in Food Service and How They Affect the Marketing Mix of American Restaurants, EDIS document RM 007, a publication of the Department of Food and Resource Economics, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. Published October 2001; National Restaurant Association (US), RESTAURANT INDUSTRY fact sheet, 2005。 10 按《香港經濟年鑒 2004》中 2003 年的“飲食店總收益"除以“按當年價格計算的 GDP"計算。 11 根據新加坡統計部《經濟調查系列:餐飲服務 2003》公佈的餐飲資料除以 2003 年新加坡的 GDP 獲得。 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 萬元珠海澳門1994199519961997199819992000200120022003
12源用於吸納家庭遊客就會減少吸引高端遊客的資源。家庭遊客多了可能會導致交通擁擠、各種設施都排隊,從而產生“擠出效應"。再其次,家庭旅遊市場珠海可能更有優勢。如果澳門做了,珠海加以仿效,澳門的投資可能陷入困境。最後,還要考慮深圳和香港的競爭,香港的迪士尼樂園和深圳的歡樂谷都是以家庭遊客為目標的。澳門同它們相比也沒有優勢。因此澳門不宜模仿拉斯維加斯,盲目發展家庭旅遊。澳門應該將有限的資源專注於能給澳門帶來最大收益的旅遊環節,包括購物、博彩等。 3. 應滿足不過夜遊客的需求 前面我們提到,到澳門的遊客不過夜的趨勢正在加強。問題是我們是順應這種趨勢還是努力改變這種趨勢?如果能夠改變,這是最理想的了。問題在是否“能夠"上面。如果這種趨勢是不能改變的,澳門要做的工作就應該是順應這種趨勢和利用這種趨勢而不是去改變這種趨勢,畢竟“潮流就像開始奔跑的馬兒,順著其方向走要容易得多"13。為此,澳門應該增加對不過夜遊客的瞭解,並根據他們的特徵和特殊的需求提供更具針對性的服務。 參考文獻: - (2004)《廣東統計年鑒 2004》,中國統計出版社。 - (2000-2004),《珠海統計年鑒》珠海市統計局。 M. 波特《國家競爭優勢》,李明軒等譯,華夏出版社 2002 年出版。 (zeng) 曾忠祿 (2004),《內地與香港赴澳遊客研究》,澳門理工學院。 (zeng) 曾忠祿、(zhang)張冬梅 (2005),《內地赴澳自由行遊客特徵研究》旅遊學刊,2005年第 3 期。 American Gaming Association (2003). The AGA Survey of Casino Entertainment 2003. Harrah’s Entertainment, Inc.,The Harrah’s Survey 2003. Las Vegas Convention And Visitors Authority, LAS VEGAS VISITOR PROFILE Fiscal Year 2003. 13 美國諺語
13 Peter Michel, “Learning from Las Vegas: Documenting the City of Delusion”,
1Staying ahead of the game in Macau Dr. L C Koo Macau – a cultural Janus Macau has many unique and contrasting cultural characteristics and is vividly described as the cultural Janus (a Roman god with two faces). It was the first port open to the West over 400 years ago. Its people have been living in an environment blended with eastern and western cultures harmoniously for centuries. The Sino-Portuguese relationship has been good before and after the sovereignty handover of Macau back to China in 1999 (Cheng, 1999; So, 2005). During the 442-year history under Portuguese rule, Macau has thrived, grown, prospered, revived, survived, and above all, evolved into a Janus-like cultural space under imperialism, colonialism, ecumenicalism, communism and capitalism (Cheng, ibid.). Macau is strategically located at the Pearl River Delta of the southeastern coast of Mainland China. It can be reached within two hours’ flying time by one billion people. With its long association with Portugal, Macau has been playing a vital role as the cultural and economic platform linking China and the Portuguese speaking countries with a total population of 200 million people (So, 2005). With this Janus characteristic, Macau is exemplary in exhibiting the harmonious co-existence of gaming and cultural attractions. In this respect, SJM develops a motto to preach its core value, i.e. “A Leader in Tourism, Entertainment and Cultural Development of Macau”. The motto in Chinese reads: “發揮澳門優勢 走向多元國際 紮根澳門,全面提升旅遊、娛樂、文化事業”. Macau will continue to attract gamblers and tourists from places all over the world to enjoy the exotic excitement in casinos on the one hand as well as to have tranquilizing visits to many historic relics of few hundred years’ evidences of west-meet-east culture on the other. The gaming history in Macau In 1934, the Macau Government granted monopoly rights for the first time for casino operation. This first monopoly right (exclusive franchise) went to Tai Hing Company. At the outset only Chinese games were played in Macau. The most
2ancient game played was believed to be Fantan (番攤). It was a game played with buttons in which players are required to guess the number of remaining buttons in a cup of buttons with the total number of buttons being divided by four. Pai Kao (牌九) a Chinese domino game, was also very popular. In 1961, the monopoly granted to Tai Hing Company expired and new tenders were invited for the operation of casinos in Macau. On 1st January 1962, The Sociedade de Turismo e Diversoes de Macau, SARL (STDM) successfully took over the gambling franchise and since then gambling has developed an industry of its own. Western games like roulette, baccarat, blackjack, craps were introduced. Sociedade de Turismo e Diversoes de Macau (STDM), Macau’s best known and largest business group, has played a major role in the territory’s development. Founded and managed by Dr. Stanley Ho, STDM is the largest commercial employer in Macau. Apart from tourism and entertainment, STDM is also active in real estate and property development, banking, transport, hotels, department store, television broadcasting and other urban infrastructure projects. According to Dr. Stanley Ho, the view that STDM was merely one of gambling character was really a misunderstanding and even a misconception. STDM’s unified purpose is to develop tourism and the entertainment in order finally to achieve a new prosperity for Macau and it would bring about the improvement of the welfare and living standard of the ordinary citizen of Macau (South China Morning Post, 1962). All these predictions by Dr. Ho have turned into reality. Liberalizing of the gaming industry The gaming industry in Macau was liberalized in 2002. Three gaming licenses were granted to Galaxy-Las Vegas Sands, Wynn Resorts, and Sociedade de Jogos de Macau S.A. (SJM) respectively. SJM is a wholly owned subsidiary of STDM. Over the last few decades, gambling has also been legalized in the Philippines, Malaysia, Australia, Vietnam, North Korea, and Indonesia. With Singapore’s entering into the gaming business arena, regional competition among the casinos will get more and more severe. All casino operators have to respond appropriately to changes in the environment. They have to strive for excellence in order to sustain their successes. Individual employee and business performances have to be constantly monitored and
3improved. As of today, SJM operates 15 casinos, namely, Casino Lisboa, (Crystal Palace, Mono Lisa); Casino Jai Alai, Casino Oriental, Casino Kingsway, Casino Diamond, Casino Taipa, Casino Macau Palace, Casino Marina, Casino New Century (Greek Mythology), Casino Kam Pek, Pharaoh’s Palace, Macau Jockey Club Casino, Casa Real, Casino Golden Dragon, and Casino Fortuna. Many of the Casinos operated by SJM have their unique theme features to attract different segments of customers. They are also conveniently located at various places in Macau. SJM offers a wide range of gaming choices fro its customers, such as: - Baccarat 百家樂 - Cussec (Big-Small) 骰寶(大小) - Fish-prawn-crab Cussec 魚蝦蟹骰寶 - Blackjack 廿一點 - Boule 廿五門 - Roulette 輪盤 - Fantan 番攤 - Pai Kao 牌九 - Mahjong Pai Kao 麻雀牌九 - 3-Card Baccarat 三公百家樂 - 3-Card Poker 富貴三公 - Stud Poker 聯獎撲克 - Lucky Wheel 幸運輪 - Slot Machine 角子機 In addition to the above, visitors in Macau can try their luck with: Horse racing; Greyhound racing; Football & basketball lotteries; Pacapio; and Tombola (Bingo).
4 The post-liberalization challenges Since the gaming liberalization, the gaming business volume has been growing at a rather unexpected and spectacular rate. In 2004, the gaming revenue reached a record high figure of 15.4 billion MOP (US$1 = MOP 8) constituting the vast majority of government income. The gaming tables increased from less than 400 (the cumulated total number after four decades’ operation by STDM) to 1235 and slot machines grew from around 900 to 2868 (Jornal do Cidadao, 2005; So, 2005). As a leading industry within the economic infrastructure in Macau, the growth of gaming business has caused some major rippling effects across many other business sectors. The major challenge that employers face today is shortage of qualified labour. At the end of 2004, there were 7104 job vacancies in casinos. It is estimated that the gaming industry alone would require over 15,000 new employees in the near future (Jornal do Cidadao, 2005; Macao Daily News, 2005). This labour shortage problem and trend result inevitably in the deterioration of the quality of new recruits. In addition, Macau with an area of only 27.3 sq km crowded with a population of 448,500 residents (http://www.dsec.gov.mo/e_index.html) is severely short of land supply to cope with the projected growth of the gaming industry. Being geographically small, the city also lacks the attraction to keep the tourists to stay long. The average stay of tourists in Macau in 2004 is only about 1.22 nights. This short average duration of stay in Macau is a multi-facet phenomenon and is not expected to change in the near future. (Chungeng, 2005; http://www.dsec.gov.mo/e_index.html). Other obvious challenges include keener and keener competition in Macau as well as those originating from the neighbouring countries. To cope with these changes, the operation costs of casinos have risen sharply. Opportunities for the gaming industry Despite the afore-discussed challenges, there are abundant opportunities for the casino operators in the foreseeable future. The more conspicuous opportunities include: - Rapid increase of visitors from the ever stronger and wealthier China; - Hugh influx of investments into Macau due to optimism on Macau’s economic prosperity; - Economic recovery in the region including Hong Kong which is only one hour
5traveling time away; - Stable political environment and safe law and order in the society; - Diligent and obedient workforce; - Clear government policy regulating the gaming industry; and - Change of public attitude (being more positive and receptive than previously) towards gaming. Reinventing SJM Employees have been reckoned as the most valuable asset of SJM. In addition to investments in the hardware equipment and casino atmospherics, professionalism and excellent customer services are the vital success factors of SJM. The top management of SJM has placed strong emphasis on training. The training unit was transformed to become the Performance Improvement Department (PID) in 2003, undertaking a wider scope of responsibilities. As training cannot provide the answer to all organization problems, training role requires a major revamp i.e. transiting training into performance improvement. Fuller and Farrington (1999) recommend the following six steps for performance improvement: 1. Review the business needs of the organization; 2. Determine the necessary improvements to achieve the business needs; 3. Establish the performance gaps; 4. Reveal the root causes of these performance gaps; 5. Select and implement appropriate solutions to remove the root causes; 6. Measure performance to ensure that business needs are met. A systematic approach is used to identify the barriers that prevent people from achieving top performance that contribute to the success of the company. Solutions are needed quickly to effectively remove the barriers in order that employees can improve their performance and achieve their full potential. This in turn will enhance the competitiveness of the company. In dealing with a performance problem, the following items need to be examined (Fuller and Farrington, ibid.): - Human performance systems; - Organization inputs; - People; - Behaviour;
6- Performance; - Consequences; - Feedback; and - Environment. Laurie, et al. (1997) reported the trend for companies to put more focus on performance improvement. A shift from training to performance improvement is a top trend. Training professionals use techniques from organization development, industrial psychology and strategic human resources to provide performance improvement initiatives. Organizational emphasis on human performance will accelerate. Many are tying performance management to the business goals. The need for greater corporate agility demands “just-what’s-needed” solutions which require a closer link between training and performance. Integrating training with performance improvement has implication for outsourcing. By keeping performance-related training in-house, one can outsource such training as computer skills (Laurie, et al., 1997). After the transition, SJM’s Performance Improvement Department is responsible for the training and re-training of casino operations skill training, customer service training, problem solving training, performance appraisal training and outsources computer skill and language training to the Macau Millennium College ( a Community College established under he sponsorship of STDM/SJM). Performance improvement interventions fall into the following categories (IOMA’s Report, 2001): - Performance support; - Job analysis / work design; - Personal development; - Human resources development; - Organizational communication; - Organizational design and development; - Financial system, and - Miscellaneous. To echo IOMA’s (ibid.) suggested approaches, the PID has helped launch/revise the following reinventing initiatives within SJM after the liberalization of the gaming
7industry, viz.: performance appraisal; job analysis; career development; performance measurement system; mystery shopper surveys; staff attitude surveys; communication videos, customer service workshops; external liaison; and communication videos. Other performance improvement ideas in the pipeline include: work re-design; balanced scorecard; quality control circles and coordinating various industry surveys for the benefits of the gaming industry through collaboration with the Macau Gaming Research Association and other higher educational institutes in Macau. Being a responsible corporate citizen, SJM welcomes healthy competition and is willing to work together with other organizations (including its competitors) to enhance the development of the gaming industry. Co-opetition among all casino operators can be deployed as an approach to adopt some constructive and concerted measures to make Macau the best tourist attraction in Asia. The mission of PID is to become an effective and powerful change-agent within SJM. SJM is willing to contribute to help the entire gaming industry grow healthily and to bring a balanced development to the entire economy. References http://www.dsec.gov.mo/e_index.html - (1962). “Champagne Party Heralds Macao’s New Casino” South China Morning Post, 3rd January - (2005) “博彩業未來兩年嚴重缺乏人手”, Jornal do Cidadao (市民日報), 2nd March - (2005) “博彩業空缺攀至七千”, Macao Daily New (澳門日報), 31st March Cheng, C. M. B. (1999). Macau, a cultural Janus. Hong Kong University Press. Hong Kong Chungeng (春耕) (2005). “過夜與否,讓他們去想吧!”, Macao Daily New (澳門日報), 1st April Fuller, J. and Farrington, J. (1999). From Training to Performance Improvement: Navigating the transition, Jossey-Bass, 215 pages ISBN 0787911208
8IOMA (2001) “How to turn Training into Performance Improvement”, IOMA’s Report on Managing Training and Development, June, pp. 4-6 Lamas, R. W.-N. (1998). History of Macau - A Student's Manual, Institute of Tourism Education. Laurie, B. and Scott, C. (1997). “Training Industry Trends, 1997”, Training & Development, Nov., vol. 51, Issue 11 So, S. F. (蘇樹輝) (2005) “How to promote Macau as the Economic and Cultural platform between China and Portugal” (如何促進澳門成為中葡之間的經濟、文化平台), Journal of Macau Gaming Research Association, Issue 2
1A Stratlogic Approach to Review Positioning of Casino Games in Macau Dr Hannah Koo Abstract: The stratlogic approach involves a procedure combining the use of Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) and hierarchical cluster analysis. It has been used in portfolio analysis to develop dominant strategies. In this empirical study, the stratlogic approach is deployed to examine the market positioning of 14 types of casino games in Macau. The stratlogic approach is data-driven. It combines the exploratory power of methodologies with management knowledge of specific circumstances, whilst producing a vivid visual representation of the data analysis. Through MDS analysis, relative positioning is derived from the empirical data. Then hierarchical cluster analysis uses the dimensions as the input. The resulting clusters can be used as a way of confirming visually defined grouping. From the spatial mapping resulting from MDS analysis, the location of groups of attributes can be examined with respects to axes (derived dimensions), particularly those lying towards the ends. It is then used to interpret what the dimension represents. The profile of the loading of attributes against each of the derived factors gives clues to the structure of the factors concerned. The next stage in stratlogic approach is cluster analysis which groups cases or variables on the basis of derived dimensions. The coordinates of orthogonal dimension of each attribute from MDS would be used as input for the cluster analysis. The hierarchical clustering is visually displayed in the form of dendrogram. A total of 41 respondents participated in this empirical study and their views should be representative. Six gaming groups have been identified, viz.: (Cussec, Fish-prawn-crab, Fan-tan); (Pai Kao, Mahjong Pai Kao); (Baccarat, 3-card Baccarat, 3-Card Poker, Blackjack); (Roulette, Boule, Lucky Wheel); (Stud Poker) and (Slot Machine). This stratlogic approach should have wide application in market positioning researches. Key words: Stratlogic; MDS; hierarchical cluster analysis; positioning; casino games; Macau 摘要︰ 特戰模型法(stratlogic)的程式結合了多元尺度方法(MDS)和階層集群分析法(cluster analysis)。它已經被應用在戰略組合分析。這次實証研究採用特戰模型法來調查澳門娛樂場的十四種遊戲的定位。特戰模型法是數據驅動的,它把研究方法的探索能力與對特殊情況的管理知識結合起來,透過數據分析產生生動的
2視覺結果。把實証數據用多元尺度方法確定相對的位置。然後把有關座標的度數作為階層集群分析法的輸入。結果可確認用視覺方法確定的定位歸類。由多元尺度方法分析出來的空間繪圖座標的軸,可以用來描述有關的維度。相近似屬性分數的組合可對有關因子結構提供線索。特戰模型法的下一步驟用階層集群分析法把 MDS 計算出來的座標分數按個案或變數來分組別。MDS 中每個屬性的正交維度會被用作階層集群分析法的輸入。階層的集群可以用樹狀圖(dendrogram)的形式作視覺展示。 一共有 41 位被調查者參加這項實証研究,研究結果應該有代表性。有六組博彩遊戲被鑑定出來: (骰寶,魚蝦蟹骰寶,番攤); (牌九,麻將牌九); (百家樂,三公百家樂,富貴三公,廿一點); (輪盤,廿五門,幸運輪); (聯獎撲克)和(角子機)。 這特戰模型法應該在市場定位研究中有更廣泛應用空間。 關鍵字︰特戰模型法;多元尺度方法;階層集群分析法;定位;娛樂場博彩遊戲;澳門 Measuring perception in the mind When people are asked how they view the various casino games, they would use some subjective comparison criteria to make their judgments. These review criteria are neither objective nor independent but exist sub-conscientiously in their minds. A more realistic and scientific assessment scores can be determined with the use of Multi-Dimensional Scaling (MDS) techniques. This empirical study adopts the use of MDS to reveal the hidden assessment dimensions used by people to compare the various different casino games. Accordingly the positioning of various casino games can be more scientifically analyzed. Being able to better understand the thinking logics of the customers, the marketing personnel can develop more appropriate business strategies. Kotler (2003) points out that positioning is about designing a unique position of a company’s products and image that occupy in the minds of their target customers with an aim to successfully create a customer focused value proposition. Positioning explains why target customers will buy that product.(特勞特, 2002; Hairet al., 2003; Kotler, 1997). Yu 余朝權(2003) opines that there are two different interpretations for positioning: firstly, it is referring to the relative positions of various competing brands in the minds of the consumers; and secondly, it is the deliberate act by the marketers to deploy marketing tools to match their products as close to what the position of an ideal product occupies in the minds of the customers as possible. In order to be able to position successfully, the marketers need to have the capability to measure the positions of the products in the minds of their customers. The sample of this empirical MDS research study came from 41 students of a
3Community College taking a marketing module in an Associate Degree Program. Among them 40% are working in the gaming industry and they have relatively better understanding about various casino games. The remaining respondents came from various industries and their views towards gaming would be similar to those of an average Macau citizen. MDS Technique The origin of this statistical techniques was from psychometric. MDS has a wide range of applications in analyzing data with proximities (or dissimilarity data) (Norusis, 1993a 及 1993b; 張文彤, 2002; Kotler, 1997; Koo, 1995). MDS can describe the structure of a group of items through the distance data among respective individual pairs of events. Every item is represented by a point in a multi-dimensional space. Two similar items are represented by two near points and two dissimilar events are represented by two distant points in the space. Generally speaking, this is the Euclidean two or three dimensional distance(林傑斌 et al., 2002). The Euclidean distance of two points i and j can be represented by the following formula: dij = [Σ( xia - xja ) 2 ] 1/2 where xia is the coordinate of point i in a dimension and xja is the coordinate of point j in a dimension. From a distance matrix table, MDS can easily draw a map showing the relative positions of the various points. In this respect, analogy can be made with that of the works done by a surveyor who draws up a map representing the series of points whose distances have been surveyed. To start with a geographic map, one can easily prepare a distance matrix table. However once the order of process is reversed (i.e. to draw a map from a distance matrix table), it would almost be an impossible task. MDS is a scientific statistical tool which can help solve this particular problem. It can be used to analyze the relationships among the distance data to develop the spatial map. The geographic map drawing exercise utilizes interval data on a symmetric matrix. This model is called Classical MDS (for one single dissimilarity matrix). In practice people view the similarity among things on a subjective basis. Thus the distance matrices would not be symmetric. The problem of personal bias-ness can be addressed with social research techniques and perspectives can be analyzed beyond
4individual level (巴比, 1998a). Accordingly it would not be appropriate to use interval data in measuring peoples’ subjective perception of the similarities and differences among different items. A better and more acceptable alternative is to use ranking order (i.e. ordinal data) to measure and analyze the extent of similarities or differences among different items. The Non-metric model of MDS is designed to measure ordinal data. MDS can also be extended to analyze several matrices (representing perceptions of various groups of respondents) via the replicated MDS (several matrices, Euclidean model) (Norusis M. J.,1993b). MDS can be used to develop the individuals’ or groups of respondents’ spatial perception maps on the products or services (榮泰生, 2005; McDaniel et al., 1996; Churchill, 2002, 顧良智,顧向恩, 2005). The surveyed sample This research study is based on the perceptions of the ranking order on the similarities (or dissimilarities) among the 14 casino games in Macau. The ranking approach is based on the subjective views of the respective respondents in comparing pair by pair the similarities and differences among all 14 games (see appendix 1). For a comparison matrix of 14 items, there are altogether a total of 14(14 – 1) or 182 pairs of comparison to be made. A briefing on MDS and how to complete the comparison matrix was provided. As an incentive to encourage more candid responses, all respondents were promised a copy of their own MDS analysis results. For each row on the matrix, the most similar pair is accorded a score of “1", the second most similar pair is accorded a score of “2" and this continue till the least similar pair and that is given a score of “13". Same comparison continues until the last row. Since the ranking comparison is subjective, and to some extent subconscious, the ranking order of A with B may not be the same as the rank order of B with A in a different row (different comparison criteria may be adopted subconsciously as in the real life), the resultant matrix may not be symmetrical. The replicate non-metric MDS model in SPSS can cater this practical situation. To make the survey exercise more meaningful, some demographic data about the respondents were also collected. These can be used to segment the group of respondents for further analyses. Below are the personal details about the 41 respondents: Gender: 18 males; 22 females; 1 missing Age: 7 below 21 years; 21 between 21 to 30 years; 4 between 31 to 40 years; 6 between 41 to 50 year; 2 over 50 years; and 1 missing Whether working in casinos: 16 working in casinos; 24 not working in casinos; and 1 missing
5 Working experience: 5 less than 1 year; 24 between 1 to 10 years; 4 between 11 to 20 years; 6 over 20 years; and 2 missing Know how many types of games: 10 do not know any game; 1 knows one type; 3 know two types; 2 know three types; 1 knows four types; 2 know five types; 2 know six types; 6 know seven types; 1 knows eight types; 3 know nine types; 1 knows ten types; 5 know twelve types; 2 know thirteen types; and 2 know fourteen types. The casino games surveyed are based on those listed in the booklet (澳博娛樂指南) distributed by Sociedade de Jogosde Macau, S. A. (SJM). The booklet contains pictures and brief descriptions of the various games. Until till now, SJM offers more types of casino games than Les Vegas Sands and Galaxy. The respondents are largely working in the casinos owned by SJM. The followings are brief introduction on each type of games: g1 –Baccarat 百家樂 – There are four possible bets: “Banker” “Player” “Draw” “Any Pair”. Customers can bet on Banker or Player. The hand with point count closest to “9” wins. If the point counts are same for Banker and Player, then the outcome is a “Draw”. If the points of the first two cards (either Banker or Player) are the same it is “Banker Pair or Player Pair” with winning odds 1 to 11. g2 - Cussec (Big-Small) 骰寶(大小)– Bets can be made on the numbers of the three dices i.e. “Big” “Small” “Total sum of dots” “appearing of specific dots“ “Triple”『大』、『小』、『點數』、『三軍』、『圍骰』。 g3 - Fish-Prawn-Crab Cussec 魚蝦蟹骰寶 – The game uses three dices with picture of Fish; Prawn; Crab; Coin; Gourd and Rooster printed on each face.魚、蝦、蟹、金錢、葫蘆、公雞. Bets can be made on Big; Small; appearing of picture; colour and total sum of dots. g4 - Blackjack 廿一點 – The players will win if their card scores are higher than that of the banker, however the player will lose if card scores exceed 21. Blackjack is a card of ace and a picture of J, Q, or K, or a card of Ten. The player has the option to hit extra cards if their scores are less than 21. However it busts when the scores exceed 21. The banker needs to hit until the card scores over 16. g5 - Boule 廿五門 – Similar to the Roulette with a larger rolling ball. There are 25 pockets on the wheel. The bet can be on any combination of numbers. g6 - Roulette 輪盤– It has a spinning wheel with 37 pockets and a rolling ball thrown in opposite direction. Bets can be made on odd; even; red; black; number and its combinations. The winning number is on the pocket on which the ball rests.
6 g7 - Fantan 番攤 – It is played with a lump of unknown number of buttons, two steel bowls and a bamboo stick as gaming tools. The bowl cover an unknown number of white buttons and he bets are made on the remaining numbers of buttons after groups of four buttons are separated by the bamboo stick. The possible winning numbers are one, two, three, or four. Bets can be made on the numbers, and their combinations. g8 – Pai Kao 牌九 – It is played with 32 tiles. Players can become bankers on rotation. The dice will determine who receives the first four tiles. The banker and player will each construct two separate hands of two tiles. The player will win if both hands are higher than the banker’s hands. The player loses if both hands are lower than those of the banker. Otherwise it is a tie. g9 - Mahjong Pai Kao 麻雀牌九 – It is similar to Pai Kao. Players can become banker on rotation. Bets can be made on single or multiple playing areas. It has 20 plastic tiles of ten pairs of numbers from one to nine and white face. Each playing area gets two tiles and compares the ranking in descending order: a pair of white face; a pair of 9,…, to a pair of 1. If there is no pair, then sum of the number of two tiles are compared with that of the banker. The one has the bigger number will win the game. g10 - 3-card Baccarat 三公百家樂 – It is a game against the house rather than against each other. The players will win if their cards are higher than that of the banker. All pictures count as zero, and all other cards count on their face values. The minimum is 0 and the maximum point is 9. If the scores are equal, the 3 cards with more pictures win. Other betting options on banker’s card include: 3 picture cards (odds of 16 times); particular score on banker’s 3 cards (odds of 8 times); tie for the same score of banker’s and player’s cards (odds of 20 times). g11 - 3-card Poker 富貴三公 – Players can become banker in turn. All picture cards count as zero and all other cards count on their face values. The minimum point is 0 and the maximum is 9. If the scores are equal, the cards with more pictures win. g12 - Stud Poker 聯獎撲克 – It combines the feature of Poker and Slot Machine. Player can place an Ante (wager) and at the same time bet for the Jackpot. Players can check out the cards before choosing to continue or fold. Dealer compares his hand to each Player’s hand individually. Players win when he outranks the house, and shall be paid according to the combination of player’s cards. Jackpot bets are paid for Royal Flush, Straight Flush, Four of a Kind, Full House, and Flush. g13 - Lucky Wheel幸運輪 – It is a vertical wheel with 52 divisions marked with seven different color signs with different odds. The winning colour sign is the
7division on which the indicator rests. g14 - Slot Machine 角子機 – These are machine operated with a variety of bets. The Jackpot can reach several million HK dollars. Analysis results of MDS The followings are the two dimensional Casino games position map Visually six distinct gaming clusters are discerned.: Cluster 1:g2: Cussec; g3: Fish-prawn-crab cussec; g7: Fantan Cluster 2:g8: Pai Kao; g9: Mahjong Pai Kao Cluster 3:g1: Bacarrat; g10: 3-Card Baccarat; g11: 3-Card Poker; g4: Blackjack Cluster 4:g6: Roulette; g5: Boule; g13: Lucky Wheel Cluster 5:g12: Stud Poker Cluster 6:g14: Slot Machine 210-1-2Dimension 11.00.50.0-0.5-1.0-1.5-2.0Dimension 2g14g13g12g11g10g9g8g7g6g5g4g3g2g1Diagr am 1: The positioning of 14 types of Casino Games According to 巴比(1998b), dimension is some specific aspects of a concept which can be made explicit. If the characteristics of the games in the respective dimensions are compared and contrasted, dimension 1 in diagram 1 can be explained as “rolling games” versus “card games” with the negative coordinates representing rolling nature
8and positive coordinates representing card nature. Dimension 2 is “Chinese games” versus “Western games” with positive coordinates representing Chinese nature and negative coordinates representing Western nature. g2 g3g6g13g5g14g7Dim 210-1Dim 31.00.50.0-0.5g4g1g12Dim 1210-1g8g10g11g9-1.0-2-2Diagram 2: Three Dimensional Position Map of Casino Games Diagram 2 depicts the 3-dimensional spatial positioning map of the 14 types of casino games in Macau. The following three tables list the coordinates in descending order of each of the three dimensions revealed from the MDS analysis. From the characteristics of these casino games, the following descriptions of the three dimensions (at the extreme ends of each dimension) are made: Dimension 1 : Rolling games versus Card games Dimension 2 : Western games versus Chinese games Dimension 3: Simple Easy versus Complex
9 Table 1: Ranking of coordinates of Dimension 1 in ascending order Game Dim 1 Dim 2 Dim 3 g13- Lucky Wheel -1.99 -0.74 -0.11 g14- Slot Machine -1.89 -1.82 0.36 g6- Roulette -1.69 0.18 -0.22 g5- Boule -1.43 0.37 0.15 g7- Fantan -0.92 0.99 0.8 g3- Fish-prawn-crab Cussec -0.89 1.16 -0.52 g2- Cussec (Big-Small) -0.76 1.19 -0.65 g8- Pai Kao 0.99 0.53 0.66 g12- Stud Poker 1.04 -1.26 -0.41 g9- Mahjong Pai Kao 1.14 0.27 0.97 g4- Blackjack 1.25 -0.01 -0.6 g1- Baccarat 1.53 -0.21 -0.45 g10-3-Card Baccarat 1.78 -0.29 0.04 g11-3-Card Poker 1.84 -0.35 0.09 Table 2: Ranking of coordinates of Dimension 2 in ascending order Game Dim 1 Dim 2 Dim 3 g14- Slot Machine -1.89 -1.82 0.36 g12- Stud Poker 1.04 -1.26 -0.41 g13- Lucky Wheel -1.99 -0.74 -0.11 g11- 3-Card Poker 1.84 -0.35 0.09 g10- 3-Card Baccarat 1.78 -0.29 0.04 g1- Baccarat 1.53 -0.21 -0.45 g4- Blackjack 1.25 -0.01 -0.6 g6- Roulette -1.69 0.18 -0.22 g9- Mahjong Pai Kao 1.14 0.27 0.97 g5- Boule -1.43 0.37 0.15 g8- Pai Kao 0.99 0.53 0.66 g7- Fantan -0.92 0.99 0.8 g3- Fish-prawn-crab Cussec -0.89 1.16 -0.52 g2- Cussec (Big-Small) -0.76 1.19 -0.65
10 Table 3: Ranking of coordinates of Dimension 3 in ascending order Game Dim 1 Dim 2 Dim 3 g2- Cussec (Big-Small) -0.76 1.19 -0.65 g4- Blackjack 1.25 -0.01 -0.6 g3- Fish-prawn-crab Cussec -0.89 1.16 -0.52 g1- Baccarat 1.53 -0.21 -0.45 g12- Stud Poker 1.04 -1.26 -0.41 g6- Roulette -1.69 0.18 -0.22 g13- Lucky Wheel -1.99 -0.74 -0.11 g10- 3-Card Baccarat 1.78 -0.29 0.04 g11- 3-Card Pokr 1.84 -0.35 0.09 g5- Boule -1.43 0.37 0.15 g14- Slot Machine -1.89 -1.82 0.36 g8- Pai Kao 0.99 0.53 0.66 g7- Fantan -0.92 0.99 0.8 g9- Mahjong Pai Kao 1.14 0.27 0.97 The Stratlogic Approach to Market Segmentation / Positioning The MDS Positioning technique can be applied in market segmentation. This powerful analytic tool can be used in conjunction with yet another very useful statistical tool – Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (i..e. the Stratlogic approach) Moutinho et al., (1994) suggest the use of stratlogic approach to analyze competitors’ positions in the portfolio. The approach is designed to be data driven. It combines the exploratory power of methodologies with management knowledge specific circumstances, while also producing a vivid visual representation of the data analysis. Through MDS analysis, the relative positioning can be derived from the empirical data. Then the hierarchical cluster analysis uses the dimensions as the input. The resulting cluster can be used to confirm visually defined groupings. Cluster analysis can group cases or variables on the basis of derived dimensions. The coordinates of orthogonal dimension of each attribute from MDS are used as input for the cluster analysis The grouping (segmentation) can take the form of dendrogram. Dendrogram is a way of visually representing the steps in a hierarchical clustering solution with the actual distances rescaled to numbers between 0 and 25. (Koo, 1997). The term “stratlogic” is described by Moutinho et al. (1995) as “dominant strategies or specific strategic recommendations or relevant advices or a rich assortment of strategic options ”, and hence the term “stratlogic approach” has been translated in
11Chinese as “特戰模型法". Moutinho et al. (1994) describe the stratlogic approach as: “ … a data-driven methodology which combines multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis in a procedure that will help to explore the underlying structure of data on the competitive domain. The stratlogic approach reduces and transforms data without imposing a pre-ordained prescriptive step” Koo (1997) claims that the use of stratlogic approach has much potential in exploratory study of new concept. The dendrogram (Diagram 3 below) reveals the same six clusters of casino games. The closer towards the number “0"are the two games linked up, the more similar they are. The farther they are linked up, the more different they become. The most similar pairs of games are: 3-Card Baccarat with 3-Card Poker; Baccarat with Blackjack Pai Kao with Mahjong Pai Kao Boule with Roulette Big-Small with Fish-Prawn-Crab Cussec The dendrogram also reveals that there are two distinct groups of casino games, viz.: Group 1: 3-Card Baccarat, 3-Card poker, Baccarat, Blackjack, Stud Poker, Pai Kao, and Mahjong Pai Kao Group 2: Boule, Roulette, Lucky Wheel, Big Small, Fish-Prawn-Crab Cussec, Fantan, and Slot Machine Diagram 3: Dendrogram of 14 types of Casino Games in Macau C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ g10-3CardBaccarat 10 g11-3CardPoker 11 g1-Baccarat 1 g4-Blackjack 4 g12-StudPoker 12 g8-PaiKao 8 g9-Mahjong PaiKao 9 g5-Boule 5 g6-Roulette 6 g13-LuckyWheel 13 g2-BigSmall 2 g3-FPC Cussec 3 g7-Fantan 7 g14-SlotMachine 14
12Conclusion This positioning survey study by MDS and Cluster Analysis have some limitations: The sample size is a convenience sample which may not be representative of the population of Macau Casino patrons; The size of the sample is only 41; No casino customers were included in the sample; Not all respondents are familiar with the various casino games. Apart from analyzing the various games, the same research approach can be applied to analyze the positioning of casinos, hotels, or any tourism products/ services or service providers. The positioning analyses help marketing decision makers have a better appreciation of the thinking logics of their customers. More appropriate positioning strategies can be developed. The stratlogic approach is powerful in combining two multivariate research tools with synergetic outcomes. The findings can then be substantiated and enriched through the use of some qualitative research tools such as focus groups, interviews and observations. In future when new casino games will be introduced, it would surely be useful to repeat this study to determine the position of he new game. The information about the positioning of potential new products will be valuable for devising appropriate marketing strategies. It may be possible that customers with different cultural background may perceive things differently. A large scope of the stratlogic approach study may be needed to provide information on various major customer segments. In order to facilitate future market positioning studies, the various casino games may be grouped into different categories such as: Cussec Games (Big Small; Fish-Prawn-Crab Cussec) Pai Kao Games (Pai Kao; Mahjong Pai Kao) Card Games (Baccarat; 3-Card Baccarat; 3-Card Poker; Blackjack) Roulette Games (Roulette; Boule) With this simplified approach to future MDS studies, more efficient positioning studies can be conducted. Last but not the least, the use of MDS and hierarchical cluster analysis can be used separately in positioning and segmentation as well as jointly in a stratlogic context. There are vast applications opportunities for stratlogic.
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14Moutinho L. andd Brownlie, D. (1995) “Stratlogics: towards an expert systems approach to the analysis of competitive positioning Journal of Strategic Marketing vol. 3 pp. 245-256 Norusis M. J. (1993a) SPSS for Windows Base System User's Guide Release 6.0 SPSS Inc. Chicago, Illinois, ISBN 0-13-178856-6 Norusis M. J. (1993b) SPSS for Windows Professional Statistics Release 6.0 SPSS Inc. Chicago, Illinois, ISBN 0-13-178831-0
Page 1 Research Method (I) --Knowledge on Sampling (Simple Random Sampling) 1. Introduction to sampling 1.1 Definition of sampling Sampling can be defined as selecting part of the elements in a population. It results in the fact that, conclusions from the sample may be extended to that about the entire population. 1.2 Advantages of sampling There are several advantages of sampling over census (i.e. selection of whole population for analysis). Firstly, the costs on sampling should be much lower than that on census. For example, for the government by-census (note: population census is usually conducted once every ten years and a by-census is conducted in the middle of the intercensal period), one fifth of the population is large enough to declare what the government wants to know. There is no need to spend several times of dollars to interview the entire population in the society. Secondly, a quality guru (Deming, 1960) argued that the quality of a study was often better with sampling than with a census. He suggested that, “Sampling possesses the possibility of better interviewing(testing), more thorough investigation of missing, wrong , or suspicious information, better supervision, and better processing than is possible with complete coverage”. Research findings substantiate this opinion. More than 90% of survey error in one study was from non-sampling error1, and 10% or less was from sampling error2. (Donald et al., 1995) Thirdly, sampling can save the time. The speed of execution reduces the time between the recognition of a need for information and the availability of that information. 1 Non-sampling error is the error of research due to factors other than the sample size and sampling method, including non-response, bad communication with interviewees, measurement error, etc. 2 Sampling error is the error during research due to the sample size and sampling method.
Page 2 1.3 Importance to learn sampling Statistical application is mainly concerned with the collection, presentation of data, analysis and interpretation of information. Data collection is the first step. Most statistical analysis methods are derived based on the assumption of the randomization used in data collection. When the assumption of the randomization/representation of sampling cannot hold, the applications of the statistical analysis and the respective interpretation from the analysis are meaningless. Therefore, it is necessary to acquire the knowledge on sampling before learning the statistical analysis. 2. Type of sampling design There are two types of sampling design, i.e. probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection - a controlled procedure that assures that each population element is given a known nonzero chance of selection. Non-probability sampling is nonrandom and subjective. Each member does not have a known non-zero chance to be selected. When you distribute a questionnaire to the customers in a restaurant to identify Macao residents’ opinions on the gaming industry in Macau, the sampling you draw is non-probability sampling because before the study, the probability of each resident drawn is unknown, and most of the population is not covered in the study whose probability to be selected is zero. Many people mistakenly think that the sample is representative if people do not know who will be chosen before the sampling. Such sampling method is non-random and non-representative. Indeed only probability sampling is representative and random sampling which can determine the precision of the estimate from the sample drawn. Almost all of the statistical analyses are derived based on the assumption of probability sampling. This article will illustrate the simplest probability sampling—simple random sample. The remaining probability sampling methods will be dealt with later.
Page 3 3. Simple Random Sample (SRS)3.1 Introduction SRS is the simplest form of probability sampling. Each population element of SRS has a known and equal chance of selection. For example, 10% of MGRA members are selected from MGRA member listing via random number generation. It is noted that, SRS requires a sampling frame which is the list of all elements. The sample is actually drawn from the sampling frame. 3.2 Sample size calculation of SRS “What sample size should be appropriate?” is a common question among researchers. Indeed this question is not easy to answer. From the technical point of view, the sample size required depends on the sampling method, the population size, the expected margin of error (bound of error between true value and the estimated value), reliability and standard deviation of the variables that we are interested in. From the practical point of view, it also depends on the budget and the time. It is noted that, there are some explanations on the reliability and margin of error. The following are two examples. We want to have a SRS providing 95% of confidence on the gap between the truevalue and the estimated value less than, say $10. It represents that, we want asample size n, such that the probability that the gap between the true value andthe estimated value is less than $10 is at least 95%. The 95% represents thereliability, while the $10 represents the margin of error.A SRS is desired to provide 90% of confidence on the maximum gap betweenthe true probability and the estimated probability of selected groups less than0.02. It represents that, the sample size can satisfy that, the likelihood that themaximum gap is less than 0.02 is at least 90%. The 90% represents the reliability,while the 0.02 represents the margin of error.If we only consider the technical point of view, for SRS, the sample size (n) required can be calculated via the following formulation.
Page 4 20 )dSD*yreliabilit(n = Nn1nn00+= where: N: population size Reliability: critical point (Z) of standard normal distribution corresponding to the value /2α 3, where we want to have confidence 1-α . For example, the confidence is 95% which may be the most prevailing figure, the corresponding Z value is 1.96. d: Margin of error SD: Standard deviation of the variable we are interested in. The identification can be referred to the following. (i) Variables we are interested in are continuous data The standard deviation can be calculated from the previous study or pre-test. If we have not conducted the previous study or formal pre-test, we may consider the rough approach by taking one sixth of the expected range (max.-min.) of the variable. For example, a seven-point Likert scale is often adopted in questionnaire surveys. Many treat these scales as continuous variables. If no previous study is conducted, we may estimate the standard deviation as 1 ((7-1)/6). (ii) Variables we are interested in are discrete data If there is a previous study or a pre-test, then the SD is taken as )p-(1p iiimax , where pi represents the probability of the ith group. 3 α can be represented as the probability of error between the true value and the estimate which is out of bound.
Page 5 However, if no information on p are known, we may take the conservative SD=1/2, where )p-(1p ii1p0maxi≤≤=1/2 for all i. For survey study, this approach is often adopted. If we want to conduct an ad-hoc survey which has not been conducted before and for which no formal pre-tests have been conducted, the sample size (n) can be simply written as: 2/20 )2dZ(n α= Nn1nn00+= Note: The definitions of Z, d, N, α are the same as that in last page. 3.3 More characteristics on SRS Pros: SRS is easy to implement with random number generation when the sampling frame exists, especially for the telephone survey with automatic dialing (random digit dialing) and with computerized voice response system. Cons: SRS requires a listing of population element, which is not practical for many business scenarios. For example, when we conduct the visit survey, it is not feasible to possess the listing of element of visitors. SRS produces larger errors than some of other research methods, e.g. stratified sampling (which will be discussed next time) when the sample size is fixed. This phenomenon can be proven by mathematics. In order to offset the lower accuracy of SRS, larger sample size is demanded, which will result in higher costs and lower efficiency. On the other hand, comparing to cluster sampling (which will be discussed in Research Method (III)), the data collection method of SRS is much more expensive and more inefficient. SRS may not cover the segments that we are interested in or the sub-sample sizes of there segments are not large enough so that people cannot conduct in-depth
Page 6 analysis or make in-depth inference on these segments. Bibliography Assael Henry and Keon John. (1982).“Nonsampling versus Sampling Errors in Survey Research”. Journal of Market Research, Spring Cooper Donald R., Emory C. William. (1995) 5th ed. “Business Research Methods”. Richard D. Irwin, INC. Deming W.E.. (1960) “Sample Design in Business Research”. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
7的社會學、心理學等理論出發,分析澳門人、外地賭客的賭博心理。 參考文獻: [1] 法令第 62/98/M 號,十二月二十八日,第二百七十九條(義務)。 [2] Yamagishi T. Cross-societal experimentation on trust: A comparison of the United States and Japan. In E. Ostrom and J. Walker, (Eds.), Trust and Reciprocity, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 2003, 352-370 [3] 汪雁等:三峽外遷移民的社區歸屬感研究,上海社會科學院學術季刊,2001 年第 2 期。 [4] 陳微:如何培養居民的社區歸屬感,中國民政,2002 年第 4 期 [5] Hofstede G. Management scientists are human. Management Science, 1994, 40(1): 4-13 [6] Hofstede G. Motivation, leadership, and organization: Do American theories apply abroad? Organizational Dynamics, 1980, 9(1): 42-63 [7] Goodstein L D, Hunt J W, Hofstede G. Commentary: Do American theories apply abroad? Organizational Dynamics, 1981, 10(1): 49-68 [8] Weber E U, Hsee C K. Cross-cultural differences in risk perception but cross-cultural similarities in attitudes towards perceived risk. Management Science, 1998, 44: 1205-1217 [9] Weber E U, Hsee C K, Sokolowska J. What folklore tells about risk and risk taking? Cross-cultural comparisons of American, German and Chinese proverbs, Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 1998, 2: 170-186 [10] Yates J F, Lee J W, Bush J G. General knowledge overconfidence: Cross-national variations, response style, and “reality.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1997, 70: 87-94 [11] Yates J F, Lee J W, Shinotsuka H, Patalano A L, Sieck W R. Cross-cultural variations in probability judgement accuracy: Beyond general knowledge overconfidence? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1998, 74: 89-117 [12] Rohrmann B, Chen H. Risk perception in China and Australia: an exploratory crosscultural study. Journal of Risk Research, 1999, 2(3): 219–241 [13] Knoke,D.,& Kuklinski, J. H.(1982). Network analysis. Newbury park, Calif:Sage. [14] Emirbayer, M.,& Goodwin, J.(1994). Network analysis, culture, and the problem of agency. American Journal of Sociology, 99,1411-1454. [15] Walker, K. N., Macbride, A.,& Vachon, M. L. S.(1977). Social Support Networks and the Crisis of Bereavement. Social Science and Medicine,11(1),35-41. [16] 高迪理(1991),社會支援體系概念之架構探討,社區發展季刊,54,24-32。 [17] 孫悅、李紓(1995),澳門人的風險知覺與賭博行為,心理學報 2005,37(2):260-267。 [18] http://www.21page.net/world_geography/h_ysl.asp, 世界地理頻道,人文歷史,伊斯蘭教,2005。 [19] zhjyx.hfjy.net.cn/Resource/Book/Edu/JXCKS/TS016098/0015_ts016098.htm - 35k 四宗教的派別,2005。 [20] http://www.culstudies.com/rendanews/displaynews.asp?id=1397.生存戰略或文化交流:近代中國基督教會慈善福利事業概覽,2005。
其實,在這一點上,澳門是有很大發展的空間。例如,與澳門臨近的香港、臺灣、菲律賓有很多現代因素,也有很多浪漫因素,比如它們的娛樂業都很發達。但遺憾的是,我們很少看到這些地方的影視明星能夠在澳門演出。所以,澳門應該採取有效措施來整合鄰近地區的娛樂行業,以營造一個浪漫之都,從而不負澳門所擁有的“東方的拉斯維加斯”的盛名7。如果這樣發展下去,那麽以後人們在想到澳門時,就不僅僅是“賭博”這兩個字了。 所幸的是,很多有識之士已經看到這一點,在2002年賭權開放中,拉斯維加斯的兩家博彩公司已經在拿到了澳門三張賭牌中的兩張。但一些專家有一些擔心,認爲賭權開放之前是“肉爛了在鍋裏",是國人內部分賭資,而開放之後是外國人參與分賭資,而且規模還會越來越大(王五一,2005:117)。然而,一個最基本的事實是,開放比不開放要好。當我們看到賭場的質量在改善的時候,當我們看到賭場營業額在上升的時候,當我們看到特區政府的收入在不斷地增加的時候,我們其實已經看到了這一點。如果想到這種開放還會把國外好的商業模式引入,則我們對澳門博彩業的前景更不用擔心了。 還有人從澳門特色出發,認爲如果過多地引入國外的制度或者商業運作模式,則不利於保持澳門賭場的獨特性。其實,澳門歷史上的特點就是她的綜合性和包容性,它綜合了東西方文明,也包容了很多與我們的價值觀迥異的東西,從而形成自己的風格。如果說當時的綜合和包容是不得已而爲之的話,那麽,在“一國兩制”和“澳人治澳”的政治架構下,我們更應該顯得自信和從容! 參考文獻: (Liu)劉品良(2002),《澳門博彩業縱橫》,香港:三聯書店(香港)有限公司。 (Wang) 王五一(2005),《世界賭博爆炸與中國的經濟利益》,北京:經濟科學出版社。 (Zhang) 張五常(2001),“論賭”,載《學術上的老人與海》,北京:社會科學文獻出版社。 Arrow, K. J. (1982). “Risk perception in psychology and economics”, Economic Inquiry, 20: 有所適從,實在是一個消閒的好去處。我自己對這一類娛樂沒有嗜好,但數之不盡的朋友很欣賞,每年總有幾個周末到那裏花點錢。聽說美國東岸的大西洋賭城也辦得不錯。”,“今天,拉斯維加斯是美國發展得最快的一個城市。遊客每年數千萬,銷展及國際會議觸目皆是,而據說賭場三分之一的收入,是來自我們亞洲人。治安可人,而到那裏散散心的多是有識之士,是有分量的道德判斷者。”“是的,像澳門那樣的賭城我反對,像美國華盛頓州近十年來在印第安人的土地上設立的賭場,搞得不倫不類的,我認爲沒有意思,不辦算了。” 7 我們沒有聽說過拉斯維加斯是“西方的澳門”之類的說法,這種不對稱的比附本身就說明澳門還有很多地方需要向拉斯維加斯學習。 9
1-9. Eadington, William R. (1999). “The Economics of Casino Gambling”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 13(3): 173-192. Fagley, N. S., and P. M. Miller (1990). “The Effect of Framing on Choice: Interactions with Risk-Taking Propensity, Cognitive Style, and Sex”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16: 496-510. Kahneman, D. and A. Tversky (1979). “Prospect Theory: an Analysis of Decisions under Risk”, Econometrica, 47:313-327. Lopes, Lola (1987). “Between hope and fear: the psychology of risk”, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 20:255-295. Shefrin, Hersh (2002). Beyond Greed and Fear: Understanding Behavioral Finance and the Psychology of Investing, Oxford University Press, Inc. Tversky, A. and Kahneman D.(1981). “The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice”, Science,211:453-458. 10