目 錄現代漢語“着”類詞的語義地圖研究………………………………………………………………………………………郭利霞、李小凡 (4)“各種 +X”構式及其形成機制…………………………………………………………………………………………………羅耀華、羅琪翔 (19)違反詞語完整律現象中插入成分的性質…………………………………………………………………………………………………倪廣妍 (28)謂詞性空位成分存在的理論依據………………………………………………………………………………………………………………張 昀 (38)安徽霍山話“父親”稱謂初探 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………曹 東 (49)山東章丘方言的輕聲前變調及所反映的現象…………………………………………………………………………………………趙學玲 (53)江沙維《漢洋合字彙》音系性質探討………………………………………………………………………………………………………艾溢芳(64)《漢語外來詞詞典》英源外來詞研究………………………………………………………………………………………………………蔣淞宇(73)遼代的語言狀況……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 傅 林 (81)An Embodied Construction Grammar Approach to the Semantic Overlap of Chinese Classifiers: The case of tiao and dao………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Song Jiang(91)2
3.2 謂詞性的“X”這樣的“X”多流行於網絡,有“猜測、準備、誹謗、反對、懷疑、羞辱、索取、洩露、感謝”等。這些謂詞性的“X”既有單音節,也有雙音節,例如:(6)在各大交友網站上,催成績、催工作、催結婚、催生娃的帖子得到了廣大網友的轉載,一位網名叫“金府商城”的微博網友說:2013 年的春節,你被催了嗎?(張亭亭《春節“各種催” 讓青年男女“壓力山大”》,2013 年 2 月 19 日《德州晚報》)(7)美國網民“各種調侃” 政府關門,民眾如何反應,在美國一家主流媒體網站上,網民們的評論“歡樂多”。StayPuft:每次政府關門,我們都能去動物園偷動物,快點,去把你的寵物帶回來。(2013 年 10 月2 日《新京報》)例(6)中“各種”修飾單音節動詞“催”,作為新聞標題,在導語中,對“各種催”進行了注解——催成績、催工作、催結婚、催生娃;例(7)中“各種”修飾雙音節動詞“調侃”,對於“政府關門”這個話題,網民發表了各自不同的看法,這些看法,多帶調侃性。 另外,從進入構式的“X”的性質來說,“X”多為動作動詞和心理動詞。例如:(8)有時間也有有心情各種閒逛了:逛博客,逛當當,逛淘寶,逛街。(http://blog. sina.com.cn/s/blog _afec68f30101eqff.html)(9)女朋友各種嫌棄我,各種想和我分手。1. 嫌棄我學歷低,我重本,她在讀研究生。2.嫌棄我工資低,我工資確實低了點。但在西北城市,一年下來十萬過一點,總不至於餓死。3. 嫌棄我沒房沒車,這是硬傷,我無解。4. 嫌棄我家境不好,這是最大的硬傷,我更無解。5. 嫌棄我對她不好,捨不得為她花錢。( h t t p : / / w w w . d o u b a n . c o m / g r o u p /topic/45760586/)進入構式的動作動詞有“搶、羞辱、換乘、索取、洩露、測、夾藏、鬧、感謝、折騰、烤、圍堵、坑、賠、擠兌、模仿、問、答、退出、催、調侃、逛、賺、嫌棄、拷問、吐槽、送、顛覆、防、誹謗、吸附、騷擾、露、求、收集、追捧、支援”等,具有 [+ 飾人 ][+ 動作 ] 等語義特徵;進入構式的心理動詞有:“猜測、懷疑、質疑、嫌、嫌棄、信任、瞭解、喜歡、羡慕、嫉妒、煩、擔心、害怕、討厭”等,具有 [+ 飾人 ][+ 心理活動 ] 等語義特徵。細分起來,心理動詞還分為心理活動動詞、心理狀態動詞和心理使役動詞(文雅麗 2007)等小類。2.3 飾詞性的“X”這樣的“X”有:“難、假、甜、美、亮、棒、慘、牛、亂、潮”等單音節形容詞;也有“荒誕、矯情、天然、清新、猥瑣、悲催、爽快、辛酸、尷尬、狼狽、淩亂、緊張”等雙音節形容詞。例如:(10)笨賊一籮筐 各種悲催各種搞笑(《現代金報》2013 年 7 月 23 日)(11)各種淩亂,傷不起啊——自從公司規定了不能在辦公室抽煙後,各煙友同事們都自覺跑到陽臺過癮,某同事一邊過癮一邊看手機,最後猛抽一口瀟灑的把手機扔到樓下,望著手裡的煙頭各種淩亂。(捧腹網)能進入構式的形容詞,一般為性質形容詞,如例(10)中的“悲催”,例(11)中的“淩亂”。當然,有些“X”為形容詞性短語,如“不靠譜、不淡定、不走運”等。此外,整體而言,“各種”與“X”的組配,可以形成不同的類型。其一,單用式與迭用式。22
一 引言 詞語完整律 (Lexical Integrity Principle)由 Steven Lapointe (1980) 和 Anna Maria Di Sciullo and Edwin Williams (1987) 明確提出,指詞理應是閉合的單位,其內部成分不能進入句法過程。具體來說,構詞完成以後,進入句法時是作為一個整體進行移位,不能對其進行拆散,句法規則不能移動、修改、添加或刪除一個複雜的詞的部分的原則。但是,漢語和英語中都存在違反詞語完整律的用法,在詞語中間添加其他成分,如:“恭什麼喜”、“負他媽的責”、abso-bloody-lutely、fan-fuckin-tastic 等,還有英語詞被漢語插入現象:sho 什麼違反詞語完整律現象中插入成分的性質 The Property of Inserted Element in Broken “Lexical Integrity Principle” Phenomenon◎ 倪廣妍 / 華中師範大學提 要:詞語完整律是普遍規則之一,其中最重要的內容是:詞語不可以擴展,但短語可以。但漢語和英語中都出現了違反詞語完整律的“A 什麼 B”“A 他媽的 B”“abso-bloody-lutely”等現象,通過考察分析,我們發現,英語詞中插入的詈詞和漢語中的插入詞“什麼”“他媽的”等都屬於語綴,只是功能不同,插入詞“什麼”是表達否定功能的語綴,“他媽的”是兼具表示加強語氣和表示否定功能的語綴,英語詞中插入的詈詞是加強語氣功能的語綴。語綴性質的確定,有助於進一步解釋違反詞語完整律現象,同時,這個結論也和漢語“詞綴少,語綴多”的特點高度契合。關鍵詞:詞語完整律 A 什麼 B A 他媽的 B 英語詈詞 語綴Key words: Lexical Integrity Principle; “AshenmeB”;”AtamadeB”;Expletive words; Clitics;28
喬志傑 2014 《Fuck在《國土安全》中的語用功能》,《河北北方學院學報》第 6 期。史迪芬 . 平克著 洪蘭譯 2004 《語言本能——探索人類語言進化的奧秘》,汕頭大學出版社。王力 1985 《中國現代語法》,北京:商務印書館。王海峰 2003 《A 什麼 B 結構初探》,《四川大學學報 ( 哲學社會科學版 )》第 3 期。王文斌 2001 《也談英語的中綴問題》,《外語與外語教學》第 9 期。肖任飛 2006 《非疑問用法的“什麼”及其相關格式》,華中師範大學碩士學位論。邢福義 汪國勝 2003 《現代漢語》,武漢:華中師範大學出版社。徐傑 2012 《詞綴少但語綴多——漢語語法特點的重新概括》,《華中師範大學學報 ( 人文社會科學版 )》第 2 期。楊炎華 2013 《詞綴、語綴與現代漢語語法體系》, 華中師範大學博士畢業論文。尹繼群 1998 《說短語詞“他媽的”》,《語文建設》第 6 期。張誼生 2010 《試論罵詈語的詞彙化、標記化與構式化》,《當代修辭學》第 4 期。張吉生 1998 《英語中綴》,《外語與外語教學》第 4 期。張邱林 2015 《河南陝縣方言源於性器官名稱的情感助詞》,《語文研究》第 1 期。趙彥春 1999 《英語中綴 ?》,《外語與外語教學》第 3 期。沈力 2006 《北京語における動詞の「コピー」と「分離」(On the verb copying and splitting in Mandarin Chinese)》 峰岸真琴 ( 編 ) 《言語基礎論の構築へ向けて》[C],東京外國語大學アジア · アフリカ言語文化研究所出版。A.M.D.Sciullo.&E.Williams. 1987. On the definition Of Word (Linguistic Inquiry monographs.14).[M]. Cambridge. MA: The MIT Press.Harris, A.C. 2000. Where in the word is the Udi clitic?[J].Language 76 (3): 593–616.McCarthy, J. 1982. Prosodic structure and expletive infixation[J]. Language 58(3): 574–590. Lapo in t e , S . 1980 . A Theo ry o f Grammat i c a l Agreement[D]. PhD Dissertation, University of Massachusetts.Zwicky,Arnold. 1985. Clitics and particles[J]. Language 61(2):283-305.3748 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
一、“空語類”的內涵語言是人類最重要的社會交際工具和思維認知工具。語言是聲音和意義的結合體,但是語言中仍然存在着“有義無音”和“有音無義”的現象。其中,“有義無音”的現象就是我們通常所謂的“空語類”(Empty Category),而“有音無義”的現象就是“形式語類”(Expletive Category)。空語類和形式語類的存在,反映了語言中聲音和意義的錯配現象。徐杰(2007)認為,不同於描寫語言學的詞類分類系統,“空語類”是生成語言學中一個重要的語類。生成語言學的語類系統包括“詞彙語類”(Lexical Category)、“空語類”和“形式語類”,特點如下:詞彙語類 空語類 形式語類語音 + - +句法 + + +語義 + + -(表一)描寫語言學的詞類分類系統是關於“詞彙語類”的分類。所謂詞彙語類,具有 [+ 語音、+ 句法、+ 語義 ]的特點,有語音形式、語義內涵和句法功能,包括名詞、動詞、形容詞、副詞、介詞、連詞等。形式語類有 [+ 語音、+ 句法、- 語義 ] 的特點,有語音形式和句法功能,但卻沒有語義內涵,如英語中的it 和 there:(1)It is raining.(2)There is a book on the desk.句中的 it 和 there 只有語音形式,卻沒有語義內涵,它的句法功能僅僅是為了滿足“擴充的投射原則”(Extended Projection Principle;EPP)的需要:即要求每個句子都必須有主語。空語類有 [+ 句法、+ 語義、- 語音 ] 的特點,在語表上沒有語音形式,但卻有語義內涵和句法功能。Chomsky(1981)認為,空語類是指語言結構中沒有語音形式,但有語法作用和語義內容的結構成分。通過分析,我們知道,“句法”特點是詞彙語類、空語類和形式語類的共同點,它們在句子結構中和一般的句法成分有相同句法功能。由於空語類有 [+ 句法、+語義、- 語音 ] 的特點,在句子的語表形式上不出現,很多人並沒有意識到其存在,描寫語言學有時把稱之為“省略”或“隱含”[1],但我們認為,空語類的特點決定了它與省略或隱含雖然有一部分相似之處,但是本質並不相同。空語類有更深刻的句法功能和語義內容,並且空語類有很系統的體系分類,這些都是空語類獨有的特點。Chomsky(1981)認為空語類具有“照應性”(Anaphor)和“指代性”(Pronominal),因此,生成語言學對於空語類的研究主要集中於“名詞性空語類”(Nominal Empty Category;ECn)。根據“照應性”([±A])和“指代性”([±P])特徵可以將名詞性空語類分為四類:NP語跡、wh- 語跡、PRO 和 pro。作為隱性的句法成分,它們與顯性的名詞性成分的對應關係如下:顯性 隱性[+A,-P] 照應語 NP 語跡[-A,+P] 代詞 pro3948 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
[-A,-P] 指稱語 wh- 語跡[+A,+P] —— PRO 下面我們來簡單介紹一下這四種名詞性空語類 [2]:(一)PROPRO是處於非時態分句的主語位置,帶有題元角色,但不得受到管轄,因此沒有管轄語而得不到格。PRO 沒有獨立的指稱意義,以離它最近的名詞短語為先行語,依靠先行語的控制獲得指稱意義(用同標 i表示,如 3、4),或者得到任指的解釋(如 5、6)。PRO 有 [+A,+P] 特徵,沒有顯性的名詞短語與之對應。(3)Johni decided [PROi to go].(4)Johni tried [PROi to do it by himself].(5)[PRO To study syntax well] is difficult.(6)It is difficult [PRO to study syntax well].(二)propro 是處於時態分句的主語位置,帶有題元角色,並受到 [+tense] 特徵的屈折詞 I的管轄,因此可以從 I處得到格。pro 有確定的指稱意義。pro 有 [-A,+P] 特徵,與代詞(pronoun)相對應,根據“約束理論”(Control Theory)的“第二原則”(Principle B):(7)代詞在管轄範圍內不受約束。因此,pro 在管轄範圍內不受約束。一般認為,pro 可以出現在動詞屈折變化豐富的語言裏,根據動詞的屈折變化來判斷空主語 pro 的所指。如意大利語(Haegeman 1998:451):(8)[pro] Ha parlato.has spoken.(他 /她)講過話了。(9)Gianni ha detto [CP che [IP[pro] ha parlato]].Gianni has said that has spokenGianni 說(他)講過話了。但是,在漢語中,根本沒有動詞的形態變化,卻允許 pro 的存在。例如:(10)——小王來了嗎?——小王 /pro 來了。(11)——小王來了嗎?——小李說 [小王 /pro 來了 ]。(三)NP 語跡NP 語跡(NP-trace)是名詞短語在格的驅動下從無格的位置移到有格的位置後,在原位留下的語跡,即是 NP 移位後留下的語跡(trace;t)。NP 移位元(NP movement)具有以下特徵:第一,NP 移位的起點位置有三種:一、被動態動詞的賓語位置(如 13),二、給被動形態的例外授格動詞作賓語的動態動詞的賓語位置(如 14),三、提升動詞或形容詞的不定式分句的主語位置(如 15)。第二,NP 移位的終點位置是一個主目語位置,是“主目語移位”(A-movement)(如 13-16)。第三,NP 移位是從一個無格、有題元角色的主目語位置移到一個有格、無題元角色的主目語位置(如13-16)。第四,NP 移位是向上進行的,是循序漸進的,移位後在原位留下語跡,形成語鏈(chain)(如 16)。NP 語跡有 [-A,-P] 特徵,與照應語(anaphor)相對應,根據“約束理論”(Control Theory)的“第一40
原則”(Principle C):(12)照應語在管轄範圍內必須受到約束。因此,NP語跡在管轄範圍內必須受到約束。(13)John is arrested.[IP ECn is arrested John].[IP Johni is arrested ti].語鏈:(14)John is believed to be a good writer.[IP1 ECn is believed [IP2 John to be a good writer]].[IP1 Johni is believed [IP2 ti to be a good writer]]. 語鏈:(15)John seems to have different ideas.[IP1 ECn seems [IP2 John to have different ideas]].[IP1 Johni seems [IP2 ti to have different ideas]]. 語鏈:(16)John is believed to have been arrested.[IP1 ECn1 is believed [IP2 ECn2 to have been arrested John]].[IP1 Johni is believed [IP2 t’i to have been arrested ti]]語鏈:(四)wh- 語跡wh- 語跡是指在 wh- 問句或關係分句中 wh- 成分移位後在原位留下的語跡。wh- 移位元(wh-movement)具有以下特徵:第一,wh- 移位發生在 wh- 問句(如 18、19、20)或關係分句(如 21)中。在 wh- 問句中,wh- 成分受到CP 中心語 C的 [+wh] 特徵的核查,為了核銷該特徵,從IP 中的某個位置移到 [Spec,CP] 的位置。第二,wh- 移位的起點位置可以為一個主目語位置(如 18),也可以為一個非主目語位置(如 19)。第三,wh- 移位的終點位置是 [Spec,CP],是一個非主目語位置,是“非主目語移位”(A’-movement)(如18-22)。第四,wh- 移位是向上進行的,是循序漸進的,移位後在原位留下語跡,形成語鏈(如 22)。wh- 語跡有 [+A,-P] 特徵,與指稱語(referring expression)相對應,根據“約束理論”(Control Theory)的“第三原則”(Principle C):(17)指稱語在任何範圍內都不得受到約束。因此,wh-語跡在任何範圍內都不得受到約束。(18)What did Mary buy?[IP Mary [I’ did [VP buy [NP what]]]].[3][CPWhati didk [IP Mary [I’ tk [VP buy ti]]]].語鏈:(19)When did Mary leave?[IP Mary [I’ did [VP leave [AdvP when]]]].[CPWheni didk [IP Mary [I’ tk [VP leave ti]]]].語鏈:(20)I know what Mary brought.[IP1 I know [CP [IP2 Mary brought what]]].[IP1 I know [CP whati [IP2 Mary brought]]].語鏈:(21)I know the boy who Mary loves.[IP1 I know [NP the boy [CP [IP2 Mary loves who]]]][IP1 I know [NP the boy [CP whoi [IP2 Mary loves ti]]]].語鏈:(22)Who do you think that John believes that Mary loves?4148 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
[CP1 [IP You think [CP2 that John believes [CP3 that Mary loves who]]]].[CP1 Whoi do you think [CP2 t’’ i that John believes [CP3 t’i that Mary loves ti]]]]語鏈:空語類研究一直是生成語言學研究領域中最核心和最熱門的議題之一。研究空語類現象,可以更好地從本質上對句子的句法結構進行審視,重新分析,重新解釋,重新認識一些相關的語言現象。二、謂詞性空位成分存在的理論依據Chomsky認為,空語類是具有“照應性”和“指代性”特點的,因此,生成語言學對於空語類的研究主要集中於“名詞性空語類”。我們認為,語言中不僅存在“名詞性空語類”,也存在“謂詞性空語類”(Predicative Empty Category;ECp),其表示形式是“謂詞性空位成分”。[4]謂詞性空位成分(ECp)是指在語言結構中沒有語音形式,但有語法作用和語義內容的隱性的謂詞性結構成分,它和顯性的句法成分有相同的句法功能和語義內容。謂詞性空位成分的存在並不是憑空捏造、似有似無的,而是由理論推導得出的。在生成語言學的理論背景下,“原則與參數理論”(Principles and Parameters Theory;PPT)中的“題元理論”(Theta Theory)、“X- 階標理論”(X-bar Theory)和“格位理論”(Case Theory)是推導出名詞性空語類存在的理論依據。我們知道,謂詞和名詞是句中兩大重要的句法成分,兩者之間的關係非常微妙,它們相互依賴、相互制約的關係可以形成很多獨具特色的句法現象。呂叔湘(1987)認為,在句子裏邊,動詞和名詞互相依賴,互相制約。構成句子的最根本的詞是名詞和動詞;除特殊情況外,光有名詞,沒有動詞,不能成句;光有動詞,沒有名詞,也不能成句。所以研究句子裏的動詞,不能不同時研究它的前前後後、跟它直接間接相聯繫的名詞。邢福義(1996)認為,在漢語裏,最重要的兩類詞是動詞和名詞。這兩類詞在句子中的分工與配合,形成句子內在機制的最基本的脈絡。這兩類詞的分工與配合,可以概括為八個字:“動詞核心,名詞賦格”。由此可見,謂詞和名詞之間關係的微妙性。研究句子的基本結構,也就是研究句中謂詞和名詞之間的關係。正因為謂詞和名詞的微妙關係,我們可以預測,將這些理論貫徹到底,自然地可以推導出謂詞性空語類的存在,而謂詞性空語類的表現形式就是謂詞性空位成分,一些句法結構正包含謂詞性空位成分的謂詞性空位現象。我們來分析一下是怎樣由這些理論推導出謂詞性空位成分存在的。生成語言學中的“原則與參數理論”是關於“普遍語法”(Universal Grammar)的理論,主要用“原則”(principle)(人類語言的共有現象)與“參數”(parameter)(語言的特有現象)來描述和解釋自然語言的各種現象。一般認為,原則與參數理論是一種組合理論(modular theory),由一系列不同的理論組成,主要由以下幾個理論組成:“題元理論”(Theta Theory)、“X- 階標理論”(X-bar Theory)、“格位理論”(Case Theory)、“約束理論”(Binding 42
wh- 問句和關係分句中,wh- 成分移位沒有伴隨中心語移位。[4] 我們認為,“空位現象”中的“空位”更能反映出語言中“有義無音”現象,即在表層結構存在這樣一個“空的位置”,卻發揮着和顯性句法成分相同的句法功能和語義內容。在文中,“空語類”的表現形式為“空位現象”。一般認為,謂詞包括動詞和形容詞。我們發現,漢語中的“謂詞性空位成分”主要指“動詞性空位成分”。採用“謂詞”的說法,因為其涵蓋面更廣。[5] 相比於 Xu(1993)提出的擴充的格位過濾器(Generalized Case Filter),我們稱之為傳統的“經典的格位過濾器(Case Filter)”。[6] 這裏主要指“名詞性空語類”。參考文獻: 何貞慧 2010 漢語空語類與省略及隱含的屬性辨析,《湖南農業大學學報(社會科學版)》第 3 期。李艷惠 2005 省略與成分缺失,《語言科學》第 2期。李艷惠 2007 空語類理論和漢語空語類的辨識與指稱研究,《語言科學》第 2 期。唐衛平 趙耿林 2016 省略現象研究:反思與發展——省略認知觀 VS 省略生成觀,《外語教學》第 3 期。溫賓利 2002 《當代句法學導論》,北京:外語教學與研究出版社。吳 剛 2006 《生成語法研究》,上海:上海外語教育出版社。邢福義 1996 《漢語語法學》,長春:東北師範大學出版社。徐 杰 2001 《普遍語法原則與漢語語法現象》,北京:北京大學出版社。徐 杰 2007 生成語法的“語類”與傳統語法的“詞類”比較研究,《對外漢語研究》第 3 期。Chomsky, Noam 1981 Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures. Dordrecht: Foris Publictions.Chomsky, Noam 1995 The Minimalist Program. Cambridge: MIT Press.Winkler, Susanne and Kerstin Schwabe 2003 Exploring the interfaces from the perspective of omitted structures. In The Interfaces: Deriving Interpreting Omitted Structures. ed. by Kerstin Schwabe and Susanne Winkler. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.Xu, Jie 2003 Sentence Head and Sentence Structure. London and Singapore: Longman.48
安徽霍山話“父親”稱謂初探A Preliminary Study on the Appellation of “Father” in Huoshan Dialect in Anhui Province◎ 曹東 / 北京大學 提 要:霍山話表示“父親”的稱謂詞可分為“伯”“大(陰平)”“老”三類,本文試結合漢語歷史文獻和方言分佈情況釐清三者間的關係。關鍵詞:霍山話 親屬稱謂 “父親” 方言接觸Key words: Huoshan dialect, kinship terms, “father”, dialect contact霍山縣位於安徽省西部、大別山脈東段北坡,全縣地勢西高東低,西部和南部屬山區,東部和北部屬平原。新版《中國語言地圖集·漢語方言卷》(2012)把霍山話 [1] 劃歸江淮官話洪巢片,不過,霍山地處幾大方言(次方言)交匯地帶(西面是黃孝片江淮官話,北面是信蚌片中原官話,南面是懷嶽片贛語),長期的方言接觸使得霍山話在一定程度上混雜了周邊幾大方言的一些特點,這在詞彙方面表現得尤為明顯。本文試從表示“父親”的稱謂詞入手,探討霍山話的上述特點。有關普通話和漢語方言“父親”稱謂詞的研究文獻比較多,如胡士雲(1994、2007)、郭熙(2006)、付義榮(2008)、儲泰松(2016)等;目前還沒有發現專門討論霍山話親屬稱謂的研究性論文。 一、霍山話“父親”稱謂詞的三種叫法及探源霍山話表示“父親”的稱謂詞(含呼稱和敘稱)主要有三種:第一類“伯”類詞:伯 [pɐʔ⁴]/ 伯伯 [pɐʔ⁴ ·pɐʔ]。[2] 這種叫法分佈範圍最廣,以衡山鎮(城關)為代表。呼稱時多單念“伯”,敘稱時為“我伯”或“我伯伯”。可以稱比父親年齡大的兄弟為“大伯”(排行第一)、4948 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
山東章丘方言的輕聲前變調及所反映的現象An Analysis on the Sandhi before Neutral Tone in Zhangqiu Dialect of Shandong Province◎ 趙學玲 / 南京大學海外教育學院提 要:本文通過考察山東章丘方言輕聲前變調的情況,探討了輕聲產生時一些相關的語音現象。結論是山東章丘方言在輕聲產生的時候,全濁上聲已經與全濁去聲合流,入聲已經分化,平聲字裏濁音聲母已經清化但是仄聲字裏的濁音聲母尚未清化,陽平和上聲也沒有合併。關鍵詞:輕聲前變調 入聲分化 濁音清化 平聲 仄聲Key words: sandhi before the neutral tone, separation of the Ru tone, devocalization of the voiced initials, Ping tone, Ze tone零、關於輕聲“輕聲”作為一個語言學術語第一次出現在趙元任先生的《國語羅馬字研究》(1922),但是那時沒有什麼相關的說明。到了《漢語口語語法》(1979),才對輕聲做了一些描寫。“在弱重音(輕聲)中,聲調幅度差不多壓縮到零,其持續時間也相對地縮短。在大多數情況下弱重音出現於後附音節,也就是說,它緊跟在一個重音音節之後,這個重音音節的聲調決定這個弱重音音節的高度。”“因為聲調已壓縮到零,我稱它為輕聲。幾乎任何帶四個正軌聲調之一的字在一定條件下都能變5348 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
張世方(2010)《北京官話語音研究》,北京:北京語言大學出版社。Edkins, Joseph (1864) A Grammaer of the Chinese Colloquial Language Commonly Called the Mandarin Dialact. 2nd ed., Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press.Edkins, Joseph (1885) Progressive Lessons in the Chinse Spoken Language. 5th ed., Shanghai: American Presbyterian Misson Press.Gonçalves, Joaquim Afonso (1833) Diccionario China-Portuguez. Macao: Real Collegio de S. Jose.Hemeling. K. Karl (1902) The Nanking Kuan Hua. Shanghai: The German Printing and Publishing House.Morrison Robert (1815-1823) Dictionary in the Chinese Language. Macao: Printed at the Honorable East India Company’s Press. Wade, Thomas Francis (1886) A Progressive Course Designed to Assist the Student of Colloquial Chinese. 2nd ed., Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs.72
《漢語外來詞詞典》英源外來詞研究Research on English Loan Words in Chinese Loanwords Dictionary◎ 蔣淞宇 / 山東師範大學提 要:《漢語外來詞詞典》是中國歷史上第一部外來詞專門詞典,是研究上個世紀外來詞的主要語料參考。今天我們回頭再看,發現學界對極具代表性的《漢語外來詞詞典》研究和分析還是不夠,尤其是對其中的英源外來詞的研究更是微乎其微。論文以《漢語外來詞詞典》為基本語料,覆蓋詞典的所有英源外來詞,從借用方式的定量、定性分析,英源外來詞中的漢語元素,英源外來詞用字與詞類歸宿三個方面出發,揭示出上個世紀英源外來詞造詞心理,從而為現代漢語英源外來詞的研究提出一些建議。關鍵詞:漢語外來詞詞典 英源外來詞 借用方式 造詞心理 應用Key words: Chinese Loanwords Dictionary, English Loanwords, Morphology, Word Coinage Psychology,Application一、前言高名凱、劉正埮、麥永乾、史有為四位中國語言學大師編寫的《漢語外來詞詞典》(以下簡稱詞典)是中國歷史上最早的一部漢語外來詞專業詞典,歷時十幾年的編寫才見於世人。詞典搜詞範圍較廣,涉及中國歷史上古往今來的不同源頭的漢語外來詞,但是其中英源外來詞數量最多,且來源標注明顯。可以說,這部詞典是迄今為止漢語外來詞研究的極重要的成果。但是今天看來,學界對這部詞典的研究成果並不多 [1]。通過在“中國知網”上檢索“漢語外來詞詞典”,我們發現相關論文只有大概十篇左右,在這少量的論文中,21 世紀的作品更是蹤影難覓,似乎只有《我國第一部漢語外7348 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
研究英源外來詞如何用,如上文分析到的醫療化學類的英源外來詞,這些詞可能在生活中不會經常用到,但卻會對我們的生活產生很大的作用。藥品的選擇、對不同藥物的作用的認識等,我們可以通過一定的研究讓普通人也能快速掌握。而且,我們認為應該把這樣的方法,應用到社會中各個領域的英源外來詞研究中。當然,對於這樣的情況,尤其是醫用類的英源外來詞,儘量採取意譯方式,這樣更有利於發揮出外來詞的作用,更有利於人們接受這樣的外來詞。第四,在借用的過程中,除了音譯和意譯兩種方式以外,我們還應該注意到音譯部分音節和音加意譯這兩種常見但是沒有作為主流的借用方式。其實,通過研究,我們發現,音譯部分音節,也就是縮譯形式其實是最容易被保存下來,通過音節詞素化的過程產生更多新詞的方式。如:“奧——奧運會、奧體”。除此之外,音加意譯這種方式也是應該被注意的現象,如:“爵士樂”,後來通用度高了以後,大家都叫“爵士”,但是“爵士”又表示“爵士舞”,類似這樣的多義詞,尤其是在生活中大量運用的多義詞,運用音加意譯的方式可能會消除語言中的歧義,又保存了辭彙的外來色彩,我們生活中的語言也會更加的清晰易懂。綜上所述,英源外來詞本身是外來詞研究的大寶庫,我們對這個寶庫的開發和研究依然沒有達到一個完美的階段,隨著世界不同地區文化的深入交流,外來詞一定會越來越豐富,儘管詞典中很多英源外來詞已經消失於世,在作用於漢語辭彙史研究的同時,也依舊對現代和未來的英源外來詞研究有很多的啟示。註 釋: [1] 刁晏斌在其《當代漢語辭彙研究》中提到的词彙系統研究的“兩翼”模式,當前對英源外來詞的研究成果並不少,但是大部分都研究當下的英源外來詞,《漢語外來詞詞典》中雖然很多英源外來詞已經不再使用了,但是我們還是應該“不僅研究活的新詞語,還要研究死的新詞語,不僅研究它們是怎樣活的?為什麼而活?還應當研究死的新詞語,它們是如何死的?為什麼會死?”(2013,中國社會科學出版社),第 16 頁。我們認為這句話說得很中肯,也正是本文研究的重要價值。[2] 葛本儀的《現代漢語詞彙學》(2002)中從借用方式上對外來詞進行分類,分為音譯詞、形兼音譯詞、音加意譯詞、形加意譯詞、音意兼譯詞、意譯詞六類,第 10—13 頁。[3] 葛本儀《現代漢語詞匯學》(2002):第10頁——13 頁。[4] 《臺灣華語之英語借詞研究》,吳盈瑾,臺灣清華大學碩士論文,2013 年,第 91 頁。“Logographic innovation for the need of borrowing can be tracked to the Han Dynasty(206BC-220AD)when the Silk Road brought cultural item and religious beliefs”如:葡萄,從艸;獅,從犬;魔,從鬼;佛,從人;塔,從土。[5] 馬西尼著,黃河清譯,《現代漢語辭彙的形成——十九世紀漢語外來詞研究》(1997),第 166 頁。“當一種組合是用來表示語音,不具有語義價值時,那麼就在這一組合中的各個漢字上加上某種偏旁、例如‘口’”。參考文獻: 高名凱、劉正埮、麥永乾、史有為,1984 年,《漢語外來詞詞典》, 上海辭書出版社,上海。馬西尼著,黃河清譯,1997 年,《現代漢語詞彙的7948 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
遼代是中國語言發展史上的重要朝代。從漢語的角度看,幽燕地區(今北京、天津和河北省中北部)在遼代政治地位的上升,使得這一地區的漢語方言逐漸朝權威方言轉變,並成為清以後漢語普通話的標準音。從語言接觸的角度看,漢語在遼代與契丹語等北方民族語言大規模接觸,這對各自的發展產生了直接影響。遼代也產生了東北民族最早的文字,啟發了後代遼代的語言狀況 *The State of The Languages of Liao Dynasty◎ 傅林 / 河北大學文學院,河北大學契丹文化研究所提 要:中國北方各民族語言在遼代進入重要的發展階段。契丹語作為遼代核心統治階層的語言,與周邊民族語言大都不能通話。在文化地位上,漢語遠高於其他語言,並成為各民族的通用語。契丹大字是一種“音節詞素文字”。契丹小字是一種音節文字,但在文字體系上受到了回鶻文的影響。契丹文字在使用和傳承上有着家族性。漢字是遼代最通行的文字。關鍵詞:遼代 語言狀況 接觸 契丹大字 契丹小字Key words: Liao Dynasty; language state; language contact; Khitan Large Script; Khitan Small Script * 本文寫作得到了河北省社科基金項目“河北方言的語音層次及其形成機制研究”(項目號:HB14YY041)和教育部哲學社會科學研究重大課題攻關項目“契丹、女真傳世文獻整理與研究”(批准號:14JZD036)的資助。8148 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
析能力,受限於此,契丹小字系統只發展出了部分音素字,很多音素並沒有被指定相應的原字。從這一角度看,契丹小字是不成熟的文字體系。契丹小字的基本文字單位除原字外還有附加符號。附加符號主要以點的形式出現,附着在原字上,例如:原字: 加點原字: 附加符號的語音性質是契丹小字研究的重要課題,目前還沒有確鑿的結論。有時,“原字 - 加點原字”構成的是“概念字 - 假借音節字”的關係:原字: (1)“亥,豬”(2)事加點原字: [ui],漢字“尉”:[ui];漢字“水”韻母:[ʃui]。有時候,加點與否體現的是語法上的性範疇,加點字表示陽性,不加點字表示陰性。[7] 如表示基數詞的原字:一 二 三 四 五 六 七 八 九 十原字: 加點原字:契丹小字文本的行款格式與漢語相同,采豎寫式,行序為自右至左。但詞內部的原字又採用下列一些方式排列(以一個英文字母代表一個原字):A A B A B A B A B C C D C D E 這在外形上頗類後世的朝鮮文,與契丹大字和漢字文本相比顯得臃腫。實際上,契丹小字完全可以採用契丹大字式的“ABCDE”式排列,並且不影響實質,契丹小字文本本身也有少量分寫式(主要出現在墓誌蓋、正文注釋等場合)。但現有款式在客觀上較易凸顯詞界。為了方便分析和排版,本文將其寫為“ABCDE”式,並一律用空格表示詞界。從存世實物看,契丹小字可用於紀念碑、墓誌、哀冊、銅鏡銘文等。 2.2.2 契丹小字與回鶻文的關係上文已經說明,契丹小字是受回鶻文字的啟發而創制的,但學界一般認為,契丹小字只是受到了回鶻文的拼音文字這一性質的一般影響,即學習了其“數少而該貫”的特徵。根據我們的研究,契丹小字實際上也繼承了回鶻文的很多具體設計原則。回鶻文的一個重要特徵是對同部位不同發音方法的輔音不做文字區分: 圖 1-2:回鶻文字母表 [8] 回鶻文中,b/p、g/k、d/t 三組輔音都各用相同的符號表示。契丹小字中也能看到類似的情況,如契丹語的[t]、[th],在前期的文獻中一般用同一個符號 表示: 8748 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
An Embodied Construction Grammar Approach to the Semantic Overlap of Chinese Classifiers: The case of tiao and dao◎ Song Jiang / University of Hawai‘i at MānoaAbstractEmbodied Cognitive Grammar (ECG) is a recently-developed theory of the conceptual distinctions necessary to account for language phenomena. This article applies ECG to formularize the semantic representation for Chinese classifiers with semantic overlaps. Using Chinese classifiers tiao and dao as a case study, this paper first sorts semantic categories of the tiao and dao and identifies the cognitive motivations for their extensions. The discussion of semantic categories and their motivations to form the categories indicate that the linguistic behavior of Chinese classification constructions is predetermined by its semantic properties and interaction between the semantic categories of the classifier and their associated noun phrases. It argues that the semantic overlap between tiao and dao is in a continuum ranging from salient to fuzzy. The analysis of tiao and dao through the ECG approach reveals crucial semantic properties and internal categorical relations for Chinese classifier phrases. It concludes that ECG formulism is a powerful tool in integrating various conceptual analyses and presenting cognitive constraints in a comprehensive and systematic manner.Key words: tiao, dao, classifier, semantics, Embodies Cognitive Grammar (ECG) 9148 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
1. IntroductionRecent studies on Chinese classifiers using a cognitive linguistic approach (Tai & Wang, 1990; Tai, 1994; Tai & Chao, 1994; Chang-Smith, 2000; Shi, 2001) have already pointed out relationships between linguistic categorizations and their underlying conceptual structure. These studies aim at the prototypical difference among certain classifiers and tend to provide a simple and consistent explanation of the difference. Simple accounts, based on dimensionality (Tai & Wang, 1990), ratio of length and width (Shi, 2001), etc. although they might disclose some important features of the semantic structure of a classifier, are often non-comprehensive. The information provided by such accounts are usually not adequate to capture a whole picture of the classifier structure and reflect its intricate nature. A reason for these studies lack of a comprehensive view can be attributed to the absences of representational formalism in the cognitive linguistics. A framework is needed for integrating the various aspects of cognitive linguistic analysis and presenting the results as a whole.Built on earlier work in construction grammar (Goldberg, 1995; Kay & Fillmore, 1999), Embodied Construction Grammar (ECG) (Bergen & Chang, 2005) was proposed in order to overcome shortcomings in cognitive linguistics and further the line of construction grammar. An important advance by ECG is that through its comprehensive formulism, all the conceptual categories of a construction, their roles and constraints, can be integrated and presented in a systematic way. This paper intends to pursue the fol lowing three perspectives: (1) To identify the perceptual extensions on which the Mandarin classifier tiao is based in categorizing its various following nouns. (2) To show how these extensions of tiao differ from and overlap with those of dao, another classifier that is closely related to and is exchangeable with tiao in certain extended domains. (3) To apply the ECG theory and its formalism to the study of these two classifier constructions and to show the advantage of using ECG for semantic analysis on Chinese classifier systems.Linguistic use data for this study was derived from Academia Sinica Balanced Corpus (heep://www.sinica.edu.tw) and various historical and modern Chinese dictionaries.2. Historical development of tiaoAccording to the historical data documented by Wang (1980) and Erbaugh (1986), the earliest appearance of tiao was on oracle bones in the Shang dynasty (1400 BC) and indicated its use as a noun for a twig and a small branch. It was considered the first classifier to be generalized for use with diverse items by shape. As a classifier, by the Post-Han (24 A.D.), it was used for lengths of cloth and strings of gold ingots. It later expanded its reference to snakes, ropes, and clothing, such as trousers. By the Song (960-1117 A.D.) ,tiao had achieved its current status of modifying long objects in general.3. Tiao as a nounStarting with the original nominal sense of a twig, the following further extended nominal senses of tiao can also 92
be observed in the data collected in various historical and modern dictionaries: a general term for a long object, such as a long narrow piece; strip and slip; written items and articles; order and sequence. Although, these senses of tiao are seldom used independently in modern Chinese and are only preserved in compound words as a morpheme, these senses of tiao in such compound words can be easily traced back to their independent uses in the classical Chinese. From these extended nominal meanings of tiao, we can gain an important insight into tiao’s categorical extension as a classifier in modern Mandarin Chinese4. Semantic extensions of tiao as a classifier4.1 Extension from the ‘twig’ sense of tiaoDirectly related to the sense of ‘twig’, the original nominal meaning of tiao, the words for twig, branch, stick, and tree truck, etc. seem naturally to be classified under the classifier tiao. Examples of this immediate extension can be found in historical data across various periods and can be traced to the earliest historical literature on the use of tiao as a classifier (Wang, 1980). Therefore, this would seem to indicate that this group of extensions can be considered as the first group to be included in tiao’s domain. (1) yi tiao liuzhi 一條柳枝 a tiao of willow twig yi tiao shuzhi 一條樹枝 a tiao of branch yi tiao shugen 一條樹根 a tiao of root yi tiao mugun 一條木棍 a tiao of wood stick yi tiao shugan 一條樹幹 a tiao of tree trunk4.2 Extensions from the ‘line’ sense of tiaoLine, thread and string are other central meanings of the nominal tiao. This would indicate that the extension of the classifier tiao from referring to wig to line and thread is motivated by an image mapping (Lakoff, 1987) from a twig to a line or thread. The commonality between the image of a fine, slender and sinuous twig and that of a thin and long thread would then set the foundation for its further extension along this line.4.2.1 physical thread, string and lineExamples in (2) show the beginning stage of such extension for physical thread, string and line.(2) yi tiao changxian 三條長線 three tiao of long threadyi tiao qinxian 一條琴弦 a tiao of string of a music string yi tiao tiesi 一條鐵絲 a tiao of iron wire yi tiao dianxian 一條電線 a tiao of electronic wire liuqian tiao lamian 六千條拉麵 6000 tiao of noodles yi tiao dianhuaxian 一條電話線 a tiao of telephone line yi tiao dipengxian 一條地平線 a tiao of horizonThe metaphorical extensions of the word ‘line’ in the words of airline, battle line, defense line, and assemble line, etc. can be recognized as responsible for including these words with the metaphorical meaning of line under tiao’s classification and can be seen as the metaphorical extension for the examples in (2). See examples in (3).(3) liang tiao hangxian 兩條航線 a tiao of airline yi tiao ditiexian 一條地鐵線 a tiao of subway line yi tiao luxian 一條路線 a tiao of rout of a journey yi tiao zhanxian 一條戰線 a tiao of battle line yi tiao fangxian 一條防線 a tiao of defense lineji tiao xiansuo 幾條線索 several tiao of clues 9348 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
ji tiao liushuixian 幾條流水線 several tiao of assemble linesAlso through an image transformation, the extensions of tiao from ‘line’ to ‘vein, wrinkle and crease’, ‘mark and scar’, ‘seam, crack and crevice’, and ‘rope, chain and cable’ could be responsible for the extension observed in examples in (4) through (7). 4.2.2 vein, grain and wrinkle (4) yi tiao yemai 一條葉脈 a tiao of vein on a leaf yi tiao taitouwen 一條抬頭紋 a tiao of wrinkle on one’s forehead yi tiao zhouwen 一條皺紋 a tiao of wrinkle forehead yi tiao zhouze 一條皺褶 a tiao of fold in a dress yi tiao xianwei 一條纖維 a tiao of fiber4.2.3 mark, scar and wound left by a knife-cut, whip, etc. (5) yi tiao shanghen 一條傷痕 a tiao of mark from a wound yi tiao shangba 一條傷疤 a tiao of scar from a wound yi tiao bianhen 一條鞭痕 a tiao of whip mark yt tiao huahen 一條劃痕 a tiao of scratch4.2.4 seam, crack and crevice(6) yi tiao liefeng 一條裂縫 a tiao of crack (on pottery)yi tiao yifeng 一條衣縫 a tiao of seam (on a shirt)yi tiao shifeng 一條石縫 a tiao of crevice in a stoneyt tiao qiangfeng 一條牆縫 a tiao of crack in a wall4.2.5 rope, chain and cable (7) yi tiao shengzi 一條繩子 a tiao of rope yt tiao bianzi 一條鞭子 a tiao of whip yi tiao jiangsheng 一條韁繩 a tiao of bridle (for a horse) yt tiao lianzi 一條鏈子 a tiao of chain (of a bicycle) yi tiao suolian 一條鎖鏈 a tiao of shackle yt tiao gangsuo 一條鋼索 a tiao of steel cable yi tiao jinxianglian 一條金項鍊 a tiao of gold necklaceAll the nouns classified by tiao in this section seem to share a common semantic feature of ‘line’, inherited from one of tiao’s original nominal meanings. The basic sense of ‘line’ of tiao can be regarded as the conceptual base for all these extensions. Although, metaphorical extension can be seen in the examples in (3), the direct image transformation unified under the semantic feature of ‘line’ appears to be the key motivation for all the rest of the extensions. As a consequence, all the references classified in this section turn out to be purely linear, and can be seen as one-dimensional extension.4.3 Extension from the ‘strip’ sense of tiaoIn contrast to the purely linear extension above, another type of extension based on ‘strip’, also a central nominal meaning of tiao, can be illustrated by the examples below. As we will see, although ‘length’ is still a salient feature shared by all the nouns, the two-dimensional feature ‘width’ emerges, and increases its ratio to the length. This distinguishes the extensions of the ‘strip’ sense from that of the ‘line’ sense.4.3.1 band, ribbon and belt and their further extensions (8) yi tiao sidai 一條絲帶 a tiao of silk ribbon yt tiao daizi 一條帶子 a tiao of strip of cloth yi tiao huabian 一條花邊 a tiao of decorative border yi tiao chuansongdai 一條輸送帶 a tiao of conveyer belt yt tiao kuyaodai 一條褲腰帶 a tiao of waist band yi tiao weijin 一條圍巾 a tiao of scarf yi tiao lingdai 一條領帶 a tiao of tie94
yi tiao youyideniudai 一條友誼的紐帶 a tiao of tie of friendshipExamples in (8) can be considered as the prototypical cases of the extensions from the ‘strip’ sense. Again, image transformation evokes this group of extension; metaphorical extension is also contributed to certain further extensions, as shown in the example of ‘a tiao of tie of friendship’. It should be noted that all nouns in this group are featured with long length and narrow width. The ratio between their width and length is in the small end compared to the rest of extension in this section. However, the width can be increased, as per examples in (9). (9) yi tiao maojin 一條毛巾 a tiao of towel yi tiao yujin 一條浴巾 a tiao of bath towel yi tiao beidan 一條被子 a tiao of quilt yi tiao quangdan 一條床單 a tiao of bed cover yi tiao dianzi 一條墊子 a tiao of cushion yi tiao ditan 一條地毯 a tiao of carpet yi tiao shoupa 一條手帕 a tiao of handkerchiefObviously, for all the nouns involved in this group, the width is a required dimension in order to fulfill the functions of these nouns. While the width is increasing as shown by ‘towel’, ‘quilt’, ‘cushion’ and ‘carpet’, length still keeps its dominant position in forming this group of extension. Interestingly, the square shape of a handkerchief may confute our generalization, however it can be argued that, when a handkerchief is held just by one of its corners, it’s shape would also be in favor of the feature of long shape. Along this line, further extensions are made to things in non-standard ‘strip’ shapes, but also retaining to the salient ‘length’ feature. Examples of cloths shown in (10) may illustrate this point.(10) yi tiao qunzi 一條裙子 a tiao of skirt yi tiao kuzi 一條褲子 a tiao of trousers yi tiao weiqun 一條圍裙 a tiao of apron yi tiao short 一條短褲 a tiao of shorts (trousers)It is hard to say that the length of a pair of shorts is more salient than its width, however, this extension could have occurred due to the lexicon morpheme of ‘trousers’ in the word of ‘shorts’ (short trousers). 4.3.2 various long objectsAs a continued extension of ‘line’ to ‘strip’ from one-dimension to two-dimensions, the classification domain of tiao could have been further extended by including various three-dimensional long shaped objects, ranging from furniture, food, boats to mountain ranges, etc. From the examples below, we can see that although all the nouns refer to three-dimensional objects, they appear to share no other common semantic feature except that of ‘length’ in shape. The motivation behind the extensions in this group would then again be that of Image Transformation evoked by the commonality of the ‘length’ between the ‘strip’ and the ‘length’ of the objects themselves. (11) yi tiao changshafa 一條長沙發 a tiao of long sofa yi tiao changdeng 一條長凳 a tiao of long bench yi tiao changzhou 一條長桌 a tiao of long tableNote that these three nouns in (11) bear an adjective modifier ‘long’, which highlights the ‘length’ feature of the 9548 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
objects and makes the phrases, formed by the combination of tiao and its corresponding nouns, sound more natural. The motivation for the extension of this group may also be viewed as the image mapping from the ‘strip’ to the surface of a long bench, table and sofa. An interesting phenomena revealed by examples in this group is that the objects in this group are actually profiled by their surfaces during the process of the extension. The PART IS WHOLE metonymy makes it possible to present a whole object by its surface.Not like the extension in (11) which appear to be traced by linking the surface of these objects to the ‘strip’ sense, examples in (12) and (13) appear to show further extensions that can not be treated in the same way. There is no salient surface in all these objects. The only conceptual base for them to be included in tiao’s classification would seem to be the semantic feature of ‘length’.(12) yi tiao xiangjiao 一條香蕉 a tiao of banana yi tiao miaobao 一條麵包 a tiao of loaf of bread yi tiao lachang 一條臘腸 a tiao of sausage(13) yi tiao chuan 一條船 a tiao of boat yi tiao dumuzhou 一條獨木舟 a tiao of canoe yi tiao junjian 一條軍艦 a tiao of warship4.3.3 long shapes in landscape and mountain rangesAlso seemingly motivated by the semantic feature of ‘strip’, landscape and mountain ranges are included in tiao’s categorization. When a long shape in the landscape or a mountain range is viewed from far away, they take on the appearance of a strip of ribbon. This experience could then serve as the conceptual base for the extensions in this section. See the examples in (14) and (15).(14) liang tiao huapu 二條花圃 two tiao of field for follower nursery yi tiao shatan 一條沙灘 a tiao of beach yi tiao daba 一條大壩 a tiao of water dam yi tiao changcheng 一條長城 a tiao of Great WallThe extensions towards mountain range, ridge and valley is shown in (15).(15) yi tiao shanmai 一條山脈 a tiao of mountain range yi tiao shanji 一條山脊 a tiao of ridge of a mountain yi tiao shangu 一條山谷 a tiao of montain valley4.3.4 river, watercourse and pipelineExamples in (16), (17) and (18) show that river, watercourse and pipeline, which bear the same semantic feature of ‘length’ as the ‘strip’, are included in tiao’s classification too. Image Transformation, the same presumed motivation for the extension of long landscape and mountain range, seems solely responsible for the extensions in this section as well.(16) yi tiao dahe 一條大河 a tiao of big river yi tiao xiaoxi 一條小溪 a tiao of small stream yi tiao xiaohu 一條小湖 a tiao of small lake yi tiao liushui 一條流水 a tiao of flowing water yi tiao pubu 一條瀑布 a tiao of waterfall(17) yi tiao shuiqu 一條水渠 a tiao of irrigation canal yi tiao xiaoshuigou 一條小水溝 a tiao of gutter yi tiao paishuigou 一條排水溝 a tiao of drainage ditch96
(18) liang tiao shuyouguan 兩條輸油管 two tiao of petroleum piplines yi tiao meiqiguandao 一條煤氣管道 a tiao of gas conduit yi tiao xueguan 一條血管 a tiao of blood vessel yi tiao shuniaoguan 一條輸尿管 a tiao of ureter 4.3.9 road, path and wayLength is a silent feature for road and path too. The image mapping from a strip to a road and a path based on their common semantic feature ‘length’ could then motivate the extensions in this section.Various concrete roads shown in (19) can be seen as prototypical examples of this group. (19) yi tiao xiaojing 一條小徑 a tiao of small path yi tiao jiedao 一條街道 a tiao of street san tiao chadao 三條岔道 three tiao of crossroads yi tiao gaosugonglu 一高速公路 a tiao of freeway liang tiao tielu 兩條鐵路 two tiao of railways yi tiao guidao 一條軌道 a tiao of orbitApparently also based on their shape, special types of path and way, such as corridor, alley, bridge, tunnel can be observed under tiao’s classification in (20). (20) yi tiao zoulang 一條走廊 a tiao of corridor yi tiao xiaoxiang 一條小巷 a tiao of alley yi tiao daqiao 一條大橋 a tiao of bridge yi tiao suidao 一條隧道 a tiao of tunnelExamples in (21) show that the categories covered by tiao have been extended to references that can be grouped under way, mean and method. The metaphor ‘ROAD IS MEANS’ motivates this type of extension. It can be observed from the morphemes of the words in (21). The morpheme ‘road’ occurs in all the words in this group, for instance, the word ‘way of earning money’ is made up of ‘money and road’, ‘trick of trade’ is ‘ door and road’, ‘way of escape’ is ‘behind and road’, etc. It can be assumed that tiao was associated with physical roads through image mapping at very beginning, then the word ‘road’ could logically be metaphorically extended from its meaning road to means, the original link between tiao and ‘road’ would thereby be extended to tiao and ‘road’s metaphorical meaning as means.(21) yi tiao cailu 一條財路 a tiao of way of earning money yi tiao menlu 一條門路 a tiao of trick of the trade yi tiao huolu 一條活路 a tiao of way to make a living yi tiao houlu 一條後路 a tiao of way of escape yi tiao chulu 一條出路 a tiao of way outHeavily influenced by the metaphorical relation between tiao and means, tiao’s classification is further extended to words referring to means and method, but do not contain ‘road’ as a morpheme. This can be seen in (22).(22) yi tiao miaoji 一條妙計 a tiao of clever plan yi tiao fangfa 一條方法 a tiao of method4.4 Extension from the written ‘item’ and ‘article’ sense of tiaoThe extension in this section can be traced back to the written ‘item’ and ‘article’ sense of the nominal tiao. Tiao’s reference from the ‘twig’ to the written ‘item’ and ‘article’ could have developed through the image mapping between the long shape of a twig and the long line of characters 9748 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
pertaining to an item and article listed in a written document, such as law, amendment, charges and regulation. The early historical use of tiao also reveals its reference to words written on bamboo strips and the bundles of such strips forming a document, both having a dominant ‘long’ aspect. Examples in (23) through (25) illustrate this extension of tiao as a classifier. (23) di ba tiao 第八條 the eighth tiao of article qi tiao xiuzhenan 七條修正案 seven tiao of amendments di ba tiao jueyian 第八條決議案 the eighth tiao of resolution yi tiao caoan 一條草案 a tiao of draft resolution(24) liang tiao falutiaowen 兩條法律條文 two tiao of articles of law yi tiao faling 一條法令 a tiao of law and decree sa shi tiao zuizhuang 三十條罪狀thirty tiao of charges in an indciment yi tiao guiding 一條規定 a tiao of regulation(25) yi tiao xinwen 兩條新聞 two tiao of news items yi tiao kouhao 一條口號 a tiao of slogan shi ji tiao biaoyu 十幾條標語 ten tiao of written slogans shi tiao shuyu 十條術語 ten tiao of technical terms yi tioa zhushi 一條注釋 a tiao of noteNote that the use of tiao in the majority of examples above singles out the individual items and articles from the complete document containing these items and articles, however, through the PART IS WHOLE metonymy, tiao occasionally can also refer to a complete document. In this sense, the examples ‘a tiao of draft resolution’ in (23) and ‘a tiao of law and decree’ in (24) are, indeed, ambiguous, and could be understood as either a individual item or a whole document with several items.While the extension above seems based on the real and visible long shape of a written item and article, the examples in (24) present a further metaphorical extension based on the imagined long shape of an abstract entity. (26) yi tiao biaozhun 一條標準 a tiao of standard yi tiao gengju 一條根據 a tiao of evidence liang tiao jianyi 兩條建議 two tiao of suggestions yi tiao unxi 一條訊息 a tiao of information yi tiao daoli 一條道理 a tiao of reason yi tiao quexian 一條缺陷 a tiao of drawback 4.5 Extension to humans, animals and their body parts.Two different types of image mapping seem to be observed in the extensions in this section. Examples in (27) show the first type of image mapping. The image of a tree as a whole is mapped to the image of the figure of a person. As a result, the image of a tree as a shelter to protect things under the tree initiated the use of tiao only for a man with the power of protecting others, such as a brave man, a true man or a hero. Women, ordinary men and human beings in general are excluded from tiao’s classification. However, further metaphorical extension is able to move to the abstract domain, including ‘human life’, ‘spiritual ghost’, based on the experience that ‘human life’ and ‘spiritual ghost’ are naturally associated with the human body, which as a long shape. See examples in (27). (27) yi tiao haohan 九條好漢 nine tiao of good men yi tiao renming 十條人命 ten tiao of lives yi tiao yuanhun三條冤魂 three tiao of ghosts of the wrongedWhile there is restriction on the extension to humans, the human body parts fit well into tiao’s classification due to 98
another type of image mapping. The motivation for such an image mapping can be attributed to that the human body parts, especially the four limbs, arms and legs, having long shapes and are construed as the branches of a tree. Examples are shown in (28). (28) yi tiao shoubi 一條手臂 a tiao of arm liang tiao bibang 兩條臂膀two tiao of arms and shoulders liang tiao tui 兩條腿 two tiao of legsOther internal organs of a body with a long shape are also classified by tiao. See Examples in (29).(29) yi tiao shetou 一條舌頭 a tiao of tongue yi tiao shengdai 一條聲帶 a tiao of vocal cord yi tiao changzi 一條腸子 a tiao of intestine liang tiao jirou 兩條肌肉 two tiao of musclesThis is not only limited to humans and human body parts, animals and their body parts are also included in the tiao classification. The examples in (30) can be considered as the prototypical cases of the extensions in this direction. A long narrow shape is a shared salient feature among the animals, such as snake, dragon, insect and fish, etc. in this group. (30) yi tiao she 一條蛇 a tiao of snake yi tiao long 一條龍 a tiao of dragon yi tiao jiangchong 一條僵蠶 a tiao of dead insect ji tiao fish 幾條魚 several tiao of fish yi tiao niqiu 一條泥鰍 a tiao of mud fish yi tiao xiaohujing 一條小虎鯨 a tiao of tiger whale Animals with less salient long shape, such as dog, pig, cow and donkey, etc. are also found under the tiao classification, as shown in (31). The feature of long shape may not unify the animals in (31) with those in (30) well. However, having a long shaped tail is a salient commonality among all the animals in (31). This could be a stimulus that lead to the extension to the animals in (31). The PART IS WHOLE metonymy may play a role in forming this type of extension through the process of taking a tail to represent the animal itself. (31) liang tiao gou 兩條狗 two tiao of dogsyi tiao zhu 一條豬 a tiao of pigyi tiao niu 一條牛 a tiao of cowyi tiao lu 一條驢 a tiao of donkeySimilar to the way by which the classification of tiao extends to human body parts, the tiao extension also includes animal body parts when those body parts also have a salient long shape. (32) yi tiao xiaxuzi 一條蝦須子 a tiao of feelers of a shrimpyi tiao zhuazi 一條爪子 a tiao of pawyi tiao weiba 一條尾巴 a tiao of tail5. The schematic overlap between tiao and daoLoith the internal structure of dao’s semantic category having been addressed and a motivation for each extension identified (Jiang, 2004), we are ready to precede to a categorical comparison between tiao and dao. The overall correspondence between the semantic categories of tiao and dao is shown in Figure 1.9948 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
The motivation for the extension of dao as various metaphors is shown in this earlier work as the Event Structure Metaphor (Lakoff 1993) (i.e DIFFICULTIES ARE IMPEDENTS TO MOTION - from the physical strategic pass to the abstract difficulty, problem, MEANS ARE PATH - from the road to the procedure, step and sequence, etc.); Conduit Metaphor (Reddy,1993) (from the road to an imperial edict or an order which is transferring along a path); Metonymy (i.e. ACTION AS OBJECT - from the reference of the action of making a way to the road, PART AS WHOLE - from the road to the obstacles on it); and Image-schema Transformation (from the road to the line, from the river to the streams of tears, or mucus running from a nose). Through the discussion in the section 4, the fundamental motivation for all the extensions of tiao can be attributed to Image-schema Transformation. All the five major categories of tiao (1. twig, 2. line, 3. strip, 4. item, and 5. human, animal and their body parts) are extended through the image mapping between the source, twig, and its various targets based on the common semantic feature of long shape. Although metonymy and metaphor are involved in the tiao extensions, they are indirectly derived from the original source ‘twig’. They are continued extensions based on the result of the fundamental extension of image-schema transformation. For instance, there is no direct inheritance between the twig, branch and the way, trick, method, and such an extension is made possible through the road and path of tiao.A different source, different motivation and different conceptual schema on which each extension is based distinguish the classifications of tiao and dao from each other. Based on Figure 1, the unique categories of tiao can be identified as ‘twig, branch’; ‘various long objects, such as furniture, food, boat’; ‘item, article’; and ‘human, animal and their body parts’. The unique categories of dao are ‘door, window, wall’; ‘difficult, question’; ‘light’; ‘action measure word’; and ‘ideas of magic and religion’. The reason for no overlap among these categories between tiao and dao is due to the differences in the original source, motivation and conceptual schema on which each extension is based. For instance, the original sense of twig evokes the classification of tiao for ‘twig, branch and stick’ through direct image 100
mapping; the original sense of ‘road making’ evokes the use of dao as an action measure word through the Event Structure Metaphor.Figure 1 also shows the categorical overlap between tiao and dao. Among the motivations of extension mentioned at the beginning of this section, metaphor, metonym and image schema transformation are three shared approaches between tiao and dao. While the metaphorical and metonymic extensions are unpredictable in the sense that they may go in various directions from either the same or different sources, the image schema transformation in tiao and dao happens to be based on the same semantic feature, ‘length’, as the conceptual basis for their respective extensions. This results in the overlap between the use of tiao and dao as clasifiers.However, for those overlapping categories, image mapping very often seems not to be the only driving force, other conceptual schema and semantic restrictions may also contribute to the formation of these categories. Therefore, the semantic requirement for the overlapping categories seems far richer and more complicated than a single sense of ‘length’. Distinctions can also be found in the two overlapping categories. Here are some additional semantic restrictions we have recognized under the unified sense of ‘length’ through comparing the uses of tiao and dao in a same linguistic environment.1. Static vs. dynamicIt appears that the nominal origin of tiao and its referential type of image schema transformation tends to make its corresponding classifier construction static, while the verbal origin of dao and its extension through the predicative Event Structure Metaphor make the dao classifier construction tend to be processional and dynamic. For example, since decorative border or lace is an instance of the shared category ‘band, ribbon and belt’, both ‘yi tiao huabian 一條花邊 a tiao of lace’ and ‘yi dao huabian 一道花邊 a dao of lace’ are acceptable constructions. However, this is not always true if these two phrases are put into context. Please examine the examples in (33).(33) a. 我買了三條 /* 道 花邊。wo mai le san tiao / dao huabianI bought Asp. three tiao dao decorative borderI brought three decorative borders. b. 她 在 衣服 上 縫 了 一 條 / 道 花邊。Ta zai yifu shang feng le yi tiao/ dao huabianShe on cloth above sew Asp. one tiao dao decorative borderShe sewed a decorative border onto the cloth. The decorative border in (32) ‘I brought three decorative borders’ functions as nothing more than referring to an object that the subject ‘I’ brought. The acceptable use tiao and the unacceptable use of dao indicate that only the classifier with static and referential function can go along with this type of expression. However, the decorative border in (33) b is presented together with its background (a cloth), it not only functions as a reference, but also is involved in the process of the action event, sewing the border onto the cloth. The double roles of static reference and active action participant enable the acceptable use of either tiao or dao in this expression. 10148 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
(34) shows another example.(34) a. 他 買 了 一 條 / * 道 門簾。ta mai le yi tiao / dao menlianhe bought Aps. one tiao/ dao door curtainHe brought a door curtain.b. 門上 有 一 條 / 道 門簾。menshang you yi tiao / dao menliandoor on have one tiao / dao door curtainThere is a door curtain on the door. Dao for door curtain is motivated through both the shape of the curtain and its function of blocking a motion on a path, which is strongly associated with the event structure. When the event frame is available, as shown in (34) b, in which the background information of location of the curtain exists, both tiao and dao are acceptable. However, if there is not enough background information, as in (34) a, only tiao will be acceptable. 2. Discrete vs. continuumThe definite length of twig may evoke the discrete sense for the phrase with tiao, and the indefinite length may add the continuum sense for the phrases with dao. Examples in (35) and Figure 2 illustrate this distinction. (35) a. 盒子 上 綁 著 三 條 繩子hezi shang bang zhe san tiao shengzi box on tie up Asp. three tiao rope.Three ropes tie up the box. b. 盒子 上 綁 著 三 道 繩子hezi shang bang zhe san dao shengzibox on tie up Asp. three dao rope.The rope ties up the box three times. In (35) a, ‘san tiao shengzi 三 條 繩 子 three tiao rope’ denotes three separate ropes, under the same linguistic environment, in (35) b, ‘san dao shengzi 三道繩子 three dao rope’ evokes the schema that one single rope is wound three rounds. Clearly the action measure word schema gets involved in (35) b.(35) a (35) b(36) a 小溪 九 道 彎。 xiaoxi jiu dao wan stream nine dao curve The stream has nine curves. b. * 小溪 九 條 彎。xiaoxi jiu tiao wan stream nine tiao curve Examples in (36) are another showcase of such a distinction. Since the nine curves are the parts of the stream, they cannot be individually conceptualized and must be presented against the background of the whole stream. Therefore only with dao can a valid expression be made. It would be 102
unacceptable for dao to be replaced by tiao within the same linguistic structure.3. Concrete vs. abstractThrough examination of the extensions in tiao and dao, it seems that dao tends to generate more abstract extensions, whereas tiao tends to cover areas within concrete domains. For instance, both tiao and dao are good for a physical river, however, for the abstract term ‘electric current’, it sounds improper when tiao is chosen, but it’s a good usage to select dao in this case. ‘Light’ is an extension domain of dao, there is no problem in using dao with words such as sunlight, moonlight, look, glare and the metaphorical term ‘light line’ referring to light in general. However, if dao in these cases is replaced by tiao, all the above expressions would be considered improper usage, except the general term for light in the form of ‘light line’. The exception of using tiao only for ‘light line’ is evoked by the morpheme ‘line’ in ‘light line’, which is a prototypical member included in the tiao classification.Examples showing the distribution of tiao and dao in terms of concrete and abstract are shown in (37) and (38).(37) tiao daoheliu 河流 river + +dianliu 電流 electric current -- +(38) tiao daoyang guang 陽光 sunlight -- + yue guang 月光 moonlight -- +yan guang 眼光 look, glare -- +guang xian 光線 light (light line) + +4. Flexibility vs. rigidityA contrast between flexibility and rigidity can be observed in some cases. For instance, ‘yi tiao xian 一條線 a tiao of line’ tends to evoke a flexible line, which can form various shapes, while ‘yi dao xian 一道線 a dao of line’ very often suggests a straight, rigid line. This distinction can be further justified when a line is an irregular curve. ‘yi tiao quxiang 一條曲線 a tiao of irregular curve’ is unquestionably a proper expression, whereas ‘yi dao quxian 一 道 曲 線 a dao of irregular curve’ is at least not a preferred form. Eyebrow presents another example. ‘yi tiao mei 一條眉 a tiao of eyebrow’ is often associated with feminine, soft, thin and delicate; ‘yi dao mei 一道眉 a dao of eyebrow’ is often associated with masculine, straight, dark and wide. When talk is about a willowy eyebrow, ‘yi tiao liumei 一條柳眉 a tiao of willowy eyebrow’ is preferred over ‘yi dao liumei 一 道 柳 眉 a dao of willowy eyebrow’. And vice versa, when talk is about a dashing eyebrow ‘jian mei 劍眉 (sword eyebrow)’, dao is preferred over tiao as in ‘yi dao jian mei 一道劍眉 a dao of dashing eyebrow’. It can be speculated that the quality and texture of a twig and a road, the sources of tiao and dao’s extension, might exert an influence on the preference for use of tiao or dao. Note that although whether dao or tiao is chosen for a given word does make subtle difference in the aspects as discussed above, they are not explicitly distinguishable in most cases. Overall, the difference between the selection of tiao or dao has a graded nature of distinctions along a continuum 10348 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
from salient to fuzzy. When dealing with the cases within the fuzzy zone of the continuum, we may speculate that Construal, one of the creative functions of the human mind, may play a role in determining the selection of tiao or dao. A future study along this line, especially an experimental study, may tell us more about the overlap and distinction of these two classifiers.6. ECG representation of tiao and daoAccording to ECG theory (Bergen & Chang, 2002), all constructions can be divided into those that allow the speaker to refer and those that allow the speaker to predicate. Reference and Predication are primary prepositional acts that motivate many traditional grammatical categories and relations. As one of the traditional grammatical categories, Chinese Classifier Construction should be able to refer back to the two primary constructions, Reference and Predication. Based on the discussion of the origins of the classifiers tiao and dao, the tiao classifier construction can be regarded as an instantiation of the Chinese Reference Construction, where as dao Classifier Construction is a subcase of the Chinese Predication Construction. The roles in the referent schema, such as category, restrictions, attributions, and the roles in the Predication schema, such as event schemas, event-structure, determine the internal structure of tiao and dao respectively. An ECG presentation of the tiao and dao construction is shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. ←←←Figure 3: The tiao construction←←←←Figure 4: The dao constructionIn the literature of Chinese grammar, there is no clear distinction between the terms ‘classifier’ and ‘measure word’. However, Tai (1990) tries to make a distinction between these two terms by arguing that “every language has measure words, but only some languages have classifiers.” It is true that like Chinese, English has measure words such as mile, pound and crowd (a crowd of people), but unlike Chinese, English does not have specialized classifiers, such as tiao for counting dogs and dao for counting roads. Thus, “a classifier is set only to a certain number of nouns which are associated with one another in one single category. Measure words can, however, accompany different kinds of nouns which may not be related categorically” (Tai, 1990, p. 37). Therefore, it is necessary to differentiate Classifier Construction from Measure Word Construction in order to 104
better understand the internal structure and the conceptual basis of Chinese classifier system.Theoretically, Reference Construction and Predication Construction can give rise to both Classifier Construction and Measure Word Construction. The tiao classifier phrase is a Classifier Construction inherited from Reference Construction. The dao classifier phrase is an instance of Classifier Construction inherited from Predication Construction.Dodge and Wright's analysis of the English measure phrase construction based on Container Schema (2002) also applies to the Chinese Classifier Construction. The classifier is a sub-case of Container; the thing being classified is the Substance.The form of Chinese Classifier Phrase (CCP) Construction can be represented as ‘X+Y’, where X is a classifier and Y is a noun.The semantics of the tiao Classifier Construction is shown in Figure 5.← ←← Figure 6 shows the semantic of the dao classifier construction← ←←With the help of the formalism of ECG, the complicated cognitive analysis of radially constructed semantic categories of tiao and dao Classifier Constructions, and the comparison of the distinction and commonality between these two classifiers can be represented in a comprehensive and unified way. The semantic representation of tiao and dao in ECG formalism is powerful in explaining and presenting various cognitive analyses. 7. ConclusionIn this paper, we have sorted semantic categories of the tiao classifier and identified the cognitive motivations for its extensions. The discussion on the semantic categories and their motivations to form the categories indicates that linguistic form is determined by the semantic meaning. The linguistic behavior of Chinese Classification Construction is predetermined by its semantic properties and the interaction between the semantic categories of the classifier and that of the noun phrase. The overlap between tiao and dao is in a continuum ranging from salient to fuzzy. Finally, the 10548 2016 年第 2 期 總第 期48
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