4JOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESQuarterly574565971471761621178112725Editor’s Note ······································································· Editorial BoardLocality and Autonomy: On the Policy Basis for the Future Development of Education in Macao ····················································································· GUO Xiaoming The Construction of Electronic Government in the Macao Special Administrative Region: Insti-tutional Framework and Practical Effectiveness ···················· LOU Shenghua, ZHAO You Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and Outlook ······················································ Ricardo Chi Sen SIU Macao’s Economy after the Handover: Economic Growth, Labour Market Development and Economic Diversification ········································ CHAN Chi Shing, KWAN FungA Systematic Review of Intangible Cultural Heritage Development in Macao: Historical Per-spectives, Current Research, and Future Directions ·································· LIU Junmin The SAR Government’s Support Policies for Families with Children with Special Educational Needs in Macao: An Empirical Analysis Based on the Impact of Family Background on Parent-ing Patterns ······································································· TONG Chi Man Who Trusts the Police? An Analysis of Police Trust in China’s Hong Kong and Macao SARs ···················································································· WONG Wai Kei Factors Influencing the Career Development of Table Game Dealers in Macao ·································································· ZHOU Jinquan, HUANG Ziying On the Motivation, Foundation, Challenges and Countermeasures of the Emergency Legal Sys-tem Construction in the Macao Special Administrative Region ·········································································· YOU Le, WANG Xiaoran The Predicament and Solutions of Judicial Recovery of Macao Gambling-derived Debts in Mainland China: From a Perspective of Interregional Legal Conflicts Arising from the Judicial Assistance between Guangdong Province and Macao ·································· ZHAN JieIndex for 2024 ······································································ Editorial Office
31圖 4 澳門特區網絡安全管理架構澳門特區政府修訂第 5/2006 號法律《司法警察局》與第 35/2020 號行政法規《司法警察局的組織及運作》並於 2020 年 10 月 12 日生效,進一步明確司法警察局的組織架構、打擊電腦犯罪和維護網絡安全的權限,並在資訊及電訊協調廳下增設網絡安全處。司法警察局網絡安全處具有事前的網絡安全態勢感知、事中的事故預警及通報、事後的技術支持及協助三大核心職能,同時還輔助網絡安全委員會的工作,服務澳門特區網絡安全建設。①三、澳門電子政務建設的實踐成效(一)雲計算技術推動電子政務跨越式發展澳門電子政務起步較早,1997 年開始通過公共行政資訊網推進政府內部的信息共享,但是,此後十幾年發展較慢,僅有如“政府數據中心”、巴士報站等少數有效成果產出。自 2017 年起,澳門特區政府與阿里巴巴進行合作,開始佈局雲計算、大數據等先端技術的應用與推廣,推動澳門電子政務的快速發展。雲計算是一種計算模式,用於支援利用互聯網技術,便捷、隨時隨地、按照自身需求訪問共享資源池。②雲計算融合互聯網科技、分散式運算、數據管理等先端科技的集成,其數據中心是電腦集群,利用網絡將分散數據集中成共享資源池,以服務的形式向使用者提供雲計算資源。對於電子政務而言,雲計算技術更是建立新時代電子政務體系的基礎和動力。雲計算可為電子政務提供安全有效的數據存儲中心,降低電子政務數據資源分享的實現成本,擴大數據共享範圍,滿足用戶的個性化需求。③“政府雲計算”是政府利用雲計算技術,實現政務數據的集中管理與共享利用,提①澳門特別行政區政府司法警察局:〈貫徹三個警務理念全力維護網絡安全 —— 訪司法警察局網絡安全處處長何永堅〉,《刑偵與法制》(澳門),第 2 期,2021 年,頁 9 - 13。② Mell, Peter, and Timothy Grance. The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing. National Institute of Standards and Tech-nology, U. S. Department of Commerce, 2011, p. 2.③呂元智:〈基於雲計算的電子政務信息資源共用系統建設研究〉,《情報理論與實踐》(北京),第 4 期,2010 年,頁 107。澳門特區電子政務建設:制度框架與實踐成效網絡安全事故預警及應急中心網絡安全委員會網絡安全監管實體監督決策領導司法警察局 行政公職局郵電局 行政公職局 指定公共實體
45Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Develop-ment of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and OutlookRicardo Chi Sen SIUAbstract: The factors that drive and limit the development of casino tourism in Macao from 2000 to 2024 are examined in this article with reference to an analytical framework and arguments on insti-tutions and institutional changes in institutional economics. Specifically, the impacts from the tug of war between the efficiency-enhancing attempts of the Macao Special Administrative Region (Macao SAR) government and integrated resort operators, and the ceremonially warranted behavior of existing beneficial groups on the business routines and path of the development of the industry before 2020 are explicated. In addition, self-undermining instead of self-enforcing forces generated from the practices of the unique third-party-operated VIP room business model throughout the expansion process of casi-no tourism in Macao are analyzed. It is recognized that despite the enviable growth in monetary return, various adverse and crowding out effects were also generated from the expansion of casino tourism to the economy and society. To ensure the sustained growth and development of this industry, radical actions taken by the Macao SAR government in 2021/2022 and onwards clearly reinstitute the organi-zation and business routines in the market, hence enhancing the instrumental efficiency of the industry. While these latest changes have unarguably launched a new era for the development of casino tourism in Macao, it is argued that effective and proactive roles taken by the government to enforce the new rules are indeed necessary to ultimately ensure progressive changes for this industry.Keywords: casino tourism, Macao, ceremonial values, institutional changes, instrumental values, in-strumental efficiency‧論文 | 澳門回歸二十五周年 ‧Author: Ricardo Chi Sen Siu, Associate Professor of Department of Finance and Business Economics, Faculty of Busi-ness Administration, University of Macau (China).
47Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and OutlookIntroductionIn institutional economics, the impact of institutions and institutional changes rather than sim-ply the market forces offer a comprehensive and practical basis to examine and understand the path of development of an economy and its industries. This argument is especially relevant to better under-stand the development and changes in the organization of socially controversial industries like casino tourism. Actually, the observed behavior of market participants and performance of firms in casino tourism reflect the consequences of their interactions with a set of formal and informal institutional factors in society. To a large extent, the modern development of casino tourism in Macao provides in-teresting and real-life evidence that supports these arguments. In turn, when scrutinizing the evidence through the perspective of institutional economics, some essential cause-and-effect relations associated with the changing phenomena during the progression of casino tourism in Macao can be explicated ob-jectively. These provide valuable insights for decision-makers, including the government and industry practitioners to design effective policies and implement the necessary adjustments/revisions to ensure the sustained growth and development of this important industry in Macao.The notions of institutions and institutional changes are highlighted in the first section in light of the above considerations. With reference to the key literature in institutional economics, a paradigm is constructed to describe the forces that interact with the development of an industry and related busi-ness routines of firms in a society. Based on the rationale as specified in the paradigm, the footprint and major changes in the path of development of casino tourism in Macao from 2000 to 2024 are explicat-ed in the second section by referring to the particular contextual settings in Macao and an institutional change during this period of time. In Section 3, the counterforces generated at the same time from the rapid but controversial expansion and business routines of casino gaming in the 2000s and 2010s to its sustained growth and impacts on the development of the industry and the Macao economy are exam-ined. In Section 4, the motivation and need for institutional changes to enhance efficiency that would ensure the sustained growth and development of this industry, and the impacts from the radical actions taken by the Macao Special Administration Region (Macao SAR) government between 2020 and 2022 to revise the gaming laws and regulations are analyzed. Finally, it is concluded that while a new era for the development of casino tourism in Macao has begun through a radical revision of the formal rules, the ceremonial values associated with the traditional ways of doing business may still require time to change. In practice, whether a progressive institutional change can really be attained from the latest revisions of the formal rules greatly depends on their enforcement (i.e., the cause) and their actual im-pacts (i.e., the effects) on the changes in the traditional ways of doing business by the market partici-
48澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期① Bush, Paul Dale. “ The Theory of Institutional Change”, Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 21, no. 3, 1987, p. 1076.② In this article, I adopt the concept of “practice” (and “practical”) from Dolfsma (2023, 1355) who cites from Rawls that it is “any form of activity specified by a system of rules [(set of) institutions] which defines offices, roles, moves, penalties, defenses, and so on, and which gives activity its structure”. see Rawls, John. “Two Concepts of Rules.” The Philosophical Review, vol. 67, no. 2, 1955, p. 3.③ North, Douglass C. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 36-60.④ Bush, Paul Dale. “The Theory of Institutional Change.” Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 21, no. 3, 1987, p. 1080.⑤ Bush, Paul Dale. “The Theory of Institutional Change.” Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 21, no. 3, 1987, pp. 1079-1080.pants in this industry. For this, practical policy suggestions are provided for further exploration.Role of Institutions and Institutional Changes in Industrial DevelopmentBroadly speaking, institutions can be conceptualized as various sets “of socially prescribed pat-terns of correlated behavior”. ① From a practical stand point, ② the prescribed patterns of correlated be-havior are nurtured and driven by informal constraints (i.e., culture and social norms) and formal rules (i.e., laws and regulations) and their enforcement characteristics as explicated by Douglass C. North. ③ These arguments actually provide the essential grounds to show the organization of an industry and business routines of firms and their interactions with consumers in the markets in a given period of time. In a dynamic environment, existing institutions will change when new knowledge and standards (i.e., “instrumental values” as Bush ④ argues) are introduced by any social entity to improve the efficiency of existing ways of doing business or address the insufficiencies and resolve the problems in society that are dominated by social behaviors to adhere to long-established beliefs and traditions (i.e., “ceremonial values” in society).⑤ Thus, while the instrumental values pursued by individuals generate the forces for change, ceremonially warranted behavior held by other social members are the counterforces. In prin-ciple, if instrumental efficiency in a society is enhanced through changes in the existing institutions, a progressive institutional change will result. Thereby, institutional changes will unarguably alter the path of development of an industry. Taking into consideration the differences in the attributes between culture and laws in the real world, influences from their respective changes and their interplays on the development of an industry are largely determined by the specific contextual settings in a society. To explicate how institutions and institutional changes interact with the development of casino tourism in Macao, a general paradigm is formulated at the outset which is shown in Figure 1. In this paradigm, the three double headed arrows ( , a1, a2 and a3) shown at the bottom of Figure 1 repre-sent the interplays between the specific culture, social norms, political and legal system in a society. An arrow ( ) denotes the force exerted from an institutional factor (e.g., b1 represents culture, b2 social norms, b3 political system and c the attributes of the market forces) to the evolution of a socially prescribed behavior for the development and business routines of the industries. On the other hand, an
49open arrow ( ) that points in the reverse direction of an arrow represents the feedback effect generat-ed from the process of industrial development to a corresponding factor/force which leads to its change in the succeeding stage. For example, the open arrow through b1 shows the feedback effect from indus-trial development which may change the existing culture in certain areas like social/moral standards in a society towards or against the practices of a business routine. In a dynamic environment, interplays between the various institutional factors and industries will also generate ongoing changes in the de-mand and supply behaviors of the market participants (i.e., represented by the open arrow through c). Figure 1 General institutional paradigm for industrial developmentSource: This paradigm is constructed based on previous analyses of the author on the development of casino tourism in Macao. See Siu, Ricardo C. S. “A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and Its Gam-ing Industry.” Journal of Macau Studies, no. 26, 2005, pp. 54-61; Siu, Ricardo C. S. “Evolution of Macao’s Casino Industry from Monopoly to Oligopoly: Social and Economic Reconsideration.” Jour-nal of Economic Issues, vol. 40, no. 4, 2006, pp. 967-990; Siu, Ricardo C. S. “Formal Rules, Informal Constraints, and Industrial Evolution - The Case of the Junket Operator Regulation and the Transition of Macao’s Casino Business.” UNLV Gaming Research and Review Journal, vol. 11, no. 2, 2007, pp. 49-62; Siu, Ricardo C. S. “Back to the Future: Constructing Macao As a World-Class Casino Tourism Destination Under New Gaming Laws.” Gaming Law Review: Economics, Regulation, Compliance, and Policy, vol. 21, no. 7, 2023, pp. 326-342; Eandington, William R., and Ricardo C. S. Siu. “Between Law and Custom - Examining the Interaction between Legislative Change and the Evolution of Ma-cao’s Casino Industry.” International Gambling Studies, vol. 7, no. 1, 2007, pp. 1-28.Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and Outlook
50澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期① North, Douglass C. “The Contribution of the New Institutional Economics to an Understanding of the Transition Problem.” Wider Perspectives on Global Development, edited by A. B. Atkinson, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, pp. 1-15. ② Lei n.º 16/2001 (Law No. 16/2001), which was amended and replaced by Lei n.º 7/2022 (Law No. 7/2022) in 2022.③ Siu, Ricardo C. S. “Evolution of Macao’s Casino Industry from Monopoly to Oligopoly: Social and Economic Recon-sideration.” Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 40, no. 4, 2006, pp. 967-990.Other than informal constraints, the path of development of any industry is largely guided/influenced by formal rules (i.e., laws and regulations through the route of arrow b4 shown in the para-digm), while the contents and enforcement characteristics of the formal rules which frame the business routines of firms are determined by the political/legal system through the force exerted from arrow b5 in a society. In turn, the practices of business firms (especially large corporations) will also generate feed-back effects which lead to changes to the formal rules as a result of changes in political inclinations/in-terests (i.e., see open arrows on b4 and b5). Nevertheless, “while formal rules can be changed overnight by the polity, informal constraints change very slowly”. ① In other words, the real impacts and time needed for changes to formal rules as a measure to introduce new instrumental values on existing ways of doing business of firms are generally determined by the tug-of-war between the enforcement charac-teristics of the legal system and societal traditions (i.e., ceremonial values). To a large extent, the afore-mentioned arguments shown in Figure 1 provide a realistic foundation to show the roles of institutions and institutional changes in the evolution and development of casino tourism in Macao, especially from 2000 to 2024 and evaluate its future road map and prospects. Indeed, the findings from this study serve as valuable reference points to decision markers to formulate realistic measures and assume an effective role to ensure the sustained growth of this industry and its ongoing contributions to Macao. Specific Contextual Settings and Development of Casino Tourism in MacaoAs a pecuniary industry albeit a socially controversial one, the path of the development of casino tourism in Macao has been largely influenced by its particular social, cultural, political and economic settings. As for the landmark development of the industry in 2002, it was indeed initiated by a change in a formal rule. Following the establishment of the Macao SAR of China under a “One Country, Two Systems” policy (which is actually an institutional change to Macao as a whole at the outset) in December 1999, the Macao SAR government started to explore possible improvements in the structure of this “dragon head” (describes an entity with a leading position) industry of Macao in 2000. Thus, the government made an important decision (i.e., instrumental change) by revising its gaming law in 2001 ② to replace the over six-decade-long monopoly structure with an oligopolistic structure based on three 20-year gaming concessions (i.e., licenses) that were approved in 2002. ③ In other words, the change in the political system of Macao and hence the orientation of the government
51① More details of these changes can be found on the official website of the Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau (n.d.) under the section “Gaming Liberalization after the Handover” on the page of “Macao Gaming History”; Business Intelligence. “A Complicated Process.” Macau Business, 25 Apr. 2012, https://www.macaubusiness.com/a-complicated-process-2/. Accessed 16 June. 2012.② Simply speaking, this is a revenue sharing business model. Under this model, some of the major gaming agents enter an agreement (a kind of informal contract) with a gaming license holder to operate their own casino gaming business in certain specified gambling rooms within the properties of the license holder (these groups of gaming agents were also the gambling room contractors/operators). Then, through a wide network that comprised a large number of other gaming agents in various hierarchies to bring in players to spend in these VIP rooms, the gaming revenue received would be shared among the various parties according to pre-determined informal contracts which were not legally covered nor recognized. Leong, Angela V. M. “The ‘Bate-Ficha’ Business and Triads in Macau Casinos.” Queensland University of Technology Law and Justice Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 2002, pp. 83-97.③ Leong, Angela V. M. “The ‘Bate-Ficha’ Business and Triads in Macau Casinos.” Queensland University of Technology Law and Justice Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 2002, pp. 83-97.in modifying a formal rule shows the forces exerted from the arrows of b4 and b5 as depicted in Figure 1 which turned a new page in the development of this industry. To implement the change, a license was granted to a wholly-owned subsidiary of a former gaming monopoly and another two were approved to firms with a globally recognized reputation and experience in the development of casino tourism (mainly from Las Vegas). Unarguably, this decision created new dynamics in the industry through the potential contributions of the new players, while stability during the redevelopment of the industry could be ensured by reserving a license for the wholly-owned subsidiary of the incumbent. The Macao SAR government then exercised its authori-ty bestowed by an executive-led political system to approve the requests from the three new gaming license holders that one shareholder from each party could develop their business individually under a “sub-concession” context in December 2002, April 2005, and September 2006 respectively. ① This change largely illustrates a specific case of influence from the interplays between the government and casino operators through b3 in Figure 1 in the course of the development of the industry. Despite the controversy of this administrative decision, this “3+3” change did not simply double the number of casino tourism operators in Macao, but indeed allowed Macao to reap the rewards from an immense amount of capital investment through the six operators hereafter in non-gaming facilities and attrac-tions, which has framed Macao as an attractive casino tourism destination globally. Nevertheless, while the industry structure at the macro level was modified through the forego-ing changes in the formal rules, and administrative decisions, the business organization and routines of casino gaming at the micro level hardly changed in the following one or two years. This is because the industry practices are largely framed by the unique culture and social norms of Macao (i.e., the forces exerted from the ceremonial values held by the existing market participants through arrows b1 and b2 in Figure 1). In the case of Macao, this mainly refers to the long-existing and socially recognized business routines under a third-party-operated VIP gambling room model ② (hereinafter “VIP rooms”) which involved a large number of interdependent gaming agents who had been operating their business in a grey (or even lawless) area in the 1980s and 1990s. ③ From this, various social problems like crime and Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and Outlook
52澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期questionable business activities long-associated with the practices of the VIP rooms and gaming agents in the 1990s emerged, which were a major consideration of the Macao SAR government in eliminating the monopoly structure of the industry when the government took office at the end of 1999. Nevertheless, it has been observed that the contents and enforcement of laws and regulations under the legal and regulatory system in Macao are insufficient. Thus, the development of casino tour-ism in Macao is largely done in an environment that wavers between the law and historical customs. ① In other words, culture and social norms (i.e., b1 and b2 in Figure 1) are the dominant forces over po-litical interests and formal rules (i.e., b3 and b4) in influencing the path of development and business organization and performance of casino tourism in Macao. Over time, these forces also evolved in con-gruence with changes in the formal rules to preserve their dominance and changed the business routine of the firms (i.e., impacts from the dynamic context through the interplays as shown by a1, a2 and a3 in Figure 1 on the changing forces as represented by the various arrows). Actually, the development of casino tourism in Macao underwent five major phases ② in the 2000s and 2010s; see changing role and practices of the VIP rooms and their interactions with the formal rules, as recapped in Table 1. Macao has embarked on a new path of development since 2023.Phase Key Feature(1) 2000-2009 Tug of war between new and traditional ways of doing business(2) 2010-2013 Lucrative yet controversial expansion (3) 2014-2016 Change in policy and in-depth adjustment(4) 2017-2019 Adjustment of business routine to compromise with new requirements(5) 2020-2022 Unexpected/unprecedented shock and radical reinstitutionalization(6) 2023-present Initiation of a new path of developmentTable 1 Major phases in the development of casino tourism in Macao from 2000 to 2024 Phase (1) can be categorized as a tug-of-war between the new (instrumental) and traditional (ceremonial) ways of doing business. Following the approval of the new casino tourism operators from ① Eandington, William R., and Ricardo C.S. Siu. “Between Law and Custom - Examining the Interaction Between Leg-islative Change and the Evolution of Macao’s Casino Industry.” International Gambling Studies, vol. 7, no. 1, 2007, pp. 1-28; Newsdesk. “Visible Gaps in Macau Gaming Regulation: Academic.” GGRAsia (Macao), 9 July 2014. https://www.ggrasia.com/visible-gaps-in-macau-gaming-regulation-academic/. Accessed 18 Oct 2014, Godinho, Jorge. “Casino Gaming in Macau: Evolution, Regulation and Challenges.” UNLV Gaming Law Journal, vol. 5, no. 1, 2014, pp. 1-26.② The range of years in this table is for approximate reference of various major phases which are not necessarily fixed to any exact days from January 1 to December 31, or any exact years. Also, in the development process, one phase can overlap with its preceding and succeeding phases.
53Las Vegas to launch their business in Macao, the Macao SAR government also promulgated new laws and regulations ① in its attempts to better regulate and supervise the business activities of the gaming agents of the VIP rooms. Accordingly, it was observed that the proportion of the mass gaming market (i.e., gaming businesses operated by the casino licence holders rather than relying on the third-par-ty-operated VIP rooms) in the gross gaming revenue (GGR) of the industry increased while that of the traditional VIP room segment declined from a record high of over 77% of the market in 2003 to around 63% in 2005 (measured by the contribution of “VIP baccarat” ② to the industry GGR as depicted in Figure 2) after the opening of the first Vegas-style casino in 2004. Nevertheless, in view of the con-siderable and increasing monetary benefits associated with the expansion of the industry, the gaming agents were clearly incentivized to invest in the VIP rooms by speculating on and determining the like-lihood that the new laws and regulations would actually be enforced by the government. Figure 2 Contribution of various gaming business segments to gross gaming revenue (2001-2023)Source: Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau, Macao SAR. Information: Gaming Statistics, 2001-2023, https://www.dicj.gov.mo/web/en/information/index.html. Accessed 18 May 2024.① These mainly included the promulgation of the first regulation in Macao to supervise the gaming agent business (i.e., Regulamento Administrativo n.º 6/2002 (Administrative Regulation No. 6/2002) which was replaced by a new law in 2022) and the first law for guiding the casino credit business (i.e., Lei n.º 5/2004 (Law No. 5/2004) which was revised in 2024). ② Among the GGR statistics of Macao, the breakdown of “VIP baccarat” refers to the GGR derived from the operations of the VIP gaming rooms. Other categories like “baccarat” and “slot machines” refer to the mass market operations. Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and Outlook
54澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期① Newsdesk. “Revenue Sharing Revealed.” Inside Asian Gaming, 25 Mar 2007, https://www.asgam.com/index.php/2007/03/25/revenue-sharing-revealed/. Accessed 12 May 2007.As shown in Figure 2, the share of VIP baccarat in the GGR rose again between 2006 and 2009 while the mass market exhibits the reverse trend. Parallel to the introduction of the new business model by the new operators to cultivate the mass gaming market, the long-existing VIP rooms and re-lated gaming agents also adjusted their business practices to cope with a new environment and sought to find opportunities to regain their businesses in different ways like different forms of joint venture. ① Other than the traditional VIP rooms, a major evolution of the third-party-operated gaming business segment in this phase was derived from the expansion of the so-called “satellite casinos”. Unlike the VIP rooms which were set up and operated by individual third parties within the properties of the gam-ing license holders, “satellite casinos” were separate small-/medium-scale casino hotels with their own non-gaming facilities and operated by third parties outside the property of the gaming license holders. In practice, gaming businesses carried out in these “satellite casinos” were regarded as part of the busi-ness of the gaming license holders. From 2003 to 2009, it was estimated that the number of “satellite casinos” doubled from around 10 to 20. Besides, the practices of these “satellite casinos” also included their respective VIP rooms and mass gaming venues. Indeed, the dualistic features exhibited in this phase following the change in the formal rules did convey a realistic signal to the market participants that parallel the interest of the government in developing Macao as a world-renowned casino tourism destination, drawbacks in the regulatory system especially its insufficient enforcement, offered various opportunities for the transformation of the traditional and controversial ways of doing business and even their further expansion.Rapid Expansion and a Self-undermining ProcessWhile Phase (1) represents a transition period following an instrumental change in the for-mal rules in which the new and existing market participants were in the process of establishing and reestablishing their business organizations and routines, their efforts did improve the efficiency of the market with lucrative returns. As depicted in Figure 3, the GGR more than doubled from 2005 to 2009. With increasing business turnovers and positive market expectations, the opening of new and com-prehensive mega casino resorts (i.e., integrated resorts (IRs)) during this phase not only significantly increased the non-gaming hospitality capacity and tourism attractions of the industry, but also assigned new trademarks and high-quality facilities to the gaming agents to promote their VIP room business to tourists, especially those from mainland China. Despite the conspicuous growth in this phase, however, the business scale of the gaming agents was still restrained owing to their concerns about the possible
55changes in the enforcement of the new laws and regulations by the Macao government and policies of the Chinese government, such as the visa requirement for the mainland Chinese to visit Macao. Figure 3 Change in gross gaming revenue of industry (2005-2023)Source: Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau, Macao SAR. Information: Gaming Statistics, 2005-2023, https://www.dicj.gov.mo/web/en/information/index.html. Accessed 18 May 2024.(USD1 ≈ MOP8)Parallel to the entrepreneurial and opportunistic efforts made by both the casino licensed and VIP room operators (and their associated gaming agents) to increase business turnover, an unexpected and controversial opportunity emerged in 2008 and 2009, coincidentally, which accelerated the growth of casino tourism in Macao from 2010 to 2013 (i.e., Phase (2) as stated in Table 1). As depicted in Figure 3, the annual GGR of Macao surged rapidly in 2010 and peaked in 2013 (the GGR of Macao in 2013 was 7.8 times that of the Las Vegas Strip, or 4.3 times that of the state of Nevada as a whole). With increasing GGR and hence financial power, a huge amount of capital investment was made by the IR operators continuously in this period of time which unarguably contributed to the rapid expansion of various world-class non-gaming hospitality and entertainment facilities for the development of Ma-cao as an attractive casino tourism destination. Actually, this expansion came as a surprise to the industry. The expansion originated from the outbreak of the global financial crisis in mid-2007 and the reaction of the Chinese government to intro-duce expansionary fiscal and monetary policies in 2008 and 2009 to minimize the possible shocks to its economy. To a large extent, the insufficient enforcement of formal rules is a commonly observed fact in mainland China and its Macao SAR during that period of time. Thus, when the Chinese government implemented those policies by injecting money into the markets, insufficient supervision of the flows of funds actually provided an opportunity for individuals to expand questionable/illegal business ac-Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and Outlook
56澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期① The Economist. “A Window on China.” The Economist, 10 Dec 2011, pp. 61-62; United States Department of State, Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs. “Money Laundering and Financial Crimes.” 2016 In-ternational Narcotics Control Strategy Report, vol. 2, 2016, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/253983.pdf. Accessed 28 Apr 2016.② In principle, the mass gaming market comprises different business segments which are differentiated by the required minimum bet per hand, hence the variety and quality of service received by the players are different. For example, while the minimum bet of a baccarat table located in the low-end mass gaming floor can be MOP200 (USD25), a premium market table is MOP2,000 (USD250) or higher.; Fong, Kenneth, and Daisy Lu. “Macau Gaming - 2013 Outlook: Struc-tural Growth Should Drive Multiple Expansion; Re-rating may Come in February.” J. P. Morgan, 18 Jan 2013, https://markets.jpmorgan.com/research/EmailPubServlet?action=open&hashcode=lohdcrln&doc=GPS-1029435-0. Accessed 2 Feb. 2013; Tang, Karen. “Focus on Premium Mass - Top Picks Galaxy & MPEL.” Deutsche Bank Market Research, 17 Sep 2012, http://view.microbell.com/upfilel/201209/2012918143620459.pdf. Accessed 6 Oct 2012.③ Williams, Martin John. “Premium Mass Becoming the New VIP In Macau.” Gambling Compliance, 14 Dec 2012, https://www.igamix.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Premium-Mass-becoming-the-new-VIP-in-Macau-l.pdf. Accessed 8 June 2024.tivities to reap the monetary benefits/profits. At the same time, the observed inflow of gaming and lux-urious tourism expenditure from mainland China to Macao significantly increased from 2010 to 2013. Besides, it was also suspected that the expanding casino gaming activities in Macao were associated with the capital flight from mainland China to the outside world. ① In Phase (2), another key feature observed is that in 2012, the increment of the mass gaming market rose faster while the absolute business turnover from VIP rooms continued to rise. Thus, the re-ported GGR from VIP baccarat as a percentage of the industry GGR fell and mass market baccarat rose (as depicted in Figure 2). In fact, this change reflected the attempts of the casino operators to diversify their business to the mass market instead of continuously focusing on the VIP rooms (which also repre-sented their willingness to meet the expectation of the government to diversify the composition of this industry). To this, the development of the premium mass instead of the general mass market ② was em-phasized to ensure business turnovers. In this process, it was observed that the business routine of the VIP room operators and their associated gaming agents also evolved after expanding their efforts and networks to approach high-end patrons and introduce them to the premium mass market ③ to share the gaming revenue directly or indirectly through certain forms of predetermined commissions from the casino operators. However, an undeniable fact observed/identified was that to increase the absolute scale of the business turnovers in the VIP rooms and the “VIP” (high-end) players in the premium mass market segments over time, “Very Inappropriate Practices” of business activities were involved and escalated. Indeed, capital flight from mainland China through the casinos in Macao and their VIP rooms, and social and political problems caused by the gambling activities of the mainland Chinese had caught the attention of the central government in China. Accordingly, the expansion of these “VIP” activities accumulated counter forces by themselves (through the open arrows b3, b4 and b5 shown in Figure 1) which set the stage for the government to intervene directly. The changes might be all about timing and
57① North, Douglass C. “The Contribution of the New Institutional Economics to an Understanding of the Transition Problem.” Wider Perspectives on Global Development, edited by A. B. Atkinson, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, pp. 1-15. ② Munro, Susan. “China.” The Anti-Bribery and Anti-Corruption Review. 4th ed., edited by Mark F Mendelsohn, Law Business Research Ltd., 2015, pp. 28-40; Yan, Sophia. “China’s Anti-corruption Drive Eats into Growth.” CNN Busi-ness, 30 Jan 2014, https://money.cnn.com/2014/01/28/news/economy/china-anti-corruption/. Accessed 15 Feb 2014. ③Calculated with data derived from the official website of the Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau, Macao SAR.④ Inside Retail Asia. “Macau retail sales slump.” Inside Retail, 27 May 2015, https://insideretail. asia/2015/05/27/ma-cau-retail-sales-slump/. Accessed 21 June 2015; Inside Retail Asia. “Macau luxury slump projected.” Inside Retail, 15 July 2015, https://insideretail.asia/2015/07/15/macau-luxury-slump-projected/. Accessed 5 Aug 2015.the likelihood of the government to remove these activities. When the market participants were cele-brating the fact that the GGR had new record highs continuously between 2010 and 2013, a change in the leadership of the Chinese government in 2013 actually generated a critical change in the political orientation which reduced tolerance of corruption and the extravagant spending behavior of the com-munity at the nationwide level. As a SAR of China in which the growth of its casino tourism had in-creasingly relied on inappropriate business activities related to mainland China, the necessary changes in casino tourism in Macao became inevitable which indeed exemplifies the general argument of “path dependence” in institutional change. ① Consequently, casino tourism in Macao entered a period of ex-tensive adjustment (i.e., Phase (3) as stated in Table 1) from 2014 to 2016. Following the introduction of the anti-corruption and anti-extravagant policies by the Chinese government in 2013 to re-instill the integrity of government officials and business firms ② , hence en-suring real progress of its society and economy, decisive actions were taken to check the capital flight from mainland China (particularly through Macao and Hong Kong), casino gaming in Macao slumped (see Figure 3). For example, on top of tightening the visa policy for the mainland Chinese to visit Ma-cao and strengthening the supervision of fund flowing outside the mainland, arrests of gaming agents who were organizing and encouraging the mainland Chinese to spend on casino tourism trips to Macao largely depressed the “VIP” activities. Therefore, the reported GGR declined by 49.5% ③ from the first quarter of 2014 to the second quarter of 2016. In this period, the VIP rooms were undoubtedly hard-hit which plunged by 59.1% while the mass market fell by 32.6%. Meanwhile, turnovers of the high-end non-gaming tourism business segments in the IRs also notably fell. ④ On the other hand, it is worth-while to highlight that the fall in the mass market was largely due to the adjustment in the premium mass market segment while the general mass market was not affected or even exhibited growth (which can be traced in Figure 2). In this phase, although monetary returns reported by the industry fell sig-nificantly, removal of the controversial (or even illegal) business activities actually reinstated a more sustainable foundation for the development of Macao as a world-class casino tourism destination. Under the premise of the “One Country, Two Systems” policy and considering the importance of casino tourism in the Macao economy, the Chinese government clearly continued to support the Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and Outlook
58澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期① Before 2003, Hong Kong was the largest source of visitor arrivals to Macao. Thanks to the supportive policies like the individual visit scheme introduced by the Chinese government to facilitate tourism in Hong Kong and Macao in 2003, mainland China became the largest source of visitors to Macao. Nevertheless, owing to the expansion in facilities and attractions of the casino tourism industry, the absolute number of annual visitor arrivals from Hong Kong continued to increase between 2003 and 2011. development of Macao, both socially and economically. Thus, in view of the trend that the market dis-cipline improved, related restrictive policies were relaxed in mid-2016 and the industry also entered a recovery period (i.e., Phase (4) as stated in Table 1). Entering into this phase of development, clear sig-nals were conveyed by both the Chinese and Macao SAR governments to the market participants that the long-existing and questionable VIP room business model and its variants would not be tolerated. Thereby, although evidence (see Figure 3) shows that attempts were made by the VIP room operators in 2017 to bounce back, the contribution of “VIP baccarat” to the GGR of the industry for the first time fell below 50% in 2019 also with a decrease in the absolute scale. This change actually reflected the ef-forts made by the industry practitioners to adjust their business organization and routine to compromise and comply with the increasingly more requirements for clarity and enforcement of related laws and regulations by the government. Other than the need to improve the business routine associated with the VIP rooms and the questionable/somewhat illicit gaming agent business activities, the industry mainly focused on find-ing ways to encourage mainland Chinese visitors to spend on luxury items in the 2010s which also required scrutiny to ensure the balanced and sustained growth of the various business segments in the industry. Specifically, parallel to the rapid growth of visitor arrivals from mainland China in the 2010s, the source of visitor arrivals to Macao indeed became more monotonic. For example, as shown in Figure 4, the absolute number of visitor arrivals from Hong Kong was greatly reduced from 2011 to 2017/2018, ① and fell from close to 7.6 million in 2011 to around 6.2 million in 2017 (which represents a compound annual growth rate of negative 7.5%). To a large extent, subsequent to the expansion of the VIP room and premium mass gaming segment, the costs associated with entertainment and tourism, like the minimum bet per hand in casinos and non-gaming services like hotel room rates, dining costs, etc. rose significantly in Macao. Thus, the propensity of many Hong Kong residents to visit Macao was clearly reduced. In other words, the inclination of the industry to focus on reaping profit from high-end mainland Chinese visitors indeed “crowded out” tourists from other places and hence increased the business risk if policies in mainland China changed (which actually did occur).
59Figure 4 Monthly visitor arrivals to Macao (2008-2019)Source: Statistics and Census Service, Macao SAR. Visitor Arrivals, 2008-2019, https://www.dsec.gov.mo/en-US/Statistic?id=402. Accessed 24 June 2024.Radical Change in Formal Rules and ProspectsWhen the market participants were revamping their business routines in Phase (4) between 2017 and 2019, the Macao SAR government also started to review its gaming law in 2019 owing to the expiration of the existing gaming licenses in mid-2022. However, the outbreak of the unprecedented COVID-19 virus at the end of 2019 led to a three-year-long meltdown of the industry from 2000 to 2022 (i.e., Phase (5) as shown in Table 1 and the impacts on the performance of the industry is depicted in Figure 3). During this period of time, highly consistent and cooperative measures were taken by the Macao SAR government to minimize the potential adverse impacts of the pandemic on society ① even while anti-pandemic policies like travel restrictions were strictly imposed by the Chinese government. Thence, there were basically no inbound tourists to Macao. Despite the negative impacts, the determi-nation of the Chinese government to rectify the corruptive and illicit activities (including gambling and related activities) of the increasing number of the Chinese officials and the general public in the 2010s indeed persisted. Thus, it was observed that more comprehensive efforts had to be carried out by the Macao SAR government to amend the contents of its gaming laws and regulations which had been in practice for two decades since the beginning of the 2000s. In fact, a large part of these laws and regula-① Siu, Ricardo C. S. “Policy Pragmatism Key to Macau’s COVID-19 Success.” East Asia Forum, 30 Sep 2020, https://eastasiaforum.org/2020/09/30/policy-pragmatism-key-to-macaus-covid-19-success/. Accessed 6 Oct 2020.Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and Outlook
60澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期tions had been found to lag behind the progress of the industry and were hardly enforced effectively. On the other hand, when the Macao SAR government was amending its gaming laws, the Chi-nese government also completed the revision of Article 303 of its Criminal Law which was promulgat-ed in March 2021. Under this revision, anyone who coordinated mainland Chinese residents in their participation of gambling activities outside mainland China (i.e., including Macao) would be subjected to criminal charges and imprisoned. ① Accordingly, the Macao SAR government had to be more cau-tious under the new clauses of Article 303 at the country level and spent a longer time as expected for its own amendment. Radical changes were made ultimately in the new gaming laws and related regu-lations in 2022 which were implemented in 2023. ② To these changes, the most critical legal issues that were historical remnants and inhibited the real advancement of casino tourism in Macao were basically resolved. Besides, while new guidelines were introduced to remedy the controversial aspects of the business organization and routines in the industry, the new laws and regulations were also found to be enforced more often. ③ First, through a public consultation process in the second half of 2021, the Macao SAR gov-ernment obtained consensus from Macao residents to formally approve a maximum of six casino gaming licenses through an open re-tendering arrangement instead of retaining the “3+3” mode for the industry. As a result, each of the six incumbent operators submitted their tenders respectively and successfully obtained their new ten-year gaming licenses from 2023 to 2032. On top of this change, the most critical amendments made in the gaming law for the new licenses were actually presented in three highly interrelated layers. They are: i) Termination of third-party-operated VIP rooms; ii) Resolving the legal status and business organization of the “satellite casinos” by providing a three-year period starting from January 1, 2023 for them to either phase out or transform to a kind of ① Moura, Nelson. “Gaming operators, junkets, and private citizens should carefully study new mainland penal code amendments - Report.” Macau News Agency, 30 Nov 2021, https://www.macaubusiness.com/gaming-operators-junkets-and-private-citizens-should-carefully-study-new-mainland-penal-code-amendments-report/. Accessed 14 Dec 2021.② These mainly include Lei n.º 7/2022 (Law No. 7/2022) “Regime jurídico da exploração de jogos de fortuna ou azar em casino (Legal regime for the operation of games of fortune or gambling in casino)” which replaced the preceding version of the gaming law promogulated in 2001. In addition, a new law, Lei n.º 16/2022 (Law No. 16/2022) “Regime da actividade de exploração de jogos de fortuna ou azar em casino (Legal regime for the operation of games of fortune or gambling in casino)” was promogulated which does not simply replace the first regulation issued in 2002 to supervise the gaming agent business (i.e., Regulamento Administrativo n.º 6/2002 (Administrative Regulation No. 6/2002), but specify the relationships and rights and responsibilities between the major business parties involving the casino gaming business; and providing a regulatory framework at the operational level with more details. In practice, Lei n.º 16/2022 (Law No. 16/2022) is not only more enforceable than Regulamento Administrativo n.º 6/2002 (Administrative Regulation No. 6/2002), but complements and strengthens the enforceability of Lei n.º 7/2022 (Law No. 7/2022). Siu, Ricardo C. S. “Back to the Future: Constructing Macao As a World-Class Casino Tourism Destination Under New Gaming Laws.” Gaming Law Review: Economics, Regulation, Compliance, and Policy, vol. 21, no. 7, 2023, pp. 326-342.③Siu, Ricardo C. S. “Back to the Future: Constructing Macao As a World-Class Casino Tourism Destination Under New Gaming Laws.” Gaming Law Review: Economics, Regulation, Compliance, and Policy, vol. 21, no. 7, 2023, pp. 326-342.
61“management firm” of a casino license holder; and iii) Retaining but enhancing supervision of the gaming agents and their business services pro-vided to the casino license firms. As the third-party-operated VIP rooms were formally eliminated, the associated controversial and illegal business activities used to be carried out by a large number of gaming agents in the grey area of the legal system will unarguably be contained. Thus, integrity of the industry and sustainability of its growth and development will likely be assured in the long run although the reported GGR of the industry will be negatively affected right away. Even so, the observed impact from the removal of the VIP rooms on the business performance of the industry is lessened by the three-year-long meltdown of the industry during the pandemic period. In addition, fully supported by the Chinese government, radi-cal amendment of the formal rules by the Macao SAR government to reinstitute (reform and improve) the organization and business routines of the industry, hence the “prescribed behavior” of the market participants would unquestionably initiate a new path for its development (i.e., Phase (6) as shown in Table 1). In the new era starting from 2023, development of the mass market directly by the casino gaming licensed operators has been expanding while gaming agents are only allowed to continuously provide recognized services to facilitate the business turnovers in the industry. As depicted in Figure 2, the contribution of VIP baccarat in the GGR in 2023 (i.e., the first year that the market recovered from the pandemic and the new gaming laws were implemented) was less than 25% as compared to over 50% to 60% before 2019. To the recovery of the mass market in 2023, although the contribution of “baccarat” to the GGR fell slightly, business turnovers derived from “others” rose (see Figure 2) which implies that the composition of the mass market as a whole was diversifying in terms of the variety of the games that the patrons spent their money on. Likewise, recovery in the mass market contributed to slightly over 75% of the rebound in the GGR from 2022 to 2023 and the VIP rooms only less than 25%. To emphasize the development of the mass market, it is observed that the casino-licensed oper-ators (who are also the IR operators) are restructuring the non-gaming hospitality and entertainment facilities in their IRs simultaneously to attract the mass-market patrons. The radical changes in the formal rules and government efforts to strengthen their enforce-ment at the outset, the traditional culture of the firms and the local community in Macao were also influenced and first showed changes in 2023 and 2024. In particular, on top of diversifying the compo-sitions of the gaming and non-gaming facilities within the IRs, the casino operators also showed their willingness and responsibility under the new gaming licenses to contribute and collaborate with local firms for the re-development of tourism sports in Macao. To a large extent, a number of the local tour-Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and Outlook
62澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期ism sports have rich historical and cultural resources that are unique to Macao. Over a long period of time, however, the lack of capital investment and innovative and strategic plans to increase the attrac-tiveness of these resources and generate business value from them have led to a monotonic structure of tourism in Macao which was dominated by casino gaming or focused on the newly constructed IRs. Using the business capacity of the IR operators, realization of the development of Macao as a casino tourism destination with unique tourism resources is also ensured by the changing role of the Macao SAR government from its traditional hands-off approach in economic affairs to positive interventions (plans) for the progressive changes in the industry. In practice, these changes are not only embodied in the enforcement of new laws, but positive incentives like tax benefits for the IR operators to diversify the source of their patrons, and direct actions taken by the Macao SAR government to promote the tourism attractions of Macao in the world markets through the support of the Chinese government. For example, a series of positive “road-show” promotion programs were organized by the Macao Govern-ment Tourism Office (MGTO) and shown in Hong Kong, various cities in mainland China, and Asian and European countries in 2023 and 2024. ① In light of the aforementioned evidence and facts, it is reasonable to conclude that through the new path of development initiated by the change in formal rules in 2023 and the efforts of the Macao SAR government and the IR operators, a clear and more promising trend has unfolded for Macao to become a truly and competitive global casino tourism destination. This will unarguably contribute as an indispensable element of its development as a “world-class tourism and leisure center”. Neverthe-less, note that the particular contextual settings of Macao mean that the government has to continue ef-forts to enforce the new formal rules effectively and reinstitute the traditional ways of business carried out by the market participants. In principle, these efforts will ensure that the downsides associated with the rapid expansion of the industry in the 2010s will not re-emerge, hence increasing the likelihood for the sustainable growth and development of this industry and its real contributions to the Macao econo-my in the long run. Conclusion and RemarksIn this article, the interactions of various forces as specified in the institutional paradigm in Figure 1 which alter and influence the path of development of casino tourism in Macao from 2000 ① Macao Government Tourism Office. “Expand Southeast Asia Market: Experience Macao Roadshow Enjoys Popularity in Bangkok.” 17 June 2024, https://www.dst.gov.mo/en/about-us/press-release/630f405c138f44afa67341c5bf43fff9.html#:~:text=Roadshow%20attracts%20190%2C000%20spectators%20in%20Bangkok&text=Incorporating%20the%20meaning%20of%20%E2%80%9CMa,Macao%20in%20their%20own%20language. Accessed 22 June 2024; The Macao News. “Five Macao Tourism Roadshows Have Been Scheduled Across the Next Three Months.” The Macao News, 5 Apr 2024, https://macaonews.org/news/business/mgto-roadshows-macau-macao/. Accessed 2 June 2024.
63to 2024 are explicated. It is clear that as a pecuniary industry albeit a socially controversial one, the business organization and performance of casino tourism in Macao are not simply reflected by the preference of the market participants (or exchanges between suppliers and consumers in the market), but their interplays with a set of informal constraints and formal rules that are specific to the contextual settings and their changes in Macao society over time. As revealed by the empirical evidence, the mile-stone development of casino tourism in Macao in 2002 was realized from a change in the formal rules (i.e., introduction of new instrumental values) at the outset. Under an executive-led political system, changes in the government orientation and decision-making immediately changed the overall structure and direction for the development of the industry. Nevertheless, the actual path of development and change in the ways of doing business carried out by the market participants thereafter went through a long process and their changes were indeed encapsulated by various existing social and cultural forces (i.e., persistence of the ceremonial values) in society. As noted, changes in the business organization and routines in the progress of casino tourism in Macao and hence the performance of this industry in the 2000s and 2010s reflect the interplays be-tween the market participants with the informal constraints framed by the unique culture and social norms specific to Macao society and its particular connection with mainland China. In the process, owing to the insufficiency and enforcement of formal rules, practices of casino tourism are obviously dominated and driven by some of the power groups (mainly the VIP room operators and the associated gaming agents) who have established their own traditions and ways of doing business successfully to reap the considerable monetary benefits made available in the grey area of the regulatory system. By directly and indirectly sharing the monetary benefits between various groups in society over time (e.g., gaming taxes received by the government and job opportunities and social welfare given to the local community, etc.), the practices of the VIP rooms and the related gaming-agent business activities have hence evolved as somewhat socially accepted (or at least not against) and informally prescribed behav-iors, despite their controversy at so many levels. Yet, it is evident that the accumulated downsides from the opportunistic transformation and expansion of the VIP room business model (including the practices of the “satellite casinos” and the gaming agents) to reap the monetary benefits should hardly be tolerated continuously from a political standpoint when society advances. In fact, a slew of negative feedback from the business practices as-sociated with the VIP rooms have led to critical counter forces in the political system to strengthen the contents of the formal rules and their enforcement characteristics in the second half of the 2010s. Con-sequently, another new era for the development of casino tourism in Macao has unfolded in 2023. De-spite the introduced positive changes, it is still necessary to emphasize that due to the particular social Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and Outlook
64澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期attributes of Macao and its connection with mainland China, the considerable monetary rewards asso-ciated with the practices of this industry would always incentivize individuals to seek different (irregular or even illegal) means of reaping the potential benefits. Thus, to ensure that the changes being formally launched in 2023 would not be affected by any variants of the traditional opportunistic and irregular activities undertaken by the gaming agents, law enforcement authorities like the Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau and the police force of the Macao SAR government need to take a proactive role. From this, other than routine supervision, efforts to identify any signs of the re-occurrence of ir-regular/illegal activities have to be done to avoid their resurgence in different forms. In a nutshell, it is obvious that the business organization and industrial performance of casino tourism in Macao have gone through dramatic changes in the quarter of a century following the estab-lishment of the Macao SAR at the end of 1999. In this process, the monetary return did enhance the financial power of the IR operators to invest into the development of the large-capacity and world-class non-gaming facilities for the industry while a large portion of the considerable business turnover was derived through the unique VIP room business model and the controversial business activities pursued by the gaming agents. Nevertheless, owing to the self-undermining nature from the practices of the third-party-operated VIP room business model, the decision of the Macao SAR government to termi-nate this business segment through a formal change in the rules in 2022 unarguably launched a process that enhanced the instrumental efficiency of the industry for its long-term success. Nevertheless, to en-sure that a progressive long-term vision from the change initiated in 2023 (i.e., to realize a progressive institutional change), continuous efforts made by the sixth Macao SAR government starting at the end of 2024 are definitely necessary to continue to drive the initial changes. Specifically, on top of improv-ing the business integrity and real efficiency of casino gaming, strengthening the interplays between casino gaming and the non-gaming tourism sectors for the sake of constructing Macao as a truly com-petitive and sustainable casino tourism destination require the continuous efforts of the Macao SAR government to reframe (re-institute) the informal constraints for the practices of the industry through effective enforcement of the formal rules. 〔責任編輯 陳超敏 黃 珊〕〔校對 宋永豪〕
81作者簡介:劉雋敏,澳門城市大學人文社會科學學院助理教授。① Petronela, Tudorache. “The Importance of the Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Economy.” Procedia Economics and Finance, vol. 39, 2016, pp. 731-36.②Chu, Cecilia L. “Spectacular Macau: Visioning Futures for a World Heritage City.” Geoforum, vol. 65, 2015, pp. 440-450.③例如,林發欽主編:《人法地:澳門土地神壇調查報告》,澳門:澳門理工學院,2021 年;林發欽主編:《傳承出新:澳門非物質文化遺產》,澳門:澳門理工學院,2019 年;江淳、溫學權編:《傳承出新:澳門非物質文化遺產影像實錄》,澳門:澳門理工學院,2019 年;等等。澳門非物質文化遺產發展的系統回顧:歷史視角、當前研究及未來方向劉雋敏[ 摘 要 ] 本文系統地回顧了澳門非物質文化遺產相關英文研究的現狀。文章首先概述了全球和中國範圍內非物質文化遺產概念和實踐的歷史演變,隨後考察了澳門地區獨特的文化景觀,以及澳門政府通過立法、設立清單及名錄等舉措來保護非物質文化遺產的努力。本文通過對現有關於澳門非物質文化遺產的英文學術文獻進行調研,揭示了研究主題、方法論以及在不同遺產項目中的分佈情況。本文指出現有的英文相關研究在國際視野和研究範圍等方面存在挑戰,並提出了未來的研究方向,如擴大國際合作、優先進行對從業者的實地研究、強調動態權力關係等。本文的系統梳理旨在全面理解澳門非物質文化遺產的發展現狀,並確定未來研究的路徑,以確保其豐富文化傳統的可持續保護。[ 關鍵詞 ] 澳門 中國 非物質文化遺產 遺產管理 文獻綜述一、引言非物質文化遺產在連接過去、現在和未來方面發揮着重要作用,從而為社會結構的延續和演變作出貢獻。①在澳門這個以中葡文化交流而聞名的城市中,由於博彩產業擴大的影響和澳門文化身份的侵蝕產生了共同關注,對遺產保護的重視不斷增強。②為了振興和推廣這些文化實踐,採取了各種各樣的舉措,包括設立文化中心、組織研討會和培訓項目,以及將非物質文化遺產納入教育課程。澳門非物質文化遺產的研究和保護雖然起步較晚,但在過去的十年已取得諸多進展。例如,澳門理工大學中西文化研究所與多個民間團體及媒體合作,持續開展非物質文化遺產相關研究,主持出版了多本中文專著。③儘管學者們已經致力於管理澳門的遺產資源並將其納入更廣泛的發展目標中,但在英文學術領域,澳門非物質文化遺產相關研究依然不足,且缺乏對相關英文學術研究的系統回顧。本文旨在填補這一空白,通過聚焦於澳門非物質文化遺產相關的英文研究文獻,描述澳門非物質文化遺產的歷史軌跡,評估其當前的‧論文 | 澳門回歸二十五周年 ‧
82澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期研究狀況,突出現有的挑戰,並提出未來的探索與研究方向。二、中國的非物質文化遺產“非物質文化遺產”(Intangible Cultural Heritage, ICH)的概念源於對文化多樣性重要性的日益認識,以及保護和保存文化表達形式超越物質對象的需求。①該概念的發展可以追溯到 20 世紀末出現的各種倡議和運動。②它們旨在將焦點從物質對象轉移到社區文化身份中不可或缺的生活實踐、知識和技能上。③基於這些發展,聯合國教科文組織發起了一系列關於非物質文化遺產保護的討論和磋商。④這導致了 2003 年通過《保護非物質文化遺產公約》(Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage)。該公約為非物質文化遺產的認可、保護和推廣提供了國際框架,強調了社區作為自己遺產的傳承者和實踐者的角色。根據公約,非物質文化遺產指的是:“被各社區、群體,有時是個人,視為其文化遺產組成部分的各種社會實踐、觀念表述、表現形式、知識、技能以及相關的工具、實物、手工藝品和文化場所。這種非物質文化遺產世代相傳,在各社區和群體適應周圍環境以及與自然和歷史的互動中,被不斷地再創造,為這些社區和群體提供認同感和持續感,從而增強對文化多樣性和人類創造力的尊重。”⑤自公約通過以來,非物質文化遺產的概念在全球範圍內得到了廣泛認可和接受。它承認文化遺產不僅限於物質對象,還包括塑造社區身份和貢獻人類遺產豐富性的生活表達、實踐和知識。聯合國教科文組織的《人類非物質文化遺產代表作名錄》(The Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity)和《急需保護的非物質文化遺產名錄》(The List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding)成為展示和增強對全球各地多樣文化實踐意識的重要平台。然而,針對非物質文化遺產概念及其在本地實施方面,也存在相當多的批評,包括權力失衡的強化、文化挪用和商品化、缺乏社區參與、資源和支持不足等。⑥① Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. “Intangible Heritage as Metacultural Production.” Museum International, vol. 56, no.1-2, 2004, pp. 52-65.② Aikawa-Faure, Noriko. “An Historical Overview of the Preparation of the UNESCO International Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.” Museum International, vol. 56, no. 1-2, 2004, pp. 137-149; Aika-wa-Faure, Noriko. “From the Proclamation of Masterpieces to the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cul-tural Heritage.” Intangible Heritage, edited by Laurajane Smith and Natsuko Akagawa, Routledge, 2009, pp. 13-44.③ Chen, Zhiqin. “For Whom to Conserve Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Dislocated Agency of Folk Belief Practi-tioners and the Reproduction of Local Culture.” Asian Ethnology, vol. 74, no. 2, 2015, pp. 307-334.④ Schmitt, Thomas M. “The UNESCO Concept of Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage: Its Background and Mar-rakchi Roots.” International Journal of Heritage Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, 2008, pp. 95-111; Hafstein, Valdimar Tr. “In-tangible Heritage as a List: From Masterpieces to Representation.” Intangible Heritage, edited by Laurajane Smith and Natsuko Akagawa, Routledge, 2009, pp. 93-111.⑤ UNESCO 數字圖書館:〈保護非物質文化遺產公約〉,2003 年 10 月 17 日,unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000132540_chi.,2024 年 12 月 31 日讀取。⑥ Waterton, Emma, and Laurajane Smith. “The Recognition and Misrecognition of Community Heritage.” International Jour-nal of Heritage Studies, vol. 16, no.1-2, 2010, pp. 4-15; Harrison, Rodney. Heritage: Critical Approaches. Routledge, 2013; By-rne, Denis. “A Critique of Unfeeling Heritage.” Intangible Heritage, edited by Laurajane Smith and Natsuko Akagawa, Rout-ledge, 2009, pp. 229-252; Lixinski, Lucas. Intangible Cultural Heritage in International Law. Oxford University Press, 2013.
83澳門非物質文化遺產發展的系統回顧:歷史視角、當前研究及未來方向中國在公約通過後的一年內迅速批准了該公約。截至 2024 年終,中國在聯合國教科文組織的《人類非物質文化遺產代表作名錄》上列出了令人矚目的 44 項,①鞏固了其作為全球最受關注的國家地位。此外,中國政府對非物質文化遺產保護表現出堅定的承諾,引起了全國範圍內對非物質文化遺產的廣泛熱情。這一承諾通過 2006 年設立國家非物質文化遺產保護中心、組織眾多研討會和會議、指定國家文化遺產日(每年六月的第二個星期六)以及 2011 年頒佈《中華人民共和國非物質文化遺產保護法》得以體現。中國的國家非物質文化遺產名錄目前包括 1,557 項,分為五批,還有更多的項目被列入省、市和縣級等較低級別(圖 1)。②此外,中國還啟動了“非物質文化遺產代表性項目代表性傳承人”機制,這是對聯合國“人類活瑰寶”體系(Living Human Treasures)的中國式獨特改造。③通過該機制,文化從業者被不同級別的政府認定為非物質文化遺產的“承載者”,並被授予“非物質文化遺產傳承人”的官方稱號。圖 1 中國非物質文化遺產名錄的不同等級三、澳門的非物質文化遺產澳門位於珠江三角洲西岸,是中華人民共和國的一個特別行政區。自 16 世紀中葉葡萄牙人抵達以來,澳門在葡萄牙管治下延續了四個多世紀,直到 1999 年 12 月 20 日中華人民共和國恢復行使主權。截至 2023 年終,澳門總人口為 683,700 人,面積為 33.3 平方① UNESCO. “Elements on the Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage.” UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage, https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/china-CN?info=elements-on-the-lists. Accessed 31 Dec 2024.②中國非物質文化遺產網.中國非物質文化遺產數字博物館:〈國家級非物質文化遺產代表性項目名錄〉,https://www.ihchina.cn/project#target1,2024 年 12 月 31 日讀取。③ Maags, Christina. “Struggles of Recognition: Adverse Effects of China’s Living Human Treasures Program.” Interna-tional Journal of Heritage Studies, vol. 25, no. 8, 2019, pp. 780-795.
84澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期公里,①是世界上人口密度最高的地區。澳門常被稱為“東方的拉斯維加斯”,以其富麗堂皇的賭場和充滿活力的娛樂場景而聞名。自 21 世紀以來,旅遊博彩業一直是該地區經濟的支柱。然而,除了其耀眼的聲譽,澳門還提供了豐富的文化體驗,反映了其歷史和遺產。澳門一百二十餘年的殖民管治(1849 年至 1975 年)給澳門的文化留下了深刻的烙印,使其涵蓋了多樣的傳統、習俗和實踐。②它融合了中西方影響,錯綜複雜地交織在一起,形成了獨特的文化畫卷,被稱為“文化的揚努斯之門”(Cultural Janus)。③遺產保護和展示通常被視為現代化和發展的強大工具。在澳門,人們認為該地區可以通過將旅遊和博彩業與創意城市的關鍵特徵相結合,最有效地實現其發展目標。④因此,澳門政府越來越注重保護和推廣城市豐富的文化遺產。2005 年,澳門歷史城區被列入聯合國教科文組織《世界遺產名錄》,正式獲得世界遺產地位,符合普世價值標準中的 ii、iii、iv和 vi 項。⑤自此,世界文化遺產地、物質文化遺產及相應的遺產旅遊逐漸成為學者著重關注的澳門相關研究課題。⑥2013 年,第 11/2013 號法律《文化遺產保護法》公佈。⑦該法律採取了全面的方法,包括物質和非物質文化遺產,為保護提供了“更具連貫性的法律框架”。⑧該法律第 2 條將文化遺產定義為“具重要文化價值的文明或文化見證、且應特別加以維護和弘揚的財產”。這種包容性的方法使其區別於國際法律通常將物質和非物質遺產區分的做法,有助於更統一和有效地保護文化遺產。根據 2003 年《保護非物質文化遺產公約》,該法律第 71 條將非物質文化遺產分為五個領域:①澳門特別行政區政府統計暨普查局:〈統計數據〉,https://www.dsec.gov.mo/zh-MO/Statistic?id=101,2024年 12 月 31 日讀取;澳門特別行政區政府旅遊局:〈地理位置及時間〉,https://www.macaotourism.gov.mo/zh-hant/travelessential/about-macao/location-and-time,2024 年 12 月 31 日讀取。② Vong, Louis Tze-Ngai, and Alberto Ung. “Exploring Critical Factors of Macau’s Heritage Tourism: What Heritage Tourists Are Looking for When Visiting the City’s Iconic Heritage Sites.” Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, vol. 17, no. 3, 2012, pp. 231-245; Wong, IpKin Anthony, Bob McKercher, and Xiangping Li. “East Meets West: Tourist Interest in Hybrid Culture at Postcolonial Destinations.” Journal of Travel Research, vol. 55, no. 5, 2016, pp. 628-642.③ Cheng, Christina Miu Bing. Macau: A Cultural Janus. Hong Kong University Press, 1999, p. 4.④ Greenwood, Verity Anne, and Larry Dwyer. “Reinventing Macau Tourism: Gambling on Creativity?” Current Issues in Tourism, vol. 20, no. 6, 2017, pp. 580-602.⑤ ii. 體現着某一時段或世界某一文化區域內,人類價值及其表現手法在建築學或技術領域,在不朽的藝術創造、城鎮規劃或景觀設計等方面發展進程中的相互交流與影響價值的重要交替;iii. 包含對一種文化傳統或依然存在或已經消失的文明的獨一無二或至少是不可多得的證明;iv. 是標示人類歷史某一個或幾個重要階段的某類建築物,或建築群體,或技術組合,或景觀的傑出例證;vi. 與重大事件或生活傳統、與思想或信仰、與具有突出的普遍重要性的藝術和文學作品直接或明顯相關。⑥例如:Vong, Louis Tze-Ngai, and Alberto Ung. “Exploring Critical Factors of Macau’s Heritage Tourism: What Heri-tage Tourists are Looking for when Visiting the City’s Iconic Heritage Sites.” Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, vol. 17, no. 3, 2012, pp. 231-245; Ung, Alberto, and Tze Ngai Vong. “Tourist Experience of Heritage Tourism in Macau SAR, China.” Journal of Heritage Tourism, vol. 5, no. 2, 2010, pp. 157-168; Leong, Aliana M. W., and Jacky X. Li. “In-teractive Strategies for Cultural Heritage Tourism and Macau City Development: The Tourists’ Perspectives.” Interna-tional Journal of Asian Business and Information Management, vol. 1, no. 4, 2010, pp. 1-19; Lee, Maria Younghee, and Hae Un Rii. “An Application of the Vicious Circle Schema to the World Heritage Site of Macau.” Journal of Heritage Tourism, vol. 11, no. 2, 2016, pp. 126-142.⑦澳門特別行政區政府第 11/2013 號法律《文化遺產保護法》,images.io.gov.mo/bo/i/2013/36/lei-11-2013.pdf。⑧ Neuwirth, Rostam J., and Zhijie Chen. “The Guangdong - Hong Kong - Macao Greater Bay Area: Cultural Heritage Laws as a Bridge between Past and Future.” Hong Kong Law Journal, vol. 50, no. 2, 2020, p. 767.
86澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期表 1 澳門非物質文化遺產名錄及其分類編號 項目 種類是否被列於國家級非物質文化遺產代表性項目名錄1 粵劇2. 藝術表現形式及屬表演性質的項目是2 南音說唱 是3 道教科儀音樂 是4 土生土語話劇 是5 媽祖信俗3. 社會實踐、宗教實踐、禮儀及節慶是6 哪吒信俗 是7 魚行醉龍節 是8 苦難善耶穌聖像出遊 否9 花地瑪聖母聖像出遊 否10 涼茶配製5. 傳統手工藝和技能是11 木雕-神像雕刻 是12 土生葡人美食烹飪技藝 是13 土地信俗 *3. 社會實踐、宗教實踐、禮儀及節慶是* 未列入澳門非物質文化遺產名錄;僅列入澳門非物質文化遺產清單。不同的非遺清單和名錄中特定元素的包含或排除往往能夠反映文化保護的複雜性,且能體現不同層級管理機構的不同觀點。例如,澳門名錄中包含西方起源的苦難善耶穌聖像出遊及花地瑪聖母聖像出遊,表明澳門的文化景觀受到中西方傳統的共同影響。通過包括這些西方起源的項目,澳門承認其與西方的歷史聯繫和文化交流的重要性。另一方面,這些西方起源的項目在中國國家級名錄中的缺失則表明中央政府採取了較為不同的非遺視角。此外,中國國家級名錄中包含土地信俗,而該非遺項目僅列入澳門非遺清單,而非澳門名錄,這也引發了有趣的問題。土地指的是澳門所崇拜的地方神明,與社區認同和領土保護有關。這種包含與排除的差異背後的原因值得進一步探討。這些清單和名錄的差異反映了歷史、政治和文化因素之間複雜的相互作用。它們突顯了文化保護工作的動態性,以及不同地區或司法管轄區對非物質文化遺產的認可和推廣所形成的不同觀點。進一步的研究和分析可以更深入地瞭解這些差異背後的動機和意義。四、關於澳門非物質文化遺產的英文研究現狀Su、Li 和 Kang 利用分析軟件對 Web of Science 上 249 篇關於非物質文化遺產的期刊文章進行了文獻計量分析。①該文作者根據他們的分析得出了幾個重要結論:首先,研究人員之間、研究機構之間以及涉及非物質文化遺產研究的國家之間缺乏實質性的合作;論文作者的高發表率與高引用率之間的關係是不一致的(即高產作者不一定有高引用率、高引用學者不一定高產);另外值得注意的是,非遺研究領域的國際分佈並不均衡,中國、英國、① Su, Xinwei, Xi Li, and Yanxin Kang. “A Bibliometric Analysis of Research on Intangible Cultural Heritage Using CiteSpace.” SAGE Open, vol. 9, no. 2, 2019.
87澳大利亞、美國等一小部分國家在佔據主導地位。其次,目前的研究領域主要圍繞着非遺保護、非遺空間、非遺管理、非遺政策以及非遺的國際化等主題展開。然而,近年來,研究重點明顯轉向探索創意非遺旅遊、社區參與非遺保護與發展以及非遺真實性概念等方面。目前,澳門在非物質文化遺產發展方面尚缺乏全面的綜述。儘管如此,學術界對澳門的文化身份和文化資源在城市進步中所起的重要作用一直表現出濃厚的興趣,而非遺作為一種獨特的文化表現形式,承載着特定社區、群體或個人的歷史傳統和價值觀,與人們對自己文化身份的認同感和歸屬感密切相關。例如,Chung 研究了澳門城市遺產價值的動態演變,包括多樣化的保護方法和機制。①此外,該研究探討了在澳門持續性和轉型的背景下,對城市遺產和發展不斷變化的關注點。同樣,Lam 認為,澳門的後移交時期特點是融合了本地、國家和國際元素的身份。②澳門被描繪為歷史、殖民和文化影響的獨特融合體,同時又作為一個經濟實體存在,對這些多元身份組成部分的有意融合和推廣受到特別強調。自 21 世紀初以來,澳門特區政府致力於將該城市從主要以博彩為重點的旅遊目的地轉變為全球知名的旅遊熱點。③澳門城市品牌塑造和重新塑造已成為決策者、學者和行業專業人士的重要關注點。特別是在澳門歷史城區被列為世界文化遺產之後,人們開始關注這一負有盛名的世界(物質)遺產城市地位如何促進澳門的城市發展並增強其國際聲譽。④正如 2013 年《文化遺產保護法》所證實的那樣,要全面瞭解澳門的文化景觀,需要採用包容性的方法,包括對物質和非物質遺產的保護和欣賞。⑤下面提供了截至 2023 年 12月發表的關於澳門非物質文化遺產項目的學術文章的簡要概述(見附錄)。筆者使用谷歌學術(Google Scholar)、Web of Science 資料庫的核心集(Core Collection)及 Scopus三大文獻資料庫作為主要資料來源收集相關文章,使用關鍵詞 Macau/Macao + Intangible Cultural Heritage 進行搜索,並限定文檔類型為英文出版的期刊文章/書籍章節/會議論文(Journal Article/Book Chapter/Conference Paper),但不包括博士或碩士學位論文。為確保資料準確性,筆者逐個審查了所有相關文章的標題和摘要,以確保所收集到的資料符合要求。文獻搜索及審查過程主要在 2023 年 11 - 12 月進行,並於 2024 年 1 月進行了二次搜索,以確保搜尋文獻之全面性。① Chung, Thomas. “Valuing Heritage in Macau: On Contexts and Processes of Urban Conservation.” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, vol. 38, no. 1, 2009, pp. 129-160.② Lam, Wai-man. “Promoting Hybridity: The Politics of the New Macau Identity.” The China Quarterly, vol. 203, 2010, pp. 656-674.③ Sou, Joey Pek U, Thea Vinnicombe, and Tiffany Chang Han Leung. “Rebranding Macau: Views of Cultural Industry Insiders.” International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, vol. 10, no.1, 2016, pp. 91-104; Pan-chapakesan, Padma, Alvaro Rosa, and Marta Fevereiro Carvalho. “City Branding: Macao.” 2015 International Confer-ence on Business and Information, 2015; Wei, C. X. George. Macao - The Formation of a Global City. Routledge, 2013.④ Chu, Cecilia L. “Spectacular Macau: Visioning futures for a World Heritage City.” Geoforum, vol. 65, 2015, pp. 440-450; Huang, Chia-Hui, Jen-Ruey Tsaur, and Chih-Hai Yang. “Does World Heritage List Really Induce More Tourists? Evidence from Macau.” Tourism Management, vol. 33, no. 6, 2012, pp. 1450-1457; Fung, Ivan W. H., Y. T. Tsang, Vivi-an W. Y. Tam, Y. T. Xu, and Edmund C. K. Mok. “A Review on Historic Building Conservation: A Comparison between Hong Kong and Macau Systems.” Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 71, 2017, pp. 927-942.⑤ Neuwirth, Rostam J., and Zhijie Chen. “The Guangdong - Hong Kong - Macao Greater Bay Area: Cultural Heritage Laws as a Bridge between Past and Future.” Hong Kong Law Journal, vol. 50, no. 2, 2020, pp. 743-780.澳門非物質文化遺產發展的系統回顧:歷史視角、當前研究及未來方向
88澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期圖 3 澳門非物質文化遺產相關英文文獻發表數量截至 2023 年 12 月,澳門非物質文化遺產的英文研究文章總數為 38 篇(不包括重複項目),這表明在這一領域進行的研究起步較晚,且數量相對有限(圖 3)。值得注意的是,大多數非物質文化遺產項目受到的關注較少,其中有 8 個項目只有 3 篇或更少的文章專門研究。學術界對這項研究的參與主要集中在廣東、澳門和香港地區,表明其國際範圍相對較窄。此外,文章的分佈顯示出對各種非物質文化遺產項目的研究工作分配不均,某些項目比其他項目引起了更多的關注。值得注意的是,土生葡人美食烹飪技藝成為研究最廣泛的項目,共有 16 篇文章專門研究。緊隨其後的是魚行醉龍節,共有 9 篇研究文章。相比之下,道教科儀音樂和木雕神像雕刻缺乏相關的研究文章。南音說唱和涼茶配製分別只有一篇研究文章,表明學術界對這些話題的關注相對較少。五、當前研究的重要主題當前的學術研究中確定了幾個關鍵主題和問題。這些包括文化復興和遺產旅遊、本土身份和社區參與以及跨學科的出現。為了便於對相關文獻進行分析,還使用了開源的搜索結果聚類引擎 Carrot2。①聚類結果以樹狀圖形式呈現在下圖中(圖 4)。① Su, Xinwei, Xi Li, and Yanxin Kang. “A Bibliometric Analysis of Research on Intangible Cultural Heritage Using CiteSpace.” SAGE Open, vol. 9, no. 2, 2019.
89圖 4 相關英文文獻聚類結果(一)文化復興和遺產旅遊有學者在旅遊經濟計量分析的背景下,探討了世界遺產地對澳門旅遊業發展的影響,其實證結果表明,世界遺產地對於旅遊業的促進作用相對較為短期,且與亞洲遊客更為相關。①相較來説,非物質文化遺產旅遊提供了一種超越本地地點或有形遺址的獨特身份來源。②對澳門利用非物質文化遺產進行文化旅遊以及非物質文化遺產實踐如何增強整體旅遊體驗的研究已經進行了廣泛的探討。例如,Chen 等人通過訪談調查了在哪吒廟會期間進行共同創造體驗的利益相關者合作,對大型文化活動的管理進行了深入研究。③ Imon 通過民族志實地調查探索了節日空間如何為當地社區的傳統延續作出貢獻。④可以通過文化共用來促進旅遊,而不僅僅依賴商業方法。然而,在考慮本地優先事項的同時,在訪客偏好和真實性之間取得平衡是一個重大挑戰,正如在對真實性實踐進行包容性重新定義時所出現的緊張關係所表明的那樣。⑤① Huang, Chia-Hui, Jen-Ruey Tsaur, and Chih-Hai Yang. “Does World Heritage List Really Induce More Tourists? Evi-dence from Macau.” Tourism Management, vol. 33, no. 6, 2012, pp. 1450-1457.② González, Miguel Vidal. “Intangible Heritage Tourism and Identity.” Tourism Management, vol. 29, no. 4, 2008, pp. 807-810.③ Chen, Zhaoyu, Brian King, and Wantanee Suntikul. “Co-Creation of Value for Cultural Festivals: Behind the Scenes in Macau.” Tourism Recreation Research, vol. 45, no. 4, 2020, pp. 430-444.④ Imon, Sharif Shams. “Relationship between Cultural Spaces and Continuity of a Tradition: The Case of Drunken Dragon Festival in Macao.” Revisiting Kathmandu: Safeguarding Living Urban Heritage: Proceeding of an Internation-al Symposium, Kathmandu Valley, no. 25-29, UNESCO Publishing, 2013, pp. 237-242.⑤ Xie, Philip Feifan. “Tourism Promotion Through the Unesco Creative City of Gastronomy.” Journal of Gastronomy and Tourism, vol. 5, no. 4, 2021, pp. 195-206.澳門非物質文化遺產發展的系統回顧:歷史視角、當前研究及未來方向
90澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期(二)本土身份和社區參與許多研究強調將社區觀點納入有關非物質文化遺產的研究和保護工作中的重要性。Choi 等人對澳門居民進行調查,以瞭解有關節日轉型的不同觀點,區分了參與者和非參與者。①這種方法認同捕捉各種本地意見的必要性。其他研究採用了定性方法來提升基層知識。通過在節日場所進行的民族志實地調查,Imon 深入瞭解了普通居民對傳統的感知和體驗。②類似地,Ren 等人與餐館經營者進行了深度訪談,以確定對烹飪真實性的威脅,借鑑了那些最密切參與其中的人的觀點。③此外,Io 和 Chong 探討了居民對粵劇表演的享受,以瞭解文化活動如何吸引本地社區並為其身份感作出貢獻。④他們還反思了在不同時空中,任何被指定為文化遺產的項目如何能夠容納不同人群之間的多重意義,並促進居民的參與。這承認了遺產含義在時間和空間上的多樣性。(三)新興的跨學科性學者們在研究方法上超越傳統的檔案方法,採用了一系列方法,包括定量、定性、參與性和技術方法。Lam 和 Ieong 對土生土語戲劇進行了深入的語言分析,探討其歷史影響和語言特點。⑤ Wah 運用民族音樂學方法通過研究盲女南音演唱來復興獨特的融合傳統。⑥此外,研究人員還採用了人工智慧(AI)和虛擬現實(VR)等創新技術,這些技術已經被年輕一代接受,旨在增強不同代際之間在文化實踐中的學習和參與。⑦六、挑戰與未來方向澳門的非物質文化遺產面臨着一些挑戰,這些挑戰妨礙了其全面理解和發展。本節討論這些挑戰,並提出了澳門非物質文化遺產研究的未來方向。(一)學術關注不足和地理範圍有限目前,澳門的非物質文化遺產研究所受到的學術關注仍然不足,主要集中在澳門和香① Choi, Suh-hee, Sharif Shams Imon, and Ubaldino Sequeira Couto. “Negotiating with Authenticity to Ensure Sustain-ability of Traditional Cultural Festivals: Residents’ Perspectives about Macao’s Drunken Dragon Festival.” Sustainabili-ty, vol. 12, no. 3, 2020, p. 885.② Imon, Sharif Shams. “Relationship between Cultural Spaces and Continuity of a Tradition: The Case of Drunken Dragon Festival in Macao.” Revisiting Kathmandu: Safeguarding Living Urban Heritage: Proceeding of an Internation-al Symposium, Kathmandu Valley, no. 25-29, UNESCO Publishing, 2013, pp. 237-242.③Ren, Lianping, Henrique Fátima Boyol Ngan, Fiona X. Yang, Ka Kui Yan, and Rob Law. “An Anatomy of the Dilution of a Local Cuisine in a Post-Colonial Destination–Evidence from Macao.” Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, vol. 22, no. 3, 2023, pp. 1-17.④ Io, Man-U., and Daniel Chong. “Determining Residents’ Enjoyment of Cantonese Opera as Their Performing Arts Heritage in Macao.” Annals of Leisure Research, vol. 25, no. 2, 2022, pp. 273-290.⑤ Lam, Johnny F. I., and Wai In Ieong. “Translanguaging and Multilingual Society of Macau: Past, Present and Future.” Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, vol. 7, no. 1, 2022, p. 39.⑥ Wah, Yu Siu. “Ng Wing Mui (Mui Yee) and the Revival of the Sineung (Blind Female) Singing Style in Cantonese Naamyam (Southern Tone).” Chinoperl, vol. 33, no. 2, 2014, pp. 121-134.⑦ Xu, Song, Peng-Wei Hsiao, Chen Li, and Jinyu Zhang. “Drunken Dragon Cyber Dance: Application of Augmented Reality Technology in Drunken Dragon Cultural Heritage Education.” 2022 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences and Intelligence Management (SSIM), IEEE, 2022, pp. 36-40; Luo, Yan-Jing, and Peng-Wei Hsiao. “Design of Interactive Learning Materials with Concept of Sustainability Integrated into Macau Drunken Dragon Dance.” Engi-neering Proceedings, vol. 38, no. 1, 2023, p. 12.
91港的學者身上。為了克服這一局限,有必要鼓勵國際間在非物質文化遺產研究領域的合作。通過與具有不同文化背景和專業知識的學者合作,研究可以從更廣泛的視角和方法中受益。此外,儘管已經進行了一些澳門、香港和廣東之間的比較研究,但強調非物質文化遺產作為大灣區內的橋樑的作用至關重要。在 Neuwirth 和 Chen 的工作基礎上,未來的研究應加強澳門的獨特地位,並探索其文化遺產如何促進更廣泛區域背景下的聯繫和合作。①需要進一步發展更全面的概念化,並明確文化遺產管理與更廣泛城市現象之間的關係。②思考中國傳統中公民參與保護非物質文化遺產的經驗,可為其他領域和地區的非物質文化遺產保護提供參考。③(二)缺乏特定非物質文化遺產項目的實地研究澳門非物質文化遺產研究面臨的另一個緊迫挑戰是對特定非物質文化遺產項目的實地研究有限。儘管道教科儀禮樂和宗教木雕神像雕刻被認定為官方的非物質文化遺產項目,但相關研究文章很少。這個研究空白可以通過優先進行深入訪談和參與性研究,涉及傳承人和當地文化從業者來解決。直接與這些利益相關者進行互動,將為研究人員提供有關積極參與保護和傳承文化實踐的人們的生活經歷和觀點的寶貴見解。通過彌合學術界與從業者之間的鴻溝,為澳門實施創新的非物質文化遺產項目提供機會。學術界和從業者網絡的整合可以促進制定綜合性政策戰略,兼顧文化、經濟和旅遊的觀點。通過系統地連接各種觀點的證據,澳門可以加深對非物質文化遺產的理解,並採取有效的措施進行保護和推廣。(三)強調錯綜複雜的關係與權力動態雖然澳門現有的非物質文化遺產研究已經承認了中西交流的重要性,但還需要進一步強調社區、不同層級政府和專家之間錯綜複雜的關係與權力動態。未來的研究應該探索不同層級非物質文化遺產名錄中存在的差異,揭示地方社區、政府當局和專家之間複雜的相互作用。此外,強調澳門文化遺產的當地語系化,在全球化背景下突出澳門的獨特特點是至關重要的。在人口和空間發生變化的過程中,如何可持續地保護文化遺產並擴大參與,並重新定義真實性概念,仍然存在問題。通過考慮這些動態,研究人員可以提供更加細緻入微的澳門非物質文化遺產的社會文化和政治維度的理解。(四)加深理論和實證分析澳門的非物質文化遺產研究在一定程度上已經融入了“體驗景觀”等概念框架。 ④然而,有必要通過與國際遺產研究進行對話,加深理論和實證分析。通過借鑑國際視角,研究人員可以豐富對非物質文化遺產的理解,並擴展其分析中採用的理論框架。為實現這一① Neuwirth, Rostam J., and Zhijie Chen. “The Guangdong - Hong Kong - Macao Greater Bay Area: Cultural Heritage Laws as a Bridge between Past and Future.” Hong Kong Law Journal, vol. 50, no. 2, 2020, pp. 743-780.② Guzmán, P. C., A. R. Pereira Roders, and B. J. F. Colenbrander. “Measuring Links between Cultural Heritage Manage-ment and Sustainable Urban Development: An Overview of Global Monitoring Tools.” Cities, no. 60, 2017, pp. 192-201.③Yan, Wen-Jie, and Shang-Chia Chiou. “The Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage from the Perspective of Civic Participation: The Informal Education of Chinese Embroidery Handicrafts.” Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 9, 2021, p. 4958. ④ Chen, Zhaoyu. “Visualizing Experiencescape - from the Art of Intangible Cultural Heritage.” Current Issues in Tour-ism, vol. 25, no. 4, 2022, pp. 559-578.澳門非物質文化遺產發展的系統回顧:歷史視角、當前研究及未來方向
93附錄編號非物質文化遺產項目相關英文研究文獻 英文文獻數1 粵劇1. Lam, Nga Li. “‘The Song of Selling Olives’: Acoustic Experience and Cantonese Identity in Canton, Hong Kong, and Macau across the Great Divide of 1949.” China Perspectives, no. 3, 2019, pp. 9-16.2. Io, Man-U. “Understanding the Core Attractiveness of Performing Arts Heritage to International Tourists.” Tourism Geographies, vol. 21, no. 4, 2019, pp. 687-705.3. Io, Man-U., and Daniel Chong. “Determining Residents’ Enjoy-ment of Cantonese Opera as Their Performing Arts Heritage in Macao.” Annals of Leisure Research, vol. 25, no. 2, 2022, pp. 273-290.32 南音說唱1. Wah, Yu Siu. “Ng Wing Mui (Mui Yee) and the Revival of the Sineung (Blind Female) Singing Style in Cantonese Naamyam (Southern Tone).” Chinoperl, vol. 33, no. 2, 2014, pp. 121-134. 13 道教科儀音樂 / 04 土生土語話劇1. Eusébio, Maria Elisabela Larrea Y. “The Voice on the Postcolonial Stage.” The Newsletter, no. 64, 2013, pp. 32-33.2. Wong, C. U. I. “The Preservation of Macau’s Intangible Colonial Heritage: The Case of Patúa.” Tourism Culture & Communica-tion, vol. 14, no. 2, 2014, pp. 91-102.3. Stoffel, Ana Mercedes, and Isabel Victor. “Museums and Intangi-ble Cultural Heritage in Lusophone Countries.” The Routledge Companion to Intangible Cultural Heritage, edited by Michelle Stefano and Peter Davis, Routledge, 2016, pp. 402-417.4. Lam, Johnny F. I., and Wai In Ieong. “Translanguaging and Multi-lingual Society of Macau: Past, Present and Future.” Asian-Pa-cific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, vol. 7, no. 1, 2022, p. 39.45 媽祖信俗1. Couto, Ubaldino Sequeira, Chao Wang, and Anna Litwin. “Ex-ploring Hallmark Events through Benchmarking: The Case of Macau.” ATLAS Annual Conference 2016, 2016, pp. 27-40.2. McGill, Jenny. “Visualising Folk Religion and Ancestor Worship at A-Ma Temple in Macau, China.” Visual Studies, vol. 35, no. 1, 2020, pp. 76-79.3. Chan, Kwok Shing. “Attractiveness of a Religious Theme Site: The A-Ma Cultural Village in Macau, China.” International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage, vol. 8, no. 8, 2021, pp.12-29.4. Wu, Shengzhen. “Study on the Evolution of Main External Styles of Mazu Temple? A Case Study of Fujian, Guangdong and Ma-cau.” Knowledge Innovation on Design and Culture, 2021, pp. 313-316.5. Chen, Zhaoyu. “Visualizing Experiencescape - from the Art of In-tangible Cultural Heritage.” Current Issues in Tourism, vol. 25, no. 4, 2022, pp. 559-578.56 哪吒信俗1. Chen, Zhaoyu, Brian King, and Wantanee Suntikul. “Co-Creation of Value for Cultural Festivals: Behind the Scenes in Macau.” Tourism Recreation Research, vol. 45, no. 4, 2020, pp. 430-44.2. Chen, Zhaoyu. “Visualizing Experiencescape - from the Art of In-tangible Cultural Heritage.” Current Issues in Tourism, vol. 25, no. 4, 2022, pp. 559-578.2澳門非物質文化遺產發展的系統回顧:歷史視角、當前研究及未來方向
94澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期7 魚行醉龍節1. Imon, Sharif Shams. “Relationship between Cultural Spaces and Continuity of a Tradition: The Case of Drunken Dragon Festival in Macao.” Revisiting Kathmandu: Safeguarding Living Urban Heritage: Proceeding of an International Symposium, Kathman-du Valley, 25-29 November 2013, UNESCO Publishing, 2015, pp. 237-242.2. Couto, Ubaldino Sequeira, Chao Wang, and Anna Litwin. “Ex-ploring Hallmark Events through Benchmarking: The Case of Macau.” ATLAS Annual Conference 2016, 2016, pp. 27-40.3. Choi, Suh-hee, Ubaldino Sequeira Couto, and Sharif Shams Imon. “Participating and Non-Participating Resident Perceptions and Attitudes towards Macao’s Drunken Dragon Festival.” Confer-ence Proceedings of Beyond the Waves: The 4th International Conference on Events (ICE2017), 2017, pp. 133-143.4. Chen, Zhaoyu, Brian King, and Wantanee Suntikul. “Co-Creation of Value for Cultural Festivals: Behind the Scenes in Macau.” Tourism Recreation Research, vol. 45, no. 4, 2020, pp. 430-444.5. Choi, Suh-hee, Sharif Shams Imon, and Ubaldino Sequei-ra Couto. “Resident Attendees of Macao’s Drunken Dragon Festival: A Cluster Analysis.” International Journal of Event and Festival Management, vol. 11, no. 3, 2020, pp. 375-393.6. Choi, Suh-hee, Ubaldino Sequeira Couto, and Sharif Shams Imon. “Participating and Non-Participating Resident Perceptions and Attitudes towards Macao’s Drunken Dragon Festival.” Confer-ence Proceedings of Beyond the Waves: The 4th International Conference on Events (ICE2017), 2017, pp. 133-143.7. Chen, Zhaoyu. “Visualizing Experiencescape - from the Art of In-tangible Cultural Heritage.” Current Issues in Tourism, vol. 25, no. 4, 2022, pp. 559-578.8. Xu, Song, Peng-Wei Hsiao, Chen Li, and Jinyu Zhang. “Drunken Dragon Cyber Dance: Application of Augmented Reality Tech-nology in Drunken Dragon Cultural Heritage Education.” 2022 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences and Intelli-gence Man-agement (SSIM), 2022, pp. 36-40.9. Luo, Yan-Jing, and Peng-Wei Hsiao. “Design of Interactive Learn-ing Materials with Concept of Sustainability Integrated into Macau Drunken Dragon Dance.” Engineering Proceedings, vol. 38, no. 1, 2023, p. 12.98苦難善耶穌聖像出遊1. Couto, Ubaldino Sequeira. “Catholic Processions in Macau.” Rituals and Traditional Events in the Modern World, edited by Jennifer Laing and Warwick Frost, Routledge, 2014, pp. 100-110.2. Couto, Ubaldino Sequeira, Chao Wang, and Anna Litwin. “Ex-ploring Hallmark Events through Benchmarking: The Case of Macau.” ATLAS Annual Conference 2016, 2016, pp. 27-40.3. Chan, Ka Yin Caspar. “Heritage, the Illusion of Inheritance and the Volatility of Memory: A Reflection on the Procession of the Pas-sion of Our Lord the Good Jesus, Macau.” International Journal of Intangible Heritage, vol. 18, 2023, pp. 31-48.39花地瑪聖母聖像出遊1. Couto, Ubaldino Sequeira. “Catholic Processions in Macau.” Rituals and Traditional Events in the Modern World, edited by Jennifer Laing and Warwick Frost, Routledge, 2014, pp. 100-110.2. Couto, Ubaldino Sequeira, Chao Wang, and Anna Litwin. “Ex-ploring Hallmark Events through Benchmarking: The Case of Macau.” ATLAS Annual Conference 2016, 2016, pp. 27-40.2
9510 涼茶配製1. Hsu, Fu Chieh, Elizabeth Agyeiwaah, and Noel Scott. “Under-standing Tourists’ Perceived Food Consumption Values: Do Different Cultures Share Similar Food Values?” International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, vol. 28, 2022, pp. 1-10.111 木雕-神像雕刻 / 012土生葡人美食烹飪技藝1. Yang, Zhang, and Ching Lin Pang. “From Home Food to Macanese Cuisine? Historical Development, Tourist Branding and Cultural Identity.” Sociology Study, vol. 2, no. 12, 2012, pp. 934-940.2. Wang, Ying-Chuan. “A Study on the Influence of Electronic Word of Mouth and the Image of Gastronomy Tourism on the Inten-tions of Tourists Visiting Macau.” Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 63, no. 1, 2015, pp. 67-80.3. Wang, Xin, and Ting Meng. “The Research of Customers Satisfac-tion and Public Policy & Marketing Design in Special Interest Tourism - Macao Culinary Tourism.” International Journal of Business and Management, vol. 11, no. 1, 2015, pp. 124-135.4. Vong, Fanny. “Application of Cultural Tourist Typology in a Gam-ing Destination - Macao.” Current Issues in Tourism, vol. 19, no. 9, 2016, pp. 949-965.5. Caballero, Gabriel Victor. “Crossing Boundaries: Linking Intan-gible Heritage, Cultural Landscapes, and Identity.” UP Visayas International Conference on Intangible Heritage, 25-26 May 2017.6. Yu, Chung-En, and Runsheng Sun. “The Role of Instagram in the UNESCO’s Creative City of Gastronomy: A Case Study of Ma-cau.” Tourism Management, no. 75, 2019, pp. 257-268.7. De Matos, Patrícia Ferraz. “Colonial Representations of Macao and the Macanese: Circulation, Knowledge, Identities and Chal-lenges for the Future.” Portuguese Journal of Social Science, vol. 19, no. 1, 2020, pp. 61-82.8. Lai, Ivan Ka Wai. “An Examination of Satisfaction on Word of Mouth Regarding Portuguese Foods in Macau: Applying the Concept of Integrated Satisfaction.” Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, no. 43, 2020, pp. 100-110.9. Jackson, Annabel. The Making of Macau’s Fusion Cuisine: From Family Table to World Stage. Hong Kong University Press, 2020.10. Si, Lei Weng, and Ubaldino Sequeira Couto. “Food, Culture, and Food Tourism.” Food and Society, Elsevier, 2020, pp. 323-339.11. Yu, Chung-En, and Xinyu Zhang. “The Embedded Feelings in Local Gastronomy: A Sentiment Analysis of Online Reviews.” Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, vol. 11, no. 3, 2020, pp. 461-478. 12. Xie, Philip Feifan. “Tourism Promotion Through the UNESCO Creative City of Gastronomy.” Journal of Gastronomy and Tour-ism, vol. 5, no. 4, 2021, pp. 195-206.16澳門非物質文化遺產發展的系統回顧:歷史視角、當前研究及未來方向
96澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期12土生葡人美食烹飪技藝13. Hsu, Fu Chieh, Elizabeth Agyeiwaah, and Noel Scott. “Under-standing Tourists’ Perceived Food Consumption Values: Do Different Cultures Share Similar Food Values?” International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, no. 28, 2022, pp. 1-10.14. Hsu, Fu Chieh, Su Zhang, Yang Zhang, and Timothy J. Lee. “Decision-Making Behavior in the Sustainable Development of Intangible Cultural Heritage Tourism.” International Journal of Tourism Research, vol. 24, no. 6, 2022, pp. 800-812.15. Wan, Yim King Penny, and Suh-hee Choi. “Food Tourists and Food Image in a Creative City of Gastronomy in Macao, China.” Journal of China Tourism Research, vol. 18, no. 2, 2022, pp. 376-396.16. Ren, Lianping, Henrique Fátima Boyol Ngan, Fiona X. Yang, Ka Kui Yan, and Rob Law. “An Anatomy of the Dilution of a Local Cuisine in a Post-Colonial Destination - Evidence from Macao.” Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, vol. 22, no. 3, 2023, pp. 44-60. 13 土地信俗 *1. Zhu, Tianshu. “Earth God Worship in Macao.” Macao - The For-mation of a Global City, edited by C. X. George Wei, Routledge, 2013, pp. 33-50.2. Couto, Ubaldino Sequeira, Chao Wang, and Anna Litwin. “Ex-ploring Hallmark Events through Benchmarking: The Case of Macau.” ATLAS Annual Conference 2016, 2016, pp. 27-40.2總計(包括重複項目) 48* 尚未列入澳門非物質文化遺產名錄;僅列入澳門非物質文化遺產清單。
120澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期① World Values Survey Association. World Values Survey Wave 7 (2017-2022), www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocu-mentationWV7.jsp. Accessed 2 Jan 2025.② Jackson, Jonathan, and Ben Bradford. “What is Trust and Confidence in the Police?” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, vol. 4, no. 3, 2010, pp. 241-248.③ Sunshine, Jason, and Tom R. Tyler. “The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing.” Law & Society Review, vol. 37, no. 3, 2003, pp. 513-548; Tyler, Tom R. “Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and the Effective Rule of Law.” Crime and Justice, vol. 30, 2003, pp. 283-357; Reisig, Michael D, Jason Bratton, and Marc G. Gertz. “The Construct Validity and Refinement of Process-Based Policing Measures.” Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 34, no. 8, 2007, pp. 1005-1028.二、數據分析上述的討論已為回歸後香港和澳門社會的現況提供了一定程度的背景知識,然而為了回答本研究具體的研究問題:在香港和澳門,誰人信任警察?考慮到需選擇與研究問題具有相關性的題項、數據信效度良好,且分別對香港和澳門均有進行調查的國際數據庫,本研究將基於世界價值觀第七波的調查數據(版本號為 WVS_Cross-National_Wave_7_stata_v4_0),①透過 2018 年收集的香港數據、2019 年收集的澳門數據這兩個截面數據,對香港和澳門的警察信任情況進行描述性統計分析,以及針對其特定的人口統計學特徵進行梳理,具體分析結果分為現狀概括、人口統計學比較和極值下的人口統計學特徵等多個部分。(一)現狀概括基於現有研究對警察信任的討論,學術界的主流觀點認為信任和信心可看成一個整體,認為公眾對警察的信任有三個方面:相信警察制度及警察個人是公平的、有效的,並展現出與社區相同的價值觀、利益和承諾。②此外,在目前討論警察公信力(Police Legitimacy)的文獻中,在測量時也是以警察信任作為測量變量。③說明目前無論在日常語言使用或是學術研究中,事實上大多研究均將兩者看作同一事物(Trust and Confidence),公眾在回答時,自己也未能有清晰的答案,大多把兩者看作同一事物。綜上所述,本研究選擇把信心與信任理解為同一概念,並在警察信任的變量操作化上,以世界價值觀第七波調查問卷中針對公眾對警察機構信心水平的問題來測量警察信任,即問卷題號為 Q69 的“我將列舉一些團體組織,就每個組織請告訴我你對它們有多大信心,是十分有信心、頗有信心、不大有信心,還是完全沒有信心?”(香港與澳門的問卷題號均為 Q69),同時把警察信任的數據進行重新編碼,將最大值(十分有信心)賦值為 4 分,第二大值(頗有信心)賦值為 3 分,第二小值(不大有信心)賦值為 2 分,最小值(完全沒有信心)賦值為 1 分,具體結果如下表所示(表 1)。表 1 香港和澳門的警察信任現狀地區 變量名稱 觀測值 均值 標準差 最小值 最大值香港 (n=2,075) 警察信心 (Q69)2,065 2.704 0.758 1 4澳門 (n=1,023)1,016 2.854 0.709 1 4註:均值、標準差均取小數點後三位,四捨五入。
130澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期在個體方面,澳門居民投身莊荷是以金錢及薪酬滿意為主要原因,①因為學歷低及缺乏其他技能,造成雖然他們不喜歡莊荷的工作但不會離開它的狀況。②同時,他們在人際交往能力上表現較薄弱,影響到莊荷的工作滿意度。③在工作方面,面對憤怒的客戶時,莊荷需要情緒抑制、容易工作緊張,引至工作投入度低、負面工作滿意度。④輪班工作、較長的任職時間,容易令莊荷產生職業倦怠,導致離職意向的增加,對工作滿意度產生負面影響。⑤賭場工作環境對引發莊荷酗酒、賭博上癮、吸煙等職業健康問題有影響。⑥但是,前線的莊荷承受這些來自客戶、長時間緊張工作、工作環境及公司管理制度等不同的壓力很大程度上沒有被組織所解決。⑦在博企的管理中,男性莊荷認為自己遭遇分配和程序上的不公正比女性多。⑧莊荷感覺在工作不太受上司的賞識、晉升機會不樂觀,即使工作積極但感覺職業成功率較低,⑨對自己未來前景感負面時,容易對工作滿意度產生不滿和出現倦怠情況。⑩二、莊荷職業生涯及其影響因素的相關研究(一)莊荷職業生涯職業生涯為一個人終身經歷的所有職位的整個過程,是指一個人一生從事工作經歷的總稱,特別包括其職位變遷、職務變化以及個人通過工作實現理想和願望的發展歷程。⑪職業生涯的定議雖有不同,但主體都圍繞着職業/崗位有關的活動或經歷這兩部分。① Tang, Catherine So Kum, Anise M. S. Wu, and Joe Y. C. Tang. “Gender Differences in Characteristics of Chinese Treatment-seeking Problem Gamblers.” Journal of Gambling Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 2007, pp. 145-156.② Kuok, Angus C. H. “Are Work Engaged Employees Perceive Career Success? A Study of Hospitality at Macau.” Jour-nal of Hospitality, vol. 2, no. 1-2, 2020, pp. 30-48.③ Gu, Zheng, and Ricardo Chi Sen Siu. “Drivers of Job Satisfaction as Related to Work Performance in Macao Casino Hotels: An Investigation Based on Employee Survey.” International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, vol. 21, no. 5, 2009, pp. 561-578.④ Rogers, Jerry D., Kenneth E. Clow, and Toby J. Kash. “Increasing Job Satisfaction of Service Personnel.” Journal of Services Marketing, vol. 8, issue 1, 1994, pp. 14-26; Taormina, Robert J., and Angus Chin Him Kuok. “Factors Related to Casino Dealer Burnout and Turnover Intention in Macau: Implications for Casino Management.” International Gam-bling Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2009, pp. 275-294.⑤ Chan, Simon Tak Mau, Clara L. Y. Kwok, and Johnny Y. N. Siu. “The Macau Family-in-transition: The Perceived Im-pact of Casino Employment on Family Relationships among Dealer Families.” The Open Family Studies Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, 2015, pp. 86-95.⑥ Hu, Sydney Xiao, Andrew Ieung Luk, Carmen Leong, Cecillia U, and Florence Van. “The Correlations of Work Con-ditions with Unhealthy Lifestyles and Occupational Health Problems of Casino Croupiers in Macau.” Journal of Gam-bling Studies, vol. 29, no. 2, 2013, pp. 255-268.⑦ Tiyce, Margaret, Nerilee Hing, Grant Cairncross, and Helen Breen. “Employee Stress and Stressors in Gambling and Hospitality Workplaces.” Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, vol. 12, issue 2, 2013, pp. 126-154.⑧ Wan, Penny Yim King, and Chan Joanne Sow Hup. “Perceptions of Casino Dealers toward Organizational Justice: Are There Any Gender Differences?” Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, vol. 17, issue 3, 2018, pp. 271-295.⑨ Kuok, Angus C. H. “Are Work Engaged Employees Perceive Career Success? A Study of Hospitality at Macau.” Jour-nal of Hospitality, vol. 2, no. 1-2, 2020, pp. 30-48.⑩ Taormina, Robert J., and Angus Chin Him Kuok. “Factors Related to Casino Dealer Burnout and Turnover Intention in Macau: Implications for Casino Management.” International Gambling Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2009, pp. 275-294.⑪ Arthur, Michael B., and Denise M. Rousseau. “A Career Lexicon for the 21st Century.” Academy of Management Per-spectives, vol. 10, no. 4, 1996, pp. 28-39.
131澳門莊荷職業生涯的影響因素研究莊荷的職業經歷方面,澳門莊荷的職業晉升階梯由低至高為:莊荷、監場主任、區域經理、值班經理、娛樂場經理和娛樂場營運總經理。外資博企進入澳門的同時亦帶來西方管理制度,博企開始為正式上崗後的莊荷定期提供培訓,培訓資格視乎員工個人的表現決定,表現優異突出者會被優先選取,進行其他培訓。此外,博企對來自高校修習博彩管理專業、畢業後選擇進入博彩業發展並從莊荷做起的大學生相當重視。該部分員工的職業發展較前輩及同輩莊荷更為成功。他們同樣須由莊荷做起,但依循一條既定的、晉升相當快的路線發展,大約兩三年的時間,就可以升到中階經理:任職六至九個月莊荷可升監場主任,再任職六至九個月便可升區域副經理,再繼續工作一段時間就可升到值班經理。但經過近二十年的發展,娛樂場內管理架構已固定,職位亦趨飽和,且不再有大規模的新娛樂場建成並營運,因此現時莊荷的垂直發展空間大不如十年前,一份針對博彩從業員生活狀況的研究發現莊荷對自己職涯的發展信心較為負面。①莊荷的職業活動方面,Morris 和 Feldman 指出,在員工與客戶的互動中,一個人的真實感受與組織認可的情緒之間經常存在衝突,如果需要控制個人的真實感受,工作就會變得更加苛刻。這種情況迫使員工進行“情緒勞動”,即努力調節或抑制自己真實情緒的表達。他們還發現,壓抑真實情緒與較低的工作滿意度顯著相關。②莊荷經常與客戶密切接觸,由於娛樂場中的博彩遊戲獲勝的機率總是對賭場有利而對玩家不利,③因此經常遇到因輸錢而發怒的客戶,此時莊荷必須壓抑自己的情緒,④並需要“永遠不要展示任何可能被解釋為消極或不友好的肢體語言”,⑤因此處在壓力條件下工作,容易倦怠。澳門莊荷薪酬相對較高,但莊荷對整體工作滿意度較低。⑥研究發現,工作緊張(例如與憤怒的客戶互動)與工作滿意度低有關;⑦情緒抑制(賭場莊荷被要求的行為)是工作滿意度的強烈負面預測因素,是倦怠的積極預測因素,且與工作投入呈負相關和預測。⑧澳門賭場員工中度疲憊;性別、年齡、婚姻狀況、職業長度、輪班工作和工作職位與職業倦怠有關,倦怠增加離職意向並對工作滿意度產生負面影響。⑨①澳門博彩研究學會研究小組:〈澳門博彩從業員生活狀況研究〉,《澳門博彩》(澳門),總第 9 期,2012 年,頁 47 - 74。② Morris, J. Andrew, and Daniel C. Feldman. “Managing Emotions in the Workplace.” Journal of Managerial Issues, vol. 9, no. 3, 1997, pp. 257-274.③ Gu, Zheng. “Which way to go? Analysis of Gaming Revenue Enhancement Approaches for Macau.” Journal of Reve-nue and Pricing Management, vol. 6, 2007, pp. 33-39.④ Taormina, Robert J., and Angus Chin Him Kuok. “Factors Related to Casino Dealer Burnout and Turnover Intention in Macau: Implications for Casino Management.” International Gambling Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2009, pp. 275-294.⑤ Sallaz, Jeffrey J. “The House Rules: Autonomy and Interests among Service Workers in the Contemporary Casino In-dustry.” Work and Occupations, vol. 29, no. 4, 2002, pp. 394-427.⑥ Zeng, Zhonglu, David Forrest, and I. G. McHale. “Happiness and Job Satisfaction in a Casino-dominated Economy.” Journal of Gambling Studies, vol. 29, no. 3, 2013, pp. 471-490.⑦ Rogers, Jerry D., Kenneth E. Clow, and Toby J. Kash. “Increasing Job Satisfaction of Service Personnel.” Journal of Services Marketing, vol. 8, issue 1, 1994, pp. 14-26.⑧ Taormina, Robert J., and Angus Chin Him Kuok. “Factors Related to Casino Dealer Burnout and Turnover Intention in Macau: Implications for Casino Management.” International Gambling Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2009, pp. 275-294.⑨ Chan, Simon Tak Mau, Clara L. Y. Kwok, and Johnny Y. N. Siu. “The Macau Family-in-transition: The Perceived Im-pact of Casino Employment on Family Relationships among Dealer Families.” The Open Family Studies Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, 2015, pp. 86-95.
132澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期莊荷的工作必須按章按流程、缺乏自由,工作性質涉及密集的前線工作。Frey 和Carns 觀察到,莊荷的工作安全性低,晉升前景渺茫,並且已經“常規化”(莊荷可以互換),因此賭場幾乎不關心莊荷的需求。① Wan 等對澳門旅遊及酒店業的學生調查表明,工作性質與職業前景沒有顯著關係;然而,工作性質是影響該行業社會地位的重要因素。此外,社會地位對學生對職業前景的看法有影響,而對職業前景的看法是學生對行業承諾的重要決定因素。②Frey 和 Carns 指出,由於賭場管理層必須擔心玩家聯合莊荷的作弊,莊荷與他們的主管之間存在相互不信任的關係,且莊荷缺乏晉升的機會,因此從主管和晉升中學到的新東西很少。③《澳門博彩從業員生活狀況研究 2011》報告顯示,澳門博彩從業員感覺上司及工作方面有壓力;雖然受訪者和上司的關係良好,而且投入工作,但工作不怎麼受到上司賞識;晉升機會不樂觀。④ Kuok 研究發現澳門莊荷雖然工作積極,但主觀上職業成功率較低、莊荷不喜歡他們的工作但不會離開它,金錢價值、薪酬滿意度是莊荷持續承諾的正相關因素;組織支持是情感承諾的最強預測因數,而莊荷對金錢的重視是持續承諾的最強預測因數。⑤女性高比例的博彩業中,性別差異在各自職業生涯中有不同看法,Wan 特別研究了性別差異在莊荷是否存在、差別待遇的性質和程度以及感知差異對莊荷工作態度的影響等問題。研究結果表明,女性莊荷在工作中比男性同行更具優勢。⑥對於組織的認同,組織社會化過程對組織的理解至關重要,通過培訓轉化為更好的工作技能,改善員工在組織中辦事的方式以達到更好的績效。⑦當同事的支持度很高時,與同事的合作會產生更有效的績效;當心懷不滿的莊荷離開賭場時,提供良好組織社會化的賭場經理可以提高莊荷的工作滿意度,減少莊荷的倦怠以及包括賭場經理和博企培訓新員工的成本。⑧此外利益相關者認為,整個博彩業對商業和就業機會以及社區發展的貢獻最大,但對① Frey, James H., and Donald E. Carns. “The Work Environment of Gambling Casinos”. Anthropology of Work Review, vol. 8, no. 4, 1987, pp. 38-42.② Wan, Penny Yim King, Anthony Ipkin Wong, and Hong Kong Weng. “Student Career Prospect and Industry Commit-ment: The Roles of Industry Attitude, Perceived Social Status, and Salary Expectations.” Tourism Management, vol. 40, 2014, pp. 1-14.③ Frey, James H., and Donald E. Carns. “The Work Environment of Gambling Casinos”. Anthropology of Work Review, vol. 8, no. 4, 1987, pp. 38-42.④澳門博彩研究學會研究小組:〈澳門博彩從業員生活狀況研究〉,《澳門博彩》(澳門),總第 9 期,2012 年,頁 47 - 74。⑤ Kuok, Angus C. H. “Are Work Engaged Employees Perceive Career Success? A Study of Hospitality at Macau.” Jour-nal of Hospitality, vol. 2, no. 1-2, 2020, pp. 30-48; Taormina, Robert J., and Angus Chin Him Kuok. “Factors Related to Casino Dealer Burnout and Turnover Intention in Macau: Implications for Casino Management.” International Gam-bling Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2009, pp. 275-294.⑥ Wan, Penny Yim King. “Minding the Gap in the Gaming Industry: Perceptions of Gender Disparity at Work among Female Casino Dealers.” International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, vol. 26, issue 1, 2014, pp. 130-153.⑦ Taormina, Robert J. “Organizational Socialization: A Multidomain, Continuous Process Model.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment, vol. 5, no. 1, 1997, pp. 29-47.⑧ Taormina, Robert J., and Angus Chin Him Kuok. “Factors Related to Casino Dealer Burnout and Turnover Intention in Macau: Implications for Casino Management.” International Gambling Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2009, pp. 275-294.
133澳門莊荷職業生涯的影響因素研究環境保護和負責任賭博的貢獻最小,這些企業社會舉措的更好表現會帶來更好的財務表現和更有利的就業選擇。① Chan 等就賭場就業對其家庭關係的影響研究結果表明,儘管家庭財務狀況出現了不可否認的積極變化,但這並沒有改善家庭紐帶,也沒有導致家庭關係朝着更加和諧和功能性的方向發生大規模轉變。然而,儘管在賭場工作對其配偶、父母和整體家庭關係的感知影響方面存在不同的觀點,但研究參與者普遍同意,賭場工作導致的疲勞和排程不協調給他們的父母角色帶來了重大挑戰。②(二)莊荷職業生涯影響因素職業生涯過程中,個人的年齡、性別、人格特質、興趣、受教育程度以及個人價值觀都起到不同程度影響。莊荷在澳門是一份低門檻而高薪的職業,十分吸引青少年,但部分澳門青少年視博彩行業只是賺錢的途徑;大部分已入職博彩業的青少年並不以博彩業為長遠發展的目標。③賭權開放早期的一份研究顯示高中以下學歷的澳門學生有超 30% 願意到賭場工作,具大專及學士學歷的學生,更有超過 40% 願意在賭場工作。④ Wan 和 Kong的研究發現,澳門博彩管理專業大學生總體對博彩行業及其職業前景持中立態度,大多數學生表示打算在畢業時進入該行業。在各年級學生中,三年級學生對博彩行業的負面傾向更多。⑤ Tang 等的研究顯示,澳門居民投身莊荷主要是由於金錢因素,且對於 45 - 54 歲和55 - 64 歲年齡段、受教育程度(高中或以下)的女性往往更有可能在博彩行業工作,⑥而莊荷在工作中女性比男性同行更具優勢。⑦在人格特質方面,擁有更穩定情緒的莊荷能夠在壓力較大的情況下保持冷靜,並在工作中表現良好,從而提高整體工作滿意度。⑧在組織因素中,組織文化、組織制度以及組織社會化對職員的職業生涯起到重要影響。組織的有效運作、訓練有素和整合良好的勞動力至關重要。培訓不足可能會削弱莊荷在工作中的表現,博企通過適當的培訓,可以提高莊荷的工作技能,幫助他們更有效地工作,從而在工作中取得更大的成功,並產生更滿意的員工。⑨ Kuok 和 Taormina 的研究表明,組織社會化、組織支持、上司誠信與莊荷的情感承諾呈正相關,其中組織支援是情感承諾的① Vong, Fanny, and Anthony Ipkin Wong. “Corporate and Social Performance Links in the Gaming Industry.” Journal of Business Research, vol. 66, issue 9, 2013, pp. 1674-1681.② Chan, Simon Tak Mau, Clara L. Y. Kwok, and Johnny Y. N. Siu. “The Macau Family-in-transition: The Perceived Im-pact of Casino Employment on Family Relationships among Dealer Families.” The Open Family Studies Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, 2015, pp. 86-95.③黃雁鴻、阮建中、崔恩明:〈博彩業迅速發展後的澳門青少年價值觀探析〉,《澳門理工學報》(澳門),第1期,2007 年,頁 10 - 23。④呂開顏、劉丁己:〈澳門青少年對博彩業衝擊的認知調查〉,《和諧社會建設與青少年發展研究報告》,天津:天津社會科學院出版社,2007,頁 271 - 279。⑤ Wan, Penny Yim King, and Frances Kong Weng Hang. “Career Perceptions of Undergraduate Gaming Management Students.” Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, vol. 11, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.⑥ Tang, Catherine So Kum, Anise M. S. Wu, and Joe Y. C. Tang. “Gender Differences in Characteristics of Chinese Treatment-seeking Problem Gamblers.” Journal of Gambling Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 2007, pp. 145-156.⑦ Wan, Penny Yim King. “Minding the Gap in the Gaming Industry: Perceptions of Gender Disparity at Work among Female Casino Dealers.” International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, vol. 26, issue 1, 2014, pp. 130-153.⑧ Taormina, Robert J., and Angus Chin Him Kuok. “Factors Related to Casino Dealer Burnout and Turnover Intention in Macau: Implications for Casino Management.” International Gambling Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2009, pp. 275-294.⑨ Taormina, Robert J. “Organizational Socialization: A Multidomain, Continuous Process Model.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment, vol. 5, no. 1, 1997, pp. 29-47.
134澳 門 研 究 2024 年第 4 期最強預測因數。① Li 和 Kim 研究顯示,管理層承諾對前線莊荷的工作能力有積極而顯著的影響;主管支援和群體信任對管理承諾與莊荷工作能力之間的關係具有調節作用。② Kuok的研究發現組織社會化(培訓、理解、同事支持、未來前景)、職業道德、分配公平與主觀職業成功和工作投入呈正相關和預測。③Taormina 和 Kuok 調查了澳門的 172 名賭場莊荷,發現情緒抑制(賭場莊荷要求的行為)是工作滿意度的強烈負面預測因素,培訓、分配公平和成就需要則是積極的預測因素。情緒壓抑和神經質是倦怠的積極預測因素,未來前景和工作滿意度是倦怠的負面預測因素,工作滿意度與職業倦怠的兩個方面都呈負相關,並且是它們的負預測因數。薪酬滿意度也與這兩個組成部分呈顯著負相關。此外,未來前景和理解組織社會化的維度對離職意向有負面預測。④職業生涯的發展還受宏觀社會政治經濟、文化環境、行業環境、價值觀和家庭等的外部環境影響。21 世紀初,澳門是亞太地區唯一合法賭博地區,造就了澳門博彩業的獨特經營優勢。經過二十年,周邊國家或地區如新加坡、韓國、菲律賓等已合法設賭,但澳門現在仍是中國唯一合法賭博的地區,澳門博彩業面對周邊國家或地區日益激烈的競爭,特別是 2020 年開始至今,新冠肺炎疫情衝擊為澳門博彩旅遊業帶來前所未有的挑戰。直至2021 年第二季,六大博企僅“銀娛”轉虧為盈。⑤現時,中國中央政府及澳門特區政府正大力推動澳門經濟多元發展,以改變高度依賴博彩業的現狀。2022 年,透過新的賭牌重新投標的機會,特區政府力求推動社會產業多元化,澳門博彩業將向新方向發掘潛力。博彩業是澳門經濟的支柱產業,為澳門特區政府的主要稅收來源,澳門四分之三以上人口從事博彩業或與其相關的營生。⑥澳門博彩業經過近二十年的迅猛發展,澳門“賭城”的形象得到進一步強化,澳門社會對“賭博”的的看法由原來的“偏門”漸變為“娛樂”,⑦加之社會人士、立法會議員等對博彩業的支持,都增強了青少年在心態上對博彩業的認同感。⑧ Wan 和 Kong 的研究顯示,教職員工和教師以及與博彩相關的工作經驗,對澳門博彩① Kuok, Angus C. H., and Robert J. Taormina. “Conflict between Affective Versus Continuance Commitment among Casino Dealers.” Evidence-based HRM: A Global Forum for Empirical Scholarship, vol. 3, no. 1, 2015, pp. 46-63.② Li, J., and Jong-Hyeong Kim. “A Cross-level Analysis of Management Commitment and Work Ability among Senior Casino Dealers in Macau.” International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, vol. 31, no. 5, 2019, pp. 2095-2113.③ Kuok, Angus C. H. “Are Work Engaged Employees Perceive Career Success? A Study of Hospitality at Macau.” Jour-nal of Hospitality, vol. 2, no. 1-2, 2020, pp. 30-48.④ Taormina, Robert J., and Angus Chin Him Kuok. “Factors Related to Casino Dealer Burnout and Turnover Intention in Macau: Implications for Casino Management.” International Gambling Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2009, pp. 275-294.⑤ “Recent Study Reveals More Than a Third of Global Consumers are Willing to Pay More for Sustainability as De-mand Grows for Environmentally-friendly Alternatives.” Business Wire, 14 Oct 2021, https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20211014005090/en/Recent-Study-Reveals-More-Than-a-Third-of-Global-Consumers-Are-Willing-to-Pay-More-for-Sustainability-as-Demand-Grows-for-Environmentally-Friendly-Alternatives.⑥陳章喜:〈澳門博彩業發展:現狀、問題與對策 —— 基於世界旅遊休閒中心特徵的分析〉,《新華澳報》(澳門),2017 年 2 月 9 日。⑦婁勝華:〈1931 - 1945 年澳門救亡賑難社團的興盛與轉折〉,《民國檔案》(南京),第 1 期,2007 年,頁 68 - 74。⑧黃雁鴻、阮建中、崔恩明:〈博彩業迅速發展後的澳門青少年價值觀探析〉,《澳門理工學報》(澳門),第1期,2007 年,頁 10 - 23。
135管理專業大學生的職業決定有最大的積極影響。①三、研究設計為探求澳門莊荷職業生涯的影響因素,本文採用問卷訪談的方法。為取得較為全面的資料,研究對象包括博彩從業人員以及非博彩從業人員兩大部分。博彩從業人員包括莊荷(包括現職莊荷、莊荷主管和已轉業莊荷)、博企人力資源主管;非博彩從業人員包括工會的人力資源管理專業人士、教育界研究博彩業的學者和高校在讀博彩專業的學生。16 位接受訪談邀請的受訪者於 2021 年 12 月至 2022 年 2 月完成訪談。研究者對受訪者進行一對一單獨訪問。訪談地點應受訪者建議分別安排在餐廳、公園、學院課室、圖書館或受訪者工作場所中的訪客室等不受外界影響的在獨立空間進行。研究者以訪談大綱引導受訪者分享經驗、表達情緒及想法。訪談期間使用錄音筆收錄採訪內容作為後續研究分析的原始資料。16 位受訪者之訪談時間總計逾 12 小時,平均每人訪談時間約 45 分鐘。訪談轉錄文本共計約 184,499 字,平均每人的訪談錄音轉錄文本約 11,531 字,相關訪談大綱及受訪者描述性資料如下(表 3、4)。表 3 訪談大綱訪談對象 訪談大綱莊荷任職經驗背景的問題大綱:請您談一下當時您為甚麼選擇進入莊荷?您怎麼看莊荷這份工作?在您莊荷的工作中,有甚麼情況或事情會影響到您的工作表現、加薪或晉升機會?以您莊荷多年的工作經歷,您現在怎麼看待莊荷的將來?博企人力資源主管組織層面的問題訪談大綱:貴公司招聘莊荷時主要考慮哪些方面?貴公司在莊荷和用人、育人、留人方面採取了哪些方法或措施?貴公司對莊荷將來的發展是怎樣考慮的?同業的競爭、外部環境多變等情況對貴司莊荷的人力資源政策有甚麼影響?工會的人力資源管理專業人士社會人力資源及勞方代表的工會的訪談大綱:請您談談莊荷這職業的現狀?莊荷這一職業現時發生了甚麼變化?您認為是甚麼原因造成了這些變化?以您多年的經驗來看,發生甚麼情況或事情會影響莊荷職業決策和莊荷職業發展機會?您對將來莊荷的職業發展機會有甚麼看法?為甚麼?教育界研究博彩業的學者博彩業專業研究者的訪談大綱:從您的專業角度來看,現在莊荷的職業發展是怎樣?為甚麼會出現這些狀況?您對修讀博彩專業的學生日後在莊荷的職業生涯發展有甚麼看法?從莊荷的職業教育、培育、發展的角度來看,您認為現在的支持能否幫助莊荷勝任行業將來發展的要求,甚至更具競爭力?在讀博彩專業的學生莊荷職業選擇的訪談大綱:您為甚麼選擇就讀博彩專業課程?您畢業後會進入博彩業任職莊荷嗎?為甚麼?您對莊荷該職業有甚麼想法或計劃?為甚麼這樣想或計劃?澳門莊荷職業生涯的影響因素研究① Wan, Penny Yim King, and Frances Kong Weng Hang. “Career Perceptions of Undergraduate Gaming Management Students.” Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, vol. 11, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.
178ABSTRACTSNo. 4JOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESDec 2024QuarterlyLocality and Autonomy: On the Policy Basis for the Future Development of Education in MacaoGUO Xiaoming · 7 ·Abstract: In the 25 years since Macao’s return to China, education in Macao has achieved good development. The most important experience is to independently adopt effective policy measures based on the unique history and environment of local education in Macao. Macao’s future education policy must adhere to localism and autonomy, which is not only the requirement of “One country, Two systems”, but also the characteristics of Macao’s education and the principles of education modernization. Therefore, in the future, in terms of education policy, we must prevent government omnipotence, explore Macao’s unique education funding guarantee mechanism, implement inclusive education that fosters love for China and Macao, pursue a path of quality over quantity in the field of higher education, and actively explore Hengqin’s education development strategy.Keywords: Macao, education policy, policy basis, locality, autonomyThe Construction of Electronic Government in the Macao Special Administrative Region: Institutional Framework and Practical EffectivenessLOU Shenghua, ZHAO You · 25 ·Abstract: Electronic government refers to the government’s use of information technology to optimize public service processes and its own organizational structure, ultimately achieving the goal of improving work efficiency and providing high-quality services. The construction of electronic government in Macao started early, in 1997, it began to improve the efficiency of internal government communication by building a government intranet. After entering the 21st century, Macao’s electronic government has progressed steadily. At the legal level, a series of laws and regulations have been passed, including the Telecommunications Framework Law, the Personal Data Protection Law, the Law to combat computer crime, and the Electronic Government Law. In terms of organizational structure, a management model has been formed with the Public Administration and Civil Service Bureau as the core and the Macao Post and Telecommunications Bureau and other departments cooperating. In terms of practical effectiveness, the introduction of cloud computing and big data technology has helped promote the development of electronic government in Macao, advancing the level of government governance, the development of the data economy, and the optimization of public services. In the future, the Macao Special Administrative Region government should actively explore the construction of a “one-stop” government website, the establishment of an electronic government performance evaluation system, and the continuous optimization of the “Macao One Account” service function.Keywords: electronic government, institution, practice, Macao
ABSTRACTS179Impacts of Institutions and Institutional Changes on Development of Casino Tourism in Macao: A Review and OutlookRicardo Chi Sen SIU · 45 ·Abstract: The factors that drive and limit the development of casino tourism in Macao from 2000 to 2024 are examined in this article with reference to an analytical framework and arguments on institutions and institutional changes in institutional economics. Specifically, the impacts from the tug of war between the efficiency-enhancing attempts of the Macao Special Administrative Region (Macao SAR) government and integrated resort operators, and the ceremonially warranted behavior of existing beneficial groups on the business routines and path of the development of the industry before 2020 are explicated. In addition, self-undermining instead of self-enforcing forces generated from the practices of the unique third-party-operated VIP room business model throughout the expansion process of casino tourism in Macao are analyzed. It is recognized that despite the enviable growth in monetary return, various adverse and crowding out effects were also generated from the expansion of casino tourism to the economy and society. To ensure the sustained growth and development of this industry, radical actions taken by the Macao SAR government in 2021/2022 and onwards clearly reinstitute the organization and business routines in the market, hence enhancing the instrumental efficiency of the industry. While these latest changes have unarguably launched a new era for the development of casino tourism in Macao, it is argued that effective and proactive roles taken by the government to enforce the new rules are indeed necessary to ultimately ensure progressive changes for this industry.Keywords: casino tourism, Macao, ceremonial values, institutional changes, instrumental values, instrumental efficiencyMacao’s Economy after the Handover: Economic Growth, Labour Market Development and Economic DiversificationCHAN Chi Shing, KWAN Fung · 65 ·Abstract: This article explores Macao’s economic growth, labour market and economic diversification after the handover. As a small open economy, Macao’s growth is deeply affected by external factors. The ups and downs of Macao’s economy over the past 25 years have been astonishing and the changes have been rapid. To reduce the uncertainty caused by economic fluctuations, economic diversification and reducing reliance on specific industries is one of Macao’s development directions. However, labour problems limit the rapid development of emerging industries, causing them to account for only a small part of Macao’s economy. Macao’s diversification path seems to be based on the leading industry (gaming) driving the development of other industries by sharing resources and cost sharing. This horizontal diversification choice driven by the synergy of the gaming industry seems to be the Macao’s growth experience in the past 25 years. The biggest challenge facing Macao at present is how to introduce a certain degree of diversification of industries from the growth pattern, so as to make the path of economic growth more stable. Macao should learn from the logic and operational experience of other small open economies in selecting industries, formulate appropriate industrial policies to encourage and support the development of new leading industries, and gradually provide for the survival and development of other industries while gaming continues to drive economic development through regional cooperation. This will ensure that Macao’s development achieves a mid- to long-term balance in growth and stability.Keywords: Macao’s handover, economic growth, labour market, economic diversification, Macao’s gaming industry, leading industry
澳 門 研 究1802024年第 4期A Systematic Review of Intangible Cultural Heritage Development in Macao: Historical Perspectives, Current Research, and Future DirectionsLIU Junmin · 81 ·Abstract: This article systematically reviews the current state of research on intangible cultural heritage (ICH) in Macao. It begins with an overview of the historical evolution of ICH concepts and practices globally and within China. An examination of Macao’s cultural landscape and the government’s efforts to preserve various ICH expressions through legislation, lists, and initiatives is then provided. An extensive survey of existing academic literature on Macao’s ICH reveals the research themes, methodologies, and distributions across different heritage items. Key challenges such as limited international scope and research gaps are identified. The article proposes future research directions like expanding collaboration, prioritizing fieldwork with practitioners, emphasizing relationships and power dynamics, and adopting participatory methods. The systematic analysis aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of Macao’s ICH development and identify pathways for future research to ensure the sustainable safeguarding of its rich cultural traditions.Keywords: Macao, China, intangible cultural heritage, heritage management, literature reviewThe SAR Government’s Support Policies for Families with Children with Special Educational Needs in Macao: An Empirical Analysis Based on the Impact of Family Background on Parenting PatternsTONG Chi Man · 97 ·Abstract: Providing family support to parents of children with special educational needs in Macao and improving the parenting model of the parents concerned is an important manifestation of the SAR government’s support for disadvantaged groups. However, some potential factors may affect the SAR government’s support in relevant aspects. This study aims to understand the impact of family background factors on parenting patterns of children with special educational needs. The study used a questionnaire survey to collect 950 samples of parents of children with special education needs in Macao, and conducted statistics through “independent samples t-test” and “one-way anova”. The results showed that the parents’ birthplace, parents’ age, the relationship between parent and children, parents’ education level, the age gap between parent and spouse, the relationship between parent and spouse, family monthly income, family economic feelings, and the number of children in the family are factors that affect parenting patterns. Finally, recommendations are given based on the results to serve as a reference for the Macao SAR government in formulating relevant family support policies.Keywords: Macao, children with special educational needs, family support, parenting model, family background
ABSTRACTS181Who Trusts the Police? An Analysis of Police Trust in China’s Hong Kong and Macao SARsWONG Wai Kei · 117 ·Abstract: In recent years, the changes and conflicts in Hong Kong’s police-community relations have become a case of international concern. On the other hand, in the neighboring city of Macao, although the problems of public order in Macao were very serious before the post-transition period, the legitimacy of the police was relatively low. After a series of police reforms, the recognition of the police by the Macao people has increased rather than decreased. From a practical perspective, this research aims to examine the research question “Who doesn’t trust the police in Hong Kong and Macao?”, using the data of World Value Survey Wave 7 (2017-2022) through descriptive statistical analyses, and trying to explain the differences between two SARs. Findings identified that “police trust in Hong Kong and Macao is at a relatively high level”, and “the lower-class elderly with low-level education” and “the middle class/ upper-middle class young people with high-level education” are two main groups of people who have extreme police trust in Hong Kong and Macao. The possibility of future research was also discussed.Keywords: Hong Kong police force, Hong Kong police, Macao public security police force, Macao police, police trustFactors Influencing the Career Development of Table Game Dealers in MacaoZHOU Jinquan, HUANG Ziying · 127 ·Abstract: Over the past twenty years since the opening of the gaming industry in Macao, table game dealers have been a significant part of the workforce, contributing greatly to its development; however, research on their career development remains limited. This study conducted semi-structured in-depth interviews with 16 participants, with data coded and analyzed using Nvivo 12 Plus software. Findings reveal that the primary factors influencing dealers’ career development include changes in the working environment due to the pandemic-affecting both organizations and individuals - along with work characteristics and organizational features that shape dealers’ career perceptions. Additionally, perceived unfairness within organizations and inadequate support for dealers result in negative emotional responses, intentions to leave, and adverse reactions. The paper concludes with suggestions for improvement from the perspectives of the government, gaming operators, and individuals.Keywords: table game dealers, career development, gambling, human resources, casino
澳 門 研 究1822024年第 4期On the Motivation, Foundation, Challenges and Countermeasures of the Emergency Legal System Construction in the Macao Special Administrative RegionYOU Le, WANG Xiaoran ·147 ·Abstract: Macao has experienced many natural disasters, accidental disasters and public health incidents throughout its history. Following Macao’s handover, the legal emergency legal system, centered around the Civil Defense Legal System as the core and consisting of other laws, administrative regulations and policy-based administrative plans has been gradually improved. At the same time, the administrative emergency system has been established based on the emergency legal system, and each administrative organization and its authority have been clarified. However, various disasters in recent years have brought challenges to Macao’s emergency legal system. In response, the Macao SAR Government provides protection for the right to survival through administrative actions such as open licensing, administrative funding, legal authorization and administrative delegation. The disclosure and circulation of various disaster prevention and control information is in line with the essence of rule of law civilization, which is a highlight worthy of attention and reference. However, a mechanism for exemption of medical observation fees in individual cases should still be established to reflect the protection of reliance interests and the guarantee of property rights. When necessary, the local data system should be connected to the State Council’s government service platform, just like the systems of mainland Chinese provinces, to achieve “two-way mutual recognition and exemption”, to improve the effectiveness of disaster prevention and mitigation while complying with the requirements of the Basic Law and local laws. Under the unified leadership of the central government, overall emergency regional cooperation should be established with mainland Chinese provinces, with a focus on the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area. Through the improvement of disaster response mechanisms, the development level and completeness of Macao’s emergency legal system will be comprehensively improved.Keywords: emergency legal system, administrative collection and expropriation, administrative delegation, supply administration, system access, regional cooperation
ABSTRACTS183The Predicament and Solutions of Judicial Recovery of Macao Gambling-derived Debts in Mainland China: From a Perspective of Interregional Legal Conflicts Arising from the Judicial Assistance between Guangdong Province and MacaoZHAN Jie · 162 ·Abstract: With the rapid development of Macao’s gambling industry, the resulting civil disputes have increased. The repayment of debt derived from Macao’s gambling industry in the mainland of China has always been a topic of social concern and an important part of the judicial connection between Guangdong and Macao. However, the academic circles have different views on this matter, and the court has inconsistent principles in handling such debts. There is still a great dispute in terms of the application of applicable law and the application of the principle of public order retention. With the increasing frequency of exchanges between Guangdong and Macao, especially the increasingly close exchanges between residents of the Guangdong-Macao In-Depth Cooperation Zone in Hengqin, inter-district legal conflicts, especially in the field of civil and commercial affairs, will be increasingly highlighted. This paper starts from the aspects of case review, rule analysis, theory review, etc., Through the consideration of the constitutional coordinating role of inter-regional legal conflicts, the legitimate value orientation of jurisprudence, the realistic needs of the integration of the development of the two places, and the principle of moderate application of the principle of reservation of public order, this paper demonstrates that in the process of the connection between the courts in Hengqin and Macao, the application of extraterritorial law and the principle of reservation of public order should be expanded to support and recognize Macao’s gambling derivatives under certain conditions.Keywords: gambling-derived debts, interregional legal conflicts, judicial recovery