Março 1989 ANO 5SUMÁRIOO ensino de líguas em Macau .....................................................................................leong Sao Leng • 1 •A exportação de estivadores de Macau e asua repercussão no mundo ....................................................................................... Tang Kai Seong • 15 •Desenvolvimento da antiga navegação na Chinae o seu sucesso ................................................................................................................ Nau Chong Fan • 28 •Conflito entre as classes laborai e empresarial no processo da importaçãode mão-de-obra ................................................................................................... Ng Kuok Cheong • 34 •A história de Macau e a sua influência na economiada delta do rio da pérola .......................................................................................... Si Tou Seong Kei • 40 •A concorrência através de preços mais baixos ........................................................... Un Son Wai • 46 •Conceito pedagógico nas aulas de educação permamente ........................................... leong In • 52 •O dialecto macaense nos últimos 100 anos ...................... ....................................Lam Pak Chong • 58 •Reflexão sobre a criação do cargo de coordenador municipal .................. Ho Kai Hoi • 76 •A quebra do casulo ......................................................................................................... Vong Vai Veng • 78 •Comentário e proposta sobre o bilinguismo no futuro de Macau ................... Choi Chi Lung • 81 •Relações entre o desenvolvimento de Macau e oambiente geográfico .................................................................................................. Tang Hon Chang • 85 •Observações àcerca da meneira como melhorar oinvestimento no ambiente de Macau ............................................................................. Song leong • 88 •Sucessivas mudanças dos selos de Macau ...........................................................Vong Peng Chiu • 89 •Interpretação e comentário sobre odesenvolvimento literário ......................................................................................................... Lei Kong • 92 •Apreciação e comentário da poesia moderna ................................................................... Lei Kong • 98 •Pesquisa de características da arte na poesia abstracta ................................................. Lei Kong • 101 •
THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGES IN MACAOO ensino de líguas em Macau leong Sao Leng論澳門的語言教學楊秀玲INTRODUCTIONMacao, which has been the meeting ground of East and West for over four centuries, is now going through a great historic period of transition. It is gratifying to see that, with the encouragement and support of the Macao Government, more and more Chinese speakers, especially those who are already in the civil service or wish to join it, are learning the Portuguese language vigorously; and Portuguese speakers, including highranking government officials, increasingly aware of the fact that they must learn Chinese in order to become fu lly functional and integrated into the local community,are learning the Chinese language enthusiastically. Never before have the government and people of Macao fe lt such a pressing linguistic need. There is every sign that language study is surging in popularity in Macao.All this w ill bear profoundly upon the future of Macao. A good knowledge of both the Chinese and Portuguese languages, which exceed geographical boundaries and transcend nations, w ill help to preserve and enrich its cultural heritage, which w ill continue to be remembered and shared by its posterity, and strengthen the friendship between the Chinese and Portuguese peoples.Though a mere dot on the world map, Macao has a unique international status, regularly hosting a number of mammoth world events. While the principal language spoken is Chinese (Cantonese) and Portuguese is the official language of the Government, English is widely used in banking, commerce, trade, education, entertainment, tourism, communications and many other interactions and exchanges. Macao is not only endowed w ith a precious heritage imbued with Chinese and Portuguese cultures, but is also the one place where English, Chinese and Portuguese — three of the world's most widely spoken languages —are use. Macao is indeed a melting pot of cultures and languages that are closely intertwined.Perhaps nowhere can we find such a concentration of languages and dialects in a place as small as Macao. Therefore Macao may serve as an ideal training ground for language learners. And it is certainly a perfect site for linguists and language teachers to carry on research into language teaching methodology and approaches, and various branches of linguistics, especially socio-linguistics. It can be expected that the remaining years of this century w ill bring about massive changes and expansions, or even some sort of breakthrough in LT/LL(Language Teaching/Language Learning). Here we envisage and exciting prospect before the language teaching profession. And w ith the University of East Asia taking the lead in LT/LL research and providing a great variety of quality language courses, general and special, for a wide spectrum of learners, we feel both enhanced and confident that Macao can and w ill play its admirable role as a springboard of friendship between East and West, make contributions to China's modernisations and even serve as an LT /LL model, thus also making 'communicative' contributions to China and the rest of the world.
Every effort put into this thesis has been inspired by the conviction thatthe teaching of languages is going to be one of the most worthwhile tasks in front of theteaching profession and that language teaching and learning in Macao has special features that may help to illuminate this task and the problems involved.This paper, consisting of three integrated parts, is an attempt at placing Macao's language teaching and learning in perspective. Part One (In Search of an LT/LL Approach) reflects an LT/LL situation that is both unique and universal. Chapter 1 is an overview of the present LT/LL situation in Macao, both outlining the major achievements and pinpointing some problem areas, w ith a few anecdotes throwing light on the dilemmas in which a language teacher often finds himself. All this brings out the need for language policy and aims, administration and organization, and professional principles. Chapter 2 views in retrospect how the LT/LL scenario has been 'swayed' by the 'swing of the pendulum' in language teaching approaches and methodology on an international scale and Chapter 3 examines the three major approaches that have been predominating in Hong Kong and Macao, namely, the grammar-translation method, the oral-structural theory and teaching, and the communicative approach, the last being given the largest coverage because of its imminent importance.All these lead to the heart of this paper, Part Two (A Tentative LT /LL Model), which attempts, in the light of the twelve essential elements of Peter Strevens' • fK Model of the LT/LL Process', a very tentative eclectic LT/LL aproach comprising one co-ordinating strategy, two pedagogical steps, three progressive sequences, four universal stages and five communicative skills in LT /LL for Macao. Chapter 4 states its theoretical basis and general principles; Chapter 5 emphasizes the strategy of co-ordinating the teaching of the target language and that of the mother tongue; Chapter 6 discusses the importance of performing a pedagogical two-step, a guideline that applies to the choice of LT/LL types, approaches and materials, and to all LT/LL activities; Chapter 7 advocates a three sequence progression in syllabus/ course designing, teaching materials and methodology; Chapter 8 touches on the four universal learning stages which may be particularly valuable in times of 'approach uncertainty'; and Chapter 9 is devoted to the co-ordination and integration in fostering the five skills in reading, listening, speaking, writing and translating.Finally, Part Three (Back-Up Activities), which includes Chapter 10: Locating Particular Motivators in Particular Learners & Individualization of Instruction; Chapter 11: LT /LL Beyond the Classroom, Chapter 12: Teacher Selection, Teacher Training and Research; and Chapter 13: Systematization of All LT/LL Activities, offers some supportive measures and activities to substantiate the approach suggested in Part Two, and to help it materialize.PART ONE: IN SEARCH OF AN L T /L L (LANGUAGE TEACHINE/LANG UAG E LEARNING) APPROACH1 The Present LT/LL Situation in Macao- - An Overview1. 1 The Present Macao LT/LL ScenarioThe initialling of the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration on Macao's future has ushered in a great historic period of transition. To ensure smooth change-over and maintain the stability and prosperity of Macao, both the Government and people of Macao see the need for a far-sighted language policy as well as bilingualism. The Government has made it imperative for government officials to go bilingual and become proficient in both Portuguese and Chinese. So second or foreign language studies are gaining
popularity in Macao. Some Government departments are running Portuguese courses fo r Chinese speakers and Chinese courses for Portuguese speakers. Some language courses are jo in tly run or co-sponsored by the Government and some institutions. There are evening classes, pre-office hour sessions, lunch-time sessions and even late afternoon pre-supper sessions! Never before has one witnessed the people of Macao learning languages so ferociously! For example, the Administration & Public Functions Services (Servico de Administracao e Funcao Publica) opened a teachers' refresher course in teaching approaches and methodology for a class of 20 teachers from 9th to 20th November, 1987. For the 20 places, hundreds of practising language teachers sent in their applications and not a single absence was recorded throughout the whole course, from 8:00 to 10:00 p.m., every evening!The founding of the University o f East Asia in the spring of 1981 marked a milestone in Macao's education, higher learning and language studies, opening new vistas for the language teaching profession A t the inauguration ceremony of the University of East Asia, on March 28, 1981, its founding rector, Dr Hsueh Shou-sheng, made in clear that' ... It is the intention of the university to play an active role in cultural affairs ... The university can take advantage of this historical and geographical situation to promote culture on an international basis. The university has an international teaching staff and a multi- -national body of students from Macao, Hong Kong and other parts of the world. Its primary medium of instruction is English and courses in Portuguese and Chinese studies are also offered. The University consists of the University College, the Junior College, the Open College, the Polytechnic College and the Graduate College, all offering, among others, a variety of language studies to meet different needs and purposes. And w ith financial backing from the Government, the University also runs teachers training or retraining courses for language teachers in Macao. Special summer workshops, seminars, refresher course for language teachers have all proved popular and successful. In short, the language teaching profession has been enhanced by the establishment of the first university in Macao. In spite of some difficulties and problems, the University of East Asia, inspired and united by a common sense of dedication to education, aspirations, foresight and determination, has been surging ahead and growing in scope and depth. It is becoming a centre fo r higher learning, academic studies, cultural exchanges and research. Yes, this young university w ill come o f age and play more and more leading roles in many of the most worthwhile endeavours, including language teaching and language learning.Chinese, English and Portuguese are taught in almost all Macao schools The Government subsidies all non-profit-making private schools and provides them w ith qualified teachers of Portuguese. While most schools are Chinese middle schools where Chinese is used as the medium of instruction, there are a few English schools where English is the teaching language. Besides, in view of increasing social, academic and business contact w ith Mainland China in recent years, it is highly probable that Chinese w ill enjoy an increasing amount of social and academic advantages and hence the language status of Chinese will be enhanced. Moreover, since Putonghua ir the nation-wide spoken language, many schools also provide Putonghua courses and the social and business values of Putonghua have been acknowledged. However, English is by no means neglected because English is an international language and is essential for overseas trade and advanced studies abroad. Normally a high correlation exists between English proficiency and overall academic performance as good English facilitates learning from English textbooks and research literature. Moreover, a good knowledge of English w ill help students to acquire a world outlook and therefore is a contributing factor to promoting Macao's international status.A t the same time, Portuguese studies are being vigorously promoted in all schools by the Government. Indeed, Macao w ill be returned to, and reunited w ith, China in 12 years' time, but the Portuguese language w ill not and cannot be returned to Portugual, just as English cannot be returned to England. Nowadays, Portuguese language learning is no longer for an elite but for the masses; it is not just an expedient but has far-reaching cultural implications. This sentiment is, perhaps, best illustrated by a beautiful little poem of the Instituto Cultural de Macau:
Macau is a work of culture.The hands of two peoples have raised it.Stone by stone.Writers, researchers, poets, poets.Have built a Memory for it.They have given it a Soul,Page by page.The book is exciting;The book continues.In books, Macau lives on.To publish is to give more soul to the future.Page by page!(Instituto Cultural de Macau published this poem for its publication campaign in Hongkong Standard's 'the Good Life' on October 15, 1987)In methodology and approaches, the LT profession seems to be moving towards the Communicative Approach. There is indication that schools are going communicative, which is highlighted by the increasing interest in the theoretical principles of various schools and approaches to LT; by the more serious and genuine search for an approach for Macao's unique conditions and socio-linguistic need; by Macao hosting quite a few seminars on LT/LL and welcoming linguistic celebrities, leading course designers and material writers from both sides of the Atlantic and the Oceania; by the enthusiastic participation in seminars, workshops and discussions and by the growing awareness of professionalism in LT. Traditionally, as far as English Language teaching is concerned, Macao teachers fo llow their counterparts in Hong Kong. Recent developments there are fu lly reflected in the Communicative English Syllabus for Hong Kong issued by the Hong Kong Education Department, which is the guideline for all schools.But this is not the whole picture of the present LT/LL in Macao. When we look at the other side of the coin, we find many questions unanswered and problems unsolved.1. 2 Anecdotes shedding light on LT/LL Problems1. 2. 'My English is very water-skin, and so is my Chinese!'This sentence jumps out of a student's composition. The marking teacher, having 'corrected' a pile of scripts, all w ith more or less the same ideas and the same errors, and beginning to feel tired and bored, somehow feels 'refreshed' She is not surprised, but impressed. This 'Chinglish' but otherwise neat and graphic sentence of a humble, self-conscious student sets the teacher thinking long and hard. Professional instinct w ill never let her encourage students to write 'polluted' or deviating, substandard English. And yet she cannot bring herself to 'murder, this ingeniously invented sentence of a modest learner. So, instead, she quotes the word 'eater-skin' (meaning 'poor') and writes a little comment 'interesting use of words' beside it. She does not need to ask the student to specify, either, because she knows that the idea is clear. And as far as marks are concerned, the writer is generously rewarded. And the effects on the learner? Almost instant enhancement in confidence and interest.In fact, many students, especially those from English-medium schools, speak in a perfectly natural mixture of Cantonese and English. It is not uncommon to hear school boys say something like:. . . 侣 ，Ah J o h n同 D a v id 都係同一間English school, 佢哋眞係 fr ie n d過 打 band, 成日有大把 tipsy 欏 And owing to the impact of mass media, even an ordinary housewife can succeed in imposing her choice o f a dress on her choice o f a dress on her eight-year-old daughter by blurting out:Look! 呢條裙仔幾sexy! though, most probably, neither of them really knows the exact meaning of that word.
1. 2. 3 'You teach your pupils grammar? Oh, no!.Again i t was time fo r summer workshop, the retrainees were asked what they normally taught and how. One teacher honestly and tru th fu lly informed the retrainer, M teach my pupils grammar, vocabulary pronunciation, etc. For grammar, I teach them parts of speech, tenses, possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives, the nominative and the objective cases, the subjunctive mood, etc., etc.. As for condidtionals l . . . ' With a bang on the desk, the lecturer stopped him. Shaking her head Sadly, she sincerely told the participants that even American children do not have to go through this traumatic experience in learning their own language. 'How can the Chinese children cope with all the hard stuff in learning a foreign language? No grammarl' Fully appreciating the lecturer's feelings, the 'grammatical' teacher echoed, humorously, 'Well, between you and I, I'd like to see grammar go to h e ll/ Almost spontaneously, the lecturer corrected him 'Say "between you and me〃!'1_. 2. 4 "Forget your Chinese!”It was a special composition class fo r Form 6, conducted by a resourceful expatriate and assisted by a local teacher. A fter giving all the necessary help in vocabulary, sentence patterns and even topic sentence fo r each paragraph, the lecturer told the students to begin their part of work. Then, he said, he would walk around, answering whatever questions that might be put to hi . He further assured them that he welcomed questions. A t first he looked obviously pleased to see those black young heads bending over their work so concentratedly,believing that he had given them enough guidance. Later, however, he noticed that his assistant could hardly cope w ith so many 'questioners' He bent over a student's work and realized what was going on. Except for the few guidelines he had written earlier on the blackboard, the paper was almost entirely covered with illegible Chinese. The students were asking the local teacher to translate their innumerable fancy ideas into English! In exasperation, he blurted out: 'Forget your Chinese!'1. 2. 5 The Marginal Man'A student wrote one o f his strangest dreams, it sounds like a fairy tale:It seemed that I was among the Shaolin Temples and then I was up the Wu Tai Shan. Suddenly I found myself in deep water. I struggled ashore and saw a Godlike figure standing in front of me. Very solemnly, he opened his mouth:1. 2. 2 What's your name?"It was a summer 'workshop' fo r a group o f Chinese teachers o f English. The lecturers were enthusiastic, highly dedicated American linguistis and teacher trainers. Honestly, both were determined to make the workshop work, especially the Chinese trainees, feeling deeply grateful for the opportunity to improve themselves. So all started seriously and conscientiously. The lecturers began by saying that the local teachers had been teaching their students some wrong English, not the real-life English, the English that people actually use in real-life situations. Examples are numerous, such as This is a book: 'Mary is younger than her mother', etc. People normally don 't say these things! So the first lesson was a sort of informal introduction-getting to know each other. The trainees spread into smaller groups, in twos and threes, and began to ask each other, 'What's your name? An active young trainee went on further by asking a lady trainee, 'How old are you? Here the /communicating, young speaker was stopped by the supervising lecturer, who patiently explained that In real life we rarely ask a lady about her age.. Then came the authentic reply, 'In real life, I would speak Cantonese/
I 'm the King of the Dragon. Identify yourself！’'Well, eh, l ’ a descendant of the dragon.’'But why do you speak English?'Did I? Oh, God! But what language did he speak? Mandarin? Oh, it's Putonghua, or Cantonese? Then, acting like a judge, he gave me the verdict:'You are the Marginal Man!'With this, he disappeared, before I fu lly comprehended his message.But I do remember that he spoke English!1. 3 Problem AreasHaving viewed the present LT /LL situations in Macao, now we may find it easier to pinpoint those problem areas towards which efforts and resources should be directed.1. 3. 1 It is keenly fe lt that Macao lacks a long-term, far-sighted language policy. In view of the veryspecial linguistic conditions and demands in Macao, it might be necessary to appoint a Director for Languages, who will be responsible for the overall planning, co-ordi-nating and monitoring of LT/LL in Macao. The language teachers and LT professionals, however dedicated they may be, cannot do much w ithout being motivated by very careful and properly piloted government schemes. A t this stage of our history, there is a strong need to reflect on such language issues as bi-lingualism; localization of the civil service; LT /LL in English, Chinese and Portuguese; language awareness and acquisition and instruction media. These issues are of central importance to language policy and planning.1. 3. 2 The linguistic circumstances in Macao are extremely complicated, which may be aggravated by cultural, ethnic and national identities. This may present both advantages and disadvantages to language learners. Chinese, English and Portuguese are taught in almost all Macao schools, the first two being compulsory school subjects. While Cantonese is the teaching medium in most schools, Putonghua is also taught as a school sujbect in many schools. So here in Macao, students have to cope with three languages and two dialects. How do our students actually fare in this situation of such linguistic dimensions? Sadly, no thorough, systematic, conscientious study has been made of this tri-lingual, bi-dialectical mode! In fact, this should be of utmost interest and of paramount importance to language teachers, policy-makers as well as academic researchers. Obviously, the fact has been overlooked that mastering a language, especially a foreign language, is no small feat. Furhtermore, in teaching and learning these languages, there is absolute need for careful co-ordination, the absence of which w ill definitely upset the apple cart, to the detriment of the learner's language proficiency and cognitive and intellectual development. This w ill ultimately result in a loss to the society as a whole in terms of human resources. Therefore we must seriously and systematically study the subject matter of Languages in Education in a bi-lingual or multi-lingual setting because it is of particular relevance to our Macao situation.1. 3. 3 Hence there is the incessant debate on the medium of instruction in schools, the bone of contention on the educational arena for as long as we remember. Perhaps the medium of instruction is not the most important factor affecting students' development and language proficiency for there is strong evidence, as shown by examination results and performances at various local and international contests, that shcools of any medium can turn out excellent students highly competent in the languages taught. As far as the educational system is concerned, a certain degree of uniform ity may be desirable; but in LT/LL, which allows such scope for flex ib ility and variety, hasty attempts at imposing a certain language may show a lack o f insight and jeopardize the LT /LL set-up. Efforts should be aimed at quality and diversity and each school should decide, according to its own specific conditions features and needs.
whatever is appropriate to use as the teaching medium. Each school can select its medium according to the pupils, the staff and the tradition that it has. A good grounding in Chinese is definitely a great asset for the learner's intellectual and personal development. And so is a good grounding in English or Portuguese.1. 3. 4 There is a lack of incentives for language teachers and of dedication and professionalism w ithin the teaching service. Many teachers often seem to be in search of an opportunity to raise their social and professional status. Teachers with widely different qualifications may be indiscriminately remunerated. Indeed, little e ffort has been made to encourage and motivate language teachers to update and improve themselves so as to upgrade their quality o f teaching. Moreover, personal contact and interaction between the teacher and the learner, which is so vital to language learning, is lacking, owing to the apathy and the fact that LT /LL is confined to the classroom only. Learners do have problems in learning a foreigh language and need understanding and sympathetic teachers to help them. But sympathy and understanding do not always come from training, rather, from genuine dedication to their profession and inborn personality. So selection of teachers is necessary. Qualifications are essential for such a challenging profession, and so are personal qualities. Multifarious motives lead people to take up teaching in Macao. Many regard teaching as a temporary alternative, the so-called' riding the ox while looking out for the horse' Teachers of high calibre are lured into other, supposedly more promising professions. With the older generation o f teachers retiring and demand increasing, the shortage of experiemced, qualified teachers w ill become more acute. It is believed that there are quite some gifted and highly competent language teachers in our schools and great efforts should be made to tap their potential. In addition, teachers in Macao assume a colossal workload, and overwork does not always result in successful teaching, as not many teachers have the time or energy in studying various LT/LL approaches and methodologies.1. 3. 5 Too often, hardly has an approach, old or new, been fu lly studied, grasped and put to the test o f practice when someone comes forward, saying This approach is too old and backward and should not be adopted. T ha t one is unsuitable to our school and cannot be used' and another is 'too tantalizing!' Only the approach about which they seem to know is the best. In fact, according to a well-known local language teacher, Mr. Wang Wen Qin, as far as LT /LL methodology and approaches are concerned, 'Macao language teachers are still groping in the dark/ (Wang Wen Qin: Promote Studies on LT/LL Approaches and Methods, 13th December, 1987, Macao Daily.) Without adopting the right approaches and methods as well as a good understanding of their basic tenets, we can only teach blindly, thus putting learners in a frustrating and confidnce-destroying situation. Methods and approaches should be updated and modernized as social conditions change and linguistic needs grow. Perhaps studies on LT/LL approaches and methods should be aimed at the following areas:a. Teaching Portuguese to Chinese-Speaking Adultsb. Teaching Portuguese to Chinese-Speaking School Childrenc. Teaching Chinese, Chinse Language & Literature, to Chinese Speakersd. Teaching Chinese to Portuguese Speakerse. Teaching Putonghua to Portuguese Speakersf. Teaching Cantonese to Portuguese Speakersg. Teaching English to Chinese Speakersh. Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)As we can see, each area has its own characteristics and the teaching medium is chosen according to the learner's needs and aims.1. 3. 6 In recent years, the Portuguese Language Course has been added to the curriculum of almost every private school in Macao. Qualified teachers of Portuguese are provided by the Government. Some
are locally born Portuguese speaking fluent Cantonese while others are expatriate Portuguese language teachers newly recruited from Portugual. Has any investigation or a sort of assessment been made of these language courses? A chat with the principal of any school reveals a host of nerve-racking problems: the language barrier and breakdown in communication between the teacher and students, and the subsequent frustration and classroom tension, the lack of motivation, the disillusionment, etc. Perhaps we can benefit from the experience of Hong Kong's Expatriate English Language Teachers' Pilot Scheme, which was established this year to improve English standards among Forms 1-3 students. Now this programme seems to be running into some trouble and the inability to communicate is the root o f the problem. It was said that the expatriate teachers had expected to face a group of highly motivated students who possessed a fair command of English. Instead, they found themselves confronted with a classroom of students who had little understanding of the language. The problem with us in teaching Portuguese may be greater because the learners here, in most cases, are zero-beginners, and the language barrier is more formidable. There are many obvious advantages if the language is taught by native speakers. But here again success depends on a number of prerequisites, the most important being interaction and communication. Besides, a positive language policy w ill encourage students to cultivate a positive, broad-minded attitude towards language iearning. Now it is high time for us to do something. An extensive and in-depth scientific evaluation should be conducted to identify the problems and introduce remedial measures. There should also be more informal contact between the expatriate and local teachers to get a better interflow of teaching methods and to resolve some of the problems as soon as they appear.1. 3. 7 Overcrowding, lack of activity space and noise is an all-too-common occurrence in Macao. Just step into any classroom of a private school, and you w ill see the stark realities: the teacher, a 'diminishing figure, is faced w ith an increasing 'horde' of 55, 60, 65 … students, in a shabby classroom, with scarcely any of the facilities that, judged by modern concepts and standards, accommodate learning. One justcan't help admiring the teacher, who, tempered by such startling conditions and steeled by theirperseverence and devotion, can manage, handle and manipulate the class so skilfully, and one can't help wondering whether it is a miracle that some of our best young men and women, the cream of our society, continuously emerge from it!1. 3. 8 There is indeed a gap between the student's linguistic competence and performance. A quite good student may not respond correctly to situations like 'You aren't going out in your pyjamas, are you?" or 'Would you like some coffee?' not because he does not have the competence. It is simply because he is rarely exposed to such situations in the target language.The ultimate aim of language learning is to be able to receive or initiate communication in the target language. However, there is little effective communication w ithout an adequate grammar, vocabulary, etc., which constitute the linguistic competence (Chomsky, 1965), for communicative performance presupposes communicative competence (Hymes, 1971). In 'going communicative' too hastily, there may be a danger of ignoring the establishment of a firm base (competence) from which students may easily proceed inaccordance w ith their academic, career or personal needs. Ambivalence towards the formal study ofgrammar is, and w ill be university, the dream-world of so many young hearts! In addition to examinations at school, there are a number of overseas examinations: TOEFL, GCE, SAT, to mention only a few. However, these examinations provide a sort of ‘ consolation' prize for the teacher: the examination syllabus is his teaching syllabus. The examination syllabus dictates all LT // LL activities. The aims and goals set in the examination syllabus are the goals and amis for LT/LL. And the examination result is the yardstick to measure the learner, the teacher and all LT //LL . But we can seldom afford the luxury of asking 'Should these be the genuine purposes of teaching and learning languages? Omdeed. few teacjers can afford not to prepare their students for these examinations, both local and overseas. So, GCE, SAT.
TOEFL, HKSCEE papers and mutifarious test papers are used as 'textbooks' in many an LT classroom. And this ‘putting the cart before the horse’ case results in a vicious cycle. A glance at a selection of some choice syllabuses and papers w ill help one to get some insight into this problem.A ll these problem areas may be thrown into clear relief if we put the whole of LT/LL ste-up into Peter Strevens’ 'A Theoretical Model of Language Teaching & Language Learning Process:Theoretical Model of the LT/LL ProcessElements of the LT/LL Process1. Policy and Aims2. Administration and Organization3. Relevant Professional Disciplines4. Choice o f LT /LL Types5. Teacher Training6. Approach7. Pedagogy, Methodology, Instruction, Teaching8. Syllabus Design9. Materials Construction10. Constraints on LT /LL Achievement11. The learner12. EvaluationAnd this model can be illustrated in Diagram 1:2 The Swing of the Pendulum 一 A RetrospectThe LT profession in Macao has been searching painstakingly for a approach tailored to Macao's needs and conditions while remaining eager and ready to assimilated whatever relevant from overseas sources. Consequently, the Macao's LT/LL scenario, like Hong Kong's, has been more or less 'swayed' by the 'swing of the pendulum' on an international scale, which, according to A. H. Marchwardt of Princeton University, 'undergoes a radical change just about every 20 to 25 years, (Marckwardt, 1966), and which may help us to trace all the significant developments in our LT /LL in the past few decades. Hong Kong has been keeping pace with the ouside world. Every new development in LT /LL approaches, methodology and pedagogy has had its repercussions here and many of the rationales and principles based on the studies of here and many of the rationales and principles based on the studies of linguistics, psychology and sociology have found their way into our syllabuses, textbooks and language seminars, and a lo t more of the methods and techniques born of these theories have made their way into the classroom. First, there was the old, literature-based grammar-translation method, which was once discredited but has never been totally discarded by local teachers, and which has since been updated and complemented by later approaches and techniques; then came the Direct Method and the Oral-structural Approach (Audio-Lingual/Audio Visual), which has en oyed a predominating position in the past 20 years, and then for some time, some teachers seemed to be switching back to the grammar-translation method in the disguise of the Cognitive Approach (transformational-generative grammar) or the 'new' grammar-translation approach. Now very much in vogue here and elsewhere is the formidably termed Notional/Functional Communicative Approach, which derives much of its novelty from findings and disciplines of sociology and psychology.The swing of the pendulum in language teaching approaches may signify gradual progress towards some sort of perfection and deeper understanding because later approaches complement and update the previous ones. They roughly fall into two frames: philosophically, the rationalistic and the empiric; psychologically, the mentalistic or cognitive and the behaviouristic; and linguistically, the generative grammar and the structuralistic. The development of major approaches are shown in Diagram 2.Not only must we accept the fact that there are problems in LT/LL with any approach and in any
circumstances, we must also admit that each approach goes through the process of improving and perfecting itself and of being complemented by other approaches, both old and new. They may be good for different purposes and effective LT/LL should expose the learner to them all. Each has difficulties, defects and limitations; each contains unique advantages. A teacher who uses only one method is in danger of developing only one group of skills in his pupils and only part of his own power as a teacher. A learner who knows only one way of learning w ill find it hard to conceive what rich possibilities lie unused in his mind. Each method seems to have served the purpose and needs of each particular time. There is no reason to believe that they are mutually exclusive — it is not a matter of one being necessarily wrong and the other right. No single method can solve all problems in all circumstances. A teacher who sticks to one approach only is restricting his own abilities. Perhaps it is just as thoughtless to be absolutely for a certain approach as it is to be absolutely against it. There have been gross inaccuracies in assessing the advantages and disadvantages, pros and cons, fors and againsts for each approach. A drawback in one situation may turn out to be an advantage in another. For example, a young child may not want any grammar, and perhaps it is fu title to teach it any; yet a perceptive, thinking teenager desires to hear you talk about grammar because he is anxious to know why his sentence The terrible noise made me can't sleep' is wrong.So, shall we remain grammatical, or aural-oral? Shall we go cognitive or communicative? Now it seems that the momentum is gaining to make schools go communicative. As no one approach can ensure complete success, it seems that existing approaches, enriched by new ideas, by discriminating absorption and assimilation of new methods, skills and techniques developed from new approaches, may produce better and safer results. Changes for the sake of changes should be avoided. What we are doing is to add something to the precious string of pearls that is our heirloom from the past. Each generation inherits whatever valid and effective from the previous one and is able to modify and develop them with conscious goals in mind.3 Major Theories and Approaches as Applied in Macao SchoolsThree major approaches have been dominating the local LT/LL scene;: the grammar-translation method, the audio-oral-structural theory and teaching and the communicative approach. It may be worthwhile to go over them briefly and relish a glimpse of our LT/LL heritage.3.1 The Grammar-Translation MethodThis is the oldest and probably the most presistent method favoured by many teachers. The reasons are obvious. First, some teachers are used to it and feel more at home w ith it probably beause they themselves were taught in the same way as students. Just get a piece of chalk, a blackboard and a textbook, and they can teach languages. This is the most suitable method, perhaps, for schools w ith big classes but very limited resources. Secondly, thet may feel that this method suits the hard-working spirit of the traditional learner as it requires the learner to work very hard under pressure. Teachers and learners may feel the sense of achievement by teaching and learning something 'substantial,: the accumulating number of words, the grammatical rules which help them to assemble and dissect sentences, the wonderful ability of translating, the piling up of simplified and original classics they have read, the many compositions they have managed to write, etc. No matter how boring this method may be, some students manage to achieve quite a high standard, thanks to their characteristic resilience and a determination to work hard.Nowadays, however, a strictly old grammar-translation method is rarely practissed. With the introduction of the oral test and of a communicative listening test into most examinations, more emphasis is given to training skills in listening and speaking. Grammar is still meticulously taught and teachers and students still translate a lot, and reading and writing is still an important part of the curriculuBut students are given the chance to listen to recordings of native speakers, to practise pronunciation, stress, intonation. Perhaps this is what some people call the 'new' grammar-translation method.3. 2 The Audio-Oral-Structural Theory and TeachingThe LT profession took to this approach steadily and firm ly. This approach assumes the 'primacy
of speech' and stresses the importance of active listening and speaking, thus making up for the weaknesses and imperfection o f the old method.Advocates o f this approach believe that a good command of the auraoral skills is the surest way to mastering the reading and writing skills. It is necessary, therefore, at least at the beginning stages, to avoid any textbook use and to present the items orally only. There is no suggestion, however, that oral work should replace written work or reading, but rather to precede them. The emphasis is on repetitive practice of patterns by means of various types of drills so that the learner may become habituated to biving automatic and correct responses through overlearning. Supporters of this approach believed that the Oral Approach was based on sound principles of Bloomfieldian structural linguistics and Skinnerian behaviourist psychology and that'its techniques had been vigorously tried out and refined by linguists and teachers overseas during the past f if ty years. '(The English Bulletin, Vol. vii, No. 3, p. 48, 1980)So, w ith little resistance, there was thorough and successful revamping in LT and examination syllabuses, teacher training, course design, material development, classroom arrangements and teaching procedures. Language labs and aural-oral facilities were installed; teaching aids and supportive materials provided; classroom libraries established, in short, as far as the resources could stretch. The grammar syllabus was replaced by the structural syllabus; classic readers were replaced by structural or graded readers; grammatical analysis and explanations were replaced by dialogues and pattern drills or substitution drills; 'knowing about' by practising orally; free compositions on 'single-word' topics by fu lly guided, situational ones. The use o f mother tongue was forbidden in the classroom; the word 'grammar' was shunned, and in its place was ‘usage' or 'sentence structure' or "sentence pattern' or 'verb pattern'; translation disappeared from both the LT syllabus and the examination syllabus, from both the textbook and the classroom, though it might be lingering in the learner's mind. Students were urged to respond 'instinctively' w ithout thinking, or w ithout any time to think. Some teachers became stimulus-response- reinforcement psychologists and experts.Perhaps the greatest contribution of this approach is that it has set an excellent precedent of overall systematization in ELT for Hong Kong: from the theoretical basis and guiding principles in methodology and classroom procedures, all the way through syllabus design, teaching and supportive materials (textbooks, students' workbooks, listening and speaking exercises, structural-graded readers, guided or picture compositions), teaching aids (language aids, recorded tapes by native speakers, video tapes, cards, slides, posters, pictures, songs, classroom library kits, dictionaries, teachers’ desk books and references and other audio-visual aids), finally to objective tests and examinations. A ll in all, it is a comprehensive, convenient but rather expensive package which benefits both the teacher and the learner.However, in spite of the fact that the proponents of the above two approaches disagreed, sometimes violently, w ith each other, we can see now that they had a number of important things in common. First, both approaches tended to take the sentence as the unit of instruction. The exemplification and practice of the grammatical system mainly through isolated and uncontextualized sentences has had some harmful effects on language learning. Learners of English in Hong Kong, as perhaps anywhere, have d ifficu lty with such features as the articles system and anphoric reference generally, sequence of tenses, connectives and stylistic choice. These are, of course, inter-sentential features; they belong to the whole text, not to the individual sentence. They cannot be taught by an approach which focuses almost exclusively on the sentence. Secondly, they both paid very little attention to language function, and equally little to the purposes for which the language was being learned. Meaningful use of language, using language for purposeful communication, was neglected w ith the result that much language teaching became formal to the point of sterility. Since the materials writers were using language forms as their startingpoint, their task as they saw it was to demonstrate how these forms operated as linguistic units or 'language items' The sociolinguistic dimension was often forgotten, authenticity was lost, meaning was subordinated to form and was frequently ignored altogether. As a result, one finds textbooks with sentences such as 'Mary is younger than her mother', have two legs' etc. They are grammatically correct but not possible in real-
-life communication, just like the proverbial example given by D. H. Hymes 'The mouse the cat the dog the man the woman married beat chased ate had a white ta i l ' The deleterious effect of teaching materials of this kind on the interest and motivation of the learners is obvious. Thirdly, such commitment to forms has resulted in a great deal of language teaching being circular in nature, language being used simply for the purpose of teaching language. All this is a severe indictment of the approaches to LT which paid exclusive attention to the forms of the traget language and very little to communicative purposes and which looked at the language and ignored the learner. Teachers have been expressing dissatisfaction with the results achieved by these formal ways of teaching. Inspite of the teachers' efforts and the hard work of the learners, very few LT programmes have succeeded to the degree hoped for by their sponsors. This has led to a search for new ways of tackling the problems of LT/LL, of which the most promising seems to be the communicative approach.PART TWO: A TENTATIVE LT/LL MODEL4 Theoretical Basis & General Principles4. 1 This approach, first and foremost, takes account of the student's needs and goals in learning the language. What we aim to give him is a general language course, hoping that he w ill emerge at the end of the course with a reasonable command of the target language, enough for him to get ahead in everyday use and for study purposes, including the aims and objectives set for examinations, local and overseas.4. 2 This approach neither negates nor exclude any relevant and effective approaches. On the contrary, it is an attempt at eclectic applications of various theories and methods as determined by the types of learners and specific conditions. This is done by making a conscientious study of all known approaches and various materials available, trying out whatever is useful and serves our aims and purposes.4. 3 This approach emphasizes gradualness in all aspects of LT/LL: in methodology, course design, teaching materials, etc., from habitformation to cognitive learning; from im itation to creation; from surface structure to deep structure; from mechanical drills through meaningful structural practice to communicative use (MMC).4. 4 All variables and factors contributing to LT/LL are taken account of, including age, motivation teacher's skills classroom conditions, resources, etc. Teachers are on the look-out all the time and identify factors that maximize success and minimize failure.4- 5 Efforts are made to co-ordinate the teaching of the target language and that of the mother tongue so that the learner can make use of his linguistic repertoire of his mother tongue to facilitate learning the target language.4. 7 This model encourages the conscious, meaningful, purposeful teaching of grammar at the secondary school level to aid learning and substantiate teaching. Acquisition of communicative competence is prior to communicative performance.4. 6 Continuous efforts are made towards deepening our knowledge of the three equipollent language learning and teaching elements: the mind of the learner, the nature of the language and the skills of the teacher.4. 6 Continuous efforts are made towards deepening our knowledge of the three equipollent language learning and teaching elements: the mind of the learner, the nature of the language and the skills of the teacher.
4. 8 Flexibility is allowed at all levels for particular LT /LL circumstances so that time and resources will not be wasted, and more initiative and abler students can develop their potentials.4. 9 This approcah takes advantage of advanced technology and various aids to assist LT/LL w ithout becoming too dependent on them.4. 10 LT/LL should, as far as possible, permeate all subjects and all the learner's life so that students really learn the language for purposefu, communicative use in life. They learn the language as a language of life which w ill help them develop intellectually and cultivate personality.5 Strategical Co-ordination between the Teaching of the Target Language and of the Mother TongueThis based on the rationale that there are universal properties which hold for all human languages and are unique to them. V. Fromkin and R. Rodman listed the following linguistic universais:Some may develop reading skills early while others may be early developers in speaking, depending not only on the order of presentation, but a host of factors. So Lado,s 'Why not start reading earlier? (1977) merit deep thinking. Perhaps a better method is shown by a circle. (Diagram 3) It is assumed that we can start at any point on it and go on in either direction, clock-wise or counter clock-wise. We can start at A and go to B, C, D and E. Or, we can start at C and then go back to B and A before going on to D and E.In any case, there are both feed-backs and references to other skills. Furthermore, the five skills are not to be put into water-tight compartments. They are interrelated and interdependent, They are either complementing, or causing stumbling blocks to, each other. They may either accommodate one another or weaken on another. So they should be co-ordinated and integrated according to our aims and purposes. Students should be trained to make spontaneous, co-ordinated use of their ears, hands, eyes, tongues and brain at as early an age as possible. (Diagram 4) Such co-or dination will in turn sharpen their intellectual ability to anticipate situations and react to them.EPILOGUEHere this paper ends where I must begin again, by carefully studying Macao's LT/LL scenario, the needs and special difficulties of various learners; by coming to grips with those theories of linguistics, education, pedagogy, sociology, psycology, etc., and their relevance and applicability to LT/LL, and most importantly, by learning more about the nature of my profession and of the languages that I have been learning and teaching. Indeed, I find myself most fortunate to be a language teacher in Macao and I feel pround of my profession.Into this paper I have put my ideals, dreams and even fancies that I have been cherishing for years, both as a language learner and teacher. They are by no means the mere freak creation of my imagination. On the contray, I owe almost all my ideas to generations of teachers, educators and linguists, especially H. Sweet, M. Berlitze, L. Bloomfield, R. Lado, C. C. Fries, N. Chomsky, G. Leech, W. Moulton, M.A.K. Halliday, J. Lyons, S. P. Corder, D. Crystal, D. H. Hymes, D.A. Wilkins, L.G. Alexander, W.M. Rivers, R. Quirk, P. Strevens, K. Methold, D.H. Howe, A.R.B. Etherton, R.K. Tongue, P.D. Reynolds, R. Lord, j C. Tung, T.C. Tang, and my beloved teachers and supervisors at Zhongshan University, where I spent the most unforgettable years of my life as an undergraduate and post-graduate student.
Only time can prove the feasibility of these ideas; only practice can test the validity of this very tentative model and the methods, skills and techniques that may develop from it. Whatever the outcome, the whole LT profession, including me, w ill go on searching and researching tirelessly and unswervingly for still better approaches that w ill suit Macao's ever-changing conditions and growing needs!
Dictionary of the Chinese Language in the Cantonese Dialect ( 《英華分韻撮要 ) [註14] 。 雖然《英華分韻撮要》是一本英語與廣州對 照的吳華詞典 ，但在該書的前言部分，作者曾 以_ 的形式指出了澳門話與廣州話的異同之 處 。例如在談到廣州話的零聲母 字 時 ，作者寫 逍 ：“ 一些字，廣州讀作沒有帮母的，在澳門 話中却聽到以ng (按即[■] ) 作聲母，例如“二” n g i，廣州續i ； “言”ngin 或ngiin (按:即■yn) ，廣州作in ； “熱”ngit，廣州作it ;而“賢” 廣州作i n ，澳門則讀作hin" [ 註15]。像這類 似乎足本碎的歷史資料，對我們了解當時的澳H,活還是很有用的。至於本人實地調査所得的 老 澳 的 發 音材 料 ，在本文的第貳部分第 六 節“新澳門話的内部差異”中巳有提及。雖 然我們調查的所謂老澳門居民亦小過六十九歲 ，但從這作保留鄕音較取的老澳門居民口中， 我們起碼可以找到老澳門話的一邱影子。例如 ， 一位五十三歲的中山籍發皆人辛今仍保留着■ - 母的齊，撮口呼，“二” 讀■i ■ ，“言”讀 oyn ■ ，“熱” 讀■it ■ ，“染” 讀■im ■ ，這正 .好與上述兩位西方學者所叙述的老澳門話發音 相介。旣然我們把 Ball, James Dyer的 The Hong Shan or Macao Dialect ( 《汽山或澳門方言》)作爲硏究老澳門話的主要依據，那 麼 ，究竟 M 位洋人所記錄的澳門話可信程度如何？這是 个能+ 加以認眞考虚的問題。根據我們所掌握 的資料，該夂作者Ball, James Dy e r當時任職 於汽港政府的内政部（Civil Service ) ，是一位 對漢語方言研究有濃厚興趣的學者，在硏究珠 江三角洲地I,的方言方面，他的著作甚豐，除 上述《朽山成澳門方言》一文外尙有Cantonese Made Easy ( 《簡易廣州話》 ）（1888年 ），The Cantonese Made Easy Vocabulary ( 《簡易廣 州 á舌詞棄》 ) ( 1908年 ) ， Readings in Cantonese Colloquial (《廣州話口語讀物》 ) ( 1894年 ) ， The Tung-Kwun Dialect (《東竞方言》)(1890 年 ），The San Wui Dialect ( 《新會方言》 ）（I.890年 ) ，TheShun Tak Dialect ( 《順德方言》 ）（1901年 ）等著作。他對客家話亦有著述， 如 Easy Santences in the Hakka Dialect with a Vocabulary ( 《客家話簡單句子及詞 彙 》 ）( 1896年 ），Hakka Made Easy ( 《簡易客家 話》》）（1896年 ）等 等 [註16] 。作者關於方言 方I射的上述論著，說明作者是一個對珠江三角 洲方言有相當了解且著述甚豐的語言學工作者 ，這無疑增加了《香山或澳門方言》一文的可 信程度。另外從該义的内容來肴，亦處處表現 出作者審昏的精確，對香山地區方言面貌了解 的透徹。例 如 ，在本交之“不同的語言和方言” 一 節 [註17] ，作者指出杏山地區內存在着各 種小同的方言：有客家話，絕大多數分佈在山 村 ；有 “福佬”話 ，分佈在三鄕一帶；此外大 部分居民則講粤語。在粵語內部仍有不同：小 欖鎭講順德話，黃良都 鄕 （按 ，即今古鎭地區 ) 居民講新會話，斗門鄕（按 ：今已劃人斗門 縣 ）居民講否山話和新會話的混合，東北部靠 近東莞縣地闷( 按 ：今三角鎭一帶）講東莞話 ，某余荇山地敁的大部分居民則講香山話。作 者這些描述，與我們今天所掌握的中山方言分 佈情况基本吻合。作爲一個外國人，對當時一 個縣範圍内的方言的分佈了解得如此透徹，確 非易事。另 外 ，該文的題目是“ The Hong Shan or Macao Dialect” ( 《香山或澳門方言》 ) 。究竟 該夂所記錄的是香山話的代表石岐 話 ，還是我 們所需要的澳門話？這也是不能不考慮的問題 。首先需要指出的是：澳門在歷史上本是香山 縣 （包含今珠海市）屬下的一條漁村，居民絕 大多數來自香山。據1879年的統計，澳門地區 的中國居民有63, 532人 ，而香山籍的居民約佔 四分之三[註18]。因 此 ，當時澳門地區所通行 的方言亦可稱爲香山話。縱觀全文，作者在文 中所說的“香山話” ，其實是指澳門話而言的 。在文章一開頭，作者即指出：“ 雖然澳門在 近三個半肚紀的長時期內，較早地而不斷地與 歐洲人接觸（葡萄牙人最初佔領澳門是在公元 1557年 ），但就筆者目前所知，澳門所在的香 山地區的方言至今未被人加以認眞地硏究過
[註19] 。在下文中，“澳門方言”與 “ 荇山方 言”交替出現，然而其所指的對象都是相同的 。在文章最後一節“ 廣州話與香山話昏節的比 較 ”中 ，作者比較了七百三十六個漢字的昏節 ，其中的“香山話”亦明顯是指澳門話而+是 指石岐話。因爲在“鶯 、正 、秤 、準 、春 、金 、襟 、急 、吸 ”等字音中，作者都另外在注釋 中標出了它們的石岐話讀音。如 在“秤 ” 字下 面 ，作者標出它的“香山話” （實即澳門話） 讀昏是[t■è g ] ，但又再加註曰：“在石岐讀 [ts ■]" [註2 0 ] ，所 有 這 些 ，都證實了該文 文所記的“香山話” ，其實就是澳門話。最 後 ，在充分肯定了該文所記的澳門話語 音的可信性以後，我們仍然有必要指出該文在 記昏方面的兩大缺點。其一是該文記音所採用 的是韋氏拼昏法，而不是國際昏標，其恃調描 寫也只停留於抽象的夂字描寫的方法，而个是 採用今天的五度標調法，沽成了今天比較、硏 究上的困難。其二是作者記昏時比較嚴格，這 是好的；但作者未能運用皆位理論把一些雖有 細微差别，但並無辨義作用的音素合併爲相同 的昏位，結果其所記錄的聲、韻調系統比較_ 大 。對於上述兩個缺黙，我們將在該文的基礎 上 ，參照其他歷史資料及實際調査材料，對近 百年前的老澳門話音系，用國際昏標及五度標 調法進行轉寫。二 、臀母老澳門話共有聲母十八個，如 下 ：h 下嬉老澳門話聲母方间有如下幾個主要特點：1. n 與1對 立 ，是兩個+ 同的昏位，例如 ：“南” nam ■ “藍” l a m ，“你” ni ■ “李”li。2 . 沒有k w、 k 'w聲母 ，分别混人k 、k ' 释母 。《涔山或澳門方言》 指 出 ：“k 後的w 在 汽山地陴是失落的” [註 21]。例 如 : “瓜 ”= “加” k a ，“誇”= “卡” k a ’ “軍”= “斤” kan。3.t s 、ts '、s 部位前。《押山_或澳門方 言》指 出 ：“廣州話的ch [按 ：即t■] 在汽山 幾乎總是變成t s”，“廣州話的sh [註 2 1 ] 從小出现在香山” [註22]。4 . 零臀母字較多。“伊” i ‘呀” a ，“烏” u 等中古影母字，在老埘門話中都續本饵母。5.■ - 辟母能與開、齊 、撮口呼甜母相拼 合 。如 “牙” D a ，“二” ■ ，“月” ■y t 。6.h 聲母能與u, un, ut, UD, u k 等韻母相 拼 合 ，如 “夫” hu ’ “寬” hun ’ “闊” hut ， “風” h u e ，“福” h u k ，《符山成澳門方言》也 指 出 ："h - 在11和■ 前 面 時 取 代 了廣州話的 f - ，這是一個總的規律” [註23] 。三 、韻母 ：老澳門話共有五十二個韻母，如 下：
老澳門話在韻母方面有如下幾個値得注意 的 特 黙:1 . 無ei韻 ，併人i韻 。《香山或澳門方 言》指 出 ：“廣州的ei變爲長i ，構成了香山語 皆的特徵之一” [註24] 。從古今音變的角度來 看，中古止攝開口三等韻全部讀i韻，這確實是 朽山話、老澳門話的語音特徵之一。例 如 ：皮 、你 、悲 、避 、企 、飢 、幾 、死等字，在廣州 話讀ei韻 ，老澳門話則讀i韻 。2 . 無io/ik韻和oen/oet韻 。《香山或澳 門方言》指 出 ：澳門話“ 另一個更典型的特徵 是當短i後面是k 或■的 時 候 ，便由短e 取代短i ” [註 ] 。這就是說，在老澳門話中，i■和ik 韻 由 和 e k 韻取而代之。例 如 ：“兄、億 ” ， 廣州分别讀hig和jik，老 澳 門 話 讀 和 B k 。 與此相類似的是，老澳門話中的oen和oet韻亦 由抑和B t韻取而代之。如 “準 、卒” ，廣州分 别讀tjoen、tjoet，老澳門話則讀tsen、tset。3.u 、y 兩韻結合能力較强《香山或澳門 方言》指 出 ：“廣州的oey在矜山變成簡單的 y ，例如人稱代詞“他” k‘y ” [註2 6 ] 。從與廣 州話比較的角度而言，廣州話的oey韻在老澳 門話中有部分變爲y ，如 “居 ” k o e y，“呂 ” loey在老澳門話中分别讀作k y 和l y 。另 外 ， 廣州話的o u韻在老澳門話中亦有部分變爲u ， 例 如“無” m o u ，“做” tjou在老澳門話中分别 讀f # m u和t s u 。結果，老澳門話中u 、y 兩韻 便能夠與絕大部分饵母相拼合。4 . 有i介音而無u 、y 介音 。老澳門話有 i介H 存 在 ，如請t s í e o，淨tsiefl，脊tsiek等 。但u 和y 則只充當主耍元淖而个當介昏，如 妹 m u i ，闊 hut , 捐 k y n ，血 h y t 。5.e 系韻母豐富。老澳門話有一系列以e 爲 t 要尤H 的 韻 母 ，如遮t s e ，金kiem，急kiep ，襟k i e m ，鏡kE■，M t s e k 這與水上話相近 而與廣州話有别。四 、聲調 ：老澳門話共有六個聲調 ，《矜山或澳門方 言》一夂中有如下的 描 寫 [註2 7 ] ：陰 平 ( 上平 ) : “比 廣 州 話 上 略 低 ，昏長則相同。” 。陽 平 （下 平 ）：“不是低下調，如果廣州 話的下平在階名唱法系統中用“do”⑴來表示， 那 麼 ，澳門的下平調則可用“s d ”（5)來表示” 。上 聲 ：“是 個 下 降 調 ，降程很短，起羝高 度像廣州話的下去，終黙像廣州話的下平而稍 低 。兩個上聲完全一樣” 。去 聲 ：“上 去 （陰 去 ）與廣州話一樣，下 去 （陽 去 ）與上去一樣，就是說，只有一個去 聲 ” 。陰 入 （上 人 ）：“亦與廣州一樣” 。陽 入 （下 人 ）：“ 大致在廣州中人與下人 之間而接近中入” 。根據上述描寫以及其他參考資料，可得老瓶門註的聲調系統如下：五 、老澳鬥詁與前山詁、石岐詁的比較：《苒山或澳門方言》一 文 ，把澳門話作爲 香山話來描述，顯示了當時的澳門話與香山話 是相同或相近的。上 面 ，我們根據歷史文獻資 料的記述，歸 納 r 老澳門話的聲韻調系統。在 歸納中我們發現：一百年前的老澳門話與今天 的 “苒山話” （珠海前山話和中山彳1岐 話 ）仍 然十分接近，這可能是“杏山話” 一百年來沒 有很大變化的緣故。下 面 ，我們再把老澳門話 這個馎韻調系統，與今天的香山話作一番比較 、硏 究 ，以進一步驗證歷史資料的可信性。由 於香山縣今天已分成中山市和珠海市，故本文 選擇中山石岐話和珠海前山話兩個方言勲，石 岐歷來是香山縣的縣府，前山則與澳門隔河相 望 ，兩個方言黙在《香山或澳門方言》一文中 都首被提及，有一定的代表性。下面所引用的 中山石岐話音系和珠海前山話音系，都是筆者 實地調査所得（詳見本夂附錄），以下是三種 方言音系的比較。1 . 聲母的比較：老澳門話與今珠海前山話都有十八個聲母 ，聲母完全相同；中山石岐話則有二十個聲母 ，比老澳門話多了k w 、k 'w兩個聲母。
聲母比較表：2 . 韻母的比較：中山石岐話有五十四個韻母，珠海前山話 有五十個韻母，老澳門話有五十三個韻母，韻 母數字相近。以下是主要方面的比較：韻母比較表一：韻母比較表二：3 . 聲調的比較：石岐話、前山話和老澳門話都只有六個聲 調 ，比較如下：聲調比較表：通過上述比較，我們可以看到：老澳門話 與珠海前山話、中山石岐話在昏系方面大同小 異 ，屬於同一方言系統。難怪《杏山或澳門方 言》的作者把當時的澳門話稱爲“香山方言” 了 。不 過 ，從整體來看，老澳門話與今珠海前 山話更爲接近。這大槪是由於珠海前山與澳門 緊密相連，而且近百年前的澳門居民大部分來 自珠海的緣故。肆、澳門話的發展我們已用實地調查與歷史資料相結合的方 法 ，對今日之澳門話及近百年前的澳門話語音 系統分别進行了描述。現在我們通過對新、老 澳門話進行比較，進一步揭示近百年來澳門話 在語音方面的發展變化。一 、聲母的發展：近百年來，澳門話在聲母方面主要有如下 五黙變化：1 . 由1 、n 不混到1 、n 不 分 。老澳門話1 、n 分得很淸楚，如難nan■ 蘭 l a n，你nei ■李lei ,粒n é p■笠l é p，與今天 石岐話、珠海前山話相同。但時至今日，對於 絕大部分澳門居民來說，I與n 已不能分辨，全 部混爲1 了。2 . 由k 、k ‘發展到k；、k '、k w 、k'w四聲母 ：老澳門話只有k 、k'聲 母 ，而無k w 、k w聲母 , 例如瓜= 加k a ，誇= 卡k'a ’ 國= 角kok , 光= 江ko f)，軍= 斤k é n，關= 奸kan ’歸= 龜kai , 街= 乖k a i，齡= 溪k 'è i。今天珠海前 山話仍保留着這個取要特徵。而在今日之跑門 話中，則增加了 k w 、k 'w 界母，例如軍kwén ¥ 斤 k é n，瓜 加k a ，誇 k 'wa■卡 k 'a 。 但在相當一部分澳門店民的發皆中，國kw■k 、 角k■k 仍然个分，都念成k■k ’廣kw■■、講k■■ 亦都念成k■■，顯示了由香山話叫澳門話過渡 的痕迹。3 . 由舌齒音 t s 、ts'、s 發展爲舌葉音tl 、tl'、l。一百年前的老燠門話，舌齒音 t s 、tS ' 、S 佔據着統治地位，今天的中山岐話和珠海肋 山話亦發舌齒昏t s 、t s ' 、S。但在今日的澳門 話中，已變成與廣州話基本相同的舌葉; í t l 、 t l 、l 了。4.■ - 在 齊 、撮口呼前變爲j- ：老澳門話的■- 能與齊齒呼和撮口呼韻母 相配合。例如儀、兒 、宜 、疑 、二 等 ，在老澳 話中都念[Di]；如 ，魚 、語 、禺則念作[Dy] 。 但在今日之澳門話中，上述各字全部念作j- 辟 母 。對於絕大多數澳門W 民 而 言 ，這個齊齒、 撮口呼前的■- 聲母 ，已經完全被j 辟母所収代 了 。5. h - 在合口呼前變爲f - ：在u 、u n 、u t 、u g 、uk 等介 口 韻前的h- 聲 母 ，在澳門話是讀h -聲母的，例如夫h u 、歡hun ，閱h u t ，風hu■，福 h u k 。但時至今 日 ，新澳 門話中上述合口韻前的h -饵母亦完全被f 所 取 代 ，夫 、歡 、闊 、風 、福等字的讀音 ，已變 得完全與廣州話一樣T 。二 、韻母的發展：近巨年來，澳門話在韻母方Iftí的發展變化 ，主要有如下五黙：1 . 由i韻分化出■i 韻 。老澳門話沒有■i韻 ，古It:攝開口三等甜全 部都讀i韻 母 。例 如 ：皮 p i ，死s i ，子t s i ， 梨l i，飛fi ,嬉h i ，你n i ，地ti , 今天的中山 石岐話和珠海前山話仍保留着這個耍特徵。
但在今日之澳門話中，古止攝開口三等韻在幫 組 、泥組及見組的饵母後面已改讀■i 韻，與廣 州,;í尤 全 一樣了。例如上述的皮、死、梨 、飛 、嬉 、你、地等字 ，新襖門話已全部讀作e i韻r °2 . 由e n / B t兩韻分化出oen/aet兩韻。老澳門話沒有oen、oet兩龃，而是分别混人B n 、B t兩甜中。例 如 ，老澳門話春= 親 ts'én ，律= 的 t s é n ，卒= 質 t s é t ，出= 七 t s e t ° 今大的珠海骱山話仍保留着這一重要特徵。但 在今日之澳門話中，oen/oet與é n /é t 已分立， 變得與廣州話已完 全 一樣 了，例如春 t/'oen ■ 親 t s e n ，Ui tfoe t ■ ts e t 。3 . 由 ■ /■兩韻分化出 i■/ i k 兩韻。老澳門亦沒有 i■、i k 兩 韻 ，而是分别混人 BO、E k兩韻中。因此，精= 增 tség 丁= 燈tag 平= 憑 p'a■，壁= 北 p é k ，力= 勒 l a k ，今天的 珠海的山 ,活中亦保留着這一重要特徵。但在新 规門話中，Í■、i k 兩韻已由■■、e k 分化而出， 因此 ，上述各組字已不同音 ，前字讀 i■/ i k 韻 ，後卞則讀e■/ ■k 韻 ，也就是說，亦與廣州話 完 全 一樣广。4.■ 系颉母的消失和歸併。老澳門話中e 系韻母比較豐富，有íe u 、iem 、i e p 、e p 、ie g 、e k 、iek 等 i損母，例如求k ”ieu ，金 kiem ’襟 k le m ，急 kiep ’腥 sen ’請 tfieg ’ 尺ts 'e k ' i I s e k ，抒 ts ie k等等。但時至今日 ’ 上述e 系韻母的 i e u 、ie m 、ie p 韻母已消失， lí lí ie o、ie k兩 甜則歸 併 爲 e g 、e k ，因此，老 澳門話中，數量衆多的e 系韻母 ，今天只剩下 e g 、e k兩龈，與廣州話沒有區别了。5. i 介音的消失。老魄門話中沒有u 、y 介昏，但却存在着 i 介音，主要表现在上述■系韻母 i e u 、ie m 、ieg 、ie k等韻中，而在今天澳門話中，隨着e 系韻 母的消失成合併 ，除部分字如寫s i e ，( ís ie k ，靑 ■ t j i e k 等 ，帶有輕微的流昏， 仍體现老澳門話的 i 介皆痕迹外，可以說澳門 話中已不存在 i 介音，與廣州話無異了 。三 、聲調的發展：老澳門話只有六個聲調，經過一百年的時 間 ，澳門話增加了兩個嗨調：陽去和中人。去 啓出只有一個而發展爲陰去■33和陽去■2 2 ， 人捋由只有陰人和陽人而變爲三個：陰 人 、中 人 、陽 人 。總的來肴，無論是在調類上還是在 調値方面都是向着廣州話的方向變化。今日澳門話新增加的兩個聲調（陽去和中 人 ），它們的出现決小是突如其來的，早在一 巨年前，它們其實L!初露端倪。正是在《荇山 或澳門方言》一文中，作者在分析了老澳門話 的六個啓調後，又指出了當時的澳門話中尚存 在着三個額外的聲調（extratones) :—是超上平 調 ，如兒孫的孫syn I ; 二是口語上升調，如 “做” tsu 叫(done) 》 “吃” iak 1̂ (eaten) 和 “來” loi 1(come ) ，用作過去時態的一種標誌 ；三是中人調，比廣州話中人音程短一些。他 認 爲 ：“ 很可能香山話上面三種額外的聲調是 學習廣州話而出現的，可今尙未達到廣州話那 樣的程度[許2 8 ] 。作者的見解無疑是正確的 。一百年以後，這三個額外的聲調在今日澳門 話中已經凝固下來了。其中超上平調和口、語上 升調已經成爲新澳門話的兩種變調形式，並得 到了進一步的發展（參肴第貳部分新澳門話之 “變調” 一節）。而第三種額外的聲調中入調， 已經由一種不穩定的臨時性聲調變成了一種獨 立的調類，造成了陰人、中 入 、陽人三個人聲 並存的局面。總結上述一百年來澳門話聲韻調的發展變 化 ，實際上是由一種與今天的珠海前山話相近 的 “香山話”發展爲今天與穂、港粤語基本相 同的澳門話的過程，這種演變過程目前已基本 完成但又尙未最後完結，由此造成了今日澳門 話與穗、港粤語大同小異的狀况。四 、澳門話發展變化的社會原因：近百年來澳門話發生如此顯著的變化，其 原因是多方面的，旣有社會方面的原因，亦有 其本身語昏系統方面的因素在起作用。本文試 從社會語言學的角度，探討一下澳門話近百年 來變化的主要原因。1 . 澳門人口構成的變化：
