葉寶奎 1992 《語言學概論》,廈門大學出版社。張唏奕 1990 《句群不是語法單位》,北京師範大學中文系《學術之聲》。朱德熙 1982 《語法講義》,商務印書館。朱德熙 1985 《語法答問》,商務印書館。中國社會科學院語言文字應用研究所 1998 《漢字問題學術討論會論文集》,語文出版社。Chao,Yuen Ren 1968 A Grammar of Spoken Chinese.Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press. Li,Charles N. & S.A.Thompson 1976 Subject and topic: a new typology of language. In Charles N. Li( ed. ) Subject and Topic. New York: Academic Press.10
論網絡流行新語體 *On the Popular New Style of Language on the Internet◎ 楊勇 / 阜陽師範學院 外國語學院提 要:網絡語言是語言特區的一種,網絡流行新語體是網絡語言中最熱門、最有生命力、傳播力和影響力的一種,它指的是起源並風行於網上,被眾多線民廣泛接受並大量模仿應用的詞、短語、句子或句群等新興語言表達體例或範式。網絡流行新語體具有鮮明的時代性、創新性、不穩定性、開放性、高頻性、框填性、後現代性、負面性等八大特徵;它的流行,有著深刻的理據,是其自身的魅力等內因,以及傳播主體、新媒體等傳播客體、社會文化心理等外因綜合塑造而成;網絡流行新語體有自己獨特的語言價值和社會價值,是網絡輿情的風向標,但是,也存在不少負面影響,會構成語言污染、語言暴力,甚至輿情倒灌,倒逼改革,所以有必要從硬性和柔性兩個維度加以監控、引導和規範。關鍵詞:網絡流行新語體 特徵 網絡輿情 語言污染 語言特區Key words: the popular new style of language on the internet, features, network public opinion, language pollution, special linguistic zone *本研究系安徽省哲學社會科學規劃一般專案“新媒體語境下網絡輿情監控、預警及應對機制研究”(AHSKY2017D72)階段性成果。1152 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
頭,通俗易懂,表達了對逝去的大學生活的反思,對學弟也有警示和教育的作用。二是形式的創新,比如一句古典詩詞配一句趙本山的小品名句的“趙本山體”。經典例句是“問君能有幾多愁,樹上騎個猴,地下一個猴”。“眾裏尋他千百度,沒病你就走兩步”。“天蒼蒼,野茫茫,我十分想見趙忠祥。”一文一白,一莊一諧,很有意思。不過,雖然形式很創新,但是純屬娛樂,沒有多大的實用價值,只能當做速食文化,肯定不會長久流行。還有“中英穿越體”,是將中文和英文以一種穿越式的組合進行表達的方式,如古詩和英語的翻譯組合體。“眾裏尋他千百度,驀然回首,Hey,how do you do.”“身無彩鳳雙飛翼,Get away from me!”“天生我材必有用,I can play football.”“問君能有幾多愁,easy come easy go.”“此情可待成追憶,let it be.”“床前明月光,there's something wrong.”中英文混雜,語碼混用,形式怪異,給一些英語基礎不好的讀者造成理解障礙,語用價值不高,生命力應該也不會太長。2.3 不穩定性網絡流行新語體雖然異軍突起,刹那之間,風靡網絡,波及全國,甚至於其中的某些辭彙或表達已經走出國門,比如給力 (gelivable)、土豪 (tuhao)、不作死就不會死 (no zuo no die) 等已經被美國線上俚語詞典 (Urban Dictionary) 收錄。但是,不同的流行新語體由於自身體系性、科學性等差異,大浪淘沙,很多新語體在短暫的流行後,會歸於寂靜,沉澱下來的,是很少的一部分,具有不穩定性。所謂網絡流行新語體的不穩定性,指的是這些語體由於語體本身結構和形式的系統性的差異,接受度不一,所以生命度隨之不一樣。網絡流行新語體的生命度和穩定性由該語體本身的科學性和順應性決定,由實踐來檢驗。有的生動形象,歷經檢驗,今天依然廣泛使用。一些因為電視劇而引起的網絡流行新語體,比如來自後宮宮鬥戲《甄嬛傳》的“甄嬛體”、“華妃體”、“臣妾做不到體”,來自電視劇《神探狄仁傑》的“元芳體”,來自 TVB 電視臺的“TVB 體”,由於電視的受眾廣,其中很多至今還在使用,有的網絡流行新語體不局限於母體,青出於藍而勝於藍,會很快脫離本體,產生派生意義、浮現意義,比如“淘寶體”、“元芳體”;有的語義泛化,蛻化成詞綴或語綴,比如“親”、“被 ××”結構等。而有些網絡流行新語體時效很短,如曇花一現,短暫的新鮮感後,很快被人們遺忘,不再使用,比如上面的“中英穿越體”並沒有很大的內涵,現在已經很少見到。來自電視或網絡廣告的“凡客體”、“陳歐體”等等,也早已為大眾所遺忘。還有很多因為電視報導或直播的一些社會熱點事件而產生的網絡流行新語體,比如“李剛體”、“高鐵體”、“校長撐腰體”、“花朵體”、“切糕體”、“輕度體”、“遺憾體”,以及由瑪雅末日傳說而引起的“瑪雅體”、“末日生卒年月體”,這些語體隨著時間的流逝,熱度逐漸消退,最終慢慢自行消亡。2.4 開放性由於網絡流行新語體傳播的載體是網絡媒介,而網絡是一個沒有邊界、沒有太多約束的自由空間,並且,在很多情況下,線民是在隱匿狀態下參與狂歡的,網絡世界的這些特點決定了網絡流行新語體的開放性、相容性和交互性,任何人只要願意,都可以參與進來,每人面前都有一支話筒,都有發言權,只要你的聲音足夠大,內容和形式足夠吸引人,你就能成14
方 梅 2013《談語體特徵的句法表現》,《當代修辭學》第 2 期。馮勝利 2010《論語體的機制及其語法屬性》,《 中國語文》第 5 期。付甜甜 2008《語體的再界定》,《陝西師範大學學報 ( 哲學社會科學版 )》第 S2 期。黃伯榮、廖序東主編 2007《現代漢語》( 增訂四版 )( 上冊 ),北京:高等教育出版社。黎運漢 2000《漢語風格學》,廣州:廣東教育出版社。劉丹青 2008《漢語名詞性短語的句法類型特徵》,《中國語文》第 1 期。[ 美 ] 戴維·邁爾斯著,侯玉波、樂國安、張智勇等譯 2006《社會心理學》(第 8 版), 北京:人民郵電出版社。沈家煊 2014《漢語的邏輯這個樣 , 漢語是這樣的 --為趙元任先生誕辰 120 周年而作之二》,《語言教學與研究》第 2 期。唐松波 1984《文體、語體、風格、修辭的相互關係》,《修辭學習》第 2 期。徐杰、覃業位 2015 《“語言特區”的性質與類型》,《當代修辭學》第 4 期。徐杰、羅堃 2015《多語環境下的語言配套》,《中國社會語言學》第 1 期。楊勇 2014《論“淘寶體”的語體特徵及其發展趨勢》,《學術界》第 2 期。楊勇、張泉 2015《生態語言學視野下網絡流行語的語言污染及治理探究》,《湖北社會科學》第 3 期。楊勇 2016a《網絡流行語衍生、傳播的理據和方向》,《學術界》第 2 期。 --- 2016b《網絡語言“熱”背後的“冷”思考》,《光明日報》 4 月 17 日。--- 2017a 《高程度副詞的語義磨蝕及其補償機制》,《漢語學報》第 1 期。--- 2017b 《“甄嬛體”的泛化、價值及前景預測》,《安慶師範大學學報》第 1 期。--- 2017c 《論“藍精靈體”的語體特徵和流行理據》,《北京科技大學學報 ( 社會科學版 )》第 3 期。--- 2017d 《論“元芳體”》,《湖北社會科學》第 8 期。 袁暉、李熙宗 2005《漢語語體概論》,北京:商務印書館 2005。袁野 2012《從語篇構式壓制看網絡新文體》,《當代修辭學》第 1 期。中 國 互 聯 網 絡 資 訊 中 心 2018《 第 41 次 中國 互 聯 網 絡 發 展 狀 況 統 計 報 告 》 http://www.c n n i c . n e t . c n / h l w f z y j / h l w x z b g / h l w t j b g / 2 0 1 8 0 1 /P020180131509544165973.pdf18
北部吳語次濁字讀入陰調現象的探討 The Divergence of Tones with Sonorant Initials and Voiced Obstruent Initials in Northern Wu Chinese◎ 姜曉芳 / 北京大學中國語言文學系提 要:不少北部吳語的方言存在全次濁字調類分化的現象,文中計算了各方言內次濁字歸入陰調或自成一調的比例,並對這一音變進行了演變性質和演變動因的考察。演變性質的判定依據是全濁上的歸調方向和陽上調是否保留,起變動因與次濁聲母失去濁流而變為常態濁音有關。次濁字從陽調分離後會併入與原陽調的調形一致的陰調,若沒有符合條件的陰調,則次濁字自成一調。關鍵詞:次濁字歸陰調 自發音變 發聲態對立 陰陽調調形Key words: change of Yang tone to Yin tone, internal tonal change, phonation type, tone contour一、引言官話方言中普遍存在次濁上與陰上合流而與全濁上不同調的現象,次濁入與全濁入的歸調走向也不盡相同。這種全濁字與次濁字分屬不同調類的現象在南方方言中也並不少見,除了受官話影響形成的濁上分調外,平去入也有次濁字歸入陰調而與全濁字不同調的情況,如客家話中部分次濁入與清入同調(謝留文,1995);湘語城步(儒林)方言中部分次濁去歸入陰去,全濁去仍為陽去(鮑厚星,1993);湘語湘鄉、雙峰方言中次濁平獨立成調(鮑厚星,2006)等。曹志耘、王莉寧(2014)、王莉寧(2012、2015)較為全面地考察了漢語方言中全濁字和次濁字的調類分合情況,對其進行了類型歸納(分為系統分化和部分分化)和方言分佈的說明。吳語同樣有次濁字歸入陰調的情況,但次濁字系統性地歸入陰調只分佈在杭嘉湖和部分宣州片地區方言中。徐越(2007)對杭嘉湖方言中古次濁字歸陰調的情況進行了專門的描寫、歸類和解釋。蔣冰冰(2003)也1952 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
王海棻 1987 《古漢語疑問詞語》,杭州:浙江教育出版社。王 力 1980 《漢語史稿》,北京:中華書局。魏培泉 1982 《< 莊子 > 語法研究》,臺北:臺灣師範大學碩士論文。魏 培 泉 1999 《 論 先 秦 漢 語 運 符 的 位 置》,In Alain Peyraube and Chaofen Sun, (eds.) In Honor of Tsu-lin Mei: Studies on Chinese Historical Syntax and Morphology,259-297.Paris: Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales.魏培泉 2015 《上古漢語副詞“其”、“將”的功能與來源》,張顯成主編《古漢語語法研究新論:出土文獻與古漢語語法研討會暨第九屆海峽兩岸漢語語法史研討會論文集》,重慶:西南師範大學出版社。溫賓利 1996 《wh- 詞與 wh- 分句》,《現代外語》第 2 期。解惠全 崔永琳 鄭天一 2008 《古書虛詞通解》,北京:中華書局。謝紀鋒 2015 《虛詞詁林(修訂版)》,北京:商務印書館。楊 琳 1991 《“疑問詞及指示代詞 + 其”釋例》,《煙臺大學學報》(哲社版)第 1 期。姚振武 2015 《上古漢語語法史》,上海:上海古籍出版社。俞 敏 1987 《< 經傳釋詞 > 劄記》,長沙:湖南教育出版社。張玉金 2006 《西周漢語代詞研究》,北京:中華書局。周法高 1975 《上古語法劄記》,《中國語言學論文集》,臺北:聯經出版社。A l d r i d g e , E d i t h 2 0 1 0 C l a u s e - i n t e r n a l W h -movement in Archaic Chinese . Journal of East Asian Linguistics,Vol.19(1):1-36. Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 1988 Jo Chih Ho 若 之 何 and Nai Ho 奈何 , Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, 59(2).Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 1995 Outline of Classical Chinese Grammar.Vancouver: UBC Press.Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. 1985 A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. New York: Longman.Takashima Ken-ichi. 1997 Focus and explanation in copulative-type sentences in a genuine Classical Chinese text. Cahiers de Linguistique - Asie Orientale, vol. 26 (2).van Valin, Robert D. 1993 A synopsis of Role and Reference Grammar, in Robert D. Van Valin Jr(ed.) Advances in Role and Reference Grammar,1-164. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Yoshida, Megumi. 1954 The Etymology of nai-ho 奈何 . Toho Gaku, (8).50
“要麼 p,要麼 q”句式探究 *A Study on Sentence Pattern with Construction “either p or q” ◎ 沈威 / 華中師範大學提 要:學者們對選擇複句“要麼 p,要麼 q”有過大量的研究,普遍認為 p 和 q 之間是非此即彼的關係。本文通過對大量語言事實的考察發現隨著語言的發展變化,p 和 q在語表、語裡和語值幾方面都有了一些新的變化。本文將從“語表—語裡—語值”小三角的角度對“要麼 p,要麼 q”句式進行全面地考察。關鍵詞:要麼 限選複句Key words: either; indicative alternative pattern *(本文為教育部人文社會科學重點研究基地重大項目“基於小句中樞理論的有標複句層次關係自動識別研究”(編號:16JJD740013)和教育部人文社會科學青年項目“篇章視域下類指表達的句法語義互動研究”(編號:17YJC740115)的研究成果。本文中的例子均為現代漢語共同語語料,沒有摻雜方言的說法,例子的來源有三個,分別為: CCL 語料庫、人民網網站和第一至九屆茅盾文學獎獲獎作品。本文曾在“第八屆華文教學國際論壇”進行了宣讀,華中科技大學程邦雄先生、廣西師範大學樊中元先生、澳門大學張力先生對本文提出了寶貴的建議,在此表示感謝!文中錯誤概由作者負責。通訊作者:沈威,華中師範大學語言與語言教育研究中心,研究方向:中文信息處理,現代漢語)5152 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
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使句就能發揮功效,如警員對犯罪分子肯定不會用“請你把槍交出來”;好朋友也不會對你說“請你把門關上”。禮貌委婉一方面能拉近距離,另一方面也會讓說話雙方保持一定的距離,因此完善“把”字祈使句的教學,有利於幫助留學生理解不同語境下的“把”字句。其次,掌握“把”字祈使句有助於理解“把”字的相關句式。教材中的“把”字句沒有區分“把”字陳述句和“把”字祈使句,表達上就會出現時態混淆的偏誤,如果教材涉及了“把”字祈使句,然後再對比教學就能清晰明瞭地進行區分。如:a 你把桌子擦擦 b 他把桌子擦乾淨了 你把作業交上 他把作業交上了通過 a 組和 b 組的對比教學,在語義上由行為到結果,形式上也有時態助詞進行區別,隨後再進行非典型的祈使主語進行替換,如“我們”“大家”等,按照事理的發展順序,由典型到特殊,能夠幫助學生更深入地理解“把”字祈使句和“把”字陳述句的表義。最 後, 典 型 的“ 把” 字 句 表 處 置,“S+ 把+O+VP”解釋為“S 通過動作 V 對 O 進行了處置”,動詞作用於“把”後的名詞,即:V → O。在“把”字祈使句中,大部分也可以用處置來解釋,如:把帳子掀開,通過“掀”對“帳子”進行處置,“帳子開”是處置的結果。但祈使句又是表達說話人意願的句型,在客觀上沒有被處置的名詞可以是說話人主觀認定的處置,如:a 我要把欄跨過去 b 你把欄跨過去 上例 a 來源於劉翔在奧運後受傷後原話“很珍惜跨欄,要回來把欄跨過去”[4] 的改寫,由於劉翔的強烈主觀願望“把欄跨過去”是成立的;同理,如果作為說話人想讓聽話人做某事,就可以產生 b 句,雖然“欄”沒有在客觀上受到“跨”的處置或影響,也依然成立。由此可以看出,含有強意願的祈使句可以鬆動 V、O 的處置關係。有了這種認知基礎,到了中高級階段再去接觸非處置義的“把”字句,就可以理解動作 V 並不一定要對 O 進行客觀處置,也可以是說話人的主觀認知。3.3 從語言發展及習得來看 隨着人類思維水準的提高,語言表達也由簡單到複雜,由模糊到精準,由客觀陳述到主觀意願。根據蔣紹愚《近代漢語研究概要》第四章第四节對“把”字句研究的總結梳理,處置式的“把”字句是在“S+ 把+O+V”基礎格式上隨着 V 的複雜而表義多樣。這一點在錢學烈(1992)的研究中也已得到證實。從“把”字祈使句來看,直接祈使在形式及表義上比委婉祈使簡單,是委婉祈使形成的前提和基礎。教材中涉及了表位移的委婉祈使,從形式和表義上看,比動趨式祈使句複雜。Hopper(1987)曾提出“浮現語法”,他認為“用法先於語法”“語法只是話語中不斷重複出現的某些範疇……語法形式並非一套固定的模式,而是在面對面的交談中浮現出來的”。語法是在用法中產生,並在使用的過程中不斷變化,也就是說現在看來的典型的語法經常使用,典型語法在使用過程中也可以產生非典型的用法,非典型的用法隨着使用次數的增多,也會在語法中浮現出來,成為非典型的語法。因此,典型的“把”祈使句是最先使用並浮現在語法中,是在委婉祈使形成的基礎和前提,因此在習得順序上也應該早於委婉祈使句。“把”字句的本體研究至今仍在持續就是因為“把”字句的的用法太過複雜,複雜性也暗含了該句式在日常生活中的高頻使用。如果在漢語學習的初級階段,留學生不能對“把”字典型句式進行有效輸出,到了高級階段再去理解一些特殊的用法,必然很困難,而“把”字句在日常生活中的典型用法之一就是“把”字祈使句。兒童語言習得和第二語言習得在一定程度上具有8152 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
註 釋: [1] 根據作者的英文序言“Two thousand sentences were originally set aside for publication , but these were finally reduced by half……” 可知。[2] 《語學舉隅》的英文例句為了查詢方便,將動詞置於句首,按照動詞排列,如“他說得出來做得出來”對應的英文例句是“Acts up to his words ,He”。因為本文是以“把”字句為研究物件,與動詞的關聯不大,為了與現代閱讀習慣相符,凡是本文引用的英文例句都將語序調整為 SVO。[3] 選擇題中的第 2、3、4、5、12、13 題是“把”字祈使句,分別是“你千萬要 ”“海關工作人員說: ”“我的衣服很髒,媽媽說: ”“我沒看清楚,請你 ,好嗎?”“爸爸常常對小明說: ”“媽媽對小紅說:外面下雨了,你應該 。”翻譯題中的第 2、4、10、11、12、14、16 題是“把”字祈使句,分 別 是:“ 你 說 的 真 好,Please continue your speaking”“先生,你的車擋住路了。Please drive away your car”“朋友要給我寄明信片,我對他說:Please send the letter to NO.3 building of the foreign student’s dormitory.”“考場的門上寫着:Please leave books and cellphones outside”“ 你 的 臉 太 髒 了,Go and wash your face quickly”“ 有 人 流 血 了,Send for a doctor quickly”“炸豆腐的做法:把鍋放在火上,往鍋裡倒點油,然後 deep fry the tofu in hot oil for a while”。[4] 源:http://roll.sohu.com/20120810/n350375143.shtml[5] 董海櫻《16 世紀至 19 世紀初西人漢語研究》中第 2 頁提到“西洋真正的漢學興起,卻是在馬克•波羅之後中國文獻、傳教士關於中國狀況及語言的報導源源不斷地傳之西方,特別是明朝中後期以來的一些傳教士和學者……”。參考文獻 常輝 鄭麗娜 2017 《兒童普通話“把”字句發展個案跟蹤研究》,《語言文字應用》第 2 期 .方 霽 1999 《現代漢語祈使句的語用研究 上 》,《語文研究》第 4 期 .--- 2000 《現代漢語祈使句的語用研究 下 》,《語文研究》第 1 期 .方 梅 2007 《語體動因對句法的塑造》,《修辭學習》第 6 期 .龔海燕 2011 《翟理斯 < 語學舉隅 > 初探》,《歷史文獻研究》總第 35 輯 .韓 笑 馮麗萍 2017 《漢語口語句法複雜度發展測評中基準型指標的應用方法研究》,《世界漢語教學》第 4 期 .靳洪剛 1997 《從漢語“把”字句看語言分類規律在第二語言習得過程中的作用》,《語言教學與研究》第 2 期 .樂 耀 2011 《從人稱和“了 2”的搭配看漢語傳信範疇在話語中的表現》,《中國語文》第 2 期 .李 英 鄧小寧 2005 《“把”字句語法專案的選取與排序研究》,《語言教學與研究》第 3 期 . 李 真 2009 《英國早期漢學的“三大星座”——小記英國著名漢學家理雅各、德庇時和翟理斯》,《人文叢刊》第 4 期 .劉頌浩 錢旭菁 汪 燕 2002 《交際策略與口語測試》,《世界漢語教學 .》第 2 期 .陸儉明 郭 銳 1988 《漢語語法研究所面臨的挑戰》,《世界漢語教學》第 4 期 .呂必松 2010 《“把”字短語、“把”字句和“把”字句教學》,《漢語學習》第 5 期 .呂文華 1994 《“把”字句的語義類型》,《漢語學習》第 4 期 .梅祖麟 1990 《唐宋處置式的來源》,《中國語文》第 3 期 .吳福祥 2003 《再論處置式的來源》,《語言研究》第 3 期 .肖奚強 1993 《試論祈使義句教學》,《漢語學習》第 6 期 .肖奚強 2017 《關於教學語法的思考——一句式教學體系為例》,《語言教學與研究》第 6 期 .8352 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
楊小璐、肖 丹 《2008 現代漢語把字句習得的個案研究》,《當代語言學》第 3 期 .姚雙雲 2011 《“浮現語法”與語法的浮現》,《中國社會科學報》第 239 期 .張甯、劉明臣 《1994 試論運用功能法教“把”字句》,《語言教學與研究》,第 1 期 .張媛媛 2010 《第一人稱主語祈使句研究》,《蘭州學刊》第 7 期 .董海櫻 2011 《16 世紀至 19 世紀初西人漢語研究》,北京:商務印書館 .蔣紹愚 2017 《近代漢語研究概要》,北京:北京大學出版社 .袁毓林 1993 《現代漢語祈使句研究》,北京:北京大學 .劉 利 2009 《留學生把字句習得情況考察及其對教材編寫的啟示》,廣州:暨南大學 .Leech G.N. 1983 Principles of Pragmatics [M].London and New York: Longman.Longman Hopper Paul J.1998 Emergent grammar, In Michael Tomasello ( ed.) ,The New Psychology of Language:Cognitive and Functional Approaches to Language Structure, 155-175. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Herbe r t A l l en Gi l e s 1873 A Dic t iona ry o f Colloquial Idioms in the Mandarin Dialect《語學舉隅》.84
“與”的演化與雙賓句The Evolution of “Yu” and Its Effect on Double-Object Construction ◎ 王昕 / 河南大學國際漢學院提 要:本文主要從兩個方面考察古代漢語歷史上曾經出現的雙賓動詞“與”和一個比較凝固的結構“V 與”。一方面,從“與”的語法化過程來考察它如何成為雙賓句中固定的 V2 和語法化成與格介詞的;另一方面,探討“與”和“V 與”的語法化對雙賓句演化發展的影響。關鍵詞:與 V 與 語法化 雙賓句 歷時演化Key words: “Yu”; V-Yu; Grammaticalization; Double-Object Construction; Diachronic Evolution一、引言 “與”是漢語雙賓結構“VP+NP1+NP2”演化過程中(VP:V>V1V2)産生的兩個固定的 V2 之一,另一個是“給”(兩個詞各自的語法化途徑以及在雙賓句中的功能有相似之處也有不同之處)。它們在雙賓句中充當V2 並都産生了引出給予對象的與格介詞功能。“與”經過和其他動詞競爭取得了充當固定 V2 的功能,之後在近代漢語中被“給”取代。[1] 本文只關注前者,“與”和“給”之間的替代是如何實現的不在本文的討論之列。同時本文還將討論古代漢語中作爲 V2 的“與”和雙賓句的關系。第二節我們將討論“與”如何在競爭中成爲固定的 V2 以及“與”的語法化過程,第三節從構式語法的角度簡要討論上一過程對雙賓句的影響,第四節是結論。二、“與”的演化“與”之所以能夠在 V2 的位置上固定下來並能繼續發展進而影響雙賓句主要有三個因素:8552 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
(宋 ˙ 朱熹《朱子語類 ˙ 學五》)。參考文獻 貝羅貝 1986 《雙賓語結構從漢代至唐代的歷史發展》,《中國語文》,第 3 期。董秀芳 2002 《詞彙化 : 漢語雙音詞的衍生和發展》,成都:四川民族出版社。 江藍生 2012 《中國語文》,《漢語連—介詞的來源及其語法化的路徑和類型》,第 4 期。劉宋川 1999 《先秦雙賓語結構的分類》,《中南民族學院學報(哲學社會科學版)》,第 4 期。——— 1998 《先秦雙賓語結構考察》,《湖北大學學報(哲學社會科學版 )》,第 4 期。——— 2001 《兩漢時期的雙賓語結構 》,《湖北大學學報(哲學社會科學版)》,第 5 期。彭 睿 2011 《臨界頻率和非臨界頻率:頻率和語法化關系的重新審視》,《中國語文》,第 1 期。時 兵 2007 《上古漢語雙及物結構研究》,合肥:安徽大學出版社。石毓智 2002 《漢語發展史上的雙音化趨勢和動補結構的誕生──語音變化對語法發展的影響》,《語言研究》,第 1 期。石毓智 李訥 2001 《漢語語法化的歷程》,北京:北京大學出版社。吳福祥 2003 《漢語伴隨介詞語法化的類型學研究——兼論 SVO 型語言中伴隨介詞的兩種演化模式》, 《中國語文》,第 1 期。王浩然 1994 《古漢語單音同義詞雙音化問題初探》,《河南大學學報》,第 3 期。吳為善 2003 《雙音化、語法化和韻律詞的再分析》,《漢語學習》,第 2 期。相銀歌 2007 《先秦同義連用現象研究》,四川大學文學與新聞學院碩士論文。朱 誠 1990 《同義連用淺論》,《 古漢語研究》,第 4 期。Bisang, W. 2010 Grammaticalization in Chinese: A construction-based account,Gradience. In Traugott& Trousdale(eds.)Gradualness and Grammaticalization. 245-277. Amsterdam:John Benjamins. Bybee, J. 2003. Mechanisms of change in grammaticization: The role of frequency. In Joseph, B.D.and Janda, J. (eds.).The Handbook of Historical Linguistics.602-623.Oxford:Blackwell.H i m m e l m a n n , P. 2 0 0 4 . L e x i c a l i z a t i o n a n d Grammart icalization: Opposite or orthogonal? In Bisang ,Himmelmann & Wiemer(eds.).What makes grammat ical izat ion: A look from i ts Fringes and components.21-42.Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.Traugott, E. 2008 The grammaticalization of NP of NP patterns. In Bergs, A. & Diewald, G.(eds.),Constructions and Language Change. 23-45. In Trends in English: Studies and Monographs 194.Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.Traugott, E. 2008 Variation, Grammaticalization, contructions and the incremental development of language: Suggestions from the development of Degree Modifiers in English, In Eckardt,R.,Jager,G. & Veenstra, T.(eds.), Slection, Development: Probing the Evolutionary Model of Language Change.119-250.In Trends in English: Studies and Monographs 197. Berlin/New York:Mouton de Gruyter.92
Japanese Speakers’ Perception of English /ɹ/ and /l/ in Different Word Positions 日本母語者對 /ɹ/ 和 /l/ 在英語詞的不同位置上的感知◎ Hua Lin & Kassidy Smids-Dyk / University of Victoria, Canada hualin@uvic.ca kassidy.smidsdyk@gmail.comAbstract: This is an experimental study which examined native Japanese speakers’ perception of English /ɹ/ and /l/ contrast. Different from many previous studies, the focus here was on word position. One of the goals was to verify that the final position induces better performance of the contrast’s perception than the initial position. Seven female Japanese speakers and one female native English speaker were recruited for the study. The recruits did a two-alternative identification test which used real words with /ɹ/ and /l/ embedded in word-initial single-consonant onset, word-initial two-consonant cluster, word-medial single-consonant onset and word-final single-consonant coda. The results show that there is no single pattern for performance at these positions. Factors including the learners’ proficiency level, phoneme type, and word membership need to be considered for better performance prediction. How acquisition theories such as Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH), Markedness and Speech Learning Model (SLM) fare in the prediction of the results are also discussed. Key words:phoneme perception, second language speech acquisition, English /ɹ/ and /l/, Japanese ESL learners9352 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
关键词:音位感知,二语语音习得,英文 /ɹ/ 和 /l/音位,日本人学英语 1.IntroductionThat Japanese ESL learners have trouble perceiving and producing the English /ɹ- l / contrast is wel l-documented (Aoyama et al., 2003;Brown,1998; Hattori & Iverson, 2009; Iverson et al., 2003; Larson-Hall, 2006; to name a few). Some of these studies focus on production (e.g., Larson-Hall, 2006); others on perception (e.g., Iverson et al., 2003). Most of the studies focus on /ɹ-l/ in onset position (e.g., Aoyama et al., 2003, Hattori & Iverson, 2009; Iverson et al., 2003) using real and/or synthesized stimuli. Some are on onset and medial positions (e.g., Ingram & Park 1998). Some are on initial and final positions (e.g.,Brown,1998). This study examines the Japanese ESL /ɹ-l/ perceptual contrast in four syllable positions using real words. Three research questions are raised, the major one being 1) Does Japanese ESL perception of English /ɹ-l/ contrast differ in word-initial, medial or final positions? Additionally, we also investigated 2) Is /l/ perceived better than /ɹ/ or vice versa? 3) Do high-proficiency learners perceive better /ɹ/ over /l/ than low-proficiency learners? These questions are raised due to several theories which make predictions about the answers to them. Examining obstruent voicing contrast in languages, Dinnsen and Eckman (1977) established that voicing contrast is most marked in final position than in medial position which in turn is more marked than in onset position. The authors found that L2 voicing acquisition followed this markedness in that final voicing contrast was the hardest to acquire while initial voicing contrast the easiest. Kochetov (2002) also found that the Russian plain-palatalized contrast was more marked in coda position than in onset. Given these findings, our prediction is that /ɹ-l/ contrast is the hardest to acquire in final position than in other positions. Japanese has a /ɹ-l/ counterpart /ɾ/ that has been found to match English /l/ better than English /ɹ/ (Brown,1998). Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) would predict that the Japanese ESL learners would find English /l/ easier to learn than English /ɹ/. However, Flege’s (1995) Speech Learning Model (SLM) would predict that the L2 learners of the contrast would perform better on the dissimilar English /ɹ/ than /l/. 2.Experiment 2.1. Participants Seven students, all female, (hereafter referred to as P1…P7) from Japan studying ESL at the English Language Centre of the University of Victoria, BC, Canada, were recruited. They had been studying English for 7 to 11 years (Mean=8.14), and were between 19 and 21 years of age (Mean=20.14 years). Their TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) scores ranged from 270 to 600 (Mean=403) and were obtained as a measure of English proficiency levels for high- and low-proficiency group assignment. Their length of residence in Canada was three months for all except for one participant, P7, who had lived in Canada for six months. Prior to coming to Canada, none of them had stayed for any significant amount of time in other English-speaking countries. All had only learned one foreign language, which was English, except for P7 who also had learned French as a second language for 2 years. One female native Canadian English speaker was recruited as a control. 94
2.2. Materials and recording A list of 38 words in 19 minimal pairs was assembled. The minimal pairs contained the /ɹ-l/ contrast embedded in four syllable positions: word initial single-consonant onset (WIC), word initial two-consonant onset (WICC), word medial single-consonant onset (WMC), and word final single-consonant coda (WFC). Originally we had 40 words in 20 minimal pairs, five minimal pairs for each word position, but later one of the pairs, supplies-surprise which had a medial onset cluster, was removed from the pool for consistency as the rest of the words in the WMC category contained only single-consonant onset. Additionally, ten minimal pairs which did not contain the /l/-/ɹ/ contrast were included as distractors. These distractors had vowel contrasts (such as /i/-/ɪ/) or fricative contrasts (such as /θ/-/s/). All 58 words in 29 pairs were scrambled and arranged into three question blocks on a test sheet, including two blocks of 10 pairs, and one block of nine pairs. Finally, two pairs of other words were chosen for a pre-testing practice session. A female native Canadian English speaker (not the recruited native speaking participant) read the words, and was audio-recorded to generate the stimuli. Each stimulus word was recorded twice following the phrase“Number #”; that is,“Number #: word, word.”An approximate 1.5 second inter-stimulus interval (ISI) was set between the two repetitions of each token, and approximately two seconds were set between each trial. 2.3. Perception testA two-alternative, forced-choice identification test was administered to participants individually in a quiet room in the English Language Centre of the University of Victoria. The audio stimuli were played through a headphone worn by the participant. As the audio stimuli played, the participants circled the word they heard out of each minimal pair on the test sheet. The participants first completed the practice session with two questions. Once that was done, they proceeded to the actual testing. Prior to the sessions, the participants filled out a Consent Form and a Language Background Questionnaire, and were then given instructions about the test in English and Japanese if the latter was necessary. The participants’ test sheets were scored for accuracy rate and analysed afterwards. Participants did not report any hearing problems. 3. ResultsDescriptive statistics is used in calculating the results, while inferential statistics is not done, due to the small sample size. One ESL participant, P7, performed like a native-speaker achieving a ceiling score of 100% over all test items. She differed from the rest of the group for having twice the Length of Residence, two rather than one L2, and the highest TOEIC score at 600. We therefore removed her scores from calculation, as (near-) native performance was not the focus of our study. On average, the accuracy rate for the ESL group was 76.3% (87/114), ranging from 63.2% for P2 and P3 to 94.7% for P6. The native-speaker participant scored 100%, as expected, validating the recorded materials. The individual scores for all participants and the ESL mean are given in Figure 1. All percentage given hereafter is of accuracy score.Figure 1. Participants’ accuracy rates 9552 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
In what follows, the word“participants”is used exclusively for the Japanese ESL speakers. To gain more insights into the non-native performance, we divided the ESL participants into two groups based on their years of ESL learning as well as their TOEIC scores. Those with ≥ 7 years and ≥ 480 TOEIC scores were placed in the higher-proficiency (HP) group, while the rest were placed in the lower-proficiency (LP) group. This division placed P5 and P6 in the high-proficiency (HP) group, while P1, P2, P3, and P4 were placed in the lower-proficiency (LP) group. Figure 2 gives the mean scores for all participants as a group and those of the two proficiency groups which are 76.3% for all (87/114), 68.4% for the LP group (52/76) and 92.1% (35/38) for the HP group. Figure 2. Accuracy rate by group Regarding the word position factor, performance is better at final (80%) and medial (83.3%) positions, compared with the two initial onset positions (70% for WIC and 73.3% for WICC). It is interesting to note that in final position, the two proficiency groups achieved identical scores—both at 80%. At the medial position, HP group (87.5%) performed somewhat better than LP group (81.3). Group difference is most striking at the onset positions. In fact, the errors there were made exclusively by the LP group (55% for single onset and 60% onset cluster) with the HP group getting perfect scores. Figure 3 gives details of the results. Figure 3. Accuracy rate by word position and group Looking at the results for the two /ɹ/ and /l/ phonemes separately, we find that their average identification scores by all participants as a group are virtually the same, with 75.9% for /ɹ/ and 76.7% for /l/, as illustrated in Figure 4. However, looking at the groups separately, we see that the LP group did much more poorly than the HP group, especially with /ɹ/ (63.9% versus 100% for /ɹ/ and 72.5% versus 85% for /l/). It is interesting to note that the LP group did better with /l/ than /ɹ/ (72.5% versus 63.9%) while the HP group did the opposite, achieving a perfect score for /ɹ/ and 85% for /l/. Figure 4. Accuracy rate for /ɹ/ and /l/ by group 96
We also examined the interaction between the phoneme and the position factors. Figure 5 gives the results. Figure 5. Accuracy rate for /ɹ/ and /l/ by word position It is very interesting to see that the two liquids show different patterns where position is concerned. The phoneme /ɹ/ is perceived most successfully in medial position (100% accuracy rate) followed by final position which is followed by the initial position. The phoneme /l/ on the other hand demonstrates a trend where the singleton initial onset fares the best and the final coda the worst. We are also interested in how each individual word fares in the perception test, and the results are given in Table 1. Of the 19 word/audio stimuli, two of them, rate and call, had the poorest accuracy rate at 33%, and errors on rate were all made by the LP members. Call seemed a particularly hard stimulus to identify (from car) as not only two LP participants erred on it, but both HP members did also. On the other hand, five of the word stimuli (flute, hearing, fire, meal and peer) were correctly identified by all participants, suggesting that something about these words made them easy to identify. One of factors could be position, as three of the five (fire, meal and peer) belong to the final position. Table 1. Accuracy rates by group and position for all audio stimuli LP HP AllWICraid 50% 100% 67%light 75% 100% 83%root 75% 100% 83%lime 75% 100% 83%rate 0% 100% 33%WICCfly 50% 100% 67%grade 75% 100% 83%flute 100% 100% 100%flight 50% 100% 67%brand 25% 100% 50%WMCtally 75% 50% 67%alive 75% 100% 83%hearing 100% 100% 100%jelly 75% 100% 83%WFCcall 50% 0% 33%fire 100% 100% 100%meal 100% 100% 100%peer 100% 100% 100%Pyer 50% 100% 67%Finally, among the findings is also that there were changed answers. Some participants changed their initial answers by crossing them out and circling the other choice in the minimal pair. In total, 3 answers were changed from an initially correct answer to an incorrect one. One answer 9752 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
did the opposite.4. DiscussionOur study is firstly interested in the factor of word position affecting Japanese speakers’ perception of the English /ɹ/ and /l/ contrast. Our results indicate that position-wise, there is no singular pattern for the identification of either of the two phonemes. It did not confirm that the final position is favored over other positions, including the initial positions, by the Japanese ESL speakers in the perception of the said phoneme contrast. What happens (shown in Figure 5) instead is that while it is true that /ɹ/ identification achieved a perfect score in word-medial onset position, a high score (85%) in final position, and poorer scores on the two onset positions (61.1% and 66.7%, respectively), the /l/ identification did the opposite with the highest mark for the single initial onset position (83.3%) followed by the initial cluster position and medial onset position (both at 77.8%), which is followed by the final position (66.7%). The results also confirm that neither is there an order of acquisition where the initial position is favoured over the final position, as predicted by markedness. It is interesting to find that consonant-cluster onset does not necessarily induce poorer performance than a singleton onset, as markedness would have predicted. Although /l/ was better identified at the initial single-onset position than in the initial onset cluster (88.3% versus 77.8%), the trend for /ɹ/ was the opposite—performance was better at the onset cluster (66.7%) than at the singleton onset (61.1%). An interesting finding is made that learners of different proficiency levels performed differently on /ɹ/ versus /l/. High proficiency learners made no mistakes in /ɹ/ identification at all as opposed to 36.1% error rate on its perception by the low-proficiency participants. Low-proficiency participants, on the other hand, performed better with the more similar /l/ than the dissimilar /ɹ/. This result indicates that using acquisition theories such as CAH and SLM to predict learning outcomes need take into account the stage of L2 learning as neither CAH nor SLM would predict correctly the results of this study without considering the time/proficiency factor. When that factor is considered, CAH is the predictor at the low-proficiency levels, while at the advanced levels, SLM better predicts the outcome. Also interesting is the result that both proficiency groups achieved 100% on /ɹ/ identification in the word-medial-onset position, suggesting a facilitative quality of this position for /ɹ/ identification as well as pointing to a need to study this onset position separately from the word-initial onset position (where performance was different—much worse at 61.1%). Finally, our results suggest that individual membership in a word should also be taken into consideration when studying this contrast, as such membership makes a difference—not all /ɹ/s and /l/s of different words are identified equally. Some achieved ceiling performance, but others such as rate and call had very low accuracy scores(33%). Such difficulty cannot be simply explained by word position, as discussed below. What is also interesting is that while the low proficiency group got zero percentage correct on rate, suggesting a context for an earlier-stage learning difficulty, the high-proficiency group got the same poor results on call, suggesting that certain word environment is just persistently hard for the contrast’ s identification over long term. The problem with call could also be due to the difficulty with dark /l/ following back round vowel (He, 2014; He & Lin, 2004a & 2004b) in which case it is not a mere matter of the contrast, it is also a difficulty inherent in the consonant itself. While word position has some success in predicting performance 98
(e.g., more ceiling performance is found in final position), individual word can fare very differently in a give position category. In the word-initial-onset position, for instance, performance ranges from 0% to 75% in accuracy, while in word-final position, the gap is even wider—between 0% to 100%. In short, more factors—finer details—need to be considered for the outcome prediction to achieve better success. These may include the vowel environment and the intrinsic properties of the phonemes in addition to the formant frequencies. This study has several limitations, one of which is the sample size which is small. Further studies with larger population need be conducted to verify the findings. Another limitation is in the position type. In future studies, we recommend that all possible positions of the contrast be studied, including word initial single onset, word-initial cluster of two and three consonants, word medial coda, word medial onset of all three types—singleton, and clusters of two and three consonants—and word final coda. Also should be controlled is vowel environment to see if it plays a role in the identification, which although we did not control, we are sure does play a role. Procedure-wise, we tested sound stimuli of only one of each minimal pairs. Further studies should test both of the words in a pair. Finally, the stress pattern of a disyllabic word could play a role, but our study did not control this. Future studies should have half of the disyllabic words with initial stress while the other half final stress. ReferencesAoyama, K., Flege, J. E., Guion, S. G., Akahane-Yamada, R., & Yamada, T. (2004). Perceived phonetic dissimilarity and L2 speech learning: The case of Japanese /r/ and English /l/ and /r/. Journal of Phonetics, 32(2), 233-250.Brown, C.A. (1998).The role of the L1 grammar in the L2 acquisition of segmental structure. Second Language Research, 14, 136-193.Flege, J. E. (1995). Second-language speech learning: theory, findings and problems”. Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Theoretical and Methodological Issues. Ed. W.Strange. Timonium, MD: York Press. 229-273.Hattori, K., and Iverson, P. (2009). English /r/-/l/ category assimilation by Japanese adults: Individual differences and the link to identification accuracy, Journal of Acoustic Society of America, 125, 469–479.He, Y. (2014). Production of English Syllable Final /l/ by Mandarin Chinese Speakers. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 742-750He, Y. & Lin, H. (2004a). The production of English syllable-final /l/ by Mandarin speakers. Manuscript. He, Y. & Lin, H. (2004b). Phonetic versus Phonological Influences on Mandarin Listeners Perception of English /l/. Paper presented at the Sixth International Symposium on Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching (Beijing-Shanghai). Beijing, China. August, 2004.Ingram, J. C. L. & Park, S-G. (1997). Cross-language vowel perception and production by Japanese and Korean learners of English. Journal of Phonetics, 25, 343-370. Kochetov, Alexei.(2002). Production, perception, and emergent phonotactic patterns: A case of contrastive palatalization. Outstanding Dissertations in Linguistics Series. New York, London: Routledge. 266 pp.9952 2018 年第 2 期 總第 9 期52
Larson-Hall, J. (2006). What does more time buy you? Another look at the effects of long-term residence on production accuracy of English /r/ and / l / by Japanese speakers. Language and Speech, 49(4), 521– 548.Iverson, P., Kuhl, P. K., Akahane-Yamada, R., Diesch, E., Tohkura, Y., Kettermann, A., and Siebert, C. (2003). A perceptual interference account of acquisition difficulties for non-native phonemes. Cognition, 87, B47–B57.Appendix: minimal pair word list used in this study1.Word-initial onset1.Raid, laid2.Right, light3.Root, loot4.Rhyme, lime5.Rate, late2.Word-initial onset cluster1.Fry, fly2.Grade, glade3.Fruit, flute4. Fright, flight5. Brand, bland3.Word-medial onset1. Surprise, supplies (excluded in analysis)2. Tarry, tally 3. Arrive, alive4. Hearing, healing5. Jerry, jelly4.Word-final coda1. Car, call2. Fire, file3. Mere, meal4. Peer, peel5. Pyre, pile5.Distractors1. Think, sink2. Thought, fought3. Thing, sing4. Vile, file5. Vein, feign6. Beer, bear7. Boar, bar8. Bean, bin9. Ban, bane10. Boat, bit100