I2008. 12會議紀要“走向回歸十年的澳門”系列活動之二──“環境巨變與管治能力提升”座談會紀要 ...........................................《澳門研究》編輯部 1政法研究“一國兩制”的正確實踐與澳門特區的健康發展 ....................................................................楊允中 17淺論《澳門基本法》第 23條立法 ............................................................................................林桂桁 22內地遴選法官制度的演進特點及對澳門的啟示 ......................................................................朱 峰 26澳門第三任行政長官選舉及其社會政治發展趨向分析 ..........................................陳章喜、陳紹方 30港澳地區立法會與行政長官的制約配合關係 ..........................................................................鄞益奮 35深度描述與文化對話──澳門政治文化的闡釋學解釋 ..........................................................聶安祥 40Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement forthe Macau SAR Government .................................................................................................. TANG Tat Weng 48經濟研究鞏固華商合作平台,促進經濟多元發展 .................................................................................李炳康 71檢驗風險緩和假說︰來自澳門的研究 ......................................................................................連信森 75立足澳門特色,促進第三次分配 .............................................................................................彭 剛 79粵港澳服務業合作的現狀與發展對策 ..................................................... 郭海宏、盧 寧、楊 城 85有關澳門經濟環境與本地勞動者素質之思考 ..........................................................................潘樂陶 91澳門遺產經濟產業發展前瞻 ......................................................................................陳迺驥、瑪爾丹 97香港酒店業兼職制度探討 .........................................................................陳雪瓊、李 婧、仲建蘭 102China’s Implicit Budget Deficit ............................................................................................................... SHENG Li 107文史研究澳門中小學學生家庭教育現狀調查 ..........................................................................................駱 風 118澳門回歸教育高中課程計劃:非正規學歷課程的特點 ..........................................................阮邦球 126Recent Fertility Trend of Macau: Manifest and Latent Courses ......................................................... AU Ki Yung 131澳門與近代中國革命 ..................................................................................................................黃鴻釗 139明清時期澳門教會社區事業淺議 .............................................................................顏廣文、張海珊 146托斯卡內利的信件對哥倫布探險活動的暗示意義及其所謂“中國使節”問題 ..................余 果 154《詩經》中的數 ...........................................................................................................................孫關龍 160學術動態文章十二卷,奮筆二十年──《澳門人文社會科學研究文選》出版有感 ...........................程祥徽 168探源頭、尋精神,推動澳陝文化交流──澳門學者同盟訪陝見聞點滴 ..............梁淑雯、李 紅 171目錄
澳門研究II第49期Seminar SummarySeminar Series on “Macau, Heading to the Tenth Year after the Handover”:Tremendous Environmental Changes and Improvement on GoverningAbility.............................................................................................. Editorial Department of Journal of Macau Studies 1Politics and LawThe Correct Practice of “One Country, Two Systems” and the Healthy Development of the MacauSAR ................................................................................................................................... IEONG Wan Chong 17LegalAnalysis of Article 23 of the Basic Law of the Macau SAR ....................................................... LAM Kuai Hang 22The Characteristics of the System of Selecting Judges in Mainland China and its Inspiration to Macau ...... ZHUFeng 26A Brief Investigation on the Third Chief Executive Election and the CorrespondingSociety Politics Developments of Macau .......................................................... CHENZhangxi,CHENShaofeng 30TheRestrictiveandCooperativeRelationshipbetweentheLegislativeand theChiefExecutive in Hong Kong and Macau ................................................................................................... YIN Yifen 35Deep Depiction and Culture Intercommunion:AHermeneutics on Macau’s Political Culture .................NIE Anxiang 40Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurementfor the Macau SAR Government ............................................................................................ TANG Tat Weng 48EconomicsandSocietyConsolidate the Co-operation Service Platform for Macau and Overseas Chinese Business People andPromote Diversified Economic Development ......................................................................... LEE Peng Hong 71Testing the Risk-mitigation Hypothesis: Evidence from Macau ............................................................. LIN Son Sam 75Based upon the Macau’s Characteristic, Push Forward the Third Distribution of Income ....................... PENG Gang 79Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau Service Cooperation and the Status ofDevelopmentStrategies .......................................................................... GUO Haihong, LU Ning, YANG Cheng 85A Rational Thought over the Economic Conditions and Local Labor Force Quality in Macau ..................... PANLetao 91Development and Prospect of Macau Heritage Industry ...................................................... CHEN Naichi, MA Erdan 97A Discussion on the Part-time System of Hong Kong Hotels .................... CHEN Xueqiong, LI Jing, ZHONG Jianlan 102China’s ImplicitBudgetDeficit ................................................................................................................... SHENG Li 107History and CultureAn Investigation about the Present Situation of Family Education in Elementary School in Macau .............. LUOFeng 118Macau Recurrent Education:AStudy of the Upper Secondary Curriculum Plan .............................. YUEN Pong Kau 126Recent Fertility Trend of Macau: Manifest and Latent Courses ................................................................. AU Ki Yung 131Macau and the Modern Chinese Revolutions ............................................................................... HUANGHongchao 139Discussion on the Roles of Church Organizations Played in Macau Community during theMing and Qing Dynasties ........................................................................... YAN Guangwen, CHEONG Hoi San 146AReview on the Significance of Toscanelli’s Letters for Columbus’Expeditions and on the “Secret Envoy” mentioned in the Letters ............................................................ YU Guo 154Numbers in the Book of Songs ..........................................................................................................SUNGuanlong 160Academic ActivitiesReflection on the Publication of Selections of Social Science and Humanity Research Articles in Macau.............................................................................................................................................CHENG Xianghui 168Looking for the Source, Searching the Spirit, Promoting the Cultural Communication andCooperation between Macau and Shaanxi .......................................................... LEONG Sok Man, LI Hong 171CONTENTS
“環境巨變與管治能力提升”座談會紀要澳門研究6第49期的問題。我們知道,在澳門辦事,要講人情,講面子,這就使得許多事情不能很好地處理,很多法律也得不到很好的執行。因此,要培養這樣一種觀念和文化,“人”與“事”不一樣,學會對“事”不對“人”。第三,所謂“政治”問題。“政”與“治”,按照孫中山先生的解釋,“政治”是指政權與治權。“政”是指政治決策的權力,“治”是政府治理的權力。要注意理解“政治”一詞在澳門的內涵,“政治”在澳門主要是指公共治理,施政的目的是把澳門治理好。比如,澳門出來的行政長官候選人,在競選辯論的情況,不可能像美國的奧巴馬和麥凱恩,他們的主要議題之一就是辯論外交與國防;台灣的領導人競選也要談兩岸的定位問題。澳門跟美國、台灣不一樣,這些議題在澳門是沒有的,國防、外交不是你的權限。高度自治是指本地方內部事務進行高度自治。國防、外交是管不 的。行政長官有義務執行中央人民政府對他發出的指令。澳門的主要問題是把澳門社會凝聚起來,本地事務治理好,更多地是公共治理與行政管治問題。陳卓華:很高興今日能跟大家分享一些關於公共行政改革及管治能力的意念。我很同意剛才有講者談到關於澳門特區政府,甚至中央政府,我們發覺近 1–2年無論對於社會危機或社會人民的需要的敏感度提升了很多,以及政府對市民的負責任程度(accountabi l i ty)也提高了很多,例如近日發生的食物安全問題,中央政府的質檢總處負責人亦已經下台。其實整個中國,包括我們特區也越來越重視人民和市民的需要,而香港及澳門的特區政府於近幾年也很努力地進行具體的措施,舉例說:在我們澳門理工學院最近受政府不同部門委託進行數項民意調查研究,發現市民樂於對公共政策表達意見,而政府亦樂於採用較為科學的方法來聽取市民的意見,如通脹對市民之影響、刑事責任年齡應否下調以及近日的城市規劃、市民對公共服務的滿意度等。無論大大小小的公共議題,政府不同的部門都會委託不同的機構去進行民意調查,以助政府於制定公共政策時能採用更有系統性、科學化的方法來聽取意見,這反映我們的政府越來越以民為本。再看新加坡、香港或世界各地不同的國家或地區的政府,越來越趨向將市民當成顧客(customer),但必須注意的是,不是所有公共議題或所以公共政策都一定要把市民當成顧客,因為太氾濫時亦會陷入另一危機中,我們稍後再討論。當政府用各種方法去聽取市民意見時,這反映了市民的地位越來越高,這是非常好的,因為政府聽取了各方面的意見,這對於政府訂立政策時,就算未能完全滿足所有人,但隨 分階段性修訂政策,便能把公共政策制定得更好、更能配合大部分市民的具體需要。再看新加坡或很多其他不同的地方,都是透過各種有系統性、科學化之諮詢市民的方法,來改善政府服務如行政程序更簡化、或服務品質更提升、服務種類更多元化等。這樣看來,以民為本(serve the community)已經是世界大勢所趨,無論中國政府或世界各地其他政府都是,所以我們特區政府在這方面也做對了方向。而在過程中,效率(effect iveness)與效能(eff iciency)也很重要,政府可以參考私營企業的管理方法,如全面品質管理(total qual i ty management)、六標準差(Six Sigma)1、ISO9001:2000 等。其實澳門特區政府現在也有很多公共部門在進行ISO質量管理系統標準,亦有很多部門採用電子政府(e-government)的措施,讓市民能隨時隨地利用及透過互聯網的方式獲取公共信息或申請服務。但在現階段,在我們的調查數據中顯示,只有較年青的澳門市民較為喜歡使用電子政府渠道,這一方面仍有待政府進一步推廣。而在透明度方面,對於政府應否加強透明度,很多學者都持較正面的意見。澳門特區政府於2007年推出了《公共行政改革路線圖》,而且於進展中期(2008)亦向市民公佈了現階段的執行情況,這反映澳門特區政府對公共政策的透明度已經有所加強,我們可以看到澳門特區政府是在進步中。其實,並不是所有公共事務都只是由政府獨力承擔,比如其他國家有“network governance”的情況,其意思是指政府透過與非官方組織(NGO)或私人公司合作開展公共項目,來達到公共利益的目的。而這種“network governance”近幾年在外國運用得非常好,尤其是當西方政府的財政預算赤字越來越大的
7《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12時候,政府財政緊拙的情況下,便要想法子如何與志願團體或私人公司合作,提供公共服務。一些簡單的例子如推廣旅遊業、保護文化古蹟;具體例子如香港最近要清拆一幢位於九龍的殘舊體育館,政府找私人公司投標重新建設,新建築物下層保留舊有歷史性特色,而上層則作商業及私人住宅用途;另外,外國有一些其他例子是保留動植物公園,但在附近會有一些商業用途及環保教育場館,從而達到一些公共利益及“雙贏”目的。所以關於管治能力之拓展,我們政府應該要有一個全盤的、長遠的掌舵,但政府也不一定要把所有工作和事情都自己做,也可以透過其他組織來達至。回到另一議題上,市民是否真的等於顧客一樣?政府任由市民決定所有公共政策?其實也不一定,因為很多時市民會追求自己的個人利益,又或是團體會追求團體自己的利益,所以未必能達致一個社會長遠的、整體的公共利益。在這情況下,政府需要與市民有一個互動,以及去教育(educate)市民,舉例說有研究指出加拿大市民相對於美國的市民來說較注重公共利益(publ ic in terest),所以當政府要進行舊區重建、城市再規劃的時候,加拿大市民是較容易與政府合作,因此很快速地、有系統地重新改造整個城市;反觀美國的市民則相對地沒那麼容易與政府合作。所以我們要注意,當一個城市要尋求一個良好的、長遠的發展時,政府需要用一些方法去教育市民,令市民能夠從一個宏觀的、整體的、長遠的公共利益出發來反映個人意見。郭敬文:我比較認同曾藝的看法,政府施政方面,必須更加有預見性、主動性和透明度,從而提升管治能力。今日的主題是“環境巨變和管治能力提升”,澳門的環境為甚麼發生巨變?我覺得,澳門回歸與香港回歸好不一樣,政府整個架構班底好短時間接手,大家都清楚這甚麼一回事,發展到今時今日,我對於政府的管治能力都幾滿意。當然,有些部門仍需改善,特別部門之間的協調、溝通機制有待改善。從某一部門提供的服務都好了很多,無論是管治或服務的概念去看,市民都可以感覺得到的。回歸後,我常有一個憂慮,因為開放賭權,2003年發生SARS,經濟下滑,國家推出好多措施,如CEPA、自由行等,我當時想,澳門好似未有準備好就要面對這些巨變。我覺得,過去10年我自己是疲於奔命的,為甚麼會疲於奔命?因為社會實在發展太快,例如自由行、賭權開放,使澳門經濟高速發展,高速發展的確帶給我們好多機遇,多年想做的事,差不多在短時間內,做到了,我們多年想做但沒錢做,但終於一次過做到,如15年免費教育、基建和派錢等。其實,我有個想法,澳門是一個很小的城市,其實可以做得精品,不要這麼辛苦,如果作為一個市民來講,希望安居樂業,如何才生活好些?我覺得,過去 10年,我真的活得辛苦,反觀,經濟高速發展時,法律一直跟不上;基建不斷動工時,人力資源跟不上,人的素質跟不上,就算講及政府的管治能力,政府人員也在高速學習,面對這麼大的變化,要做好這麼多工作,實在有點難為他們。當然,巨變的產生主要是來自外部環境的因素,當然可以由內部作出整調,例如,面對金融海嘯時,司長都走出來說要削減外勞,這體現出特區政府在進步中,問題是面對全球金融海嘯時,很多奉行完全自由市場經濟體系都在插隻手干預市場。澳門許多人在看中央收緊自由行的動作,這對澳門是否好事?我認為是好事。事實上,澳門的遊客數字,一個彈丸之地,居然和香港的遊客數字一樣,澳門如何應對?做好一個管治工作,不要說前瞻,單單應付就已經很難巨,我意思是反映一個意見,中央對澳門的政策可否與香港不一樣?現在看可能不一樣,你申請去香港就不能直接來澳門,因為澳門的歷史文化背景、經濟發展、社會規模都和香港不一樣,我不是與中央秋後算帳,當時我覺得,中央的政策是,香港有,澳門就要有,我覺得澳門承受不了這種人有我必須有的政策,因為太高速的發展,這對澳門不見得是好事。當然,從政治高度的考慮,這種做法是無可厚非的,我不會反對,但從可持續發展來看,而政府能夠使市民安居樂業的話,畢竟在一個軌跡上適當的速度發展,對市民來說,適當的發展會比較理想。事實上,澳門是一個微型經濟體系,澳門有必要和中央政府溝通,澳門今後應如何發展?因為中央政策對澳門的發展有直接的影響。有與會者認為,市民對政府要求高,我認為,市民對政府有高要求,這是好事,在合理範圍下,有要求才能優化政府施政,同時體現市民的歸屬感。回歸之前,對澳葡政府沒有更高要求,因為說了等於白說,但目前不一樣,回歸
“環境巨變與管治能力提升”座談會紀要澳門研究8第49期後,在“一國兩制”、“澳人治澳”下,澳門人當家作主,我們是澳門一份子,我們願意講了,要求政府管治能力提升。當然,每個人提出的訴求不同,有哪些是站在集團、個人利益,作為政府一個管治團隊,應從一個更高的角度去看,應該可以分辨出,哪些應該做?哪些可以遲些做?我們能夠將管治方面,如預見性、主動性、透明度和加強中央溝通的話,我相信澳門在將來是有希望的城市,謝謝。楊允中:現在請麥瑞權先生發言。我在這裏要特別介紹一下,麥瑞權先生是在澳門比較成功的企業家,開創了瑞權工程公司。在澳門這個市場下,所有工程項目都需要公平競投,其中的難度不低,麥先生的業務也非常繁忙。但是在澳門眾多企業家之中,麥先生有很突出的一點,他在其從商的過程中,抽出了很大一部分時間繼續攻讀學位,麥先生已經拿到本科和碩士學位,現正攻讀博士學位,他是實實在在地攻讀正規的學位。這標誌 澳門社會進入一個更高的發展層次的重要信號,如果澳門企業家之中有10–20%能走這樣一條知識型的發展道路,澳門就能被認定為一個高度發達的社會。麥瑞權:很高興今天能夠就“環境巨變與管治能力提升”的主題,以商人的角度談談自己的感受。特區政府的政策制定與執行,不僅是政府自己本身的事情,而是全個社會、全澳市民也應該要關注的事情。在現今的社會裏,作為一個商人,我們不可以只是追求個人利益及關心GDP的增長,而是更應關心社會的問題,社會穩定能為營商環境創造條件。剛才曾藝女士也歸納了本澳現時一些問題,其他與會者亦提到颱風襲澳、毒奶粉事件等問題,大家很認同其實特區政府應對這些問題的反應已比以前進步了不少。本人認為,市民訴求的改變,主要是源於市場的開放、外來文化以至周邊環境的影響。例如:根據澳門統計暨普查局 2008年資料顯示,本地生產總值中的第三產業在2004–2006年的增長維持在較高水平;第二產業方面,2004年,製造業佔第一位,建築業佔第二位;2005年,建築業佔總GDP的8.7%,製造業則佔總GDP的4.3%;2006年建築業佔總GDP份額大幅上升至13.3%,製造業卻下降至3.9%。由此可見,2004–2006年間,製造業和建築業分別佔總GDP的份額大幅度調整了。回歸前,以上兩個產業,包括房地產業,是澳門四大產業支柱之一,回歸後卻大幅度調整了。與此同時,就業方面亦產生了同樣的變化。2005年,製造業佔總就業人口的14.9%,建築業的佔9.7%;2006年,建築業佔總就業人口的11.7%,製造業則是11.1%;2007年,建築業所容納的勞動人口 1 2 . 9% ,製造業是8%。這說明,在第三產業以外,第二產業的建築業對本澳總 GDP 的份額和就業人口的影響正逐步增加。這顯示建築業對經濟及社會穩定的重要性增加,這個變化在制定產業相關政策時是要多加注意的,因為製造業與建築業的產業組織形態是不同的,管理特徵亦有所不同,製造業的層級組織管理是企業一體化形態,管理特徵是科層式的權威管理,員工需服從行政命令。而建築業的分包組織管理是網絡組織形態,它的管理特徵是網絡組織管理,成員是以短期契約為連結,雙方都是獨立的法人,是沒有從屬關係的。故兩者在管理方式上是有很大的差異,若政府制定產業新政策時不考慮這些變化和行業特徵的不同而一刀切,將會使產業在配合執行政府政策時出現困難。此外從宏觀經濟角度來看,在制定各項政策時,各部門之間的溝通和協調是很重要的。其實,政府在處理危機方面已經很主動地提出相關問題,但實際上有些工作還是可以繼續提升的。例如,政府在施政方針中提到環保的問題,在國家政策中亦提到綠色GDP的政策,世界上也不斷提出環保的問題,但到現在,澳門還未成立環保局,這對澳門國際化的形象和地區的競爭力,甚至吸引遊客方面造成一定的制約。環保是地區競爭力其中之一個重要指標,政府應制定相關鼓勵政策來推動環保工作。其實,大部分的澳門商人都希望能夠配合政府的政策,履行社會責任去推動環保,但一方面,雖然政府的政策明確要推動環保,但另一方面一些政府部門的指引卻表示,所有政府部門的招投標工程原則為“價低者得”。但環保及所有企業社會責任均需要成本的,故在沒有一個明確的法制下,這對“依法辦事”但不履行社會責任的企業在競爭上有利,這對業界造成矛盾及無所適從。另外,各產業的發展一直在變化,而這變化來源是來自於全球經濟一體化,例如市場開放後美資公司來澳發展博彩業,把其文化亦帶過來。其次是來自於社會因素的變化,
“環境巨變與管治能力提升”座談會紀要澳門研究16第49期要位的官員連一些基本的概念、基本的法律等都沒有搞清楚,卻負責重大決策問題,這些顯示了特區政府自身的監管不到位。不久之後,澳門特區就會迎來回歸後的第十年,特區政府馬上要進行大換屆,此時此刻去思考這些問題,並不是要找毛病為難本屆政府,相反,我們希望通過集體思維,在維護政府的整體印象和管治權威的前提下,希望政府做得更好。形勢發展很快,千變萬化,誰會想到上半年浮現的次貸問題會發展成今天那麼大的全球性金融危機呢?沒有預計到是無可奈何的,但既然事情已經發生,我們就要積極面對,盡快作為回應。澳門能不能獨善其身我不敢說,但如果我們的施政能夠更到位、理念能夠更科學,我們受外界波及的可能性就能降到最低。因為,在今天這個歷史重要時刻,我們希望政府的官員能夠帶頭做回顧總結,把我們寶貴經驗傳給下一屆政府。註釋︰1 六標準差(Six Sigma)是一套管理系統,它是透過聆聽顧客的聲音(Vo ice o f Customer),經由關鍵品質(Critical to Quality)的分析,利用專案的方式,以流程改善的工具解決有問題的流程,使錯誤發生的可能性降至百萬分之 3.4 以下。美國 Motorola 公司於 1987 年首先提出六標準差,經 G E 公司執行長傑克‧威爾許大力推動之後,獲得相當卓著的經營績效,許多美國標竿企業競相跟進,中國亦有不少企業開始實施。因此,為了建立公司內部以滿足顧客為導向的工作模式,進而提昇公司在市場上的競爭優勢。
淺論《澳門基本法》第23條立法澳門研究24第49期《澳門基本法》時是特意為澳門留下空間,讓澳門對此自行充實,以體現“一國兩制”的精神。第二,澳門須遵守《中華人民共和國憲法》規定,而且《澳門基本法》第23條亦明確地賦與澳門特別行政區有義務對此進行立法,此亦為體現《澳門基本法》給予澳人“高度自治”的方針。然而,制定出來的法律是“良法”還是“惡法”,如對於有關罪狀的主體要件、主觀要件、客體要件、客觀要件,以及何謂“宣戰”、“發動戰爭”、“隱匿叛國”等的定義,這些均須由澳門透過法律進行妥善處理。第三,基於法律是一個獲強制保護的社會行為規範,國家一方面強加和保護法律,另一方面為權利提供法律保障,並使公民權利具有實際的穩固性12,然而,《澳門基本法》第23條立法是維護公民基本權利及國家安全的必要措施。而且在罪刑法定原則及無罪推定原則下“沒有法律就沒有犯罪及刑罰”,而刑法除了是透過法律預防犯罪外,也是透過法律對刑罰進行限制干涉,以避免公民毫無保護地受到國家任意及過分對待,這亦是體現法治地區的象徵。13然而,鑒於叛國、分裂國家行為、煽動叛亂、顛覆國家及竊取國家機密的概念範圍難以明確界定,如當法律規定過於概括籠統,有些人對此十分擔心帶來不良影響,認為十分容易被濫用,限制市民發表言論自由權利,生活方式也可能被迫改變。如香港對《香港基本法》第23條立法,亦受到歐洲議會、美國國務院、英國總領事館、加拿大外交部、國際人權協會奧地利部分反對,認為這些是反自由、反人權、壓制異己的立法14,恐怕“罪刑”成為政府用來壓榨公民權利的“武器”。但是,這些正與其立法原意及目的相反,因其立法理據是為了遏止叛國、分裂國家行為、煽動叛亂、顛覆國家及竊取國家機密等行為發生,有助於國際人權公約的進一步實施,以保障公民基本權利及國家安全。難道1886年葡萄牙《刑法典》第141–176條為曾規定“妨害國家安全罪”和“侮辱葡萄牙共和國象徵”罪狀、香港《刑事罪行條例》第200章第2–9條規定當時的立法是反自由、反人權、壓制異己的立法嗎?我們現為身處社會法治國家時期,受到憲法最高性原則、基本權利尊重原則、權力分立原則、合法性原則、適度原則(比例原則)、法院保護原則等法律原則保障,而且法律目的也是為了社會維持安定及發展而存在,亦即透過這種“武器”來保障公民自由及人權。五、結論綜上所述,基於法律本地化是完善的法律制度的必要措施,所以澳門特別行政區有須要在維護居民言論自由、新聞自由、結社自由等基本人權自由下,尤其在《公民權利和政治權利國際公約》及《經濟、社會與文化權利國際公約》的法律保障前提下15,結合澳門社會、環境、經濟的特殊情況,根據《澳門基本法》第23條規定填補澳門現行法律制度就有關方面犯罪規定存在的漏洞,以法律來保障自由,並且體現《澳門基本法》中“一國兩制”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的精神。註釋:1 米健:《澳門法律》(第 1 版),澳門:澳門大學澳門研究中心, 199 4 年,第 13 頁。基於該文獻成立於1994 年,本文認為現在澳門法律本地化並不單對過去葡萄牙法律在澳門過渡適用及中文化問題,而更主要的是強調立法本地化,亦即重於立法程序、法律執法及法律教育及推廣等方面。2 何超明:《法制發展的憲制保障》,載於澳門特別行政區檢察院網站, h t tp : / /ww w. mp .g ov . mo / i n t / 20 01 -1 0 -17m.htm , 2001 年 10 月 17 日。3 張虎:《澳門“法律本地化”之研究》,載於《中國大陸研究》,第41卷,第11期,1998年,第69–86頁。4 Agusto Garcia , Reper tór io do Di re i to de Macau (Macau:Universidade de Macau – Centro de Estudos Jurídicos daFaculdade de Direito, 2007), p. 215.5 叛國罪一般是指該人對其所屬的國家不忠誠、違背其效忠宣言或誠心與其國家的敵人合作。在法律詞典Oran’s Dict iona ry of the Law(1983 年)對叛國的定義是:“一個公民協助外國政府推翻或嚴重侵害他所屬的國家,或慫恿外國對他所屬的國家宣戰。”分裂國家罪是指以發動戰爭、使用武力、威脅使用武力,或其他嚴重非法手段,把國家一部分從其主權中分離出去,或抗拒政府對該部分地方行使主權。煽動叛亂罪是指具煽動意圖的作為或發表煽動文字的行為。顛覆罪是指以發動戰爭、使用武力、威脅使用武力或其他嚴重非法手段,脅迫、推翻、廢除國家憲法所確立的國家根本制度的行為。竊取國家機密罪未經授權披露及損害性披露涉及保安及情報、防務、國際關係、及犯罪和刑事調查等受保護資料的行為。6 現今世界大多數國家均在憲法或其他相關法律中規定有關罪狀,如《中華人民共和國憲法》(第51–55條)、《中華人民共和國刑法》(第 102–113 條)、《中華人民共和國國家安全法》、《中華人民共和國保守國家秘密法》規定的叛國、顛覆國家政權、危害國家安全等、《美國憲法》第 3 條(叛國為“背叛美國,僅包括與合眾國或其州進行戰爭,或依附、幫助及慰藉合
25《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12眾國之敵人。無論何人,非經該案證人兩人證明或經其本人在公開法庭自首,不受叛國罪判決。(Treasonagainst the United States, shal l consist only in levying waragainst them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aidand comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unlesson the test imony of two witnesses to the same overt act, oron confession in open court.)國會有宣告處罰叛國罪之權,但公權之剝奪,不牽累犯罪者之後人,其財產之沒收,亦僅能於其生前為之。(The congress wi ll havepower to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainderof treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture exceptduring the life of the person attainted.)”、及英國 1351 年的《叛國罪法令》(Treason Act)等等。7 見澳門《刑法典》第 297–310 條。8 J. Baptista Machado 著,黃清薇、杜慧芳譯:《法律及正當論題導論》( I n t r o d u ç ã o a o D i r e i t o a o D i s c u r s oL e g i t i m a d o r),澳門:澳門基金會、澳門大學法學院, 1998 年,第 146–155 頁。9 駱偉建:《澳門大學法學院憲法學講義》, 2001 年 5月 1 日初稿。1 0 楊允中:《澳門基本法釋要》(修訂版),澳門︰澳門法務局, 2003 年,第 59–61 頁。1 1 同註 8 ,第 71 頁。1 2 João Castro Mendes 著,黃顯輝譯:《法律研究概述》(Introdução ao Estudo do Direi to),澳門︰澳門大學法學院、澳門基金會, 1998 年,第 3 5 頁。1 3 克勞斯‧羅克辛著,王世洲譯:《德國刑法學總論》(第一卷),北京︰法律出版社, 2 0 0 5 年,第 77 – 8 0頁。1 4 蘇鑰機︰《香港報章如何處理“廿二條”立法的新聞》,載於“香港電台──傳媒透視”網站, h t t p : / /www.rthk.org.hk/mediad igest/20030115_76_59429.html ,2003 年 1 月 15 日。1 5 按照第 15/2001 號行政長官公告及第 16/2001 號行政長官公告規定,《公民權利和政治權利國際公約》繼續在澳門特別行政區適用。
內地遴選法官制度的演進特點及對澳門的啟示澳門研究28第49期入法院,儘管此次公開選拔法官的效果不佳,但開啟了選拔律師進入法院擔任法官的先河。從2000年起,最高人民法院進行法官遴選制度的改革。2002年,全國法院隊伍建設工作會議召開,第一次提出了“法官職業化建設”的目標。經過國家對法官人員構成實施改革,特別是重視吸收優秀律師進入法官隊伍以來,法官職業化進程有所推進。近些年來,最高人民法院從高級、中級和基層人民法院選調幹部127人,從相關科研院所、法學院校和律師事務所先後引進知名法學教授、副教授及優秀律師等22人,並從大專院校招錄了法學博士、博士後70餘人。廣東、上海、深圳等法院除從下級法院優秀法官中選拔法官之外,還嘗試從法律院校的學者和優秀律師等高層次法律人才中選拔法官。從律師到法官角色轉變突出的例子有:35歲的王時銀從一名縣城律師事務所的律師,成為安徽亳州市中級人民法院副院長;汪利民律師、王松敏律師分別擔任安徽省高級人民法院、陝西省高級人民法院的副院長;從業十餘年的資深律師張衛兵,由湖北珞珈律師事務所主任律師,轉任最高人民法院審判監督庭法官。3二、內地近些年來吸收律師擔任法官的 示2004年6月3日,最高人民法院肖揚院長在最高人民法院、司法部聯合召開的貫徹落實《關於規範法官和律師相互關係,維護司法公正的若干規定》的電視電話會議上指出:“我們提倡剛畢業的法律專業大學生先去做律師,以獲得訴訟經驗、社會閱歷和一定的經濟收入,為將來成為一名合格的甚至資深的法官奠定良好的基礎;同時,我們也提倡具有多年律師經驗、品行端正、閱歷豐富、聲名卓著、資產富有的律師來當法官,以改進我們法官隊伍的構成。”內地實施的選拔優秀律師補充到法官行業的做法,不僅使得法官的來源和管道不斷拓寬,法官隊伍人員結構得到改善,整體素質有所提高,而且提供了以下經驗和啟示。(一) 實施統一的司法考試,消除了從律師向法官轉變的職業障礙作為法律人材的法官、檢察官、執業律師和大學法律教師都應具備法律學問、法律道德和社會常識。4這種職業特點決定了對他們的選拔,必須以法律知識和技能作為最基本的入門標準。但在2002年之前的幾年時間裏,內地擔任律師需要統一考試,而法官入職卻無需參加統一考試。這就導致雙方之間的流動,缺乏統一的職業衡量標準。2001年6月30日,《法官法》修改後,2002年開始實施司法考試制度,將原各自相對獨立的法官、檢察官、律師入門要求達致了統一,即把法官、檢察官、律師不同的進入管道改變成從司法考試通過者中擇優選任。因此,司法考試被有的學者認為是“中國近年來司法改革方面真的是有非常重要價值的改革”。5這一改革為律師到法官的轉變奠定了基礎,掃除了從律師到法官之間存在的人為設置的職業轉換障礙,為法官的遴選開闢了一條重要的途徑。(二) 選拔優秀律師擔任法官,是提高法官隊伍整體素質的途徑之一2007年2月27日,肖揚在最高人民法院召開的選調法官座談會上指出,從社會優秀法律人才選任法官,能夠確保法官具備深厚的法學理論功底和豐富的司法經驗,並具有相同或相似的知識背景和從業經歷,從而保證司法的協調統一,承擔起解決社會矛盾和糾紛、維護社會公平與正義的神聖職責。因為從優秀律師中選任法官,可相應減少現行單一法官來源管道所產生的問題。例如,其中可以相應減少的一個問題就是北京大學賀衛方教授所指出的“相當多的法官在任職時已經是衣食無憂,甚至腰纏萬貫了,對於賄賂的抵禦能力就會強得多”,從而“有利於減少法官的腐敗”。6透過從優秀律師中選拔法官,有助於推進“人才強院”戰略,從整體上提升法官的專業水平,促進高素質法官隊伍的建設。(三) 選拔優秀律師擔任法官,是推進法官職業化建設的重要舉措肖揚指出,司法是專業性極高的職業,也是實踐性極強的職業;法官遴選制度改革是推進法官職業化建設的重要措施;法官職業化建設是社會主義法治國家對法官隊伍建設的必然選擇。7美國著名法學家,美國最高法院大法官霍姆斯(Ol iv er Wende l lHo lmes , J r .)在 1881 出版的名著《普通法》(TheCommon Law)中指出,法律的生命不是邏輯,邏輯不能賦予法律生命,法律的生命在於人生的社會的經驗。8人們引用得最多的這一至理名言表明:法官
37《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12難以定論。在上個世紀的80年代,美國政治學界曾經對這個問題有過一次激烈的爭論,其中最為引人注目的是民主政治學者林茨(Juan J. L inz)和霍羅威茨(Donald L. Horowi tz)的論戰。林茨以拉丁美洲五個國家總統制運行中的情況為例證,總結出總統制的種種弊端:權力制衡的原則導致體制剛性;總統制國家缺乏靈活性;總統的個人權力過於強大;總統制的政府閣員過於軟弱;而霍羅威茨則完全不同意林茨的觀點,認為林茨不恰當地把拉丁美洲的不穩定性作為為難總統制的例證,指出議會制也同樣存在 一些弊端:繼承了議會制民主的政府體系應對隨後出現在講英語的非洲國家的威權主義負極大的責任。11這種論戰揭示了,總統制與議會制各有各優點和缺陷,無法一概而論,只能根據具體地區的具體情況進行適當地選擇。因此,回歸後港澳地區的政治體制設計,無法簡單借用“立法權與行政法並立”、“立法權高於行政權”的制度模式,只能從港澳地區的具體情況出發進行制度設計。源自於港澳地區原來的“行政權高於立法權”的行政主導制度,基本法確定了港澳地區的政治體制為行政長官制度,也就是“行政長官負責制,即行政主導,司法獨立,行政與立法之間既互相制約又互相配合”。12行政長官制的具體內涵體現在:“政府擁有立法創議權;政府提出的議案優先進入立法會;立法會議員的提案權範圍受限;涉及政府體制的提案,必須要行政長官同意;行政長官立法相對否決權,立法會法案須行政長官簽署,公佈,才可以生效;行政長官有權拒絕簽署,發回立法會重議,可解散立法會;行政長官決定政府官員或其他公務人員是否向立法會提供證據”。13簡言之,在行政長官制下,政府與立法會不是從屬關係,也不是對立關係,而是總統制與議會制的一種複雜混合體。可見,港澳地區的行政長官制,既不是議會制,也不是總統制,它有 總統制的一些特點,也有議會制的一些特點。一方面,它不是一種完全的分立和制約關係,另一方面,它也不是議行合一的關係。在一定程度上講,港澳地區的政制,在世界各國的政制叢林中有 自身的獨特性和代表性。它不像總統制那樣純粹講究權力的制約,也不像議會制中單純地強調配合,而是試圖綜合利用總統制與議會制的優點,實行一種互相制約與互相配合的新模式。首先,行政與立法互相制約,這種制約關係主要體現在:“行政長官決定是否簽署法案;行政長官有權解散立法會;立法會可迫使行政長官辭職;立法會有權彈劾行政長官;行政機關對立法機關負責”。14行政長官制下,行政立法相互制約,然後其關係卻不是完全對等的,行政長官的權力處於主導地位。在行政長官制度下,行政長官在一定程度上行使 比總統制度下的總統更大的權力。如上述,在總統制下,總統是無權解散議會的,只是有權對議案實施否決權,美國總統制的一個主要特徵就在於“議會不能對政府投不信任票,總統也不能解散議會”,而在行政長官制下,行政長官是有權解散立法會的;與此同時,基本法卻沒有賦予立法會對政府投不信任案的權力。從這點上看,基本法賦予了行政長官較大的權力,體現了行政主導的內在精神,也就是行政權高於立法權。因此,行政長官制下雖然也強調權力的制約,但其制約關係不同於總統制下的制約關係,這種權力的制約關係並不是對等的,其權力重心傾向於行政長官,行政長官對立法會的制約權要大於立法會對行政長官的制約權。其次,行政與立法互相配合,配合關係主要體現在:“設置行政會議,輔助行政長官。由於行政會成員中有主要官員、立法會議員和社會人士的存在,在行政會議中立法會議員和主要官員之間可以相互溝通,消除分歧,解決矛盾;委派官員列席立法會,並代表政府發言;政府議案優先列入,將政府提出的議案優先列入議程”。15行政與立法的配合關係,再一次體現於行政長官主導的制度精神,表明了與議會制“權力合離後需要統合”同樣的法理邏輯,只不過在行政長官制的制度體系中,這種權力的統合不是指向立法權,而是指向行政權。從這個角度上講,港澳地區的行政長官制,不是“議行分設”,也不是“議行合一”,而是一種“行議合一”的政制。在立法與行政這種又制約又配合的關係中,理論界更為強調的是行政立法關係的互相配合。“行政立法關係互相制約,互相配合,重在配合”。16也就是說,在港澳地區的行政長官制中,行政和立法之間雖然有制約的一面,又有互相配合的一面,但配
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究48第49期1. Relationship between the Macau SAR andthe WTOSince the establishment of the World Trade Organisation(hereinafter referred to as WTO) on 1st January, 1995, Macaubecame a member-region. As a result, after the handover ofits sovereignty to China, Macau maintained its quality andrelationship as a member-region, and was able to implementits legal obligations, in the name “Macau, China”, pursuantto Articles 112 and 134 of the Basic Law of the Macau SpecialAdministrative Region of the People’s Republic of China(hereinafter referred to as the Macau SAR). To accede tothe WTO as a member-state or member-region, a country ora region needs to accept and sign a compulsory “bundle”of multilateral agreements of the WTO, but its plurilateralagreements are optional. The Agreement on GovernmentProcurement (hereinafter referred to as GPA) of WTO belongsto one of the latter. Currently, 39 members are signed asParties which are subject to it, as well as 19 members classifiedas “observers”, of which 8 members are negotiating accessionto this Agreement.1 Hitherto, the Government of Macau, Chinahas not signed this Agreement, so the government procurementactivities of Macau are not subject to it. However, the WTOis advocating and promoting enthusiastically the accession ofits member-states and member-regions to this Agreement, whichis based on the liberalisation of government procurement achievedby North America and the European Union. The WTO expectsthat Asia, especially Eastern Asia, as one of the tripod ofworld economic power, can open its government procurementmarkets, removing obstacles in multinational governmentprocurement and adding to the liberalisation of international tradeas part of the globalisation of the world economy. The cityand economy of Macau have developed vigorously followingthe opening up and expansion of the gaming industry. In addition,the activities of government procurement are increasinglydynamic and the intra-regional and inter-regional governmentprocurements have grown more in number and bigger indimension, which is one reason why the WTO has advocatedthat the Government of Macau should sign the GPA.2. Provisions of the Present GPA of WTO andits RevisionThe scope of the rules on multilateral trade for openingmarket entry originally did not include government procurement.In the negotiation of the General Agreement on Tariffs andTrade (GATT) in 1947, government procurement was expresslyexcluded. However, government procurement of now accountsfor 10-15% of the GDP,2 causing a huge gap in the systemof multilateral trade. In the trade negotiations of the TokyoRound, there were an increasing number of evidences showingthat the effects and expectations on restricting trade bydiscriminative procurement policies was a major problem inthe multilateral trade system, resulting in a first effort to bringgovernment procurement under the rules on trade agreedinternationally. Thereby, the first GPA was signed in 1979and entered into force in 1981. The present Agreement wassigned in Marrakesh on 15th April 1994, but entered into forceImplications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurementfor the Macau SAR GovernmentTang Tat Weng** Ph.D. Candidate in the Faculty of Civil and Commercial Law and Economic Law,the China University of Political Science and Law
49《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12on 1st January, 1996. This Agreement is one of the plurilateralagreements included in Annex IV of the Agreement establishingthe WTO. It means that not all member-states and regionsof the WTO are bound by it. Subsequently, the Chairmenof the Committee on Government Procurement presented arevision to this Agreement in the committee session on 11thDecember, 2006. This revision was based on paragraphs 7(b) and (c) of Article XXIV of the GPA, which provide thatthe Parties shall engage in further negotiation within three yearsafter the date of entry into force of the GPA. This revisionaimed at improving the GPA and achieving a possible extensionof its coverage among all Parties, as well as diminishingany remaining discriminatory measures and practices. Therevision which resulted from a consensus achieved unanimouslyamong negotiators was based on the principle of “nothing isagreed until everything is agreed” of the WTO.Government is the first responsible subject to implementthe Agreement, including the legislative, administrative and judicialorganisations of government. So, all laws, regulations andprocedures and practices of procuring entities listed in AppendixI are applicable to the GPA and must fulfil the needs ofit, pursuant to its Article I.2.1 Essential Contents of the Present GPAThe present GPA was signed at the same time as theAgreement establishing the WTO in Marrakesh, and envisagesthe member-states of the WTO opening up their domestic andregional government procurement markets and realising the tradeliberalisation promoted by the WTO. This is an effective measureto stop governments using their domestic procurement activitiesto prevent suppliers of other countries from entering its bordersto trade. To achieve this objective, the practices of governmentprocurement should be part of international competitionagreements, thereby maximising the benefits of international trade.In the meanwhile, an introduction of non-discrimination andtransparency to the procedure of government procurement doesnot only achieve this objective, but also guarantees the realisationof government procurement under the fair competition.2.1.1 Key elements of the GPAThe GPA is composed by three parts: the first is preamble;the second includes 24 articles; the third is appendices.The first part indicates the reason why Parties signedthe Agreement and the objectives to be achieved.The articles contained in the second part can be dividedinto 5 sections: the first section is the applicable coverage,including procuring subjects, thresholds and exceptions, formsof contract and its estimated values; the second section relatesto the obligation of national treatment and non-discrimination;the third section restricts the forms of competition, includingtechnical specification, qualification of suppliers and issue oforigin; the fourth section establishes the ways of fair competition,viz tendering and selection procedures, including open tender,selective tender and restrictive tender; the fifth section containsother measures preventing discrimination, including transparencyand challenge procedure against tendering processes.The third part contains four appendices including the listsof government procurement markets which all Parties agreedto open up and the lists of publications in which all Partiespromulgate the news of government procurement. AppendixI contains five annexes. The first three annexes contain thecentral government entities of member-states which signed theGPA, the sub-central government entities and other entities,such as public utility entities and public enterprises, etc.; thefourth annex specifies the services which the GPA coversand does not cover; the fifth annex specifies the constructionservices which the GPA covers. Generally, all goods aresubject to the provisions of the GPA. Furthermore, Appendix1 also includes “General Notes” which enable the coverageof entities and services covered by the Agreement fulfillingthe qualification; Appendix 2 includes the publications of Parties.These publications are to promulgate the notice of intendedprocurement provided for by Article 9(1) of the GPA, andthe notice of awarded contracts; Appendix 3 includes thepublications of Parties. These publications are used for annualpublication of information on permanent lists of qualified suppliersin the case of selective tendering procedures; Appendix 4includes the publications of Parties. The publications are usedfor the publication of laws, regulations, judicial decisions,administrative rulings of general application and any procedureregarding government procurement covered by the GPA, pursuantto paragraph 1 of Article XIX.Independent to how the composition of contents of theGPA, the first recital of its preamble indicates clearly that
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究50第49期the objective of government procurement recognises the needfor an effective multilateral framework to achieve greaterliberalisation and expansion of international trade. The seventhrecital indicates the desire to encourage governments that arenot Party to accept and access to the GPA. Albeit the preambleis not a legal term and does not possess legal applicability,it contains, as in the first part of a law, the original intentionand purpose of the legislation per se, with the significanceof consistency and integrity in interpretation of the entireAgreement. We can see hereby, albeit that the GPA is oneof the plurilateral agreements of the WTO, the expectation ofthe WTO is to include the GPA into its multilateral frameworkas one of its main objectives.The second recital of the preamble connotes that themeasures adopted by government procurement must guaranteedomestic and foreign procurement practices achieving faircompetition.2.1.2 Provisions of principles regarding the achievementof non-discriminationAmong the articles of the GPA, four major principlesare provided for and are respectively the principles of non-discrimination, of special and differential treatment, of transparencyand of fair competition.The “principle of non-discrimination” is reflected byaspects of national treatment and most-favourable treatment. Theprinciple of non-discrimination is an essential principle of freetrade between countries. It requires that the Parties do notexecute discriminatory treatments to other Parties while theycarry out some favourable or restrictive measures. It is notonly included in the GPA, but its essential spirit also runsthrough the entire legal framework established by the WTO.“National treatment” is, pursuant to the provision of paragraph1(a) of Article III of the GPA, to prohibit the implementationof discriminatory practices between domestic suppliers and foreignsuppliers. The “most-favourable treatment” is, pursuant to theprovision of paragraph 1(b) of the same Article, to prohibitthe implementation of discriminatory practices among foreignsuppliers. Its paragraph 2 indicates that the Parties shall ensurethat: (i) their entities shall not treat suppliers which are establishedlocally less favourably than suppliers which are affiliated orowned by foreign enterprises; (ii) their entities shall notdiscriminate suppliers by the reason of the production countryof goods or services supplied. Its paragraph 3 indicates that,except laws, regulations, procedures and practices regardingthe government procurement covered by the GPA, the provisionsof paragraphs 1 and 2, supra citato, shall not apply to anycustoms duties and charges imposed on, or in connectionwith, importation, levying methods such as duties and charges,other import regulations and formalities, as well as measuresaffecting trade in services, etc.The “principle of special and differential treatment”, whichhas a favourable characteristic, ensures fair trade and appliesonly to developing and least developed countries (hereinafterreferred to as LDCs), incarnating in the provisions of ArticleV of the GPA. The objective of this principle is that theParties, while implementing and managing the Agreement, shalltake into account the development, financing and trade needsof developing countries, especially the LDCs, offering thesecountries special treatment to achieve the following four aims,which are: (a) to safeguard the situation of their balance-of-payments, ensuring adequate levels of reserves to implementtheir plans for economic development; (b) to promote theconstruction of domestic industries and their development, interalia, of small-scale and cottage industries in rural and backwardareas, as well as economic development of other economicsectors; (c) to support industrial units which rely entirely orpartially on government procurement; (d) to encourage theireconomic development through regional and global arrangementsbetween developing countries presented to, and agreementobtained by, the Ministerial Conference of the WTO. In thisregard, all practices under this principle can be deemed aspositive measures promoted by state aid policies. Besides that,all Parties to the Agreement shall increase imports from thedeveloping countries, in preparation and application of laws,regulations and procedures affecting government procurement.This highlights that the special problems of LDCs and of thosecountries with low levels of economic development must bespecifically recognised in trade agreements.The “principle of transparency” is fundamental in theentire procedure of tenders. The third recital of the preambleindicates that “… it is desirable to provide transparency oflaws, regulations, procedures and practices regarding government
51《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12procurement”. Article XVII of the Agreement provides for theprinciple of transparency. As defined by the WTO this doesnot only apply to entities covered by the Agreement or anylaw, regulation, procedure and practice regarding governmentprocurement, but also applies to provisions of tenderingprocedures and challenge procedures. This Agreement specifiesthe provision of the principle of transparency after the procedurerelated to tenders provided for in the Agreement. It establishescertain provisions which all Parties and regions shall complywith when suppliers are located in countries which are notParties to the Agreement. However, the following items arestill defined: (i) specify expressly the content of contracts pursuantto Article VI of the Agreement; (ii) publish the notice ofprocurement, in a way specified in Article IX, in which shallindicate the terms and conditions when suppliers are locatedin countries that are Parties to the Agreement. The summaryof this notice must be published in one of the official languagesof the WTO, viz in English, French or Spanish; (iii) all Partiesguarantee that they shall not change procurement regulationsin normal circumstances during the course of a procurementactivity. If a change is unavoidable, an adequate remedy shallbe ensured. De jure, the principle of transparency enablesthat discrimination shall not be carried out in the course ofa tender and that the openness of competition among biddersachieves fairness, facilitating the award of contracts andincreasing the transparency during the entire process of theaward. The transparency of competition fairness is incarnatedin three aspects: the first is the technical specification, providedfor by Article VI; the second is the notice of procurement,provided for by Article IX; the third, procurement regulationsdo not change during the course of procurement. Once theprocurement regulations are changed, the procuring entities mustadopt necessary measures of remedy.The majority of scholars address the three principlessupra citato, but ignore another essential principle which isthe “principle of fair competition”, which also runs through theentire Agreement. This principle is another radical one whichguarantees liberalisation of trade, insofar as the market of domesticand transnational government procurement is not distorted, orthe government procurement is not affected by anti-competitivepractices taken by bidders per se, or by bidders joined together;guaranteeing the bidding in fair and just conditions among bidders;maintaining the interests of government, to enable the paymentby government finance for maximised value and optimisedcost-effectiveness; as well as achieving the “principle of valuefor money” in acquiring goods and services and concludingworks. The possible implementation of anti-competitive practicesduring government procurement is collusion, bid-rigging, predatorypricing, and excessively high prices, etc. This principle offair competition differs from the other three principles, the WTOintends to legislate pro-actively and independently the faircompetition, expecting it to be another legal regime in thelegal framework of the WTO, in particular as a multilateralagreement which all member-states must observe scrupulouslyand compulsorily.2.1.3 Forms of tender for government procurementThe GPA provides for bids by competitive tenders asan essential way for government procurement. The tenderingprocedures for government procurement are provided for inArticles VII to XVI of the Agreement. Pursuant to Article VII,the tendering procedures of Parties’ entities must engage inthe principles of non-discrimination, especially of nationaltreatment and of transparency.To achieve the objectives set out in the Agreement, thetendering procedures are divided into open tendering procedures,selectivetenderingproceduresandrestrictive tenderingprocedures,pursuant to Article X of the Agreement.The open tendering procedure is a procedure wherebyall interested suppliers may submit a tender.The selective tendering procedure is a procedure that onlysuppliers invited by the procuring entity may submit a tender.De facto, this form of tender is that the qualified suppliersare invited to submit a tender, viz the potential suppliers areselected in advance. The procuring entities which use thistendering procedure shall maintain lists of qualified suppliersand these lists shall be published annually, specifying theirvalidity and conditions.The restrictive tendering procedure is a procedure thatthe procuring entities contact suppliers individually, but thisprocedure can only be engaged in under the 10 conditionsset out by paragraph 1 of Article XV, which are that therewere no replies from suppliers to open or selective tenders,
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究52第49期collusive tender, artistic works or protection of exclusive rights,situations of emergency, requirement of additional supply fromoriginal supplier, additional construction services, new constructionservices consisting of the repetition of similar constructionservices, etc. In other words, the launch of any tender mustproceed firstly by means of an open tendering procedure orselective tendering procedure. Paragraph 2 of this Articleprovides that the report in writing shall contain country oforigin, complying compulsorily with, in no doubt, the provisionof Article IV (Rules of Origin) of the Agreement, which providesfor that “[a] Party shall not apply rules of origin to productsor services imported or supplied for purposes of governmentprocurement covered by this Agreement from other Parties,which are different from the rules of origin applied in the normalcourse of trade and at the time of the transaction in questionto imports or supplies of the same products or services fromthe same Parties”.2.2 Thresholds Applied to the GPAThe WTO’s GPA does not apply to all governmentprocurement but only applies to goods procured by procuringentities listed in Annexes 1 to 3 of Appendix I of the Agreement,and the services and construction services covered by Annexes4 and 5 of Appendix 1. Their estimated values cannot beless than the specified thresholds. For the majority of Parties,the threshold of procurement engaged by central governmententities listed in Annex 1 is 130,000 SDR3 (Special DrawingRight) for goods and services other than construction services.The Sub-central government entities listed in Annex 2 andother entities listed in Annex 3 may apply for higher thresholds.For certain Parties, all construction services may apply to5,000,000 SDR. Table 1 shows the correspondent thresholdsin SDR.2.3 New Provisions in the Revision of the GPAThe Revision of the GPA resulted from negotiations amongthe Parties to the Agreement. The negotiations were initiatedby Parties pursuant to the provisions of paragraph 7(b) and(c) of Article XXIV of the Agreement, but had no relationto a series of subjects in the so-called negotiation programmedin the Doha Round of the WTO. The purpose of thesenegotiations can be expressed in three aspects: the first aspectaimed at improving and updating the stipulation of the Agreement,inter alia of technological developments and of the methodof procurement; the second aspect aimed at extending theagreed coverage among the Parties; the third aspect aimedat avoiding the introduction or prolongation of discriminatorymeasures and practices. The intention of these objectives wasto enable the Parties to consider the needs of development,financial and trade of developing countries and LDCs, facilitatingtheir accession to the GPA as Parties.The Revision of the GPA was presented formally inDecember 2006 by the Committee on Government Procurementof the WTO.4 Comparing the GPA and its Revision, the latterreally conforms to the present needs of government procurementin the international trade, which can be observed in the preambleof the Revision. Its third recital stresses again that the functionsof government procurement system should be integrated intothe functioning of multilateral trade system. The sixth recitalhighlights that the Parties adopt transparent measures whichrequires procurements to be carried out in a transparent andimpartial manner, avoiding, pursuant to international instrumentssuch as the United Nations Convention Against Corruption,conflicts of interest and corruptive practices. Another additionalitem in the Revision is the seventh recital which points outthe importance of electronic means used in the coveredprocurements.The Revision of the GPA starts with, in Article I, thedefinition of 20 terminologies utilised contextually in theAgreement, enabling a consistent interpretation of theAgreement applied to all Parties, thereby reducing the eventualdisputes aroused from different applications in carrying outTable 1 Correspondent Thresholds in SDRFor allGoodsServices except ConstructionParties* Construction services servicesAnnex 1 130,000 SDR 130,000 SDR 5,000,000 SDRAnnex 2 > 130,000 SDR > 130,000 SDR = 5,000,000 SDRAnnex 3 = 130,000 SDR = 130,000 SDR = 5,000,000 SDRNotes: Annex 1: Central government entities;Annex 2: Sub-central government entities;Annex 3: All other entities which procure in accordance with theAgreements, in general public enterprises or public authorities such asutilities.* The specific SDR applied to Parties of the GPA can visit the officialwebsite of the WTO: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/gproc_e/thresh_e.html
53《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12government procurement practices.The Revision of the GPA induces general principles inArticle V and lists in detail form, the principles of nationaltreatment and non-discrimination, of use of electronic means,of conduct of procurement, of rules of origin, of offsets, and,finally, of measures not specific to procurement. They facilitatethe application of the Agreement more systematically.Notwithstanding some principles of the present legal frameworkof WTO are not listed out in this Article, their spirits andimplications exist and are scattered in other provisions of theAgreement.As in the transparency measures mentioned supra, theyare provided for expressly in the Revision of the GPA. The“Information on the Procurement System” is provided for inArticle VI, that the Parties shall publish promptly “any law,regulation, judicial decision, administrative ruling of generalapplication, standard contract clauses mandated by law orregulation and incorporated by reference in notices and tenderdocumentation, and procedure regarding covered procurement,and any modifications thereof, in an officially designated electronicor paper medium that is widely disseminated and remainsreadily accessible to the public”. The Parties shall also provide,on request, explanations to any Party; the Parties shall publishthe notices and information regarding the Parties’ procurementsystems in the electronic or paper media listed out in Appendices2 and 3, respectively. Furthermore, the Party shall publishpromptly,throughspecifiedwebsites,noticesregardingprocurementstatistics and awarded contracts in Appendix 4, for other Partiesto obtain the relevant information.In order to increase transparency of the more regularisedinformation provided by the Parties, the Revision of the GPAhas a specific provision entitled “Notices”, particularly the formsof notice of intended procurement, notice of planned procurementand summary notice. Their contents are also stipulated, pursuantto Article VII of the Revision.The Parties of the present GPA agreed to use the textof the Revision as a base for other members acceding tothe Agreement. Currently, there are eight member states ofWTO in “Accession negotiation”, which are Albania, Georgia,Jordan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, Oman, Panama andChina Taipei.53. Requisites and Procedures Provided for inthe Government Procurement of Macau3.1 Applicable Conditions of Government Procurement-Related Legislations of MacauThe wording “government procurement”, supra citato, isnot de jure an official terminology used in the Governmentof Macau, China, in which the so-called Portuguese terms“aquisição de bens e serviços” (acquisition of goods andservices) and “realização de obras públicas” (realisation ofpublic works) are used instead. Both are regulated separately.Thus it can be seen that services and public works are treatedseparately, viz the latter is not covered by the former, whichis not equal to the concept of WTO that services coverconstruction services. Herein, there is one concept, ingovernment procurement of Macau, needed to be highlighted,which is that the so-called bens has a Portuguese meaningincluding bens móveis (movable property or fixed assets) andbens imóveis (immovable property or concurrent assets).6Therefore, the provisions of tendering procedures and expenditureregime regarding government procurement apply to the paymentfor buying fixed assets by the Administrative Authorities.The Decree No. 17881 was promulgated by Portugal,in the 1930, to regulate budgeting management system of thethen colonial governments of Portugal. One of its provisions7which stipulated the expenditure and relevant formalities foracquiring stationary and other materials was the fonts et origoof the present government procurement-related legislations ofthe Macau SAR. Currently, the major effective legislationsrelating to government procurement of Macau are listed in theTable 2.The expenditure regime and procedural laws are the corelegislations in relation to government procurement of Macau,China.Albeit the official languages of the Macau SAR are Chineseand Portuguese, stipulated by Article 9 of the Basic Law ofthe Macau SAR, the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M is valid inPortuguese by its publication on the Official Bulletin of Macau(hereinafter referred to as OB) and its available Chinese versionis not legally bound as it has not been promulgated in theOB. Hence, the civil servants of the Public Administration
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究54第49期Table 2 The Major Legislations Presently Related toGovernment Procurement of the Macau SARType Legal instrument DescriptionExpenditureregimeProcedurallawOthersrefer only to the unofficial Chinese version of that Decree-Law in their daily work. It needs to be highlighted that theChinese version has no legal force. In case of a divergencein interpretation, the Portuguese version must be relied upon.Pursuant to Article 1 of this Decree-Law, the objectiveis to regulate the expenditure related to acquisition of goodsand services and public works of public organisations ofGovernment of the Macau SAR, viz any goods and servicesand public works not involving expenditure of public financeare not subject to that Decree-Law, and their procurementsdo not need to comply with the established forms of tenderand even the correspondent tendering procedures. The publicorganisations supra citato are not only the general organisations(serviços simples), but also the organisations with competenceof administrative autonomy, the autonomous organisations andthe autonomous funds.Insofar as Articles 2 to 4 of the Decree-Law defineexpressly and respectively the “expenditure for works”,“expenditure for acquisition of goods” and “expenditure foracquisition of services”, the works, goods and services coveredby this Decree-Law can be interpreted clearly. Works arethose works with a main purpose of construction, reconstruction,restoration, repair, conservation and adaptation of fixed assets,as well as the mode of conceptual construction establishedby the strategy of expenditure for works. Goods refer to anykind of goods, as long as which are for long-term use ordaily consumable goods, and include services rendered to insupplement to delivery of goods. Services include somedelivered goods in supplement to the rendering of servicesas well as the obtainment of study reports and the realisationof intellectual works, in particular the preliminary orcomplementary plans of any project with public interests.This study focuses on principally the discussion offundamental provisions in the core legislations, supra citato,related to government procurement and understands profoundlythese provisions, as well as whether these provisions arepresently in conformity with the main trend of the liberalizationof trade in government procurement at an international level.Thus, the correct approach which merges the international needscan be recommended for government procurement reform ofthe Government of the Macau SAR.3.1.1 Expenditure regime related to the governmentprocurement of the Macau SARThe expenditure regime related to government procurement,which is one of the effective administrative systems affectinggovernment finance operations, is regulated by the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M, which was revised by the Decree-LawNo. 30/89/M (hereinafter referred to as Decree-Law No.122/84/M). This Decree-Law has been used for more thantwo decades. During this period, the economy of Macau hasincreased dramatically, as shown in Table 2, but the relevantthresholds for deciding different forms of tender for governmentprocurement has not been changed. From the concept concerningthe forms of tender defined by the WTO, the thresholds establishedin the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M are used to delimit clearlythe “tender” and the “direct negotiation” by the amount ofexpenditure for government procurement. This “tender” isdeemed, herein, as a tender quasi- lato sensu, since opentender and limited tender shall be discussed later; the tenderlato sensu is any form of tender comprising direct negotiation.Decree-Law No.122/84/MDecree-Law No.63/85/MDecree-Law No.74/99/MDispatch No.52/GM/88Law No. 6/2006Decree-Law No.30/89/MDispatch No.11/GM/87Dispatch No.39/GM/96AdministrativeRegulation No.14/2002Define the rules on payment foracquisition of goods and servicesDefine the procedure for acquisition ofgoods and servicesApprove the legal regime of contractedpublic worksDefine the procedure for acquisition offixed assets by Administration“Public Finance Management System”Revise some clauses of Decree-Law No.122/84/MConfirm the expenditures on acquisitionof goods and services in the Investmentof Development and Expenditures Plan ofAdministrationDefine coordinative system in relation toactivities in the ambit of informatics ofAdministration“Acquisition, administration and utilizationof vehicles of the Macau SAR”
55《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12Table 3 Incremental Rate of GDP of MacauYear Incremental Rate of GDP (%)1984 25.21986 12.81988 17.31990 20.41992 31.71994 11.01996 1.01998 -7.32000 3.62002 10.32004 30.52005 12.02006 23Source: Macau Statistics and Census Services Bureau, Yearbooks of Statistics(Macau: Macau Statistics and Census Services Bureau, various years)3.1.2 Making contracts for the purpose of expenditurefor government procurementWe are trying herein to understand in which situationsneed contracts. De facto, a contract is not necessarily ina written form. Paragraph 1 of Article 12 (Signing contractin written form) of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M providesthat the necessary conditions to sign contract are: (i) the amountof acquisition of goods and services exceeds MOP500,000or the delivery or execution period more than 6 months; (ii)the amount of works exceeds MOP1,500,000 or the executionperiod more than 12 months. The Decree-Law has provisionsof exemption, besides these indispensable conditions for signingcontract, which are regulated in paragraph 2 of the same Article.The reasons for the exemption of signing contract in writtenform are: (i) the internal and external public security; (ii) thespecial and emergency circumstances resulted from forcemajeure; (iii) the delivery or execution period of acquisitionof goods and services is less than 30 days and the relevantpayment is not delayed; (iv) the expenditure resulting fromrevision of prices; (v) when the special and emergency reasonsare appropriately specified and justified, the amount of acquisitionof goods and of services does not exceed MOP2,500,000and MOP750,000, respectively. Furthermore, the conditionalprovision of paragraph 3 of the same Article expresses that“[t]he expenditure resulting from additional works to the originalcontracted public works, not more than 25% of the accumulatedvalue of the awarded written contract in terms of this Decree-Law constitutes a contractual execution, but it is not necessaryto make the contract in a written form”. Pursuant to paragraph1 of Article 13, the indispensable contract in written form mustbe formalised.In cases where the written contract can be exempted,is the effect of contract changed? This Decree-Law stipulatesexpressly at this point. We need to know, firstly, in whichsituations the written contract shall be exempted, beforedetermining the effect of contract can be established. Article14 of Decree-Law No. 122/84/M provides that “[t]he proposalto exempt a contract in written form is subject to Article 10”.Article 10 provides expressly that “[t]he exemption of tenderor consultation is authorised by a dispatch from the entitywhich possesses per se competence, or is empowered toauthorise the expenditure, either by itself or under a justifiedproposal by an interested Bureau”. In short, where tendersor consultations are exempted, the written contract for acquisitionof goods and services or realisation of public works is alsoexempted. When the contract in written form is exempted pursuantto paragraph 1 of Article 11 of this Decree-Law, the contractis proved by private document,8 but not by so-called “gentlemen’sagreement”. Paragraph 2 provides that when the contract inwritten form is exempted, the contract is considered valid througha document in which the procuring entity accepts the proposalof winning bidder. Under these two situations, the existentform of contract is not made as in a written contract, butits effect does exist. In other words, the contract proved byprivate document possesses also the validity equivalent toa contract. Thus, once any private document possesses thevalidity of a contract, it can fulfil the applicability coveredby paragraph 1 of Article 1 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M,being the relevant open tender subject to this Decree-Law.This applicability will be expounded upon later.3.1.3 Formation of a contract is the prerequisite of tendersRegarding the formation of a contract, Article 168 of theCode of Administrative Procedure in force (hereinafter referredto as CAP) provides that “[t]he provisions of this Code relatedto administrative procedures, with appropriate and necessaryadaptations, are applicable to the formation of administrativecontracts”.
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究56第49期Albeit the forms of tender adopted to execute governmentprocurement are decided by the respected expenditure regime,the relevant procedures indicated explicitly and implicitly inthe provisions of procedural laws regarding governmentprocurement are only applied to the formation of a contract.Concretely, paragraph 3 of Article 1 of the Decree-LawNo. 63/85/M provides expressly that “[t]he regime of thisDecree-Law applies solely to the formation of contracts which,in terms of applicable legislation, must relate to a tender andwhere this tender has not been exempted”.However, the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M does not providesexpressly, as the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M, that the relevantprocedure regarding the realisation of public works applies tothe formation of a contract; contrarily, Article 41 (Formationof a contract) of the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M provides foropen tender, limited tender and direct negotiation being includedin the provisions regarding formation of a contract. It impliesthat the tendering procedures belong to the contents of theformation of a contract. The Table 3 shows the main elementscomposing the formation of a contract in the two procedurallaws regarding government procurement.What is “formation of a contract”? De jure, the meaningof formation of a contract is not defined in both procedurallaws. The formation of a contract is not established in a singleclause but is a set of clauses. It is stipulated in the levelof “Chapter” (Capítulo) by the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M andin the level of “Tit le” (Título) by the Decree-Law No.74/99/M. Nevertheless, we can presume the significance ofthe formation of a contract by its provisions and contentsprovided for. In both Decree-Laws, the formation of a contractis not the various contents or factors composing a contract,but is, to make a contract, which procedures must be gonethrough and which conditions must be conformed, viz the stepsor processes must be required or come over before makinga contract. In the provisions regarding formation of a contractcontained in both procedural laws, the tendering proceduresof relevant procedural laws are included. The Decree-Law No.63/85/M includes solely a tendering procedure with the natureof open tender; the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M includes proceduresof open tender, limited tender by pre-qualification, limited tenderingwithout pre-qualification and direct negotiation. Its purpose isto engage, in accordance with the legally-defined steps orprocesses, in relevant tenders, and to permit de jure biddersor procuring entities taking some acts or implementing obligationsin certain period of the entire procedures, in particular thechallenge intention aroused by bidders in given circumstancesto safeguard their interests as participants in the course oftendering procedures. These acts or obligations are the challenge,Table 4 Main Elements Defined by the Formation of a Contract in the Procedural Laws Regarding GovernmentProcurementNature of lawLawContent of provisionTender Tender Open TenderDirect negotiationLimited tenderLimited tender by pre-qualificationLimited tender without pre-qualificationChallenge addressed to omission of tendering stepsLitigationJudicial appealProof of petition handed overNoticePublication of actsTender OpentenderLimited tender by pre-qualificationLimited tender without pre-qualificationDirect negotiationExpenditure regimeDL No. 122/84/MArt. 7Art. 8DL No. 74/99/MArt. 42Art. 45Art. 43Art. 44Art. 46Art. 47Art. 48Art. 49Art. 50Art. 51Art. 52 to 108Art. 109 to 112Art. 113 to 116Art. 117Art. 4Art. 5Art. 6Art. 7Art. 8Art. 9Art. 10 to 49Chapter2:FormationofacontractProcedural lawDL No. 63/85/MArt. 1Title3:Formationofacontract
57《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12litigation, judicial appeal, proof of petition handed over, noticeand publication of acts, etc. They are acts required in proceduresbut are not contents of contract required. In this regard, therequirements of contents and terms of a contract are subjectto Article 17 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M and the LawNo. 17/92/M. To be stressed, on base of lex specialis derogatlegi generali, the open tender of acquisition of goods and servicesor of realisation of public works applies to the “formation ofa contract” established in the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M orthe Decree-Law No. 74/99M rather than the relevant provisionsof CAP, not resulting in the competition on applicable provisionsof petition rights.3.2 Expenditure Regime for Practicing GovernmentProcurementThe Code of Administrative Procedure, which ispromulgated by the Decree-Law No. 57/99/M, is presentlythe basic law regulating the public administrative procedureof the Administrative Authority. Paragraph 1 of Article 169of the CAP provides that “[e]xcept under a special regime,the contractor must be selected by public tender, limited tenderor direct negotiation, in contracts that aim to associate a personwith regular implementation of administrative responsibilities”.This general provision is applicable to government procurementpractices which possess necessarily contracts, viz the procedureregarding government procurement engaging in must be carriedout by open tender, limited tender or direct negotiation. Paragraphs2 to 4 of the same Article are applicable solely to conditionsestablished for these forms of tender, but do not define them.They provide respectively that “[a]ll entities which fulfil thegeneral requisites defined by law must be accepted to publictender”; “[e]ntities which fulfil requisites specially defined, case-by-case, by the Administrative Authority or have been invitedfor the effect of limited tender by public contractor, may beaccepted to limited tender”; and “[d]irect negotiations must beregularly engaged in consultation made with, at least, threeentities”.Whereas the objective of government procurement is touse effectively the public financial resources, the expenditureregime managing government procurement is the core legalprovision in the relevant legal framework. As mentioned, theDecree-Law No. 122/84/M is the relevant expenditure regime.In this Decree-Law, government procurement is subject to differentlevels of expenditure and has its applicable forms of tender,enabling to achieve cost-effectiveness of the AdministrativeAuthority. Table 5 lists the thresholds of correspondent formsof tender.Table 5 Thresholds of all Forms of Tender RegardingGovernment Procurement of the Macau SARRelevant Acquisition ofForm of tender provision goods and Public worksservicesTenderPre-qualification* Art. 6 >MOP7,500,000 >MOP15,000,000General situation Art. 7(1) >MOP750,000 >MOP2,500,000ConsultationDirectin writingArt. 8(3) >MOP15,000 >MOP150,000negotiationVerbal consultation Art. 8(3) =MOP15,000 =MOP150,000Exemption fromquotationArt. 8(4) Specified circumstances**Notes: * If the Chief Executive decides to take place a tender by pre-qualificationpursuant to Article 6 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M, contract can beawarded by direct negotiation in accordance with the provision of paragraph2(d) of Article 7 of the Decree-Law;** Specified circumstances are those provided for by paragraph 4 ofArticle 8 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M.Thus, it can be seen that the forms of tender determinedby the tendering amounts are provided for by the expenditureregime and not the procedural laws related to governmentprocurement. It is stressed that the tenders provided for byDecree-Law No. 122/84/M divide into two forms: tender anddirect negotiation. In comparison with the forms provided fornominally by the CAP, the tender provided for by the formerare deemed as open tender and limited tender provided forby the latter. Hence, what are forms of tender stipulated bythe procedural laws regarding government procurement of theMacau SAR? The sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 infra discuss indetails the tender and direct negotiation provided for in theprocedural laws regarding the acquisition of goods and servicesand the realisation of public works.3.3 Forms of Tender in the Present Legal Frameworkof Procurement of the Government of the Macau SARPursuant to Article 5 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M,“the expenditures for works or acquisition of goods and servicesmust be realised through tender or direct negotiation”, in the
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究58第49期circumstance of not engaging in tender by pre-qualification. Thetender by pre-qualification seems, therefore, the third form oftender apart from tender and direct negotiation. De jure, thetender by pre-qualification is a special provision which dispensesopen tender, so as to ensuring the bidders, whose qualificationshave been examined in advance, are invited to participatein a tender which has a selective nature. From the thresholdslisted in Table 4, the tender by pre-qualification belongs toin the coverage of tender according to its threshold as a“specific system of pre-qualification”, as well as a form oftender used to affect the practices of government procurement.Therefore, how to identify the form of tender relies on thecorrespondent amount of acquisition of goods and services orrealisation of public works. However, in which situations canthe qualification of bidder be examined in advance? This studyhas further discussion on this in later sections.As mentioned supra, the Decree-Law No. 122/84/Mstipulates the expenditure regime, regarding governmentprocurement, which determines which form of tender is to beadopted in response to the estimated amount of realisationof a tender or to other special circumstances. Paragraph 1of Article 9 of the Decree-Law provides that “[t]he processof tender must respect the legal procedures defined by theapplicable legislation in force. …”. In the procedural laws inforce regarding government procurement, the Decree-Law No.63/85/M stipulates the tendering procedure to acquire goodsand services; the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M stipulates thetendering procedures to realise public works. Pursuant toparagraph 2 of Article 9 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M,the process of tender or direct negotiation, with or withoutconsultation, shall be the responsibility of the Bureau intendedto benefit from the realisation of works or the acquisition ofgoods and services, in general circumstances; they shall bethe responsibility of the Financial Services Bureau, in specialcircumstances, by Dispatch of the Chief Executive. Clearly,the Financial Services Bureau plays an important role in termsof government procurement. It is because the Financial ServicesBureau is responsible to manage and supervise the entirepublic finance and budgeting of the Government of the MacauSAR.The Decree-Law No. 63/85/M regulates solely to aprocedure of tender, not including any provision related to directnegotiation, viz the execution of direct negotiation is not subjectto that Decree-Law.In the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M, there are preciseprovisions addressing the forms of tender. Article 41 of theDecree-Law provides that “[t]he signing of a contract for publicworks is engaged in public tender, limited tender by pre-qualification or limited tender without pre-qualification, exceptin cases in which the law permits direct negotiation or theexemption of tender, and this exemption is decided by acompetent entity”. In this regard, this Decree-Law stipulatesexpressly that it needs to choose the appropriate form of tenderbefore establishing a contract of public works. However, theform of tender must be chosen, in accordance with thecircumstance of a tender, in the order of open tender, limitedtender by pre-qualification, limited tender without pre-qualificationand, lastly, direct negotiation. Thus, the adoption of directnegotiation to engage in public works has no legal procedurein the present legal framework of procurement.Whereas the provision of Article 5 of the Decree-LawNo. 122/84/M provides that “the expenditure for works oracquisition of goods and services must be realised throughtender or direct negotiation”, not in derogation from the tenderby pre-qualification, the following section discusses these twoforms of tender.3.3.1 TenderThe tender regarding government procurement of Macauis subject to paragraph 1 of Article 7 of the Decree-Law No.122/84/M, providing that “[n]ot in derogation from paragraph2, the tender is compulsory where: a) the works have anestimated value over MOP2,500,000; b) the acquisition of goodsand services have an estimated value over MOP750,000”.Paragraph 2 provides for exceptional circumstances, wherethe realisation of a tender shall be exempted, and where acontract shall be awarded through direct negotiation underfavourable conditions which the superior entity recognises. Theseexceptional circumstances include: (1) a certain entity possessesexclusive rights or patent of invention of a tender; (2) a newwork or goods and services are complementary in nature;(3) where the treated works, goods and services, which possessparticular characteristics, specificity of execution, not fungible
59《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12nature of supply to realise by successful bidders, or the specialnature of some clauses to stipulate in respect of the contract,become advisable or particularly advantageous to the interestsof the Region of Macau, to award contract to a certain entity;(4) where no one bidded for the last tender opened for thesame purpose and by the same Bureau, or where all tenderswhich have been received through it were consideredunacceptable; (5) where the tender by pre-qualification has beenrealised; (6) where the objective of the tender is the designationand obtainment of studies, projects, technical consultationservices and inspection services to contracted works; (7) wherethe internal or external public security of the Region of Macauis at risk; (8) where the extraordinary and emergencycircumstances resulting from by the cases of force majeure.Furthermore, in the circumstances of points (1), (2), (3), (6),(7) and (8), the consultation with, at least, three individualor collective entities of speciality domiciliated, headquarteredor with corporate representation in the Region of Macau, canbe exempted, pursuant to paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article 8.In what situation can the tender by pre-qualification beengaged in? Pursuant to the provision of Article 6 of theDecree-Law No. 122/84/M, the Chief Executive may determinethe realisation of tender by pre-qualification where the estimatedamount of acquisition of goods and services exceedsMOP7,500,000, or the estimated amount of the realisation ofpublic works exceeds MOP15,000,000, or in extraordinarycircumstances such as the goods and services require orinvolve special technology; for the works, an extremely shortperiod of execution, or a complex and exceptional concept,etc. Obviously, the target of tender by pre-qualification is toexamine previously the qualifications of fixed assets, goodsto be delivered and services to be rendered as well as theworks to be executed by bidders, but not the examinationof bidders per se. De jure, pursuant to paragraph 2(d) ofArticle 7, the tendering procedure concerning tender by pre-qualification may be exempted and its contract may be awardedby direct negotiation; in other words, the procuring entitiesmust still consult with, or request quotation from, at least,three individual or collective entities of speciality domiciliated,headquartered or with corporate representation in the Regionof Macau. In short, any tender of acquisition of goods andservices or works, where the estimated amount fulfils thethreshold set out for tender by pre-qualification, or conformsto very special conditions, obtaining determination of the ChiefExecutive, can be engaged in a simple form of direct negotiationto select bidder. This shows that the adoption of direct negotiationby a particular reason is exceptional insofar as a tender iscovered in government procurements of the Macau SAR. Thisexceptional provision cannot be seen in the GPA of WTO.The acquisition of goods and services and the realisationof public works have different characteristics. Albeit their tenderingprocedures are more or less similar, the concrete provisionsregarding tendering procedures are divergent, in particular theprovisions regarding “qualification of bidders” do not exist inthe tendering procedure for the acquisition of goods and services.Table 6 compares the tendering procedures of both procedurallaws.Table 6 Comparison in Nominal Provisions of Procedural Laws Regarding Government Procurement of theMacau SARDL No. 63/85/M DL No. 74/99/MContents of provisions Chapter 2 - Tender Title III Chapter 2 – Open TenderArticle Number of article Article Number of articleTender documentations for the reference of bidders Art. 10 to 12 3 Art. 52 to 55 4Notice of tender Art. 13 1 Art. 56 to 57 2Ways of proposals’ submission and its period Art. 14 1 Art. 58 to 60 3Qualification of bidders — — Art. 61 to 63 3Temporary deposit Art. 15 to 20 6 Art. 64 to 67 4Proposal Art. 21 to 24 4 Art. 68 to 75 8Opening proposal Art. 25 to 35 11 Art. 76 to 92 17Awarding contract Art. 36 to 42 7 Art. 93 to 100 8Definite deposit Art. 43 to 45 3 Art. 101 to 103 3Signing contract Art. 46 to 49 4 Art. 104 to 108 5
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究60第49期Superficially, both regulations are similar and their stepsare approximate. Notwithstanding the procedure stipulated bythe Decree-Law No. 63/85/M names “tender”, this tenderingprocedure has practically the nature of open tender. Besidesthat, the applicability of the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M is basedon the paragraph 1 of Article 7 and paragraph 1 of Article9 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M, which are the identicalprovisions realising contracted public works to which the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M applies. Ergo, the tender provided for bythe Decree-Law No. 63/85/M is deemed as an open tender.Figure 1 Steps of Open TenderEngaging in open tendering procedures must comply withthe correspondent provisions cited in the table aforementioned,either the acquisition of goods and services or the realisationof public works. Albeit the needs required administratively arenot contained, de facto, in those provisions, the entire tenderingprocedure can only be engaged in legitimately according torelevant provisions. Figure 1 depicts the principal administrativeand legal steps engaging in open tender.3.3.1.1 Open tenderProvisions of open tender regarding the acquisition ofgoods and servicesThe tendering procedure regarding the acquisition of goodsand services is subject to the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M, butthis Decree-Law is not applicable to all tenders fulfilling thethresholds set out for acquisition of goods and services. Theconditions of its applicability were defined in Article 1 of thisDecree-Law, which sets out the applicable public entities,indicating expressly “… the contracts of rendering goods andservices to public organisations, in particular the organisationswith administrative autonomy, the autonomous services andautonomous funds, of the Administrative Authority of the Regionof Macau, are subject to the system defined by this Decree-Law”; paragraph 3 sets out which tender can apply to thetendering procedure provided for by this Decree-Law. It indicatesexpressly that “[t]he system of this Decree-Law applies solelyto the formation of contracts which, in terms of applicablelegislation, must be engaged in tender and where this tenderhas not been exempted”. It can be interpreted that there aretwo major principles applying to this Decree-Law: firstly, therelevant procuring entities are subject to the Decree-Law wherethe contract must be established for acquisition of goods andservices; secondly, the tender applies to the provisions of“formation of a contract”. This means that in the case of atender not making a contract, the tendering procedure set outby the Decree-Law does not apply to that tender. Albeit thatthe Decree-law is generally regarded as procedural law ingovernment procurement, the presupposition applying to it isde jure the making of a contract; contrarily, there is no procedurefor a tender not making a contract. Notwithstanding the makingof a contract has been discussed above, it needs to be stressedthat making a contract for government procurement is the
61《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12indispensable condition of the respective expenditure regime.Thus, does the tendering procedure provided for in theDecree-Law No. 63/85/M apply only to an open tender? TheDecree-Law does not indicate explicitly or implicitly that thetendering procedure is a procedure for open tender. However,we can infer from the provisions of the expenditure regimethe kinds of tendering procedure provided for by that Decree-Law. Before analysing it, it is necessary to understand theconditions required by the CAP for entities to participate ina tender. Paragraph 2 of Article 169 of the CAP providesfor the conditions which the entities fulfil to be admitted toparticipate in a open tender, by which is “[a]ll entities whichfulfil general requisites defined by law ……”; paragraph 3provides for the conditions which the entities fulfil to be admittedto participate in a limited tender, by which is “[e]ntities whichfulfil requisites specially defined, case-by-case, by theAdministrative Authority, or have been invited for the effectof limited tender by public contractor, may be able to uselimited tenders”. De facto, the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M doesnot stipulate any provision for the qualifications and conditionsof bidders. It can be considered, ergo, in two aspects: firstly,where a tender which applies to the Decree-Law No.63/85/M but is not engaged in pre-qualification through Article6 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M has a nature of openness,that tender is deemed as an open tender; secondly, wherea tender by pre-qualification is authorised by the Chief Executivethrough that Article but the tender is not exempted, that tenderis deemed as a limited tender in accordance with the provisionof CAP. If a tender is exempted, it does not need to applyto the tendering procedure set out in the Decree-Law No.63/85/M and engage in direct negotiation, pursuant to paragraph2 of Article 7 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M.Provisions of open tender regarding the realisation ofpublic worksThe tendering procedures regarding the realisation of publicworks are subject to the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M. Pursuantto paragraph 1 of Article 1 of the Decree-Law, this decree-law “applies to contracted public works promoted and financedby the Administration, including the Municipal Organisationsand other public legal persons”. The conditions of this provisionare that the execution body of public works must be theAdministrative Authority and the public works need a designatedcontract.The application to the open tender set out by that Decree-Law is decided by the provisions of Articles 6 and 7 ofthe Decree-Law No. 122/84/M.The conditions applied to open tender are provided forin paragraph 1 of Article 7 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M,the tender set out in this provision possesses the nature ofopenness. Any entity can bid for the tender provided thatit conforms to general provisions. The procedure is stipulatedin Articles 52 to 108 of the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M, asshown in Table 5.Notwithstanding the expenditure regime supra citato definesthe works, the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M also defines it. Afterthe interpretation of Article 2 of the latter regarding contractedpublic works, the meaning of public works is identical to theprovision of the former.3.3.1.2 Limited tenderProvision of limited tender regarding the acquisition ofgoods and servicesAs aforementioned, the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M doesnot stipulate the nature of a tender, but only its procedure.Where the procedure set out in this Decree-Law is applicableand the qualifications of bidders are examined previously,the provisions of Articles 6 and 9 of the Decree-Law No.122/84/M are fulfilled, but the tender is not exempted, vizparagraph 2 of Article 7 of that Decree-Law is not applicable.Hence, a tender based on the referred provisions, in applicationto the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M, is deemed as a limited tender.The respective applicable procedure is identical to the procedurefor an open tender addressing for the acquisition of goodsand services.Provision of limited tender regarding the realisation ofpublic worksThe Decree-Law No. 74/99/M provides for two typesof limited tender, which by pre-qualification is subject to Article43 and which without pre-qualification is subject to Article 44.The former refers to situations “where only the entities invitedby the owner of the work may submit proposals, after theyhave been previously qualified for the project by the ownerof work through the fulfilment of requisites and conditions
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究62第49期previously defined”; the latter refers to “where only the entitiesinvited by owner of the work may submit proposals”. Apparently,both are the entities invited by owner of work (dono da obra)submitting proposals, the distinction between them is merelythe qualifications of bidders mentioned in former one beingexamined previously and fulfilling the requisites, and then thequalification mentioned in the latter is not examined previously.Regarding the former, the Administrative Authority, forguaranteeing the qualification of bidders is the same or notless than required, shall update per annum the lists of bidderswith pre-qualification so as to facilitate the limited tender whennecessary.In the provisions setting out the two types of limitedtender, the number of invited entities is not less than three,9which is in conformity with the spirit set out in paragraph4 of Article 169 of the CAP which provides for that consultationmust be engaged in not less than three entities.The realisation of public works by the limited tender bypre-qualification depends on the provisions of Articles 6 and9 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M, but is not applicableto paragraph 2 of Article 7, viz tender is not exempted. Theprecise steps of relevant procedures are stipulated in provisionsof Articles 109 to 112 of the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M.The realisation of public works by the limited tender withoutpre-qualification is based on the legal requisites for launchingan open tender, plus the authorisation by a competent entity,and then the owner of work may just invite entities to submitproposals. The precise steps of relevant procedures are stipulatedin provisions of Articles 113 to 116 of the Decree-Law No.74/99/M.3.3.1.3 Direct negotiationThe expenditure regime regarding government procurementhas explicit provision to which situations apply to directnegotiation to award contracts. Paragraph 1 of Article 8 ofthe Decree-Law No. 122/84/M provides for that “[d]irectnegotiation is engaged in the cases in which a tender iseither not compulsory or is exempted according to the provisionsof paragraph 2 of Article 7”. Furthermore, there is a simpleprovision for the qualification of bidders. Paragraph 2 of thesame Article provides that “[t]he direct negotiation shall principallyand probably be engaged in consultation with, at least, threeindividual or collective entities of speciality domiciliated,headquartered or with corporate representation in the Regionof Macau”. Where the amount related to government procurementis below a certain threshold, this Decree-Law asks for a simpleconsultation, which enables a reduction of bureaucracy andadministrative costs. Paragraph 3 of the same Article providesthat “[n]ot in derogation from the provision of the followingparagraph, the consultation referred to in the paragraph abovemust be compulsorily written down, where the payment amountis over MOP15,000 or MOP150,000 pursuant to the acquisitionof goods and services or the expenditure for works,respectively”. In this regard, consultation may be engagedin verbally where the respective expenses are lower thanthe regulated amounts.Provisions of direct negotiation regarding the acquisitionof goods and servicesIn the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M, direct negotiation is neitherexplicitly nor implicitly stipulated. From the beginning, theprovision of paragraph 1 of Article 1 cites immediately that“[t]he contracts of rendering goods and services … are subjectto the regime defined in this Decree-Law”, presuming that theDecree-Law does not apply to acquiring goods and servicesby means of direct negotiation to award contracts, as directnegotiation needs to make a contract. Ergo, the acquisitionof goods and services by direct negotiation may solely applyto the relevant provisions of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/Mand the CAP.The contract awarded for acquiring goods and servicesby direct negotiation has two situations: firstly, pursuant toparagraph 2 of Article 7 of that Decree-Law, the amount foracquiring goods and services reaches the threshold of thetender but the tender is exempted, the contract is permittedto be awarded by direct negotiation; secondly, the amountfor acquiring goods and services reaches only to the thresholdof direct negotiation.Provision of direct negotiation regarding the realisationof public worksThe Decree-Law No. 74/99/M has provisions regardingthe direct negotiation. Paragraph 1 of Article 45 provides that“[t]he contract of works is made by direct negotiation whenthe contracted entity is chosen independently upon tender”.
63《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12The “independently upon tender” indicated herein refers to thecontracted entity not being chosen by open tender, limitedtender by pre-qualification and limited tender without pre-qualification set out in other provisions of that Decree-Law;i.e. direct negotiation is the last choice of the forms of tenderset out in that Decree-Law, for making contract of public works.Paragraph 2 of Article 45 indicates in which situationsthe contract must be made for realisation of works by directnegotiation. These situations include: (1) where in open tender,limited tender by pre-qualification, limited tender without pre-qualification, engaged in for awarding contract of work, thereis no any proposal or any adequate proposal having beensubmitted and the contract by direct negotiation is signed inidentical conditions to those conditions set out for the effectof the tender; (2) where the works may only be entrustedto one designated entity for technical, artistic reasons or reasonsrelated to protection of exclusive rights; (3) where the emergencyof execution of works results in an unforeseeable occurrenceby an owner of work and is not imputable to the ownerof work, and is incompatible with the required periods foropen or limited tenders; (4) where new works repeat similarworks contracted by the same owner of work to the sameentity, since these works are in conformity with a commonbase project and since the previous works have been awardeda contract through open tender or through limited tender bypre-qualification and have not passed more than three yearsafter the date of signing of the initial contract.As aforementioned, direct negotiations need generally toconsult with, at least, three entities, but paragraph 4 of Article8 of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M provides exceptionallyfor that “[t]he consultation referred to in paragraphs 2 and3 of this Article which includes any circumstances providedfor in points a), b), e), f) and g) of paragraph 2 of Article7, can be exempted”. Nevertheless, paragraph 2 of Article45 of the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M is an exceptional provision,in which the request for quotation or consultation, in writing,with at least three entities can be exemption. In this regard,direct negotiation is undoubtedly a peculiar form of tender, apeculiar way for procurement, which can only be implementedin non-ordinary circumstances of procurement.3.3.2 Applicable procedure for acquiring fixed assets ofthe Administrative AuthorityAs abovementioned, the procedures of governmentprocurement of the Macau SAR are decided by the expenditureregime regulating the acquisition of goods and services andworks, and the procedural laws are legislated separately. Theexpenditure regime is also applicable to the acquisition of fixedassets, as the goods (bens in Portuguese comprise bens móviesand bens imóveis) acquired by the Government also includesfixed assets.To acquire fixed assets, the Dispatch No. 52/GM/88 inforce stipulates the procedure required administratively. Article3 provides that “[t]he Financial Services Bureau shall carryout the necessary procedure to facilitate the acquisition andthe realisation of expenditure through direct negotiation, pre-consultation or tender, in conformity with a form which isconsidered as the most favourable to the interests of the Region”.It is interpreted as, in the conformity with the requisites forpayment, the form of tender to be applied for acquiring fixedassets is still chosen pursuant to the provisions of the Decree-Law No. 122/84/M. Nevertheless, the Government of the MacauSAR has not, hitherto, established specific procedural lawsfor the acquisition of fixed assets. Thus, if the Governmenthas to acquire fixed assets, the Decree-Law No. 63/85/Mis applicable, and the provisions of CAP may be appliedas guidance. Nonetheless, there are not provisions related to“pre-consultation” in the expenditure regime regarding governmentprocurement. The only possibility of “pre-consultation” is analternative terminology utilised among legislations; otherwise,the acquisition of fixed assets does not apply to direct negotiationfor payment, the only choice is by tender.4. Legis la t ions of Macau RegardingGovernment Procurement Imply the PrinciplesContained in the GPA4.1 Principle of Non-discriminationDecree-Law No. 74/99/M has exclusive provisionsregarding the qualification of bidders. Article 61 stipulates twotypes of bidder being admitted: the first type is that “[t]heentities registered in the official registry as contractors of publicworks of nature and classification indicated in announcementsand tender programmes”; the second type is that “[t]he entities
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究64第49期not established in the Region and which are not registeredin the official registry as contractors of public works that isapplicable to the terms of Article 63”. The entities indicatedby the former are where their commercial registries have beenregistered in the Businesses and Vehicles Registry and, forthe effect of taxation, the registries have been registered inthe Business Registration Centre of the Financial ServicesBureau, enabling them to execute works legally in the Regionof Macau. Simply, if a company headquartered in a foreigncountry establishes a subsidiary in the Macau SAR whichhas registered its relevant activities regarding execution of works,this subsidiary is considered as a bidder of the first type.The entities indicated by the latter is that they do not engagein the registry of a foreign company, but they can be admittedas bidders in conformity with one of the following situationsprovided for by Article 63 (Bidders not established in theRegion), which are respectively:Paragraph 1 of the Article provides that “[i]n thetenders for awarding contracts of public works in an amountequal to, or higher than, the determined amount for the effectsof the application of international agreements, signed by theRegion of Macau, which contain the procedures for awardingcontracts of public works, the bidders established in the countrieswhich are Parties to these agreements are admitted in thesame terms and conditions defined as for the locally-establishedbidders in the Region”. The “awarding contract of works inan amount” referred to in this provision is the estimated amountfor contracting the tender; and the “determined amount for theeffects of the application of international agreements, signedby the Region of Macau, which contain the procedures forawarding contracts of public works”, hitherto, is not definedyet, as Macau, China has not signed the respective internationalagreements; finally, the “bidders established in the countrieswhich are parties to these agreements” are those parties whohave signed the GPA of the WTO. Whereas the inexistenceof the second requisite, albeit this provision is in effect, itsapplicability is null.Paragraph 2 of the Article provides that “[w]here requiredby the characteristic of the works, specialised enterprises notestablished in the Region may be admitted to the tender, througha dispatch expounded by an entity competent for this effect”.Since this provision is contained in the part of an open tenderin that procedural law, viz this provision is solely applicableto the circumstance of an open tender. Foreign enterprisesmay take advantage of their speciality to fulfil the needs ofcharacteristic of works. The Chief Executive authorises it bya dispatch with clear and detailed explanation to award thecontract to foreign enterprise as a contractor of work. Thisprovision materialises the discretion used by the Chief Executiveto maximise the interests of the Region of Macau.Paragraph 3 of the Article provides that “[t]he biddersreferred to in previous paragraphs must request, not later thanthe date limit set out for asking for copies of the tender’sdocuments, the entity which maintains the official registry ofcontractors of public works, the equivalence of the registryrequired for admission to the tender, giving evidence of itsregistry on the official registry of contractors of public worksin the country and region where the bidders have beenestablished”. In short, the procuring entity or other AdministrativeAuthority of the Region proves the respective commercial registrymade by foreign enterprises in their countries or regions, whichpossesses the equivalent effect to required registry of otherbidders in the tender.Where the circumstances supra citato are not fulfilled,paragraph 4 provides that “… the bidders referred to in theprevious paragraph must request the same entity for theestablishment of this equivalence, submitting, the followingdocuments: a) [d]eclaration which mentions specifically theequipment necessary for the execution of works and thespecialised personnel intended to be recruited ; b) [d]ocumentsproving their experiences in execution of the works put onthe tender, namely lists of both public works and individualworks of the same type, together with execution certificatesissued by the contract awarding entities; c) [d]ocuments provingtheir economic and financial power; d) [d]eclaration, made inan authentic form notarially in the country or region whereit is established is submitted to the legislation of the Regionof Macau and to the forum of a competent court of Macau,with renouncement expressed to any other court”. Apparently,this provision is an exceptional one. Where a foreign enterprisecannot fulfil the requisites indicated in the three paragraphsabovementioned, it still can demonstrate proven documents,
65《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12proved by competent entity indicated by paragraph 2 asequivalent registry, afterwards, the foreign enterprise can beadmitted.In the procedural law regarding the acquisition of goodsand services, there is not any analogous provision whichstipulates foreign enterprise participating in an open tender.4.2 Principle of TransparencyThis principle is contained in the procedural laws regardingthe acquisition of goods and services and the realisation ofcontracted public works, respectively the Decree-Law No.63/85/M and the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M.Notwithstanding the principle of transparency concerningthe government procurement is not expressly provided for inthe legal framework regarding the government procurement ofthe Macau SAR, this principle is, de facto, covered andincarnated in various extents in other regulations, procedures,practices, and even clauses in challenge procedures, relatingto the government procurement of the Government of the MacauSAR.The provisions regarding the tendering procedures are inArticles 10 to 49 of the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M and Articles52 to 108 of the Decree-Law No. 74/99M. These provisionsdefine clearly each step with which must be complied in theentire tendering procedures, pointing out mainly: (1) the informationneeded in the tender has “tendering programme” and “noteof duty”, and for contracted public works includes an additionalplan; the tendering programme aims to determine regulationswith which the bidders must comply in the entire tenderingprocedure and must contain specified contents; and the noteof duty aims to list the specification, one-by-one, to whichthe procurement must conform, and to list the legal clausesand general and special technical clauses which must becontained in the contract, enabling bidders to prepare theirproposals appropriately based on these specifications andtechnical requirements; (2) the notice of tender must point outthe compulsory documents of a tender; (3) the amount ofdeposit and the way of its payment; (4) the way of preparingproposals and other compulsory documents, as well as therequirements of their submission; (5) the way of opening ofproposals and the relevant participating entities; (6) the normativerules for, and rights of, the award of contracts; (7) the periodfor making awarded contract and its contents.Regarding the making of contract of procurement, theDecree-Law No. 122/84/M has exclusive provisions, which:(1) Article 11 provides for the forms of contract in writing;(2) the signing of a contract is provided for by Article 12and must reach the threshold and the circumstances of itsexemption; (3) Article 15 provides for situations where thecontracted amounts are paid over a number of years; (4)the draft contract before signing is provided for by Article16 and must be authorized by the entity which has permittedthe realisation of expenditure; (5) the contract in writing isprovided for by Article 17 and must specify necessary clauses.Regarding the use of languages, abiding scrupulously theprovisions of Basic Law of the Macau SAR, Chinese andPortuguese are the official languages. Bidders can choose eitherone to prepare and submit their proposals, save other provisions.Such as, paragraph 3 of Article 68 of the Decree-Law No.74/99/M provides that “[t]he presentation of proposals writtenin other languages is permitted as such is expressly referredto in the announcements and programmes of tenders”; andparagraph 4 provides that “[f]or the tenders to which the provisionof paragraph 1 of Article 63 is applicable, and the previousparagraph is applied, one of the languages admitted must beEnglish”. It can be seen that the Administrative Authority ofthe Macau SAR admits proposals prepared in other language,inter alia, of English, in peculiar circumstances.Regarding the announcement and publication of tenders,they must be composed in the official languages of the MacauSAR. Pursuant to the provisions of paragraph 2 of Article72 of the CAP, Article 9 of the Decree-Law No. 63/85/Mand of Decree-Law No. 74/99/M, the announcement of tendersand the acts of publicity required by law must be publishedin the OB of the Macau SAR, and two newspapers whichhave more readers in the Region, one of which is compulsorilyChinese and other is Portuguese. Certainly, if an additionalforeign language is added to the respected publicity, the referredprovisions, particularly by the principles of utilisation of officiallanguages and of legality stipulated in the CAP, are not violated;contrarily, it can contain the principles of equity andproportionality, of collaboration between the Administration andthe individuals, etc. If English is chosen as the foreign language
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究66第49期to publish, the requirement of the WTO is conformed; it facilitatesthe enterprises, in Macau and in neighbour regions whichoperations are in English, to understand the publication regardingthe government procurement of Government of the Macau SAR.4.3 Principle of Fair CompetitionThe principle of transparency passes through the GPAof the WTO, as mentioned, and develops a crucial functionin the market for government procurement. Practically, faircompetition is an effective measure, promoted pro-actively bycertain developed countries, aiming to safeguard domestic andinternational trade via the liberalisation of trade. Therefore, theWTO engages in active negotiation to include agreements onfair competition in its multilateral framework of agreement.The provisions relating to the protection of fair competitionare in Title X (Regulation of competition between entrepreneurs),or from Articles 153 to 173, of Book I of the CommercialCode of the Macau SAR. Firstly, Article 153 provides forlegal limits to general rules on competition between entrepreneurs,that “(1) Competition between entrepreneurs shall take placein a manner that does not harm the interests of the economyof the Territory [Region], and within the limits established bythe law. (2) All agreements or practices that have the objector effect of preventing, falsifying or restricting competition areforbidden, without prejudice to special provisions”. It can beseen that, rules on competit ion apply to commercialentrepreneurs,10 prohibiting them from reaching agreements,decisions and practices in abstract form set out in paragraph2. Moreover, the Commercial Code also provides for “unfaircompetition”. Paragraph 1 of Article 156 provides for that “[t]he conducts mentioned in this Chapter are considered unfairif they are practiced in the market with the purpose ofcompetition”. The requisites constituting unfair competition setout in Article 158, which provides for that “[u]nfair competitionis any act of competition that objectively reveals itself to bein breach of the norms and honest usage of economic activity”.Acts of unfair competition provided for in the Commercial Code11include: acts of confusion, misleading acts, offers, negativestatements, acts of comparison, acts of imitation, exploitationof other persons’ reputation, breach of secrets, promotion andexploitation of contractual breaches, exploitation of dependences,and sales at a loss etc.For government procurement which is generally betweenbidders (entrepreneurs) or between bidders and government,acts practiced by bidders for obtaining awarded contracts, whichaim to the selection of delivery of goods, rendering of servicesor realisation of public works, are competitive practices. Inthis regard, bidding practices are deemed as competitivepractices.In Decree-Law No. 63/85/M, there is only one clauserelated to the protection of fair competition, which is paragraphc) of Article 38 which provides that “[w]here collusion betweenthe bidders is presumed”, “the awarding entity has the rightnot to award the contract”. In this regard, the Decree-Lawdoes not stipulate prosecution of bidders who exercise anti-competitive practices. In this situation, the provision of unfaircompetition contained in the Commercial Code is applicable.Therefore, if bidders exercise other anti-competitive practices,especially the predatory pricing, bid-rigging, etc. which havebeen detected, the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M does not conferthe right of the awarding entity to not award a contract, inthis case; even if these anti-competitive practices are just detectedby the awarding entity after the awarded contract, there isno provision that the awarding entity has the right to annulthe awarded contract. So, these anti-competitive practices aredeemed as commercial acts of unfair competition. In the presentlegal framework of protection of fair competition, the provisionof the Commercial Code can be applied to guarantee faircompetition.As the promulgation of the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M waslater than others, its provisions include general clauses regardingthe protection of fair competition, except the consideration ofthe provisions of GPA of the WTO, enabling it to incarnatethe spirit of protection of fair competition in the entire Decree-Law, as well as to enforce those provisions. Paragraph 1of Article 5 of the Decree-Law provides that “[a]ll acts andagreements likely to disturb the normal conditions of competitionare prohibited, and the submitted proposals and the requiredcandidature must be rejected”. The content of this prohibitiverule is abstract and does not list concretely which acts oragreements shall disturb normal competition, so it has thecharacteristic of a general prohibition. This Decree-Law includesa provision regarding the act of suspension of an awarded
67《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12contract, and the owner of the work can rescind the contractunilaterally. Paragraph 2 of that Article provides that “[i]f anact or agreement damaging competition results in an awardedcontract for public works, its execution must be suspended,being followed by the procedure set out in Article 209, exceptwhere a competent authority decides specifically otherwise”.Albeit this provision does not regulate expressly any punishmentin regard to the bidders or awarded contractors for transgressingfair competition, its proviso is an exceptional provision. Certainly,the violation of fair competition also applies to the provisionsbetween Articles 170 and 173 of the Commercial Code, whichthe Administrative Authority may also file a lawsuit, requestinga civil liability for relevant compensation for damages.In comparison of the provisions of the two procedurallaws, the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M is an all-rounded onein protecting fair competition, and once an act of damagingcompetition is practiced by an awarded contractor, the awardingentity may adopt judicial assistance to punish the awardedcontractor.4.4 NotificationIn the entire tendering procedure, and pursuant to theprovisions of procedural laws regarding the governmentprocurement, the procuring entity must promptly and preciselynotify all bidders participating in the government procurement.For this effect, Article 8 of the Decree-Law No. 63/85/M andArticle 50 of the Decree-Law No. 74/99/M have the articleentitled “Notifications”, being part of the requisites of “formationof a contract”. This article set out the notifications during thetendering procedure must be done by means of registeredmail with a return receipt requested form and the notificationsmust state in a sufficiently precise way the respected actor decision, so as to the informed person knows clearly itsnature and contents. Surely, the content of notification mustbe composed by the official languages of the Macau SAR;if necessary, it can be done additionally by foreign language,such as to inform the relevant bidders in English.4.5 Administrative and Judicial AssistanceIn the entire practice of government procurement, judicialassistance can safeguard the rights of participation and ofexecution of bidders, suppliers or awarded contractors. Theright of participation is to ensure that bidders are treated fairlyin competition in regard to each step of the procedure implementedin observance within the entire tendering procedure. The rightof execution is to ensure that the implementation of awardedcontracts of supply or public works, by contracted parties,is rendered in accordance with the clauses of that contract.In the present procedures related to governmentprocurement, there are provisions stipulated regarding theassistance, for the transgressions occurred during the tenderingprocedure, and after the awarded contract, respectively.Administrative and judicial assistances are the requisitesof formation of a contractIn the two procedural laws concerning the governmentprocurement of the Macau SAR, one of the pre-requisites ofthe formation of a contract is, generally, to engage in anopen tender, limited tender by pre-qualification, or limited tenderwithout pre-qualification, as aforementioned. The tenderingprocedures or their steps are subject to these procedural laws,viz the process of tender must rely on the legal steps. Wherethere is non-compliance with, omission or irregularity of tenderingsteps, any interesting party may challenge the procuring entity,within 10 days start ing from the date in which hasacknowledgement of the fact. But, the challenge does not resultin suspension of the tender.12 If the challenge is authorised,the procuring entity must redress the committed irregularity,such as exercising or repeating the omitted or irregular steps,or annulling the followed steps which have been executedif necessary.13Where the challenge is overruled, if the competent entityis subordinated to other entity, the person who commits thechallenge may herein put litigation within 10 days starting fromthe date of notification of the overruled challenge. Litigationhas not effect of suspension, viz the tendering procedure carrieson.14Where any interested person does not satisfy the actfinally made, viz, act of awarding contract, during the tenderingprocedure, judicial appeal can be made to the court; or, theformal defects against what have been challenged or litigatedunsuccessfully can be appealed, since the observance of stepsis probably to influence the made decision.15Assistance after signing contractAfter awarding a contract, the awarding entity and preferred
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究68第49期bidders sign the contract of supply or public works. Duringthe period of execution of contract, if both parties have questionson the interpretation, validity and execution of the contractand which cannot be solved by administrative way, the questionsare submit ted to the court and are made in form ofaction.16 However, the decisions, made by the awarding entity,related to the content of contract after the making of writtencontract, are not able to be appealed.17 In the case of acquisitionof goods and services, the parties may opt in the arbitrationto solve the dispute, but the arbitrational agreement must besigned before the expiration of the period of lapse of theright.185. Conclusion and the Crucial Elements for the Reformof Government Procurement of MacauFor a long time, the Government of the Macau SARhas been pursuing a free market economy, opening economicand trade activities to foreign countries and participating inthe progress of globalization through foreign direct investmentin the Region of Macau. Currently, the economy of Macaudepends on the gaming industry, following by conference,exposition and tourism industries. In this regard, the Governmentof the Macau SAR is guiding the socio-economic developmentby introducing public policies. So, the functioning and theadministration of the Government per se must be more effectiveso as to enable it to achieve the objectives set out in thesepolicies. So, the principle of “value for money” is the onepursued by the Government on day-to-day procurement. Albeitthe then Government of Macau did not promise to accedeto the GPA when the WTO was established, the signing ofthe GPA, which is a global arrangement of trade liberalisation,by Macau would be a crucial development target per se thatcould lead to greater integration into the world economy, andsuch is an expectation of the WTO as well. However, theGovernment of the Macau SAR has not made any promise,hitherto, to open the market of government procurement andalso does not schedule it definitively. No matter how, theGovernment of the Macau SAR must be well-prepared to theopening of government procurement market as expected bythe WTO, enabling, at least, her activities in relation to thegovernment procurement can be exercised with greater choiceand higher quality.5.1 Government Procurement-related Legislations shouldIncarnate the Principles Defined in the GPAThe CAP in force sets out ten principles for theadministrative practices of the Administrative Authorities, someof them apply to the activities regarding government procurement.Nevertheless,governmentprocurement isnotmerelyadministrativeactivity, but also involves commercial activities which theincumbents from private sector participate in governmentalactivities, viz which affects the economic activities anddevelopment of the Region of Macau, as well as affectinginternational trade. So, the legislations related to the governmentprocurement imply some other principles, which, however, arenot explicit and also are hard to interpret clearly.In order to enable the government procurement activitiesof the Macau SAR taking into account of the needs ofgovernmental development, in particular the needs of tradeglobalisation and liberalisation required by the WTO and theattraction of international trade, the Government of the MacauSAR should set out certain principles expressly in the lawsrelated to the government procurement, facilitating theirenforcements effectively.5.2 Qualifications of BiddersThere is an individual part in the procedural law regardingthe realisation of contracted public works which providesexpressly for the qualification of bidders, especially certainprovisions with which the qualification of foreign bidders mustfulfil in order to submit proposals. These provisions allowinterested foreign investors to participate in the public works’events realised by the Government of the Macau SAR, bringingnew architectural concepts and technology to the constructionevents in Macau.However, the procedural law regarding the acquisition ofgoods and services lacks this expressed provision. If thereare foreign enterprises participating in local tenders, all participantsare required administratively as being locally registered forbidding. It may cause a barrier to exclude the bidding ofan open tender in relation to the acquisition of events whichare exceptional, in new high technology or large dimension,etc. If the provisions applicable to foreign bidders are, herein,introduced to the procedural law regarding the acquisition of
69《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12goods and services, there are benefits of more choices forgovernment procurement, on one hand; the just treatment toall bidders is satisfied, on the other hand. This shall be anincarnation of the principle of non-discrimination as well.5.3 Relevant Provisions for Electronic BiddingElectronic means and electronic auction are part of thereasons resulting in the Revision of the GPA of the WTO.As well as providing convenience to the domestic or regionalbidders, these measures are favourable to foreign bidders aswell. These measures have emerged by the needs of thosedeveloped countries which possess mature informationtechnology and internet coverage. Certainly, the implementationof electronic auction requires matching up informatics equipment.Nevertheless, the importance is the authenticity of electronicbidding proposal, viz the contents of proposals are not tamperedwith during the process of their transmission.The Government of the Macau SAR promulgated the LawNo. 5/2005, in 2005, which permits and guarantees the validityof electronic documents signed electronically through the internettransmission. This establishes a cornerstone of electronic workswithin the Government, between the Government and commercialenterprises, and amongst commercial enterprises. In this regard,it sets up the first pace for the possibility to realise the electronicauction of government procurement. However, how theGovernment of Macau implements the relevant works in relationto the electronic auction rests on, hereafter, the proposal ofrevision of the related procedural laws. At least, the relevantrevision shall be appropriately engaged in discussion and draftingby legal staff, administrative personnel and staff of informationtechnology who have experiences and professional knowledgein the relevant area.5.4 Enabling the Consistency of Regulation in theGovernment Procedural LawsThe tendering procedures can guarantee an effectiveparticipation of procuring entities and bidders in legal procedures,selecting fairly and justly by procuring entities the mostappropriate bidders to supply goods and render services, orrealise works. In the present procedural laws regarding thegovernment procurement of the Macau SAR, the Decree-LawNo. 63/85/M provides only for open tenders; the Decree-LawNo. 74/99/M provides for open tender, limited tender by pre-qualification and without pre-qualification, as well as directnegotiation. The latter provides for more forms of tender, benefitingthe Administrative Authority to realise contracted public worksaccording to steps set out legally. In this regard, if theAdministrative Authority intends to engage in acquisition of goodsand services by means of limited tender by pre-qualificationor direct negotiation, they could only define, per se,administratively correspondent procedures based on the shortageof legal procedures to comply with. It is unlikely to guaranteefair competition and incorruptible procurement which are policiesbeing advocated by the Government of the Macau SAR. Thus,it is necessary to re-evaluate the provisions of these bothprocedural laws, enabling the Administrative Authority to engagein procurement by law and by identical steps through differentforms of tender.Notes:1 The WTO official website: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/gproc_e/memobs_e.htm. The signed parties of the GPA arerespectively: Canada; the European Union, including its 27Member States; Hong Kong, China; Iceland; Israel; Japan;Korea; Liechtenstein; the Kingdom of the Netherlands withrespect to Aruba; Norway; Singapore; Switzerland; and theUnited States. The 19 WTO Members as observer are:Albania, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Cameroon, Chile,China, Colombia, Croatia, Georgia, Jordan, the KyrgyzRepublic, Moldova, Mongolia, Oman, Panama, Sri Lanka,Chinese Taipei and Turkey. In addition, intergovernmentalorganizations also have observer status: IMF, ITC, OECDand UNCTAD;2 The WTO official website: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/gproc_e/gproc_e.htm.3 In accordance with the document issued by the Committeeon Government Procurement of the WTO, the Parties tothe Agreement on Government Procurement noti fy theexchange rate between the Special Drawing Rights (SDR)and their national currencies. For example, according tothe document GPA//W/299/Add.2 dated on 21st December,2007, it defines the applicable exchange rate between theSDR of government procurement of Hong Kong, China andthe Hong Kong Dollar is 1 SDR = 11.5852649 HKD; accordingto the document GPA/W/299/Add.4 dated on 19 th January,2008, it defines the applicable exchange rate between theSDR of government procurement of the EU and the Eurois 1 SDR = 1.163962 EUR; according to the documentGPA/W/299/Add.1 dated on 21st December, 2007, it definesthe appl icable exchange rate between the SDR of thegovernment procurement of the US and the US Dollar is1 SDR = 1.4886356 USD.4 The Revision of the Agreement on Government Procurement
Implications of WTO’s Agreement on Government Procurement for the Macau SAR Government澳門研究70第49期was prepared by the Secretariat o f the Committee onGovernment Procurement of the WTO by its official documentGPA/W/297, dated on 11 th December, 2006;5 The WTO official website: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/gproc_e/gproc_e.htm.6 Consulted with the Dicionário de Português-Inglês, PortoEditora, the meaning of bens is “estates, riches, property,goods, belongings”; bens móveis is “personal estates,movables”; bens imóveis is “real estate, landed estate”.7 The respected provision was contained in paragraph 2 ofArticle 34 of the Decree no. 17811, “[e]m regra, nenhumadespesa de aquisição de artigos de expediente e materialpode ser autorizada nos termos dêste art igo sem serprecedida das formalidades do concurso público, ou, pelomenos, do concurso limitado, exceptuando-se apenas aschamadas despesas miúdas de cada serviço, as despesasde aquisições diárias, insupríveis por concurso, dos hospitais,quartéis, etc., e aquelas que, por condições especiais detempo e localidade, a considerar em processo especial,informado pelo director de fazenda e com o parecer doTribunal Administrativo, Fiscal e de Contas, não possamser fei tas por concurso de qualquer espécie.” It can beseen that, at that time, the tendering procedure requiredto comply with was not only the open tender, but alsothe limited tender was stipulated to engage in procurement.Paragraph 3 of the same Article points out that the respectedprovision was also applicable to the process of realisationof publ ic works.8 The forms of written documents are subject to Article 356of the present Civil Code of Macau SAR. Written documentsare divided into public documents and private documents.Public documents are written by public authorities, with legalformalit ies, within the limits of their competences, or bynotary or by public officials entrusted by the public, withinthe activities that are conferred to them; all other documentsare private documents.9 Pursuant to paragraph 5 of Article 109 and paragraph 2of Art icle 113 of the Decree-Law no. 74/99/M;1 0 Article 1 of the present Commercial Code of Macau SARprovides for that “[c]ommercial ent repreneurs are: a)individuals and collective persons which, in their own name,themselves or through third parties, exercise a commercialenterpr ise ; b) commercia l companies” . The so-ca l ledcommercial entrepreneurs are provided for by Article 2 that“1. A commercial enterprise is any organization of productivefactors for the exercise of an economic activity aimed atproduction for systematic and lucrative exchange, namely:a) industrial activity for the production of goods or services;b) activity of intermediation in the circulation of goods; c)transport act ivity; d) banking and insurance act ivity; e)act ivit ies auxi l iary to the above mentioned ones. 2. Theorganization of factors of production for the exercise of aneconomic activity which is not separable from the personexercising it is not considered a commercial enterprise”;1 1 Articles 159 to 169 of the Commercial Code of Macau SAR;1 2 Pursuant to paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article 4 of the Decree-Law no. 63/85/M and paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article 46of the Decree-Law no. 74/99/M;1 3 Pursuant to paragraph 5 of Article 4 of the Decree-Lawno. 63/85/M and paragraph 4 of Article 46 of the Decree-Law no. 74/99/M;1 4 Pursuant to Article 5 of the Decree-Law no. 63/85/M andArt icle 47 of the Decree-Law no. 74/99/M;1 5 Pursuant to Article 6 of the Decree-Law no. 63/85/M andArt icle 48 of the Decree-Law no. 74/99/M;1 6 Pursuant to Article 65 of the Decree-Law no. 63/85/M andArt icles 217 and 218 of the Decree-Law no. 74/99/M;1 7 Pursuant to Art icle 65 of the Decree-Law no. 63/85/M;1 8 Pursuant to paragraph 1 of Article 64 and Article 69 ofthe Decree-Law no. 63/85/M.
71《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12一、前言在金融市場和全球經濟正在經歷前所未有的困境下,儘管世界華商的國際地位和經濟實力不斷提升,卻不可避免要面對營商環境惡化,經營風險增加的挑戰。此時此刻,海峽兩岸的關係已出現突破性發展,兩岸經貿的障礙和壁壘大大減少,為兩岸四地的區域合作開創了一個新局面,為區域內的企業防禦衝擊,降低交易成本,化危為機創造了有利的條件和空間。澳台關係和經貿發展是兩岸四地區域合作的重要組成部分,在未來兩岸良性互動下,澳門將繼續發揮商貿服務平台優勢,加強世界華商聯繫與合作,並通過兩岸四地及海外華商的協同發展,促進澳門經濟多元化、均衡和持續發展,推動區域經濟融合。利用包括《內地與澳門關於建立更緊密經貿關係的安排》(CEPA)5 年多來的實踐經驗,促進兩岸四地的區域經濟融合;深化會議展覽業方面的合作;進一步加強教育及文化產業的合作;利用澳門加強華商的合作,共同開發和發展歐盟、葡語國家等海外市場。當前,海外華僑華人企業家、台灣和港澳商人等世界華商 1 對全球經濟和地區發展的影響力日益彰顯,華商經濟已經成為世界經濟中一支充滿生機的重要力量。誠然,國際政治和經濟形勢複雜多變,次貸危機餘波未了,全球金融市場正在動盪不定,各地實體經濟紛紛放緩,這些都為企業的經營和發展帶來許多不確定因素。華商特別是華人中小企業雖然實力在不斷提升,但也無法獨善其身,將面對巨大的挑戰。1.兩岸四地區域合作出現突破性發展始於美國的金融海嘯(Financ ia l Tsunami)開始波及亞洲,鄰近地區已經出現經濟負增長或大型金融企業申請破產等現象,經濟前景不容樂觀。相對而言,中國是亞洲地區最穩定的經濟體之一。今年前三季度中國經濟增長率同比上升9.9%2。10月初,國際貨幣基金組織(IMF)預測今明兩年中國經濟增速儘管將有所減緩,但仍可望分別達到 9 . 7 % 和9.3% ,在世界主要經濟體中首屈一指。 IMF 還認為,受投資穩定增長和消費擴大推動,中國經濟仍將保持活力。3隨 政黨交流的開展和發展,兩岸關係呈現良好的發展勢頭,2008年6月,兩岸制度化協商也在中斷9年多以後重新恢復。內地海峽兩岸關係協會(海協會)和台灣財團法人海峽交流基金會(海基會)在北京復談協商(江陳會談),並簽訂《海峽兩岸週末包機會談紀要》及《海峽兩岸關於大陸居民赴台旅遊協議》兩項歷史性文件,實現兩岸週末包機直航及內地旅客赴台觀光,使兩岸經貿的交流與合作邁進一個新台階。隨 經濟全球化和區域一體化的進程加快,增加了兩岸四地區域合作和經濟整合的迫切性。在當今環球經濟風險越來越高的時候,兩岸努力減少了政治因素的干擾,推進經貿關係正常化,開啟了一個穩定、和諧的新局面,提供相對安全的營商環境,為區域內的企業降低交易成本,化危為機創造了有利的條件和空間。鞏固華商合作平台,促進經濟多元發展李炳康 ** 澳門特別行政區政府貿易投資促進局主席
73《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12進一步加強教育及文化產業的合作。世界華商同是炎黃子孫,中華民族的文化博大精深,是推動交流互動,增進相互合作的基礎和起點。世界經濟論壇(WEF)的《2008–2009全球競爭力報告》指出,台灣競爭力量主要來自教育部門及企業的創新,台灣的各層級教育就學率很高,教育體系的品質優異。8澳門中學畢業生選擇台灣高等教育機構就讀的比例不斷上升,今年更有接近1500位澳門高中學生選擇台灣的大專院校升讀大學9,為兩地在教育方面的合作打下良好的基礎。而且,澳門大學、澳門理工學院、澳門科技大學等高等院校,近年來也吸納了不少來自內地、台灣和香港的教學人員。因此,兩岸四地在高級、專業人才的培養、培訓和引進等方面的進一步互利合作,將有助於教育產業擴大發展的同時,有利於澳門人力資源素質的提升和專業服務行業的壯大。與此同時,台灣的文化創意產業近年來發展規模和效益不斷擴大,對促進經濟轉型和多元發展累積了許多值得澳門借鑒和參考的經驗。自2002–2006年,台灣文化創意產業營業額由新台幣4353億元提高為新台幣5862億元,從業人數由162,436人提高為207,785人,產值年平均成長率7.73%,較同期GDP平均成長率3.7%高出四個百分點。10澳門四百多年中西文化交流精髓的“澳門歷史城區”11,已經被列入《世界遺產名錄》,增添了澳門旅遊業發展的元素。另外,台商與本地企業家語言、文化相同,引入台灣文化創意產業的經驗,推動兩地文化創意領域的合作,在保護歷史文化遺產的前提下,開發和利用這些資源,將有利於增進澳門經濟多元、均衡發展的空間。發揮澳門與歐盟、葡語國家的傳統聯繫優勢,加強華商合作,共同開發和發展歐盟、葡語國家等海外市場。眾所周知,歐盟、葡語國家與澳門交往與聯繫由來已久,是澳門平台重要的網絡資源和潛在市場。澳門通過葡萄牙與歐盟(EU)市場的門戶,一直以來與歐盟的經濟貿易合作都保持良好關係,雙方在1992年簽訂並於1993年生效的“貿易和合作協議”,訂定了雙方在培訓、商務合作及文化保護等多領域內進行合作。澳門“歐洲企業網絡──澳門聯絡點”12,澳門歐洲研究學會等機構,經常協助歐洲、澳門和內地等地區的中小企業開闢溝通渠道,開展各種學術研究、人員培訓、文化交流等活動,為經濟合作創造了良好環境等。此外,歐盟與澳門、香港的官方機構和商會組織也將在“歐盟商務訊息計劃”(EUBIP)框架下開展多方面的合作。澳門還設有2009“中國──葡語國家經貿合作論壇(澳門)”常設秘書處,自2003年起每3年在澳門舉辦部長級會議,並發起和舉辦了“中國與葡語國家企業經貿合作洽談會”,現每年在不同的葡語國家輪流舉行。明年在澳門舉行的“澳門國際環保合作發展論壇及展覽”、“中國──葡語國家經貿合作論壇(澳門)”等有關活動,將匯聚歐盟、葡語國家政商界人士與會,是華商朋友展開交流,加強合作的好機會。另外,包括台商在內的世界華商可借助澳門企業的網絡、部分融資能力、熟悉國際經營貫例等優勢,發揮互補性,建立策略聯盟,共同開拓歐盟市場,以及橫跨4大洲、人口合共超過2億的8個葡語國家市場。其中,擁有科技創新能力和研發優勢的台灣企業,可以把研究和開發、數據處理等業務安排在澳門,實行離岸管理,推進歐盟或葡語國家的合作,享受包括所得補充稅(利得稅)、營業稅及部分印花稅等稅務豁免。13而且,獲准在澳門定居的離岸機構領導及專業技術人員(非澳門居民),他們可以豁免繳交在離岸機構工作首3年度的職業稅(個人所得稅)14。憑藉各自的優勢和特點,澳門與全球華商的合作關係不斷得到鞏固和發展。展望未來,澳門將繼續發揮商貿服務平台功能,促進世界華商聯繫與合作。註釋︰1 “華商”是一個被廣泛使用的概念,一般指具有中國國籍或華裔血統、活躍在世界經濟舞台上的商人群體,其中包括港澳商人、台灣商人以及遍佈世界各地的華僑華人中從事商業活動者。被統稱為“世界華商”。摘自中國新聞社《世界華商發展報告》課題組:《2007年世界華商發展報告》, 2008年1月 16日。2 《前三季度國民經濟保持平穩較快發展》,載於國家統計局網站, h t t p : / / w w w . s t a t s . g o v . c n / t j f x / j d f x /t20081020_402510735.htm , 2008 年 10 月 20 日。3 International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook (WEO):Financial Stress, Downturns, and Recoveries, (Washington,D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2008).4 邵宗海︰《從澳門基本法角度探討澳台關係──兼論澳門“台灣研究”的發展》,載於《新華澳報》, 2008年 4 月 17 、 24 日。5 全球共有 8 個葡語國家,分別是:安哥拉、巴西、佛
鞏固華商合作平台,促進經濟多元發展澳門研究74第49期得角、幾內亞比紹、莫桑比克、葡萄牙、圣多美和普林西比以及東帝汶。6 商貿服務平台與“經貿合作服務平台”意義相關,一般可以互通使用,其定義如下:指在跨區域經濟合作的趨勢下,以低稅制、政府高效服務、具競爭力的各種商貿服務為基礎的國際營商支撐體系,主要針對把服務部分設在某特定的地區 / 地方(澳門)或利用這個地區 / 地方(澳門)拓展更大國際營商空間的任何類型企業。也就是說,經貿平台發揮 要素載體的作用。具體而言,企業除了可以通過這個載體進行資訊交流、人員培訓、業務洽談、產品展覽、展銷等活動和得到所需要的各種商業支援服務以外,還能與不同區域的企業進行交流和合作。摘自李炳康、江時學:《澳門平台發展戰略──澳門作為中國與葡語國家的經貿合作服務平台研究》,北京︰中國社會科學出版社, 2006 年。7 姜增偉︰“在兩岸經貿合作與發展論壇的致辭”,2008 年 9 月 8 日。8 Porte r , M. E . and Schwab , K. , Globa l Compe t i t i venessReport 2008-2009 (Geneva: World Economic Forun, 2008).9 《澳門暑假赴台升學輔導說明會昨舉行 今年報考人數創紀錄》,載於《華僑報》, 200 8 年 7 月 20 日。1 0 台灣經濟部:《2007 台灣文化創意產業發展年報》,2008 年 5 月 13 日。1 1“澳門歷史城區”(“The Historic Centre of Macao”)包括:媽閣廟、港務局大樓、鄭家大屋、聖老楞佐教堂、聖若瑟修道院及聖堂、崗頂劇院、何東圖書館、聖奧斯汀教堂、民政總署大樓、三街會館(關帝廟)、仁慈堂大樓、大堂、盧家大屋、玫瑰堂、大三巴牌坊、哪吒廟、舊城墻遺址、大炮台、聖安多尼教堂、東方基金會會址、基督教墳場、東望洋炮台(含東望洋燈塔及聖母雪地殿聖堂)等超過 20 處的歷史建築,以及同分散建築緊密相連的媽閣廟前地、阿婆井前地、崗頂前地、議事亭前地、板樟堂前地、耶穌會紀念廣場、白鴿巢前地等 7 個廣場空間。 2005 年 7 月15 日在南非德班市(Durban)舉行的第 29 屆世界遺產委員會會議上被列入《世界遺產名錄》。1 2“歐洲企業網絡──澳門聯絡點”(Enterprise Europe Net-work-contact po in t in Macao, EEN),前稱“澳門歐洲資訊中心, Euro-Info Centre, Macau”。1 3 第 58/99/M 號法令、第 205/2005 號行政長官批示。1 4 第 58 /99/M 號法令。
75《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12一、前言政府規模一直是西方財政學關注的研究領域。有關政府規模的決定因素的研究亦是中外學術界的熱切探討的學術問題。 1998 年,哈佛大學教授 DaniRod ik在1998年10月出版的《政治經濟學雜誌》上發表一篇題為《為甚麼更開放的經濟體系擁有更大的政府規模?》的文章,提出了風險緩和假說(Risk -mit igat ion Hypothesis),藉以說明開放經濟體系的政府規模增長的原因。風險緩和假說認為,開放的經濟體系需要通過增加政府支出構建安全網,來平滑因開放經濟所帶來的潛在外部經濟風險,因此,開放的經濟體系傾向有更大的政府規模。在上述的文章中,Rodik利用了100多個國家的跨國數據,對上述 假 說 進 行 了 實 證 檢 驗 , 得 出 對 外 開 放 度(Openness)和政府規模(Government S ize)正相關的結論。該研究隨後引起了不少學者的關注,並促使部分學者撰寫文章對其假說進行跨地區或單一地區的實證計量檢驗。例如Alesina和Waczr iag 兩人在1998年的研究指出,對外開放度和政府規模存在正相關,是因為國家大小(Count ry Size)的作用所引致的,即對外開放與國家大小、政府規模和國家大小均呈負相關。1 Islam對澳洲、加拿大、英國、挪威、瑞典和美國的數據進行分析,6個國家存在不一致的實證結果,在政府規模顯著受對外開放和貿易指數的波動所影響,政府規模並沒有因對外開放度提高產生的收入風險而有所增加。2 Benar roch和Pandey利用96個國家於1970–2000年期間的面板數據檢驗對外開放是否影響政府規模、貿易條件波動是否導致更高的政府消費水平,結果顯示兩者不存在顯著的關係,反而發現大政府會傾向過多地干預貿易自由而導致對外開放度的降低。3當前,澳門的微型經濟特點已成社會各界的共識,即澳門是典型的微型經濟。楊允中教授在《微型經濟與微型經濟學》專題學術報告中指出,微型經濟的一個典型特徵是具高對外開放度的經濟體系,容易受外圍經濟的影響。因此,本文旨在探討風險緩和假說對澳門的適用情況,及收集澳門1999年第1季–2007年第4季的時間序列數據對上述假說進行檢驗。文章第二部分將介紹風險緩和假說的內涵及本文所採用的檢驗模型。第三部分為實驗檢驗結果。最後部分為文章的結論。二、風險緩和假說及其檢驗模型(一) 風險緩和假說1998年,Rodrik在《為甚麼更開放的經濟體系擁有更大的政府規模?》一文中,提出了風險緩和假說(R is k - m i t i ga t i on Hy po thes is),為對外開放度(Openness)和政府規模(Government S ize)兩者之間存在正相關提供了一種解釋。該假說認為,對外開放越高的國家或地區,易受世界市場波動而面臨更大的收入和消費波動風險,因此,政府為燙平這種風險,將增加政府支出(如增加社會福利支出),為社會構建社會安全網,從而開放經濟體系會具有較大的政府規模,情況對於高度開放的小型經濟更為明顯。 R o d r i k 指出,一個經濟中,政府部門(Government Sector)是一個安全部門,對風險具有檢驗風險緩和假說︰來自澳門的研究連信森 ** 武漢大學經濟與管理學院財政學博士研究生
檢驗風險緩和假說︰來自澳門的研究澳門研究76第49期一定的絕緣作用,因此,政府能通過佔有經濟體系中更大比例的資源來平緩經濟中的風險。4風險緩和假說的示意圖(圖 1)。圖1 對外開放度和政府規模正相關對外開放提高 外部風險提高 政府規模提高(二) 實證檢驗模型及數據說明本文借鑒Is lam所採用的檢驗模型,對風險緩和假說在澳門適用情況進行檢驗,並有實證檢驗模型設定如下:5GSt=1+2*LGDPt+3*OPENt+4*RISKt+5*VOLt+Vt(1)在回歸模型(1)中,GSt是指政府規模,用政府消費與本地生產總值(GDP)的比率計算, t代表季度(下同)。LGDPt是為 t季度的人均GDP的自然對數,OPENt為對外開放度,用貿易總額除以本地GDP 的比率來計算。 VOLt衡量貿易條件的波動程度。 R I S Kt則是外部收入風險的衡量,其可依據0.5*OPENt*VOLt計算。 6 Vt為誤差項。如果風險緩和假說成立的話,回歸方程(1)的協整估計結果,應是RISKt回歸系數4>0(因為更大的外部 /收入風險會引致更大的政府規模),同時OPENt回歸系數3= 0(對外開放度對政府規模沒有顯著獨立的影響)7,即OPENt對政府規模的影響沒有獨立作用,通過VOLt相互作用而影響政府規模。本文分析所使用的樣本取自於 1999第 1季度 –2007年第4季度期間的數據8,來源於澳門特別行政區政府統計暨普查局出版的各季度《本地生產總值》、《對外貿易指數》等刊物,因此,澳門 t季度的政府規模(GSt)用t季度的實際政府消費除以實際本地GDP的比率計算 9,LGDPt則是 t季度的澳門人均GDP的自然對數,OPENt為t季度的澳門貿易進出口總額除以澳門本地GDP的比率來計算。VOLt衡量的是t季度貿易條件波動程度,按照文獻慣常計算波動的做法,VOLt則是GARCH(1,1)建模後的條件標準誤差值來代理。 10 RISKt表達外部風險,可通過0.5*OPENt*VOLt來獲得。11 在以上的變量中,政府規模和本地GDP均經過季節性調整。12 變量的描述統計(表 1)。要檢驗時間序列變量間的均衡關係,本文借助協整分析來進行估計,從而避免偽回歸問題。表1 變量的描述統計屬性 GStLGDPtOPENtRISKtVOLt平均值 0.102 12.010 1.584 5.59*10 -4 7.02*10 -4最大值 0.146 12.522 1.753 1.05*10 -3 1.34*10 -3最小值 0.063 11.636 1.360 3.11*10 -4 4.5*10 -4標準差 0.023 0.284 0.113 2.03*10 -4 2.5*10 -4三、實證結果本文所採用的澳門變量數據均屬時間序列類型(Time Series Data)。在進行時間序列分析時,傳統上要求所用的時間序列必須是平穩的,即沒有隨機趨勢或確定趨勢,否則會產生“偽回歸”問題。然而,經濟變量中存在不少的非平穩變量,即時間序列變量均值長期不穩定。雖然非平穩變量自身長期沒有平穩均值,但他們的某種線性組合卻可能是平穩,這個線性組合反映了變量之間的長期穩定的比例關係,Granger稱之為協整(Cointegrat ion)關係。要研究非平穩時間序列數據的均衡關係,可借協整方程分析(Coin tegra t ion Analys is)。(一) 單位根檢驗進行協整估計的一個前提是,變量都應是平穩的,因此,需對回歸方程(1)中應變量和4個自變量進行時間序列平穩性檢驗,即單位根檢驗(Unit RootTest)。因此,在進行協整方程估計前,本文先對政府規模(GSt)、季度人均GDP的自然對數(LGDPt)、對外開放度(OPENt)、外部風險(RISKt)、貿易條件波動程度(VOLt)的時間序列數進行單位根檢驗,檢驗方法採用 ADF 檢驗(Augmented D ickey Fu l le rTest),置信水準為5%。表2為Ev iews 5.1對上述時間序列變量進行ADF檢驗結果。實證結果表明,各序列均服從單階平穩I(1)過程,即變量水平值為非平穩變量,經1階差分處理數為平穩變量,因此回歸方程(1)的5個變量均是單階平穩序列,可作進一步的協整分析。(二) 協整方程數的確定回歸方程(1)的變量均服從 I(1)過程,對其進行協整檢驗,本文採用基於VAR模型的Johansen檢驗。 Johansen 檢驗是由 Soren Johansen 和 Katar ina
77《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12Jusel ius於1991年提出的極大似然估計法(MaximumL i k e l i h o od E s t i m a t i on),其以 VAR 模型(Ve c t o rAutoregressive Model)為建模基礎,利用似然比檢驗來確定協整秩(Cointegrat ion Rank),即多個變數之間存在的協整方程數目。在現有文獻中,大多數採用上述方法,本文的實證分析亦依此方法進行。由於Johansen協整檢驗以VAR模型為基礎,所以必須首先確定 VAR 模型的最優滯後期(Opt ima lLagged Per iod),筆者採用的是SIC準則(SchwarzInfo rmat ion Cr i te r ion),即選取SIC最小者為VAR模型的最優滯後期。經過不同滯後期數的SIC比較,滯後期選定為1。在Johansen協整估計中,本文對協整方程數目的確定採用跡檢驗(Trace Tes t)。表 3 為 Ev iews5.1 對GSt、 LGDPt、 OPENt、 RISKt、 VOLt的 Trace檢驗結果。根據Trace檢驗的結果,在置信水準5%下, GSt、 LGDPt、 OPENt、 RISKt、 VOLt5 個變量之間存在1個協整方程,即協整秩為1。表3 關於協整方程數目的跡檢驗(Trace Test)結果協整變量原假設特徵值跡檢 5%P 值H0: rank=r 驗量 臨界值GSt、 LGD Pt、 0 0.66 91.33 88.80 0.03OPENt、RISKt、 1 0.58 55.39 63.88 0.21VOLt2 0.33 26.95 42.92 0.68(三) 協整方程的估計本人對回歸方程(1)進行協整估計,最優VAR模型的滯後期設為1,協整方程包含截距和協整趨勢項,Ev iews 5.1的估計結果見表4。從表4中可以看出,無論是人均GDP自然對數,還是對外開放度、收入風險和貿易條件波動,均對政府規模大小有顯著影響。人均GDP對政府規模的邊際影響顯著為正(5%的統計顯著水平),符合瓦格納定律(Wagner ’sLaw)所預測的,即隨 人均GDP水平上升,政府規模亦有所上升。其次,對外開放度(OPENt)對政府規模有顯著的負相關(5%的統計顯著水平),這和Rodrik於1998年的研究結果並不一致,但和ISLAM於2004年研究中美國所做的結果一樣,對外開放度和政府規模存在顯著的負相關,有學者解釋為經濟體越開放,資本進出越自由,政府對其徵稅難度越大,從而導致了政府稅收和政府規模的下降。外部風險(RISKt)具有顯著為正的回歸系數(5%的統計顯著水平),說明政府規模隨外部/收入風險上升而提高(4>0)13 ,確認了外部風險會引導政府規模的增加。按照Dani Rodr i k提出的那樣,OPENt的系數應不顯著(3=0),RISKt的系數顯著為正。從OPENt和RISKt兩者估計系數的結果看,風險緩和假說對澳門來說並沒有完全成立,也就是說,對外開放度對政府規模並不僅僅施加一個獨立的影響,還有通過和VOLt存在交互作用對其產生影響。在其他條件不變下,OPENt對GSt的邊際效應還取決定VOLt的水平。最後,VOLt的系數顯著為負(5%的統計顯著水平)。表4 Johansen協整方程估計結果應 變 量 協整 方程LR似 然 值GStGSt= 0.734+0.089*LGDPt-0.142*OPENt+729.26*RISKt-523.51*VOLt830.50(2 . 4 7) ** ( - 1 . 9 1 )** (3 . 7 7 )** (- 3 . 4 2 )**註:協整趨勢項系數為 2 . 8 *1 0 - 4 , t 統計量為 3 . 0 5;括弧內的數值代表 t 統計量;* * 代表在 5 % 的顯著水平下系數顯著;協整方程殘差水平值經 A D F 檢驗確認符合 I(0)過程四、結語本文利用澳門1999年第1季–2007年第4季的相關數據對風險緩和假說在澳門的適用情況進行檢驗。本文通過收集1999–2007年各季度數據,借助Is lam的檢驗模型和協整分析技術,對該假說在澳門表2 ADF單位根檢驗結果GSt△GStLGDPt△LGDPtOPENt△OPENtRISKt△RISKtVOLt△ VO LtAD F 統計量 -1.47 -6.70 0.57 -8.69 0.65 -3.30 -1.43 -7.21 -1.66 -4.78P 值 0.54 0.00 0.97 0.00 0.98 0.03 0.56 0.00 0.44 0.00平穩階數 * I(1) I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1) I(0)註:A D F 單位根檢驗原假設 H0:變量具有單位根; I(D)代表 D 階平穩過程,如 I(1)為單階平穩過程;△代表 1 階差分
檢驗風險緩和假說︰來自澳門的研究澳門研究78第49期的適用情況進行檢驗。結果發現,人均GDP和政府規模正相關,同時,和Rodrik的研究不完全一樣,澳門對外開放對政府規模的影響不僅有自身的影響,還存在和貿易條件波動的交互作用,因此,對外開放影響政府規模的機制需重新審視,以澳門為例,對外開放和外部風險均對政府規模影響,並不如Rodrik提出的那樣,外部風險對政府規模施加獨立的影響。本文結果和現存其他文獻一樣,對Rodrik的風險緩和假說未能提供有力的支持。註釋:1 Alesina, A. and Waczriag, R., “Openness, Country Size andGovernment,” Journal of Publ ic Economics , Vol. 69, No. 3(1998), pp. 305–321.2 Islam, M. Q. , “The Long Run Relat ionsh ip between Open-ness and Government Size,” Journal of Appl ied Economics,Vol. 36, No. 9 (2004), pp. 995–1000.3 Benarroch, Michael, Pandey and Manish, “Trade Opennessand Government S ize , ” Economics Le t ters , (2008) . do i :10.1016/j.econlet.2008.06.016.4 Rod ik, D. , “Why Do More Open Economies Have BiggerGovernments?” The Journal of Pol it ical Economy, Vol. 106.No. 5 (1998), pp. 997–1032.5 Islam, M. Q. , “The Long Run Relat ionsh ip between Open-ness and Government Size,” Journal of Appl ied Economics,Vol. 36, No. 9 (2004), pp. 995–1000.6 Rod ik, D. , “Why Do More Open Economies Have BiggerGovernments?” The Journal of Pol it ical Economy, Vol. 106.No. 5 (1998), pp. 997–1032.7 Islam, M. Q. , “The Long Run Relat ionsh ip between Open-ness and Government Size,” Journal of Appl ied Economics,Vol. 36, No. 9 (2004), p. 996 。8 由於 2008 年第 1 季,貿易條件指數缺乏 1996 年基年的數據,因此,數據採集至 200 7 年第 4 季。9 政府消費和本地生產總值使用 G D P 平減指數進行平減,基年設為 1996 年。1 0 Islam, M. Q. , “The Long Run Relat ionsh ip between Open-ness and Government Size,” Journal of Appl ied Economics,Vol. 36, No. 9 (2004), pp. 995–1000.1 1 Rod ik, D. , “Why Do More Open Economies Have BiggerGovernments?” The Journal of Pol it ical Economy, Vol. 106.No. 5 (1998), pp. 997–1032.1 2 季節性調整利用 Eviews 5 .1 內附的 X-12 程序進行。1 3 例如近年世界環球通脹風險,確認促使政府推出現金分享計劃、增加補貼等措施。
81《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12國千年發展目標項目主任,世界著名經濟學家傑佛瑞.薩克斯(Jef f rey D. Sachs)2004年6月在北京的講演辭中所指出的那樣:“發展經濟學家們試圖搞清楚:為甚麼這個世界上的一些國家依然深陷於極端貧困之中,另一些國家雖然擺脫了貧困,但只是停留在某一個既定的水平上,而其餘的國家卻能夠實現持續的增長”。就豐裕中的貧困而言,更具典型意義的是在那些對外開放程度比較高,與世界經濟聯繫比較密切的國家和地區所發生的社會貧困現象。在這些國家和地區,當一些行業和部門,由於借助所擁有的比較優勢,積極地參與國際分工,能夠分享經濟全球化所帶來的一部分利益,從而促進了經濟增長、行業興旺、部門發達,在這些行業、部門工作的人員的收入水平也有了明顯的提高。然而,正是這些行業、部門的興旺,導致了生產要素向這些行業、部門的集中,從而使得另外那些缺乏外向聯繫的行業、部門日益衰退和蕭條,收入水平也急劇下降,最終使收入分配的差距迅速加劇,社會貧困日益嚴重。在今天的澳門,這種貧困現象既普遍,又明顯。由此我們看到,豐裕中的貧困不同於既往的貧困,它是一種“繁榮中的貧困”,“增長中的貧困”,一種在人類所創造的物質財富空前豐裕,而對財富的佔有又絕對集中狀況下所導致的貧困。與歷史上曾經發生過的貧困現象的最大區別,當代的豐裕中的貧困是產生於當今“豐裕社會”的一種特殊的貧困現象。在解讀豐裕中的貧困的要義時,首先是豐裕,其次才是貧困,其關節點則在於豐裕與貧困之間的懸殊差距。正是因為豐裕中的貧困的這一特殊屬性,才引起了人們對於探索新的減貧之道的濃厚興趣與強烈的社會責任感,從而使所謂的“第三次分配”在當今的中國大行其道。與追逐效率目標通過市場機制實現的第一次分配和注重公平目標通過政府政策實現的第二次分配不同,第三次分配是社會的富裕群體通過慈善捐獻扶貧濟困、促進公益事業繁榮發展的轉移支付過程,彰顯的是這一階層高度的社會責任感。而要實現第三次分配,其經濟前提,第一是經濟增長,其次是收入分配的懸殊差距。在對現代增長社會進行成本和收益分析時,亞瑟.路易士(Wil l i am Arthur Lewis)曾經深刻地論述道:“經濟進步也使人類能夠縱情於更大的人道主義的奢侈生活。例如,在維持生存的最低水平上,很少有東西能夠剩餘下來去接濟無力自助的人,而最弱的人就不得不被棄置不顧。只有在剩餘增加時,人們才日益更多地去關心麻風病患者、精神錯亂者、跛子、盲人以及其他命運的犧牲者。照顧病人、殘疾人、不幸的人、寡婦孤兒的願望,在文明社會不一定比在原始社會更大,但是前者擁有更多的資源可以用於這個目的,因而在事實上表現了更大的人道主義”。 9 在中國,“為富而仁”,“樂善好施”的傳統美德古來有之並為百姓所稱道。然而在一個生產力極端落後而國民普遍貧窮的社會裏,慈善捐獻、扶貧濟困無疑是一種“人道主義的奢侈生活”,難為人們所問津。只有在高速增長的現代社會裏,以捐富濟貧,回饋社會為特徵的第三次分配才具備了實施的經濟前提。四、立足澳門特色,促進第三次分配面對在經濟高速增長背景下財富分配兩極分化愈益加深的當代中國,第三次分配無疑提供了一條縮小差距,彰顯公平、構築和諧的最佳途徑。尤其是最近,連續13年蟬聯世界首富寶座的比爾‧蓋茨宣佈將把自己580億美元的財產全數捐獻給慈善事業,不給自己的子女留下一分一毫,更是極大地鼓舞了第三次分配的宣導者,媒體甚至將這一消息稱為是“猶如悶熱夏日裏的一聲驚雷”!然而和第一次分配、第二次分配相比較,第三次分配則需要具備一系列經濟、政治、文化等方面的前提條件和社會基礎,操作起來也更為複雜。尤其在我們這樣一個篤信“為富不仁”,崇尚“劫富濟貧”甚至“殺富濟貧”國度裏,要想通過第三次分配來填充貧富差距的鴻溝,談何容易。與中國大陸相比較,“一國兩制”下的澳門特別行政區,卻以其獨特的產業結構,發達的市場經濟體制,健全的社會組織機構,濃郁的宗教慈善氛圍,高效率的政府職能管理和成熟的公民社會環境為實施第三次分配提供了必要的前提和扎實的基礎。問題的關鍵就在於如何立足於澳門特色,將這些潛在的優勢充分地發揮出來,探索出一條促進第三次分配的途徑。
83《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12給了澳門政府在政策制定和實施方面廣闊的空間,這是特區政府推進第三次分配最為有利的制度優勢和政策優勢。實際上很難講誰就是天生的善人,企業家也並不都是心甘情願地將自己辛辛苦苦掙來的財富拱手相送,經濟法則、制度約束、政策激勵、道德規範在這裏都發揮 作用,政府的作用就是如何將激勵與約束做好,讓富人和窮人在這一財富的再分配過程中實現雙贏,達於和諧。應該看到,澳門特區政府在這一方面已經做出了很大的努力。澳門特區行政長官何厚鏵表示,將推出一系列針對弱勢和低收入家庭的援助措施,以增加有關家庭的生活津貼,從而紓緩市民生活壓力。據澳門市民日報報導,對此,澳門社會工作局局長葉炳權透露,有關措施包括加大現時受經濟援助的三類弱勢和低收入家庭之補助金額,初步預算約1600萬澳門元。澳門政府還推出系列臨時經濟補助措施,包括兩項為期1年的電費補貼及全職低收入受僱人士工資補貼,以及三項照顧弱勢社群的補助措施。預算臨時補助措施總支出8.14億澳門元。政府表示,有關措施主要紓緩居民、特別是弱勢社群和低收入人士面對通脹的壓力。澳門特區政府還決定撥出逾 27億元盈餘“還富於民”,永久居民獲發一份5000元的“紅利”,非永久居民獲發一份3000元的“紅利”。所有這些都為澳門社會營造了一個良好的氛圍,關注貧困,救助貧困,縮小差別,共建和諧。“樂善好施”,“為富而仁”,絕不僅僅是一個簡單的經濟行為,更具有 廣泛而深遠的社會意義:弘揚正氣,教化子民,凝聚民心,淨化生靈。一個社會所擁有的慈善家的數量,標示 這個社會進步的程度。然而,慈善家不是憑空產生的,這個過程遠比只要有激烈的市場競爭就可以錘煉出企業家要複雜得多。它需要宗教的啟蒙,道德的陶冶,文化的滋養,政府的鼓勵,社會的呵護,國民的認可。因此,作為實施第三次分配管道的社會,在這一財富轉移過程中發揮 非常重要的作用。這個作用主要表現在兩個方面:第一要成為孕育慈善家的搖籃;其次要成為轉移財富的渠道。而在這兩方面,澳門都具有 自身的特色。從富人到善人的轉變,是人生的鳳凰涅磐,是社會教化的結果。沒有濃郁的慈善文化氛圍,沒有虔誠的宗教信仰情懷,沒有崇高的道德教化修煉,沒有忘我的普世內心境界,很難成為一個慈善家。正所謂企業家是靠拼搏,而慈善家則要靠修煉,並且還難得正果。一個人通過冒險再加一點運氣,可以一個晚上就從一個窮人變成一個富人,而要從一個富人修煉成一個善人,恐怕要用盡一生一世的時間。由於眾所周知的原因,在中國大陸慈善氛圍,宗教情懷,道德水平都是比較薄弱的環節,社會難以提供產生大批慈善家的土壤。而在這方面,澳門可以說是得天獨厚,教堂林立,教民遍島,大三巴巍峨聳立,媽閣廟香火鼎盛,厚今而不薄古,中西文化交融,捐贈文化源遠流長,能夠有效地催生和促進慈善捐贈事業的發展。而第三次分配的實施,完全要依賴社會作為轉移和傳遞財富的渠道,從鼓勵財富的捐贈,到監督財富的使用,都需要非政府的民間組織發揮作用。澳門作為一個成熟的公民社會,非政府公益組織數量眾多,機構健全,管理嚴密,運行穩健,成效顯著。五、結語綜上所述,在涉及實施第三次分配的四個要素方面,由於澳門的特殊地位,盡佔天時、地利、人和,如果能夠揚長避短,將這些特色充分地發揮出來,盡可以探索出一條通過促進第三次分配解決澳門貧困的有效途徑,不僅可以解決澳門本身的貧困問題,保證經濟與社會的和諧發展,還可以對中國大陸的減貧消貧發揮重要的示範作用。註釋:1 資料來源:澳門統計暨普查局網站, ht tp : / /www.dsec.gov .mo 。2 同上註。3 《2008中國城市競爭力藍皮書發佈 港深滬列前三甲》,載於“中國新聞網”網站, http: / /www.ch inanews.com.cn/gn/news/2008/03-28/1205407.shtml , 2008 年 3 月 28日。4 《全球城市消費競爭力香港排名第五 澳門躋身六強》,載於“中國網”網站, h t t p : / / w w w . c h i n a . c o m . c n /overseas/txt/2006-06/12/content_6239034.htm , 2006 年 6月 12 日。5 《澳門成為亞洲“首富” 人均 GDP 躋身亞洲第一》,載於“搜狐財經”,網站, h t tp : / / bus ine ss .sohu .com/20080403/n256083342.shtml , 2008 年 4 月 3 日。6 [美 ]達德利‧西爾斯:《發展的含義》,載於《國際發展協會第 11 屆世界大會論文選》, 1 9 6 9 年,第 3頁。
85《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12信息時代的來臨,技術的不斷創新,促使國際間的聯繫日趨緊密,不僅傳統經濟活動走向全球化,且生產、服務和技術創新也明顯全球化。經濟全球化的出現,促使國際間、區域間的合作越來越密切,區域經濟組織迅速發展。眾多的國家或地區組建了區域經濟集團或自由貿易區(簡稱 FTA),據WTO統計,在全球約280個區域貿易協定中,雙邊FTA佔90%左右,並日益成為推進經濟全球化進程的重要力量。順應形勢發展的要求,也基於中國改革開放30年所取得的經濟成就,更利於粵港澳的經濟合作與發展,2003年,中央政府與香港、澳門特區政府分別簽署了內地與香港、澳門《關於建立更緊密經貿關係的安排》(以下簡稱CEPA)。CEPA實施以來,粵港澳經貿關係進入了一個新的歷史時期。經過幾年的實踐,粵港澳間經濟的不斷融合,經貿交流與合作水平的不斷提高,有力地促進了三地經濟的共同發展。作為區域性的雙邊貿易協定,CEPA的內容包含的範圍很廣,但其核心部分是服務貿易部分,服務業幾乎涉及所有的領域和行業,且在股權、地域、投資方式等方面取消各種限制,實行全面的互惠,因而對三地服務業合作產生的影響最大。因此,在 CEPA框架下審視三地的服務業合作現狀,有助於我們制定更好的未來發展政策。一、 C E PA 實施以來粵港澳服務業合作取得的成效香港的服務業高度發達,而內地服務業的發展卻遠遠落後於世界的平均發展水平。因此,一是內地與香港在服務貿易方面存在 巨大的競爭力差距,兩地的互補性很強;二是內地市場對服務貿易的需求巨大,同時香港巨額的服務出口顯示了極強的競爭力與發展能力。這就決定了兩地服務貿易的自由化將可能創造出較大的效應。從理論上分析,依據經濟學家瓦伊納的觀點,貿易自由化後,成員體之間相互取消關稅或具有同等效力的其他措施,會帶來貿易規模的擴大和經濟水平的提高。而幾年的實踐表明,在CEPA“應一方要求,雙方可通過協商,進一步推動雙方服務貿易的自由化”的原則指導下,三地在服務業方面的合作與融合得到了長足的發展,成效十分明顯。2004年CEPA正式生效至2007年底,廣東省共批准港澳直接投資項目24,386個,合同吸收港澳資本602.89億美元,實際吸收港澳資本272.7億美元,分別佔同期全省吸收外資項目數、合同外資金額和實際吸收外資金額70.35%、59.33%、50.49%。其中,港澳服務業(第三產業)投資項目9381個,佔第三產業項目的38.47%,合同外資金額和實際外資金額分別佔34.58%和27.92%。(一)CEPA框架下粵港澳服務業合作的主要特點1. 港澳投資服務業項目的比重逐步加大2004年是CEPA實施頭一年,廣東省批准港澳直接投資項目數按第一、二、三產業的比重為29.24:71.88:25.20,第三產業比重明顯最低。2004–2007年廣東省累計批准港澳直接投資項目數的比重為3.21:58.32:38.47,其中港澳投資在服務業項目(第三產業)的比重已從2004年的25.20%,上升到2004-2007年的38.47%,升幅達13.27個百分點。粵港澳服務業合作的現狀與發展對策郭海宏、盧 寧、楊 城 ** 郭海宏為暨南大學社科部講師,盧寧為暨南大學社科部副教授,楊城為廣東省經貿委副處長
香港酒店業兼職制度探討澳門研究106第49期做得好的非正式員工,為員工們創造良好的工作環境等。 13另外,酒店也可以在月末進行最佳非正式員工選舉,優秀者可以獲得正式員工合約以及獎勵,以激發這些非正式員工的工作熱誠。在薪酬方面,勞動報酬與法定最低工資標準應該持平,工資標準由雙方約定,可以參考酒店行業之間的薪酬制度,這樣才能達到公平公正的管理模式。(五) 加強兼職與全職之間的溝通通過互相幫助、互相借鑒,加強兼職與全職的聯繫,提升人際間的和諧關係,這種方式有助於組織目標的提升。14(六) 強化員工的商業保險意識香港近2–3年推出公司為員工提供“強積金”計劃,類似於投資的一種。為員工將來退休作為一個保障。雖然兼職未能享受這個計劃,但是酒店方面也可以為一些工作表現良好的兼職提供一些商業保險計劃,為員工社會保險的重要補充。酒店可以與保險公司達成協議,可以進行低成本投保,理賠範圍寬的條件,從中更能增加員工對酒店的歸屬感和責任感。六、結語香港酒店業採用兼職的制度,雖然在運用過程中存在一些問題,但對酒店來說還是很好地彌補了酒店人員短缺的問題,降低了酒店人工成本。近幾年,其他地區酒店業也存在同樣的問題,可以借鑒香港酒店業的這一有效用工方法。但由於涉及企業經營成本及勞動者權益保障問題,兼職制度是否應大力推進,各方所持的見解不同,再加上從事兼職者大都為女性勞動者,因此兼職與全職的平等待遇問題,以及連帶導致正式的權益受損而引發就業不安定現象等還需要社會更多的關注和探討。註釋:1 賀湘輝、徐明:《酒店人力資源管理實務》,瀋陽:遼寧科學技術出版社, 200 5 年。2 劉靖:《飯店成本控制及低成本運作策略》,載於《會計之友》,第 10 期, 2006 年。3 《 2 0 0 7 年香港飲食及酒店業職工總會組織調查報告》,載於《香港文匯報》, 200 7 年 5 月 20 日。4 Stamper, C. L. and Dyne, L. V., “Organizat ional Citizenship:A compar i son be tween Part - t ime and Fu l l - t ime Serv iceEmployees,” Cornel l Hote l and Restaurant Admin istrat ionQuarterly, February, 2003.5 香港律政司:《僱傭條例》,載於《香港法例》,第57 章, 1968 年。6 吳慧、黃勳敬:《現代酒店人力資源管理與開發──現代飯店經營實務叢書》,廣州:廣東旅遊出版社,2005 。7 同註 5 。8 [美 ]瑪麗‧ J ‧譚克著,徐虹譯:《飯店業人力資源管理》(第二版),大連:東北財經大學出版社,2004 。9 楊通軒:《德國部分時間勞動法制之探討──兼論台灣部分工時之法制化》,載於《財團法人國家政策研究基金會國政研究報告》, 20 05 年。1 0 張啟:《酒店僱傭實習生問題及培訓》,載於《商務外貿》,第 6 期, 2007 年。1 1《勞動合同法》,第十屆全國人民代表大會常務委員會第二十八次會議通過, 20 07 年。1 2 員工職業化訓練專家組編:《酒店員工培訓一本通》,北京:中國經濟出版社, 20 07 年。1 3《營造員工可安心工作的環境》,引自:載於《永旺環境社會報告書 2004》, http :/ /www.aeon.in fo /cn /envi -ronment/report/c_2004pdf/c_07.pdf , 2004 年。1 4 李曉丹、吳楊偉:《加強人力資源管理培養酒店忠實員工》,載於《商場現代化》,第 2 期, 20 06 年。
107《澳門研究》第49期2008. 121. IntroductionChina openly declared counter-cyclical expansionary fiscalpolicy after Asian financial crisis in 1997, and succeeded tomaintain a high economic growth since then. However, if onelooks at China’s officially disclosed government budget, hardlyany significant fiscal deficit or state debt can be observed.Instead, the changes during the years seem to be too smallto have any significant effect on the business cycle. China’sbudget deficit ranging from 2-3 % and state debt mostly below20% of GDP as shown in Figure 1 did not indicate a pro-active fiscal policy during this period.Figure 1 Budget Deficit and State Debt as Percent-age of GDPSources: China Statistics Year Book, various years.It is proposed in this paper that the traditional way ofevaluating a country’s fiscal policy by looking at governmentbudget deficit and state debt is inappropriate in China’s case.Contrary to comprehensive budgetary principle, that allgovernmental activities should be included into budget, China’sgovernment revenues and expenditures have been to a largeextent placed off-budget. The reason for the apparent absenceof any significant fiscal impetus is that China’s real fiscalinstance not only includes government budget but also consistsof extra-budget, off-budget, retained earnings of state ownedenterprises (SOEs) and especially policy loans. Whatever effectsof above mentioned implicit government budgets, their existenceand enormous magnitude indicate that the actual amounts ofrevenue resources and public expenditures of Chinesegovernment as a whole are much higher than those indicatedby the budgetary documents. In fact, contrary to the smallnessof officially stated government budget deficit, the fixed investmentsconducted by China’s public sectors experienced a rapid growthsince the Asian financial crisis as shown in Figure 2, whichreflected pro-active fiscal policy conducted both by China’sexplicit and implicit budget.2. Estimating China’s Implicit GovernmentExpenditureAlthough Extra-budget was defined and named in 1983based on “The Tentative Implementation of Extra-budgetary fundsManagement” issued by Ministry of Finance, it actually originatedin 1950s as a supplementary mechanism of the rigid andhighly centralized socialist budgeting system characterized by“unified revenue and unified expenditure”. For this purpose,China’s Implicit Budget DeficitSheng Li** Assistant Professor, Institute for Tourism Studies, PhD in Economics
China’s Implicit Budget Deficit澳門研究108第49期local governments were allowed to levy and use surchargeson miscellaneous fees, and were gradually given managerialauthority over collected revenues exceeding centrally determinedtargets. Under the arrangement of “eating in a different kitchen”since economic reform, extra-budget evolved in to funds forindependent revenue and independent management in publicagencies. Financial management system on extra-budgetaryfunds implemented by State Council in 1986 encouragedgovernmental institutions to improve their ability to self-raiserevenues to alleviate the fiscal pressure. Under this system,the ownership, the power to use and the management of extra-budgetary revenues were formally given to the localities.Therefore, management and expenditure of extra-budgetary fundswere at favors and discretion of each sector collecting thesefunds. It is understandable that local governments are the drivingforces of the explosion of extra-budgetary activities, as mostof governmental agencies controlling such funds are under thecontrol of local governments.Extra-budget revenues are not arranged and managed bygovernment budgets but self-raised and dominated used bylocal governments. The main sources of extra-budget nowadaysare: industrial and commercial surcharge tax, agriculturesurcharge tax, and urban public utilities construction surchargetax, road maintenance fee, tuition fee. The part of extra-budget from SOEs included welfare, depreciation and majorrepair funds, together with retained profits. 1 As revenues leviedaccording to authorized administrative regulations, the extra-budgetary funds are earmarked funds, and changed with thefinancial management system implemented by centralgovernment. The initiative goal of establishing extra-budgetaryfunds was to raise revenues for certain kinds of expenditures,most of them are construction expenditures. Nowadays, suchfunds are not only spent in necessary infrastructure, but alsoin modern office buildings, luxury facilities for local government,or monumental buildings to boost local cadres’ achievements.From the beginning of economic reform to mid 1990s,local extra-budget exploded in the process of devolving controlover resources and decision-making power to local governments,and became the major lever to strengthen the resource allocationcapacity of local governments. This growth had overall a positiveimpact on economic construction and social development, playedthe central role in compensating the decline of explicit governmentbudget as share of GDP. In 1991– 1992, extra-budgetaryrevenues even exceeded the budgetary revenues. The extrabudget as share of GDP declined after tax reform 1994 whichstrengthened government’s capability of collecting taxes reflectingin increasing ratio of budgetary revenue to GDP as shownin Figure 3. It is mentioned that the figure underestimatesthe true magnitude of extra-budget, in that, the retained earningsof SOEs are no longer treated in the accounts as extra-budget revenues after accounting reform 1993.Figure 3 Government Budget and Extra-Budget asPercentage of GDPSources: China Financial Statistics Year Books, various years.Figure 2 GDP and Fixed Investment (SOEs) GrowthRateSources: China Statistics Year Book, various years.GDPextra-budget
109《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12Off-budget, also called extra-extra-budget, refers tofunds raised without approval from central government.Although detailed information is not available, it has beenconfirmed that in principle all of them are controlled by localgovernments.2 It appeared in 1980s and exploded in 1990s,as local governments faced severe scarcity of financial resourcesand were forced to find off-institutional solution. The off-budgetrevenues fall into following categories: social security funds,public contribution to local construction projects, saleand rent revenues from state-owned land, profits accumulatedfrom governmental businesses.3 Such funds constitute the “littlepots of gold” in the Chinese context for the various administrativeagencies that owned them. There is no control mechanismavailable. Most of such funds are spent as bonus and fringebenefits, as well as for luxury dinner receptions or celebrationsfor whatever reasons. In general, the lower level the localgovernment, the larger is the portion of off-budget. As townshipgovernments have not really been constructed as one levelof budget but served as revenue collecting and spending branchof the county fiscal accounts, they have more incentives andin fact also build up enormous off-budget.To summarize, budgetary funds are revenues leviedaccording to laws, the extra-budgetary funds are revenues leviedaccording to administrative regulations issued by the centralgovernment, but the off-budgetary funds are revenues leviedaccording to unauthorized regulations issued by differentgovernmental departments and localities. Clear differences existbetween extra-budget and off-budget: while extra-budgetary fundsare raised according to certain regulations, off-budgetary fundsare in principle illegal, however tolerated by central governmentin line with its fiscal decentralization policy, which in generalhas been proven to be successful in generating economicgrowth. Extra-budget is presented in local government’s statistics,while off-budget does not have any formal documents. Extra-budget involves financial transactions that is not detailed inthe budget presentation but still included in the budget total,while off-budget involves financial transactions that neither showsin the budget nor affects the budget total.While information of the budget and extra-budget can beaccessed in the officially published statistical documents, withregard to off-budget, certain method has to be introduced toestimate its amount. Fan Gang based on his case studiesestimated that off-budget revenue is 30% of local government’sbudgetary revenue.4 This paper uses Fan’s result to calculateoff-budget and total government spending from 2001–2003 asshown in Table 1. It is mentioned that Fan’s method is akind of conservative estimate, as “sale and rent revenuesfrom state-owned land” as one of the major sources foroff-budget generated huge amount of wealth for local governmentsin the real estate booming since years.Table 1 Government Spending(Budget, Extra-Budget and Off-Budget)State Expenditures(in Billons of RMB) 2001 2002 2003Official expenditures 1890.2 2205.3 2464.9Extra-budget expenditures 383.1 385 382.7Local revenues 780.3 851.5 984.930%*local revenues 234.1 255.5 295.5Government spending 2507.4 2845.8 3143.1GDP 9593.3 10239.8 11669.4Off icia l as % of GDP 19.7 21.5 21.1Total as % of GDP 26.1 27.8 26.9Sources: China Financial Statistics Year Book, various years.Although government spending above come near to thereal scope of China’s government budget, we should includea more important channel for budgetary revenues to completeour estimation, namely policy loans conducted by state ownedcommercial banks. China’s SOEs are to a large extent usedto reach fiscal policy goals, and their actions have to betaken into account when judging the overall fiscal policy. Actually,fixed investments are to a large extent financed by creditsmainly conducted under the influence of politicians and supportedby lending from state owned commercial banks and policybanks. On the one hand, China’s three Policy banks, StateDevelopment Bank (SDB), Agricultural Development Bank(ADB), and Import and Export Bank (IEB), are governmentbodies directly under state council and responsible for financinggovernment projects which are not included in governmentbudget; On the other hand, China’s four state owned commercialbanks, namely Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC),Bank of China (BoC), Agriculture Bank of China (ABC) andChina Construction Bank (CCB), called the “Big Four”, granted80% of their lending to SOEs.5 Thus, we propose net increase
China’s Implicit Budget Deficit澳門研究110第49期of outstanding loans of these banks which flow to state sectoras shown in Table 2 as implicit government expenditure aswell. This proposal is reasonable, because such policy loanswere actually included in government budget before the economicreform in the form of direct subsidies without repaymentrequirement. In order to precisely calculate the magnitude ofimplicit government spending, we exclude “noise factors” inthat we just take data from 2001 to 2003, as from 1999to 2000, “Big Four” transferred non-performing loans (NPL)to Asset Management Corporations (AMC), and from 2004to 2005, AMCs once again took over NPLs from “Big Four”.Table 2 Changes in Outstanding Loans in the “BigFour” and Policy BanksChanges in Loan Outstanding(in Billons of RMB)2001 2002 2003ICBC 245.9 342.8 390.7BoC 220.4 185.8 198.8ABC 121.8 266.8 355.5CCB 119.6 70.3 418.8SDB 86.1 138.6 243.7ADB 3.2 -6.6 -46.5IEB 14.8 16.7 14.5Implicit government Expenditure 670.3 1014.4 1575.5Sources: Annual reports of referred banks, various years.Adding this implicit amount to the government spendingwe calculated above we may estimate a more realistic magnitudeof China’s government budget as shown in Table 3.Table 3 China Real Government Budget (Budget,Extra-Budget, Off-Budget and Policy Loans)State Expenditure (in Billons of RMB) 2001 2002 2003Official expenditure 1890.2 2205.3 2464.9Extra-budget expenditure 383.1 385 382.7Off-budget expenditure 234.1 255.5 295.5Government spending 2507.4 2845.8 3143.1Implicit expenditure (Table 2) 670.3 1014.4 1575.5Total budget expenditure 3177.7 3860.2 4718.6GDP 9593.3 10239.8 11669.4Off icia l as % of GDP 19.7 21.5 21.1Total as % of GDP 33.1 37.7 40.4Sources: China Financial Statistics Year Book, various years.Also we should include retained earnings of SOEs intoour calculation as shown in Table 4, because these floweddirectly to fixed investment in public projects, but no moredocumented in extra-budget since 1993 as mentioned above.Table 4 China Real Government Budget (Budget,Extra-Budget, Off-Budget, Policy Loans and RetainedEarnings of SOEs)State Expenditure (in Billons of RMB) 2001 2002 2003Budget expenditure (Table 3) 3177.7 3860.2 4718.6Retained earnings of SOEs 281.1 558.9 759.0Total budget expenditure 3458.8 4419.1 5477.6GDP 9593.3 10239.8 11669.4Off icia l as % of GDP 19.7 21.5 21.1Total as % of GDP 36.1 43.2 46.9Sources: China Statistics Year Book, various years.The total budget expenditure was much higher than theofficially stated around 20% of GDP which was obviouslyunderestimated for a fast growing transition economy like China.The fact that China’s total government budget increased notonly in absolute but also in relative term as a share of GDPreflected the active fiscal policy of Chinese government sinceAsian financial crisis, and can be used to explain China’sinvestment driven rapid economic growth during this period.While extra-budget and off-budget may be considered asfully under control of local governments, retained earnings areshared by central and local governments, as small- and medium-sized SOEs were already delegated to local government inthe initial stage of economic reform, while large SOEs areto a large extent in the hand of central government. AlthoughCentral government collects 50% of official budget revenues,it transfers half of these revenues back to local governments.It seems that local governments dominate in public budgetmanagement, but central government still plays an importantrole in managing China’s total public financial resources, asit maintains strong influence on policy loans of “Big Four”,fully control on that of policy banks as well as large SOEsas shown in Table 5a–5b. The large share of policy loansin total central expenditure indicates, that China’s so called“large banking, small budget” is actually “large implicit, smallexplicit central government budget”.
111《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12Table 5a Central-local Fiscal Relationships 2003(Official)(in Billions of RMB)Central expenditure 742Local expenditure 1723Table 5b Central-local Fiscal Relationships 2003 (Total)( in Bill ions of RMB)Central expenditure 742.0Central SOEs retained earnings 300.0Policy loans 1575.5Total central expenditure 2617.5Local expenditure 1723.0Local SOEs retained earnings 459.0Extra-budget 382.7Off-budget 295.5Total local expenditure 2860.2Source: China Financial Statistics Year Book, various years.3. Estimating China’s Implicit Budget DeficitActually, a large part of policy loans flowed to profitableprojects, and are being or will be paid back together withinterests, which can be considered implicit government revenue.However, some of policy loans are unlikely to be paid back,as they are not profit oriented, and flowed to a large extentto “hopeless” projects because of social-political reasons, forexample, saving bankrupted SOEs from solvency in orderto avoid laying off workers and social tension, which causeNPLs.6 As lending to non state sector is usually commercialoriented and seldom becomes non-performing, also it has aquite small portion of total loan outstanding, we may considerNPLs in “Big Four” and policy banks as accumulated implicitgovernment budget deficit. Also local governments and SOEsare not allowed to issue bonds, excluding the possibility ofdeficit financing. So we roughly assume that they take careof balance of revenues and expenditures of extra-, off-budgetand retained earnings. Therefore, we may consider NPLs asthe only source for China’s implicit budget deficit.Due to the steeply increasing individual savings as shownin Figure 4, Chinese government is able to use the excesssavings over lending to “cover” NPLs temporarily. However,Chinese government, the ultimate debtor, must sooner or laterresolve this problem. The need is becoming more urgent, asshareholding, private and especially foreign banks are competingwith “Big Four” for individual savings after China’s WTOaccession in 2001.Figure 4 Growth Rate in Savings and LendingSources: China Statistics Year Book, various years.Low capital adequacy is a usual phenomena of banksburdened with huge amount of NPLs, which make themvulnerable to any external shocks. To grant more liquidityand strengthen capital base of “Big Four”, Chinese governmentinjected 270 billion RMB into the “Big Four” in 1998 as shownin Table 6. Although government was the bond holder, thisinjection is generally considered timeless and interestless creditfrom People’s Bank of China (PBoC) as China’s central bank.In fact, such lending could be seen as compensation for “BigFour” for granting subsides to SOEs on behalf of governmentwhich caused NPLs and lower capital adequacy, and theChinese government as the ultimate owner of SOEs paid theirdebts back.Table 6a Changes in Aggregate Balance Sheet ofthe State-Owned Banks after Recapitalization 1998(in Billions of RMB)Changes in assets Changes in liabilitiesReserves assets -270 Liabilities (Central bank) -270New government bonds +270 Paid-in capital +270Source: Mo, Y. K., “A Review of Recent Banking Reforms in China,” in BIS,Strengthen the Banking System in China: Issues and Experience, Basel:BIS Policy Paper, No. 7 (1999), p. 95, Table 2b.
China’s Implicit Budget Deficit澳門研究112第49期Table 6b Distribution of Financial Resources forRecapitalisationB a n kItem BoC CCB ICBC ABoCCapital injection (in Billions of Yuan) 42.5 60 74.2 93.3Capital adequacy 1997 (%) 3.93 2.95 3.3 2.53Capital adequacy 1999 (%) 5.6 4.8 5.1 5.9Source: Schüller, M., “Ist das Chinesische Bankensystem für die nächsteFinanzkrise gerüstet?” China Aktuell (2001), p. 886, Table 4.In 1999, the Chinese government established four AMCswhich took over 1400 billion RMB of NPLs from the “BigFour”, and planned to reconstruct and resolve them within10 years. The financing sources of AMCs are threefold asshown in Table 7: Ministry of Finance provided 3%, PBoCprovided 40%, and AMCs issued 10 years bonds to “BigFour” to cover the rest of 57%, which were implicitly guaranteedby the Chinese government.7Table 7 Financing of AMCs for Transferred NPLsfrom “Big Four”a) Changes in the balances sheet of PBoC (in Billons of RMB)Assets LiabilitiesClaims on financial institutions ReservesCredits to AMCs 560 Due to “Big Four” 560Total 560 Total 560b) Combined balance sheet of AMCs (in Bill ions of RMB)Assets LiabilitiesNPL from “Big Four” 1400 MoF equity 40PBoC borrowing 560AMC bonds 800Total 1400 Total 1400c) Changes in the combined balance sheet of “Big Four”( in Bi l l ions of RMB)Assets LiabilitiesReserves 600AMC bonds 800Domestic non-bank claims -1400Total 0 Total 0Source: Sheng, L. Der Einsatz von Asset Management Corporations zur Lösungdes Problems der Notleidenden Kredite im Chinesischen Bankensystem(Freiburg: Rombach Verlag, 2006), p. 94, Table 29.PBoC’s lending to AMC cannot be treated as an actionof lender of last resort, as it was granted for the government’spurpose of restructuring “Big Four” and considered timelessand interestless. Actually, AMC-bonds should be paid backby the end of 2008. However, NPLs took over by AMCswere of such a bad quality, that the recovery rate was solow that the recovered asset could hardly cover interest paymentof AMC bonds, although AMCs used various methods likedebt for equity and even international action in trying to gethighest return from these de facto “dead” assets. 8Due to state’s guarantee, considering state’s reputation,the Chinese government will anyway fill the gap betweentotal principle plus interest payments and what has been andcan be recovered from these NPLs through AMCs activity.The Chinese government has two alternatives, either via fiscalchannel, i.e. increasing tax or issuing additional governmentbonds, or via monetary channel, namely increasing centralbank lending just like the way 40% of these NPLs havebeen resolved. It seems that the Chinese government tendsto decide for the latter, and the reason we will discuss inthe following section.More recently, Chinese government actively pushed “BigFour” to go public. So that they could meet the criteria forgoing public concerning capital adequacy, NPL rate etc., Chinesegovernment took various actions to strengthen their capital base.In 2003, Chinese government established China Central HuijinInvestment Co. (HJ) which explicitly represents the Chinesegovernment to finance financial enterprises. Being called as“AMC of PBoC”, HJ gets financing directly from PBoC andis also fully controlled by it. From 2003–2005, CCB, ICBCand BoC received 60 billion US dollars from foreign reserveof PBoC via HJ, which increases their capital adequacy overthe international acceptable standard as shown in Table 8.Table 8 Capital Adequacy of the CCB, BOC andICBC before and after Recapitalization (%)Y e a rBank2001 2005ICBC 4.57 9.89BoC 8.50 10.42CCB 3.70 13.60Sources: Annual reports of referred banks, various years.
113《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12Also AMCs took over 279 billion RMB NPLs from CCBand BoC in 2004, and 705 billion RMB NPLs from ICBCin 2005. All these actions led to a drastic decrease of NPLsin ICBC, BoC and CCB which were meanwhile going publicas shown in Table 9.Table 9 NPL rate of Going Public State-OwnedBanks (%)Y e a rBank2005 2004 2003ICBC 4.69 21.16 21.24BoC 4.62 5.12 16.28CCB 3.84 3.92 11.90Sources: Annual reports of referred banks, various years.While the 1400 billion NPLs taken over by AMCs from1999–2000 referred to the part of NPLs generated before 1995,which reflected accumulated implicit government budget deficitbefore 19959 , the implicit state deficits accumulated after 1995may be calculated as following: By the end of 2005, theremaining NPLs in the “Big Four” and policy banks amountedto 1191 billion RMB as shown in Table 10.Table 10 NPLs in the “Big Four” and Policy Banks(in Billions of RMB)ICBC ABC BoC CCB SDB ADB IEB Total154.4 740.0 99.4 93.2 16.6 79.5 7.8 1190.9Sources: Annual Reports of referred banks, various years.Together with NPLs transferred to AMCs in 1999, 2004and 2005, the implicit government budget deficit accumulatedin the period from 1995 to 2005 amounted to 2275 billionyuan as shown in Table 11.Table 11 Total NPLs Emerged since 1996 (in Billionsof RMB)NPLs transfer 1999 (SDB) 100NPLs transfer 2003 (CCB, BoC) 279NPLs transfer 2005 (ICBC) 705Remaining NPLs 1191Total NPLs 2275Sources: Annual reports of referred banks, various year.4. Central Bank Financing vs. State DebtFinancingTo deal with the huge amount of implicit budget deficit,Chinese government has two financing alternatives, state debtfinancing or central bank financing. In this section we comparethe general macroeconomic impacts of both alternatives usingsimple neoclassical analytical framework. The exposition of AS-AD model is based on Blanchard and Illing10 and Blanchardand Fisher11 , while the analysis using IS-LM-BP model orientedto Blanchard and Fisher12 and Willms13 .According to Ricard-Barro-Equivalence Theorem, state debtfinancing has contractive effect on aggregate demand, as debtfinancing today causes restrictive fiscal policy in the future,which makes it necessary to increase tax to pay principlesand interests. Rationally, people take this future developmentinto today’s consumption consideration.14 As illustrated in Figure5, the aggregate demand decreases, and AD-curve shifts left,in the new equilibrium B output is lower than potential output,and unemployment rate is higher than natural rate ofunemployment. As prices decrease, the salary demand dropsas well, leading to increasing labor demand, so that AS-curveshifts right to AS1. In the new equilibrium C, prices decreasefurther, but output returns to potential output. In the long run,debt financing does not affect output and employment, but causesshort and middle run deflation process, over which output andemployment sink below the natural level.Figure 5 Fiscal Financing of NPLs in AS-AD ModelCentral bank financing causes positive impetus on domesticabsorption through lower interest rate, and AD-curve as shownin Figure 6 shifts right to AD1. In the new equilibrium B,we get higher output than potential output, and also employmentincreases over the natural rate. As price level is higher, salary
China’s Implicit Budget Deficit澳門研究114第49期demand increases, leading to decreasing labor demand, sothat AS-curve shifts left to AS1. In the new equilibrium,output returns to the potential level at an even higher pricelevel. In the long run, impact of debt and central bank financingon output and unemployment is equal, namely no impact.However, central bank financing causes short and middle runhigher employment and output level over the natural level.Figure 6 Central Bank Financing of NPLs in AS-ADModelTo illustrate the macroeconomic impacts of both financingalternatives in an open economy, we introduce IS-, LM- andBP-curves as shown in Figure 7 into our analysis. Statedebt financing indicating a contractive fiscal policy shifts IS-curve left to IS1. The new equilibrium B is only domestic,but for the balance of payment equilibrium the interest ratein this new equilibrium is still low, so that domestic currencysuffers from pressure of devaluation. The induced devaluationshifts BP right to BP1, which causes output increase dueto the increasing price competitiveness in foreign trade, sothat IS1shift right to IS2. In the new equilibrium C, we havereduced output, lower interest rate, and devalued currency.Figure 7 Fiscal Financing of NPLs in IS-LM-BP ModelCentral bank financing indicating an expansionary monetarypolicy shifts LM as shown in Figure 8 right to LM1. In B,we have higher output, but the interest rate is still low forthe balance of payment equilibrium, so that domestic currencyfaces pressure of devaluation. The induced devaluation indicatesadditional impetus for demand in form of export, so that IScurve shifts right to IS1, and BP curve shifts right to BP1.In C, we have lower interest rate, devalued currency, andthe output expansion due to the expansionary monetary policyis strengthened via foreign trade transmission process.Figure 8 Central Bank Financing of NPLs in IS-LM-BP Model5. China’s Rationality of Central Bank FinancingAccording to the macroeconomic analysis above we mayconclude: fiscal financing has contractive impact on output,while central bank financing is expansionary; Fiscal financingcreates deflationary process, while central bank financing hasinflationary effect; both alternatives lead to devaluation of domesticcurrency. Based on these facts we evaluate both alternativesin China’s specific situation especially from the perspectivesof balance of payment, employment policy and taxation efficiency.In term of balance of payment, the Sino-US trade relationis of vital importance in China’s external trade relations, asUS is China’s largest trade partner and major contributor toChina’s meanwhile worldwide ranking 1 foreign exchangereserve as shown in Figure 9.The US accused China’s unilateral peg of RMB to USdollar since 1995 is the main reason for the imbalance asshown in Figure 5 by which RMB was allegedly undervalued,and put enormous pressure on China to revalue its. However,the fixed exchange rate regime in form of such unilateral peg
115《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12is important for China, as it can reduce financial risk andtransaction cost, given China’s underdeveloped and fragilefinancial sector. Asian countries used to peg their currencyto Japanese Yen, and Yen’s revaluation relative to US dollarforced by the USA in 1980s negatively affected their economy,so that Yen lost its leading position in Asian region. If Chinaeffectively resists the US pressure, Yuan may establish itselfas center of an Asian currency block, and with status ofreserve currency, China may extract seigniorage from othercountries, just like how USA profits today.Although both financing alternatives trigger devaluationtendency, central bank financing stimulates output and generatenew demand for import which reduces trade surplus, whiledebt financing reduces output and constrains demand on importwhich makes trade surplus even greater. In the long run,central bank financing leads to higher price level, which indicatesreal revaluation of RMB, given current nominal fixed exchangerate system, so that export surplus may be reduced, whiledebt financing leads to real devaluation, which increases exportsurplus. In order to avoid increasing trade surplus and tensionwith the USA, China should decide for central bank financing.China is the most populated country in the world, andmajority of the people are living in the countryside. In theprocess of modernization, income disparity between city andcountryside widens, which attracts millions of peasants toimmigrate into urban areas as shown in Figure 10.Figure 10a Urban/Rural Income RatioFigure 10b Urban Population as Percentage of TotalPopulationSources: China Statistics Year Book, various years.So one of the priorities of Chinese government is toprovide jobs for these immigrants to ease social tension. Asdiscussed in section 4, a constant potential output is assumed,based on which both financing alternatives have the sameimpact on output and employment in the long run. However,given the expansionary monetary policy through monetarizationof implicit budget deficit, additional jobs will be created inthe short and middle run. Therefore, not only labors can earnmoney, but also or even more important they get chancefor training. This contributed to the general human capitalaccumulation which may increase potential output as shownin Figure 11.In contrast, if the Chinese government decides forcontractive fiscal policy through issuing more government bondsor even increasing tax, additional jobless incur in the shortand middle run, indicating lost chances for training. This willnegatively affect human capital accumulation leading to lowerFigure 9 US-China Trade Deficit and China’s ForeignExchange ReserveSources:China Statistics Year Book, various years; Foreign Trade Statistics(Washington: U.S. Census Bureau), various years.
China’s Implicit Budget Deficit澳門研究116第49期potential output as shown in Figure 12. So the decisionon central financing is not only short and middle run effective,but also positively affects the long run economic developmentpath.Figure 12 Fiscal Financing with HysteresisAnother implicit advantage of central bank financing refersto taxation efficiency. China’s rapid economic development ischaracterized by strong regional disparity. While the level ofincome in costal cities is approaching newly industrializedcountries, vast inland regions still remain backward as shownin Table 12.Table 12 Regional Income Disparity in 2005Provinces Per capita GDP in RMBShanghai 52,816Coastal Provinces Beijing 44,969Zhejiang 27,522Guizhou 4957Inland Provinces Gansu 7341Yunnan 7833Sources: China Statistics Year Book, 2005.Also the growing middle class consisting of most educatedChinese like middle and high level government officials,intellectuals and managers which are mainly concentrated incoastal cities play the central role in China’s modernizationprocess and are getting rich. As most of people in rural areasand also majority of urban residents in western and centralChina do not have income ever reaching the minimal taxationthreshold of 6000 RMB and are exempted from the taxationnet, Chinese government must levy heavy progressive taxationon middle class to compensate the narrow taxation base inorder to get enough budget revenue. This “unfairness” is furthermagnified, as in vast countryside, most of economic activitiesdo not go through market process, and therefore cannot betaxed. It is obvious that such taxation arrangement disincentivethe most dynamic class and regions in China, which maynegatively influence China’s sustainable development in longrun. In contrary, “inflation tax” resulting from expansionarymonetary policy applies to every money holder, rich or poor,and burden different regions equally basing on their income.The possibility of decreasing taxation rate due to the broadertaxation base may create incentive for middle class and richregions to create more value, so that the locomotive of China’seconomic growth runs fast.Another taxation efficiency for inflation tax refers to taxationadministration. Wang estimated that tax evasion cost morethan 200 billion RMB each year. In addition, local governmentmisused right to grant tax breaks and reduction favoring localenterprises at expense of national revenue costing 150 billionRMB annually. Also tax arrears was a usual phenomenais taxation practice. To solve these problems, huge amountof human and technological resources are required. In contrary,central bank financing can solve such problem in that nobodycan escape from inflation taxation.15Seigniorage is the income generated by money creation,but used by the government as implicit government expenditure.As Chinese economy is booming, and national income increasedat a rapid pace, the Chinese government is able to extractreal resources from Chinese people as much as the moneysupply increases. Empirically we can observe that moneysupply grows at a faster pace than GDP increase. This indicatedthat the PBoC extended money supply over the additionalmoney demand resulting from the increasing income. We supposethat this seigniorage flowed to a large extent to cover theFigure 11 Central Bank Financing with Hysteresis
117《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12implicit state budget deficit like recapitalization in 1998, 2003and 2005, as well as central bank lending to write off 40%of NPLs transferred to AMCs in 1999. In fact, levying “inflationtax” caused slight inflation tendency, but overall within a quitemoderate and acceptable range, as shown in Figure 13.Figure 13 Growth Rate in GDP, M2 and InflationSources: China Statistics Year Book, various years.As illustrated above, the remaining NPLs in “Big Four”and policy banks are still large. Also NPLs transferred toAMCs must be resolved. One may expect that central banklending will be continuously used in the foreseeable future.Notes:1 Holzer, M. and Zhang, M. Z., “China’s Fiscal Reform: TheIssue of Extra Budgeting,” Journal of Public Budgeting,Accounting & Financial Management, Vol. 16, No. 1 (2004),pp. 19–39.2 Fan, G., “New Norms on Public Revenue and Expenditure:Studying and Thinking on Cases of Abnormal Revenue inVillages and Towns of China,” Economic Research Journal,No. 6 (1995), pp. 34–43. [樊綱:《論公共收支的新規範──我國鄉鎮非規範收入若干個案的研究與思考》,載於《經濟研究》,第 6 期, 1995 年,第 34–43頁。 ]3 Holzer, M. and Zhang, M. Z., “China’s Fiscal Reform: TheIssue of Extra Budgeting,” Journal of Public Budgeting,Accounting & Financial Management, Vol. 16, No. 1 (2004),pp. 19-39.4 Fan, G., “New Norms on Public Revenue and Expenditure:Studying and Thinking on Cases of Abnormal Revenue inVillages and Towns of China,” Economic Research Journal,No. 6 (1995) , pp. 34–43.(樊綱:《論公共收支的新規範──我國鄉鎮非規範收入若干個案的研究與思考》,載於《經濟研究》,第 6 期, 1995 年,第 34–43頁。)5 Huang, D., “Der Chinesische Bankensektor im Zeichen desWTO-Beitritts,” in Universität Bremen (Hrsg.), Berichte desArbeitsbereiches Chinaforschung, Nr. 17 (Bremen, 2002),p . 27, Tab le 4.6 Sheng, L. Der Einsatz von Asset Management Corporationszur Lösung des Problems der Notleidenden Kredite imChinesischen Bankensystem (Freiburg: Rombach Verlag,2006), p. 78.7 Ib id. , p. 93f.8 Ib id . , p . 959 Ibid . , p. 89f.1 0 Blanchard, O. and Ill ing G., Makroökonomie, 3. Auflage(München: Pearson Studium, 2004).1 1 Blanchard, O. and Fisher, S., Lectures on Macroeconomics(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).1 2 Ibid.1 3 Willms, M., Internationale Währungspolitik (München: VerlangFranz Vahlen, 1992).1 4 Brümmerhoff, D., Finanzwissenschaft, 8. Auflage (München:Oldenbourg Verlag, 2001), p. 598.1 5 Wang, S., “China’s 1994 Fiscal Reform,” Asian Survey ,Vol. XXXVII, No. 9 (1997), pp. 801–817.
澳門回歸教育高中課程計劃:非正規學歷課程的特點澳門研究130第49期十、結語與建議澳門高中回歸教育是以成年人為主體的非正規學歷教育,通過有系統而又靈活的教學活動,運用中、葡語言作為教學語言。高中回歸教育課程法例的培訓內容是課程計劃,而學校的培訓內容則屬課程實施。分別以中文和葡文為教學語言的官校,以中文為教學語言的官校和私校,在課程培訓內容的編排上則有 明顯區別。以中文為教學語言的高中回歸教育,其課程設置符合法例規範的高中回歸教育課程計劃,而以葡文為教學語言的高中回歸教育課程,則使用普通中學課程的組織架構;私立創新中學的高中回歸課程開設商務組和社經組分別採用高中職業技術課程和普通高中課程,而非高中回歸課程的組織架構。高美士中葡中學高中回歸教育的培訓內容分為一般培訓、學科領域和選修三大類,而因應選修科為第三語言或藝術教育,課程設置的總課節分別為2412和2304,總課節相差超過100課節。高中回歸教育課程的法例培訓內容和官校的培訓內容整理並比較於表13。表13 比較高中回歸教育課程法定培訓內容和學校培訓內容法定培訓內容 學校培訓內容學校法人 官立 官立 官立 私立 私立教學時間 日夜 / 夜 日夜 / 夜 夜 日夜 日夜教學語言 中文 中文 葡文 中文 中文必修科目 一般培訓 一般培訓 一般培訓 社會文化 一般培訓學科領域 學科領域 學科領域 核心科目 科技 50 核心科目選修 第三語言 藝術教育 其他科目 專業實習 其他科目全年總課節2 4 1 2 / 年 2 3 0 4 / 年 3 9 / 週 2 6 / 週 2 5 / 週(2 3 0 4 – 2412)回歸教育是非正規教育,但具有正規學歷資格。澳門高中回歸課程法例規範課程計劃,在框架內下學校實施校本課程,從課程結構和內容分析,回歸課程是以智育為主的課程。高中回歸課程強調學生必須掌握讀寫、運用數字和賞握資訊的基本要求;內容學科則為人文及社會經濟或科學及技術科學;選修科目則可從第三語言(英文)、藝術教育、或秘書實務中選取,大體上選修科目是以藝術性和實用性為主。高中回歸課程類別的必修科目權重為 5 9 . 7 –6 2 . 5 % ,而學科領域佔 2 6 . 9 – 2 8 . 2 % ,選修佔 9 –14.1%。高中回歸教學計劃是以智育學科為重點,而美育和勞育是可供選修,按五育的權重劃分則有兩組可能的組合:智育>勞育>美育>德育,或智育>美育>勞育>德育。回歸教育作為基礎教育的補充,且為持續教育的一部分,在學科設置方面,語言學科的權重比例頗大,可考慮讓學員在中文、英文和葡文三科語言學科中,選其中一科為必修科,而另外兩科語言為選修科目,此種課程編排,為避免因語言因素而成為學員完成課程的障礙;亦宜將學科領域和選修合併,增加文、理、工、商、體、藝等實用性學科,讓學員可作跨組選修,亦可因應學員的就業性質而承認部分的單元學分。回歸課程是改善人力資源和提升社會素質的非正規的學歷課程,回歸教育具有鼓勵市民終身學習和構建學習型社會的持續教育,期望社會各界積極參與,使回歸課程更加社區化,課程方式更為市民所認同,以更靈活的評核制度配合回歸教育的發展。註釋:1 第 11/91/M 號法律。2 第 9/2006 號法律。3 第 32 /95/M 號法令。4 《回歸教育高中課程計劃》,載於澳門教育暨青年局網站, h t t p : / / w w w . e s l c . k 1 2 . e d u . m o / H o m e p a g e / E R G /erg_intro.htm , 2007 年 2 月 23 日;第 49/2002 號社會文化司司長批示。5 第 49/2002 號社會文化司司長批示。6 《高美士中葡中學高中回歸教育的課程設置(2 0 0 5 –2006)》,載於澳門教育暨青年局網站, http://app.dsej.gov.mo/prog/edu/eduweb/schinf/schl istmain. jsp?lang=c ,2006 年 8 月 17 日。7 《高美士中葡中學葡文成人夜間課程的課程設置(2005–2006)》,載於澳門教育暨青年局網站, ht tp : / /app.dsej .gov.mo/prog/edu/eduweb/sch in f/schl is tmain. jsp?lang=c , 2006 年 8 月 17 日。8 《創新中學的商務組和社經組課程(2005–2006)》,載於澳門教育暨青年局網站, http://app.dsej.gov.mo/prog/edu/eduweb/schinf/schlistmain.jsp?lang=c , 2006 年 8 月 17日。
131《澳門研究》第49期2008. 121. IntroductionAt the time around 1981 when the total fertility ratesof most developed countries were near or well below replacementlevel (consensually taken as 2100‰) and virtually all developingcountries were staying somewhere well above such level1,with fertility limitation still being the focal concern amongdemographic workers and some governments, Macau attaineda total fertility rate of 2100.2 At the time around the turn ofthe present century when the total fertility rates of a majorityof developing countries were still quite high and those of virtuallyall developed countries were much below replacement level3,with the worry of overshooting of fertility limitation beginningto be at issue4, Macau’s women reproduced children at atotal fertility around 842,5 a level not only far below replacementbut as well one of the two lowest levels of the world around2001.6 Though the local fertility recuperated to 965 by 2006,it was still incredibly below replacement level.Factors influencing the trend of fertility fall into two classes,namely, the demographic and the substantive ones. The presentstudy confines itself to the former class. More specifically,the analysis below focuses on how the changes of the agedistribution of the reproductive females (aged 15–49), the maritalstructure, and the marital fertility affected the trend of the overallfertility rate in the recent past (1991–2006). The understandingof these demographic processes of Macau has important bearingon both forecasting and policy making.2. An Overview of the Fertility TrendThe present study divides the years 1991–2006 into threeperiods, namely, 1991–1996, 1996–2001 and 2001–2006, withthe years of censuses or intermediate surveys as their boundarypoints. The trend of the local fertility during 1991–2006 is shownin Table 1 through different fertility indices, namely, the crudebirth rate (CBR: number of births per thousand persons ofthe population), the general fertility rate (GFR: number of birthsper thousand females aged 15–49), the total fertility rate (TFR:sum of the age-specific fertility rates times 5), the generalfertility rate from age 20 (GFR20: the GFR of females aged20 and above), and the marital total fertility rate from age20 (MTFR20: the TFR of married females aged 20 and above).The MTFR20 is computed because the marital fertility rateof age group 15–19 is almost always unsteady and spuriouslyhigh due to causes related to very early marriage andreproduction. Inclusion of this age group frequently leads todistortion. The GFR20 is computed for comparison purpose.Among these indices, the CBR and the GFR, though widelyused, are well known to be sensitive to the influence of somedemographic factors, noticeably the age distribution ofreproductive females and the marital structure (the age-specificproportions of married females among all females in each agegroup), and hence most superficial. The MTFR20 is, however,free from such influences and hence relatively “purest”. Indiceslike this latter type are sometimes regarded in demographicworks as reflecting the “real” fertility.Recent Fertility Trend of Macau: Manifest andLatent CoursesAu Ki Yung** Retired Researcher (Former Associate Research Fellow, Centre for Communication Studies,Chinese University of Hong Kong)
Recent Fertility Trend of Macau: Manifest and Latent Courses澳門研究132第49期Table 1 Levels of Various Fertility Indices*Year CBR GFR TFR GFR20** MTFR20**199119.1 61.5 1636.8 68.4 3082.1(-31.4) (-31.9) (-23.0) (-33.3) (-17.6)199613.1 41.9 1259.7 45.6 2540.3(-45.0) (-46.5) (-37.0) (-45.1) (-17.4)20017.2 22.4 793.5 25.0 2098.9(13.9) (12.9) (21.7) (16.2) (18.1)20068.2 25.3 965.5 29.1 2478.0( — ) ( — ) ( — ) ( — ) ( — )Notes: *All figures not parenthesized are on ‰ base. Parenthesized figuresare percentages of change of the indices from begin-year to end-yearof a period.** GFR20 and MTFR20 are computed from age group 20-24 as thestarting group, and the remaining indices follow conventional formulae.Source: Macau Census and Statistics Bureau, Yearbook of Statistics (Macau:Census and Statistics Bureau, various years).Looking Table 1 through reveals some important featuresof the recent trend of Macau’s fertility: Despite already farbelow replacement in 1991, all indices show that the localfertility continued to fall in the first two periods but recuperatedin the third period. The rates of change in fertility shownby the superficial indices (the % change in CBR and GFR)are substantially different from those shown by the real index(the MTFR20), signifying a good degree of unreliability of theformer: the latent decline of fertility in the first two periodswas much slower than superficially observed, and therecuperation in the third period, slightly faster. (Compare theCBR and GFR with the MTFR20.) The trend of the proportionof reproductive females among the whole population inducedalmost no effect on the CBR or the GFR. (Compare theCBR with the GFR.) The evolution of the age distributionof the reproductive females and the marital structure both inducedsuppressing effects on the GFR through all periods. (Comparethe GFR with the TFR, and the GFR20 with the MTFR20.)In sum, the rough picture revealed above tells that Macau’sfertility was still falling in the last decade of the last centurybut recuperated in recent years. Yet if one observes the trendthrough indices like CBR or GFR, its fall was inflated, andits rise, deflated, by the evolution of the age distribution andthe marital structure. So far as the superficial indices andthe relatively “purest” index have their own domains ofapplication, more precise assessment on the influences of theseconfounding factors on the former is needed, which is thesubject matter of the following sections.3. Input Data for Effect DecompositionThe input data for decomposition analysis are shown below(Table 2). Since the present study decides to keep the dataof the censuses and surveys (whose time points were seton August 31) unchanged, all published annual statistics arere-counted from 1st March of the year to 28th (29th) Februaryof the next year so to make the data of the censuses orsurveys the “mid-year” figures.Table 2 Input Data for Decomposition AnalysisA g eYear15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49Female Age Distribution (%)1991 11.6 17.5 20.3 20.2 15.2 9.8 5.41996 9.4 15.5 15.3 19.4 18.3 13.5 8.62001 12.9 12.0 12.9 14.7 18.1 16.6 12.82006 14.7 14.4 11.3 13.2 14.6 16.7 15.1Marital Structure (%)1991 2.3 22.0 66.4 84.3 88.9 88.9 88.81996 2.9 18.8 58.7 83.2 87.4 88.4 87.72001 1.0 11.3 48.7 76.2 83.8 85.9 84.52006 1.0 12.9 46.1 72.7 80.8 83.1 81.4Age Distribution of Married Female (%)1991 0.4 6.2 21.9 27.6 21.9 14.2 7.81996 0.4 4.6 14.1 25.3 25.1 18.7 11.82001 0.2 2.3 10.6 18.9 25.6 24.1 18.32006 0.3 3.4 9.5 17.5 21.5 25.3 22.5Marital Fertility (‰)1991 402.0 271.1 193.7 106.4 38.7 6.2 0.41996 214.7 213.6 168.4 84.5 33.4 7.7 0.52001 458.1 210.3 114.1 66.5 25.5 3.3 0.12006 329.1 230.8 135.6 86.2 36.7 5.8 0.5Sources: Macau Census and Statistics Bureau, Yearbook of Statistics (Macau:Census and Statistics Bureau, various years); Macau Census andStatistics Bureau, Demographic Statistics (Macau: Census and StatisticsBureau, various years).4. Conventional Component Analysis andProblems of InterpretationIn the subsequent analysis, the fertility index GFR isselected to be the dependent variable. Different approachescan be employed to decompose the confounding effects ofthe age distribution and the marital structure, among whichthree are applied to Macau’s data for comparison, yieldingthe following results (Table 3).7
133《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12In Table 3, negative sign indicates decrease, and positivesign, increase. Reading the table roughly, one observes thatthe effects of the three factors on the GFR appear to convergenumerically to the same results, despite markedly different incomputation formulae in different approaches. The only exceptionis the “age distribution” in Kitagawa’s approach, which refersto that of the married females instead of general females asin other approaches. The GFR decreased from 61.5 (‰) in1991 by 19.6 points to 41.9 in 1996, and decreased furtherby 19.5 points to 22.4 in 2001, but bounced back by2.9 points to 25.3 in 2006. Within this course of motion, theage distribution, the marital structure and the marital fertilityall changed in a direction which suppressed the GFR in allperiods, save that the marital fertility changed with a tendencyto raise the GFR in the third period. The total interaction effectof the three main factors, however, tended to raise the GFRin the first two periods, but suppress it in the third period.The above description of the trend of the local fertilityis of course crude. If one proceeds to ask about the meaningsof the more precise magnitudes of the effects in Table 3,the question is easy to raise but complex to answer fully,because, despite the apparent convergence in numerical values,the effects obtained by the three approaches are not all thesame in meaning and its degree of clarity.In Freedman’s approach, the three component effects canbe interpreted in terms of the familiar standardization technique,with the begin-year population as the standard population. Inthe first period, for instance, if the marital structure and themarital fertility were the same in 1996 as those in 1991,the actual change of the age structure, alone, would pull downthe GFR of 1991 by 7.2 points (or-7.2/61.5=-17.9% of the1991-GFR). Similarly, the change of the marital fertility alonewould suppress the 1991-GFR by 10.4 points (or-17.0% ofthe 1991-GFR) if the other two factors remained unchanged(as in 1991). The same interpretation applies to other periods.There exist wording variants in such an interpretation.However, such an interpretation, strictly speaking, cannotbe made in Kitagawa’s model. Despite that interpreting instandardization terms was recommended by Kitagawa, onlythe marital structure can be so interpreted directly in her model.Even so, the standard population the interpretation refers tois not the population of the begin-year of a period (as Freedman’sone) but a population whose standardizing factors are theaverages of the begin-year and end-year values of the relevantfactors in the period. On the other hand, the effects of themarital age distribution and the marital fertility cannot be interpretedin standardization terms because their formulae contains termsnot reducible to standardization forms. However, it can beshown through algebraic treatment that, in the data of the presentstudy, the effects of these two uninterpretable factors can beSingle-factor Effects**Change in GFR* Approach YearAge Distri bution*** Marital Structure Marital FertilityTotal Interaction****-19.6 (-31.9) 1991–1996 -7.2 (-11.7) -4.6 ( -7.5) -10.4 (-17.0) 2.6 ( 4.2)-19.5 (-46.6) Freedman 1996–2001 -6.7 (-16.0) -6.9 (-16.4) -9.0 (-21.6) 3.1 (7.4)2.9 (13.0) 2001–2006 -1.7 ( -7.7) -0.4 ( -2.1) -5.8 (25.8) -0.7 (-2.9)-19.6 (-31.9) 1991–1996 -11.8 (-19.2) -3.9 (-6.3) -9.6 (-15.5) 5.6 ( 9.1)-19.5 (-46.6) Kitagawa 1996–2001 -9.1 (-21.8) -6.0 (-14.4) -8.0 (-19.2) 3.7 (8.9)2.9 (13.0) 2001–2006 -0.6 (-2.6) -0.5 (-2.1) 5.3 (23.9) -1.4 (-6.3)-19.6 (-31.9) 1991–1996 -6.2( -10.1) -3.9 (-6.3) -9.5 (-15.6) –-19.5 (-46.6) Kim-Strobino 1996–2001 -5.5 (-13.1) -6.1 (-14.5) -8.0 (-19.0) –2.9 (13.0) 2001–2006 -2.0 (-8.9) -0.5 (-2.1) 5.3 (23.9) –Notes: * Unparenthesized figures are absolute changes, and parenthesized figures, percentages of change.* * Unparenthesized figures are absolute effects, and parenthesized figures, effects in terms of the percentage of begin-year GFR in each period(i.e., effects divided by begin-year GFR).*** This term refers to married females in Kitagawa’s approach, instead of general females in other approaches.**** Sum of the effects of the “joint changes” of the three main factors.Table 3 Sum of Age-specific Effects (‰) of the Age Distribution, Marital Structure, Marital Fertility and Interactionon GFR
Recent Fertility Trend of Macau: Manifest and Latent Courses澳門研究134第49期approximately interpreted in standardization terms. Thus if, forinstance, the single-factor effect of the marital age distributionin the first period is to be interpreted in Kitagawa’s model,one can only say that, approximately speaking, the maritalage distribution would pull down the 1991-GFR by 19.2%if its actual change in the period was applied to a standardpopulation characterized by the averages of the begin-yearand end-year values of the other two factors in the period.On the other hand, a common problem exists in bothFreedman’s and Kitagawa’s models, which is the interpretationof the total “interaction” term (i.e., the sum of the effectsof the “joint changes” of the three main factors). In Freedman’sTaiwan study8 , the total interaction effect was negligibly smalland hence brought forth no practical problem if it was notinterpreted. Yet in the present study, the interaction effect beginsto be not negligible. With respect to such interaction effect,past works, theoretical or practical, usually provided only somemeaning-unelaborated terms or statements for its interpretationwhich are often taken as self-explained (e.g., joint change,remaining effects not covered by the main effects, etc.), leavingmuch room for the readers to exercise their own conjectures.Kim and Strobino established their decomposition modelunder a context which can also be transformed into that ofthe present study. In their approach, the subcomponents ofthe interaction effect were evenly distributed to relevant single-factor effects according to Goldfield’s principle of equal distribution,yielding formulae for the main factors each of which wascomposed of a part interpretable in terms of a begin-year-end-year-average standard population (like Kitagawa’s) plus aremainder part resulting from the distribution process of theinteraction components. The formulae are neatly symmetrical,and the headache of interpreting the interaction effect is doneaway. Moreover, the application of Goldfield’s principle ofallocation is reasonable when no more useful information todistribute the component interaction effects is at hand. Yet onewill find it vague to interpret the single-factor effects instandardization terms since each formula is a combination ofa net (or standardized) effect and the effects of relevant interactioncomponents. It is then not the effect of a change of a mainfactor (alone) when all other main factors are held unchanged.It seems that each of the single-factor effects is more somesort of total effect of the factor than a net effect. Thus inKim-Strobino’s approach, the 13% rise of the GFR duringthe third period (Table 3) was attained by a total down-pullingforce of magnitude -2.0-0.5= -2.5 (i.e., 11% of the 2001-GFR)on the GFR of 2001, which was induced by the actual changesof the age distribution and the marital structure, and was over-balanced by a rise of 5.3 points (23.9% of the 2001-GFR)of the marital fertility. Nothing needs to be assumed unchangedin this interpretation.It seems that an interpretation common to the threeapproaches is one in “attribution” terms: the proportion ofthe change in the GFR attributable to the change of a mainfactor. When interaction effect is absent or negligible, the attributionis in total effect terms. Otherwise it is in net (or standardized)effect terms. Thus in Kim-Strobino’s model, for instance, ofthe 31.9% decline in GFR in the first period (Table 3),-31.7% (i.e., -10.1/31.9) and -19.7% (-6.3/31.9) in downwarddirection were due to the evolution of the female age distributionand their marital structure respectively, and -48.9% downwardwas due to the decline of the real fertility. Nonetheless, inKitagawa’s model, of the same 31.9% decline in GFR,-60.2% downward was approximately due to the net effectof the change in marital age distribution, and -48.6% downward,(approximately) the net effect of the change in marital fertility.Re-reading Table 3 in terms of the above interpretations,it is readily seen that the impact of the age distribution (orthe marital age distribution) and the marital structure wastremendous in the first two periods. Whether in terms of netor total effect, these two factors exerted a combined effectgreater than the effect of the marital fertility, and in the samedirection as the latter’s. The downward trend of the real fertilitywas thus inflated. In other words, the decline of the GFRwas due more to the evolution of the age structure and themarital structure than to the real fertility. It is in the thirdperiod that the picture is reversed: the rise of the GFR wasvirtually wholly attributable to the rise of the real fertility.5. A Missing EffectThere remains one confounding factor emerging from theapplication of Kitagawa’s approach to the present study, namely,the overall proportion of married females among all reproductive
135《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12females, which has never been made explicit in conventionaldecomposition analysis. Application of Kim-Strobino’s approachto the overall proportion of married females, marital age distributionand marital fertility yields the component effects below (Table4).Table 4 Effects of the Changes of the OverallProportion Married, Marital Age Distribution andMarital Fertility on GFR*YearChange in Overall Proportion Marital Age MaritalGFR Married Distribution Fertility1991–1996 -19.6 (-31.9) 1.8 (2.9) -11.8 (-19.2) -9.6 (-15.6)1996–2001 -19.5 (-46.6) -2.4 (-5.6) -9.1 (-21.8) -8.0 (-19.1)2001–2006 2.9 (13.0) -5.7 (-8.4) -0.6 (-2.6) 5.3 (23.9)Note: * Effects are on ‰ base. Parenthesized figures are percentages of thebegin-year GFR of each period. Positive sign indicates increase, andnegative sign, decrease.Table 4 shows that the overall proportion married (amongreproductive females) tended to raise the GFR in the firstperiod and then suppress it afterward. Like what have beenshown above, the combined effect of the overall proportionmarried and the marital structure was more fertility-suppressingthan the marital fertility effect in the first two periods, butthe reverse was true in the third period.6. Demographic Processes Underlying theComponent EffectsTo see the more basic demographic processes that yieldthe component effects, one looks into the evolution processesof the female age distribution (married or general), the maritalstructure, the overall proportion married and the marital fertility(Tables 5 and 6).All tables analyzed above can now be put together. Ignoringthe youngest age group in Table 6 (for reason stated above),it is clear that the course of the real fertility matches thoseof the confounding factors in Table 5. It suffices to look intothe demographic changes in the prime age groups (aged 20-34) since fertility outside these groups is of little importance.The real fertility declined in the first two periods when therewere relatively less females and the proportions married reducedmainly in the prime age groups of fertility (Table 5). The realfertility rose in the third period when the reduction of theTable 5 Underlying Demographic Processes thatGenerated the Various Confounding EffectsYear 1991 1996 2001 2006 1991–1996 1996–2001 2001–2006Age Group Age Distribution (%) Difference (%)*15–19 11.6 9.4 12.9 14.7 -2.3 3.5 1.820–24 17.5 15.5 12.0 14.4 -2.0 -3.6 2.425–29 20.3 15.3 12.9 11.3 -5.0 -2.4 -1.630–34 20.2 19.4 14.7 13.2 -0.8 -4.7 -1.535–39 15.2 18.3 18.1 14.6 3.1 -0.2 -3.540–44 9.8 13.5 16.6 16.7 3.6 3.1 0.145–49 5.4 8.6 12.8 15.1 3.2 4.2 2.3Age Group Marital Structure (%) Difference (%)*15–19 2.3 2.9 1.0 1.0 0.6 -1.9 0.020–24 22.0 18.8 11.3 12.9 -3.2 -7.5 1.625–29 66.4 58.7 48.7 46.1 -7.7 -10.1 -2.530–34 84.3 83.2 76.2 72.7 -1.1 -7.0 -3.535–39 88.9 87.4 83.8 80.8 -1.5 -3.6 -2.940–44 88.9 88.7 85.9 83.1 -0.5 -2.5 -2.945–49 88.8 87.7 84.5 81.4 -1.1 -3.2 -3.1Age GroupMarital AgeDistribution (%)Difference (%)*15–19 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.120–24 6.2 4.6 2.3 3.4 -1.7 -2.3 1.125–29 21.9 14.1 10.6 9.5 -7.7 -3.5 -1.130–34 27.6 25.3 18.9 17.5 -2.3 -6.4 -1.435–39 21.9 25.1 25.6 21.5 3.2 0.6 -4.140–44 14.2 18.7 24.1 25.3 4.5 5.4 1.245–49 7.8 11.8 18.3 22.5 4.1 6.5 4.2Age GroupOverall ProportionMarried (%)Difference (%) *- 61.6 63.8 59.2 54.8 2.1 -4.6 -4.4Note: * Difference between the end-year value and the begin-year value ofeach periodSources: Macau Census and Statistics Bureau, Yearbook of Statistics (Macau:Census and Statistics Bureau, various years); Macau Census andStatistics Bureau, Demographic Statistics (Macau: Census and StatisticsBureau, various years).Table 6 Marital Fertility and their ChangesYear 1991 1996 2001 2006 1991–1996 1996–2001 2001–2006Age Group Marital Fertility (‰) Difference (‰)*15–19 15–19 402.0 214.7 458.1 -187.3 243.4 -129.020–24 20–24 271.1 213.6 210.3 -57.5 -3.3 20.525–29 25–29 193.7 168.4 114.1 -25.3 -54.4 21.630–34 30–34 106.4 84.5 66.5 -21.9 -17.9 19.635–39 35–39 38.7 33.4 25.5 -5.3 -7.9 11.240–44 40–44 6.2 7.7 3.3 1.5 -4.4 2.645–49 45–49 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.1 -0.4 0.4Note: * Difference between the end-year value and the begin-year value ofeach periodSources: Macau Census and Statistics Bureau, Yearbook of Statistics (Macau:Census and Statistics Bureau, various years); Macau Census andStatistics Bureau, Demographic Statistics (Macau: Census and StatisticsBureau, various years).
Recent Fertility Trend of Macau: Manifest and Latent Courses澳門研究136第49期percentages of the females and the proportions married mainlyin the prime age groups became not as great or even reversedin direction (Table 5). It was mainly such age-specific changesof these two confounding factors in the prime age groups (Table5) that, when combined with the declining real fertility, madethe three corresponding negative effects (Table 3) which, inturn, generated a substantial decline in GFR in the first twoperiods (-31.9% and -46.6%) while the real fertility declinedonly about half as large (Table 1). In the third period, it wasalso the weakened downward (or directionally reversed) changesof the two confounding factors mainly in the prime age groups(Table 5) that made the vanishing confounding effects (Table3) and hence yielded the approximately equal percentages ofrecuperation of the GFR and the real fertility (Table 1), or,in other words, the change of the superficial GFR approximatelyreflected that of the real fertility in this period.On the other hand, the overall proportion married andthe marital age distribution tell a different story. The increasein the overall proportion married in the first period was over-balanced by the aging trend of the marital age distribution(Table 5), yielding a combined effect of magnitude 1.8-11.8= -10.0 (Table 4) which, when combined with the fall of thereal fertility (-9.6, Table 4), resulted in a fall of the superficialGFR about double of the real decline (MTFR20, Table 1).The effects of the main factors in the second period wereperfectly consistent in direction: the overall proportion marriedand the reduced percentages of married females mainly inthe prime age groups (Table 5) combined to a magnitude(-2.4-9.1= -11.5, Table 4) more fertility-suppressing than thedecline of the real fertility (Tables 4 and 6), resulting in adecline of the GFR (some -46.5%, Table 1) more than doubleof the real decline (-17.4x2 -35%, Table 1). The demographicprocess in the third period was parallel to that of the analysisin the previous paragraph: the continuing suppressing effectsof the overall proportion married and the reduction of percentagesof the married females in the prime age groups (Table 5)were incomparable to the rising tendency of the real fertility(Tables 4 and 6), yielding a clear recuperation of the GFRand the MTRF20, with approximately the same magnitude(13% vs. 18%, Table 1). In this way, Tables 1, 3, 4, 5and 6 together form an integrated whole which describes thedetails of the recent fertility trend (manifest or latent) of Macau,though quite clumsy to fully state.7. ConclusionIt is well known that some demographic indices suchas the CBR, the GFR, or the like, which public administratorsand policy makers frequently employed when dealing with issuesof population growth, are not always reliable in appraisingthe latent state behind the indices, about which the fertilitytrend of Macau is an instance, among others, in which theGFR is much confounded by the evolution of the (female)age distribution, marital structure, marital age distribution andoverall proportion married, yielding a much expanded orcontracted picture of the underlying trend. So far as the effectsof the confounding factors are not all readily foreseeable butconstantly existing in the local population, care should be takenwhen population issues that need the appraisal of the latentfertility trend are on the table.It is obvious that, to a population as unstable as Macau,the effects of the confounding factors investigated above arequite transient; they may differ from period to period. A practicalconcern is then often aroused: What can be expected aboutthe impacts of the confounding factors on the course of thelocal fertility in the near future? Again, this question is easyto raised but complex to answer, especially in front of thesubstantial flow of migration. With respect to this, one maybegin with the assumption of the absence of migration anddivorce to see roughly how the confounding factors will probablyevolve in five years subsequent to 2006. Looking the femaleage distribution through (i.e., the upper panel of Table 5), itis obvious that the age distribution alone will exert a raisingeffect on the GFR as more females will enter the primereproductive ages. Next the effect of the future course of themarital structure can only be roughly expected. It seemsreasonable to assume that the rate of new marriage is unchangedso far as the socio-economic conditions are steady. If so,the increase in the number of females in the prime reproductiveages will be matched by a corresponding increase in thenumber of new marriages, yielding a quite steady proportionof married females within the prime reproductive age groups,and hence the marital structure, whose effect will be small,
137《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12and hence its direction of change cannot be foretold withoutdetailed calculation.The expectations stated above are made under theassumption of absence of migration and divorce. Divorce isadmittedly ignorable in the local data. Migration, indeed, doesexist every year, and to a substantial volume. Some earlierworks on Macau’s demography observed that around the turnof the 1990s, female incomers among Macau’s residents weremainly economic migrants from the Mainland of China, withheavy concentration on prime reproductive ages (20–34), whichyielded expectations about the continuity of such an age patternand their reproductive potential of labour supply in the localityin the near future.9 The immigration statistics show that theformer expectation held true in the first half of the 1990s.Yet after 1997, the modal age group of female immigrantstended to shift one or two age groups older, and in someyears the second most-frequent groups were children groups10.This aging tendency may signify that Chinese female immigrantsto Macau have been changing from economic type to oneof family reuniting. If so, and if this reuniting tendency prevailsin the near future, Chinese female immigrants can be expectedto exert a small indirect effect on the GFR through raisingthe proportions in the marital structure mainly in age groupsof minor importance in reproduction. On the other hand, thefemale children who migrated with their parents will join thereproductive force when they grow up in the more remotefuture, which may then raise the fertility level.What can then be expected about the course of theunderlying real fertility in the near future? A noteworthy pointto observe is that the real fertility dropped continuously andin good speed in the first two periods but recuperated in thethird period despite the continuation of the suppressing effectsof the age distribution and the marital structure (Table 3). Onemay take that this recuperation is simply a random fluctuation.Yet this may also be a persistent recuperation since the thirdperiod covers prosperous years after some years of economicrecession. If so, a prolonged recuperation in fertility can beexpected which may rise back to the fertility level around1996 in the next five years after 2006, provided no drasticencounter whatsoever frustrates the normal course of the socio-economic development of the locality. Another important pointof interest is perhaps the marked deviation of Macau’s fertilityexperience from the “incipient decline” stage expected by theclassical transition theory: Macau’s fertility continued to falleven already far below replacement level, and nothing sofar signifies its tendency to level off at some level, whethera higher or a lower one. This problem of further inquiry involvesboth demographic and substantive causes, which is beyondthe scope of the present paper.Notes:1 Lutz, W., “Future Reproductive Behavior in UnindustrializedCountr ies,” in Lutz, W. (Ed.), The Future of the World:What Can We Assume Today? (Laxenburg: Internat ionalInstitute for Applied Systems Analysis, 1994), pp. 207–294;Pritchett, L. H., “Desired Fertility and the Impact of PopulationPolicies,” Population and Development Review, Vol. 20, No.1 (1994), pp. 1–55; Rele, J. R. and Alam, I. “Fert i l i tyTransition in Asia: the Statistical Evidence,” in Leete, R.and Alam, I. (Eds.), The Revolut ion in Asian Fert i l i ty:Dimensions, Causes, and Implications (Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1993), pp. 15–37.2 古萬年:《1995–2001 澳門人口面面觀》,載於《面向21 世紀澳門人口社會發展》,澳門:澳門統計暨普查局,第 27–48 頁。3 Derived from United Nations, Demographis Yearbook 2002(New York: Department of Economics and Social Affairs,United Nations, 2006), Table 11.4 United Nations, Population Bulletin of the United Nations(New York: United Nations, 1999) No. 40–41.5 Ib id. ; 古萬年:《1995–2001 澳門人口面面觀》,載於《面向 2 1 世紀澳門人口社會發展》,澳門:澳門統計暨普查局,第 27–48 頁;der ived f rom United Nations,Demographis Yearbook 2002 (New York: Department ofEconomics and Social Affairs, United Nations, 2006), Table11.6 The other lowest TFR was 790 (Hong Kong) in 2001, asderived from United Nations, Demographis Yearbook 2002(New York: Department of Economics and Social Affairs,United Nations, 2006), Table 11.7 Freedman, R., et al., “Fertility Trends in Taiwan,” PopulationIndex 38, 1972, pp. 141–166; Kitagawa, E. M., “Componentsof a Difference between Two Rates,” Journal of AmericanStatistics Association, 1955, pp. 1168–1194; Kim, Y. J. andStrobino, D. M., “Decomposition of the Difference betweenTwo Rates with Hierarchical Factors,” Demography, Vol.21, No. 3 (1984), pp. 361–72.8 Freedman, R., et al., “Fertility Trends in Taiwan,” PopulationIndex 38, 1972, pp. 141–166.9 Yuan, D. Y., “Age-sex Prof ile of Chinese Immigrants inMacau,” in Ramos, R. , e t a l . (Eds. ) , Popula t ion andDevelopment in Macau: Proceedings of the InternationalConference Held at the University of Macau, 6–7 December1993 (Macau: Universi ty of Macau, 1994); Yuan, D. Y.,
Recent Fertility Trend of Macau: Manifest and Latent Courses澳門研究138第49期Chinese Immigration and Emigration: a Population Study ofMacau (Macau: University of Macau, 2000), Chapter 5.1 0 Macau Census and Statistics Bureau, Yearbook of Statistics(Macau: Census and Statistics Bureau, various years); MacauCensus and Stat ist ics Bureau, Demographic Stat ist ics(Macau: Census and Stat istics Bureau, various years).
澳門與近代中國革命澳門研究140第49期衛生要旨》。4年之後,另一部五卷本巨著《盛世危言》終於在澳門殺青,於廣州出版。這是鄭觀應的代表作,閃爍 他的先進革命理念的光芒。他在書中寫道:“有國者欲攘外,亟須自強;欲自強,必先致富;欲致富,必首在振工商;欲振工商,必先講求學校,速立憲法,尊重道德,改良政治。蓋憲法乃國家之基礎,道德為學問之根底,學校為人材之本源。政治關係實業之盛衰;政治不改良,實業萬難興盛。”2在這裏,鄭觀應以其簡潔的語言,嚴密的邏輯,正確地論證了強與富之間的關係,指明了中國登於富強之境的必由之路。鄭觀應生活在澳門的時代,正是澳門貿易衰落,苦力貿易畸形繁榮之時。1860年,澳葡設立了專管苦力貿易的監督官,並開設了若干專門經營苦力貿易的“招工館”。葡人稱招工館為“巴拉坑”, 這是葡語Barracoon一詞音譯,意為木屋或木棚,中國人則稱之為“豬仔館”。對被 誘騙入館的人稱為“賣豬仔”。由於1849年葡萄牙殖民者悍然驅逐中國官員離澳,宣佈澳門為自由港,完全控制了整個澳門。因此肆無忌憚,為所欲為,苦力貿易也從偷運變為公開化了。由於澳門位於珠江出口,交通方便;同時葡萄牙殖民者盤踞澳門也已有300多年,與內地不法分子勾結很深,誘拐人口十分方便,因而,澳門的苦力貿易發展很快。1851年時澳門只有5家“招工館”,分別散處於華旺街(Hua Wang Kai)、白馬港(Pak Ma Kong)、海灣街(Hai Wan Kai)、善靜路(San J ing Low)及沙蘭子(Sha lan Tsze),到1865年,即增至8到10家,1866年又增至35至40家。3到1873年,僅葡萄牙、西班牙和荷蘭三國在澳門開設的“招工館”就有300多家,靠苦力貿易為生的人販子達3–4萬人之多。4出口的苦力主要運往加勒比海和南美地區,特別是古巴和秘魯兩國。慘無人道的苦力貿易,激起中國人民和世界進步人類的共同譴責。鄭觀應十分關注澳門苦力貿易問題,先後寫過《澳門豬仔論》、《求救豬仔論》、《論禁止販人為奴》、《記豬仔逃回訴苦略》等近10篇論文,猛烈抨擊澳葡的罪惡行徑。他在文章中寫道:“余世居澳門,素知底蘊。非獨窩娼聚賭,年投規銀數十萬,而又有販人出洋之舉。其中被拐見誘者,十居其九。父失其子,妻喪其夫。長離桑梓,永溺風波,有死別之悲,無生還之望。言之傷心,聞之酸鼻。此無殊設陷阱於境中也。溯自設立招工館以來,為其所陷害者不可勝計,中國之人,無不髮指涕零者。”5“粵省拐徒千萬,與洋人串通,散諸四方。被騙出洋而死於難者,每年以千百計。有半途病死者,有自經求死者,有焚鑿船隻者。要之,皆同歸於盡。即使到岸,充極勞極苦之工,飲食不足,鞭撻有餘;或被無辜殺戮,無人保護,賤同螻蟻,命若草管。噫!華民無辜,飄零數萬里,而受如此之刻酷乎!”6鄭觀應建議中國政府就苦力貿易問題,同澳葡當局進行嚴正交涉,並採取堅決措施,“布其罪惡,絕其往來,嚴立海禁於澳門;四面設立寨柵,不使一人一船履跡其地。”7 從而制止其販奴的罪惡活動。鄭觀應激情四射的先進革命理念,發散出非常強大的思想魅力,吸引 許多先進的中國人去思考、去學習,為中國的奮起而鬥爭。毛澤東青年時代就曾深受鄭觀應的影響,他說:“我讀了一本叫做《盛世危言》的書,這本書我非常喜歡。……激起我想要恢復學業的願望。”8同為香山人年青的孫中山穿梭往來澳門,深受新思潮影響,立下革命志向。孫中山在香港西醫書院求學時,每逢假期由香港回家,必經澳門與鄭觀應交談對時局的看法及研習西方之主張。兩人來往密切,志趣相投。通過廣泛的交流,受到維新思想的啟發和得到一些反清好友的鼓勵,使孫中山堅定了改造舊中國的決心。 1890年,孫中山曾致函同鄉洋務派官吏鄭藻如,建議在本縣倡行振興農桑,戒絕鴉片,遍設學校,再向各地推行。《致鄭藻如書》是孫中山早期改良主義作品之一。1891年前後,孫中山撰寫了《農功》一文,闡述了他對改良農業的看法,文章中建議清廷“派戶部侍郎一員綜理農事,參仿西法”和派員出洋考察,學習西方“講求樹藝農桑、養蠶、牧畜、機器耕種、化瘠為腴一切善法”,回國加以推廣,並強調“以農為經,以商為緯,本末備具,巨細畢駭,是即強兵富國之先聲,治國平天下之樞紐。”《農功》一文被鄭觀應收入《盛世危言》。鄭觀應在編著《中外衛生要旨》時,曾得到過孫中山的幫助,其在該書的《序言》中提出要“中西醫相結合”的見解。孫中山在《上李鴻章書》中也曾引用了鄭氏“人能盡
明清時期澳門教會社區事業淺議澳門研究146第49期一、前言毫無疑問,在中西方關係史上,澳門是中國和西方發生全面接觸之樞紐。自16世紀中葉開埠後,澳門不僅是基督宗教在遠東最早的傳教基地,還是中國對外開放和中西文化、經濟交流的前沿陣地。在以往四個半世紀的中西方文化交流史中是具有相當特殊的地位。葡萄人自明朝中葉來到澳門後,大批的耶穌會傳教士也隨 商船紛至進行傳教活動,而宗教乃是文化的重要組成部分。因此,早期西方國家傳教士到來的傳教活動與社區事業的成效,當然也構成了文化交流的一部分內容,而傳教士亦扮演了溝通文化交流的角色,特別是耶穌會士和基督教(新教)的傳教士更起到了突出的作用。本文試將一些關於昔日澳門的教會社區事業產生的原因,狀況等歷史資料加以研究、重構和整理,探討明清時期澳門教會社區事業的發展概況。二、明代澳門教會社區事業的產生16 世紀中葉,世界歷史進入了重大的轉折時期。隨 西歐城市的形成、資本主義的產生、科學技術的進步、商品經濟的發展,使那分散隔絕的世界逐漸連成了一體的世界。地處地中海沿岸的資本主義浪潮,不斷席捲歐洲各國,葡萄牙、西班牙、荷蘭等資本主義殖民國家爭先恐後地派船駛向東方。自從《馬可波羅遊記》一書在歐洲廣泛傳播後,西歐社會對黃金產生了強烈的渴望。貪得無厭的封建主和新興資產階級醉心於神話般的東方財富,彷彿在中國和印度遍地都是黃金。正是這種“黃金渴望”,驅使歐洲的商人、航海家、封建主從事冒險的航行。哥倫布在他的日記中說,他日夜祈求上帝賜給他產金的土地。“黃金是一個可以令人驚歎的東西,誰有了它,誰就有能力支配他所欲的一切。有了黃金,就是要把靈魂送到天堂也是可以做到的。”恩格斯指出:“葡萄牙人在非洲海岸,在印度及整個遠東地區搜尋 黃金。黃金這兩個字變成了驅使西班牙人橫渡大西洋的符咒,黃金也是白種人剛踏上新發現的海岸時所追求的首項重要的東西。”在歐洲國家的財迷們狂熱追求金錢面向東方探求航海新航線的熱潮中,葡萄牙人一馬當先。他們自1553年(明嘉靖三十二年)進入和租居澳門之後,隨 澳門─果阿─里斯本貿易航線的開通,耶穌會士不斷來澳門傳播天主教。澳門是天主教傳入中國的起源地,中西不同宗教文化最早在澳門接觸。天主教會士方濟各‧沙勿略(Francis Xav ier),1552年試圖進入中國傳教,最後因病死於廣東省台山縣的上川島。1555年7月20日,耶穌會士公匝勒斯(Gregor io Gonza lez)和伯萊篤(Melchior Nunez Barreto)到達3年前沙勿略到達的上川島,然後進入澳門傳教。1561–1563年,在日本養老的神父巴爾達‧撒加高(Balthasar Zagago)、狄野高‧貝勒拉 (D iego Pe re i re)、方濟各‧貝勒茲(Franosols Perez)等相繼來到澳門傳教,並得到廣東地方的允准,在今天聖安多尼堂附近用稻草建立一所名曰天主聖母堂一間小教堂。這所教堂成為了天主教在中國的第一個立足點。至1563年,來澳門的耶穌會士已有8人,發展天主教徒600多人。1至明清時期澳門教會社區事業淺議顏廣文、張海珊 ** 前者為華南師範大學歷史文化學院教授,後者為華南師範大學歷史文化學院碩士研究生
147《澳門研究》第49期2008. 121563年,澳門至少有8名耶穌會士進行傳教,發展教友600多人。當時在澳門傳教的中國人有兩種,一種是澳門的居民直接傳教,一種是廣東各縣的人每年一次赴澳門進教。家居澳門的教友,有改穿洋服,改用葡名者。可見天主教在澳門影響至深。教宗庇護五世於1566 年任命卡內羅(Melchior Carnei ro)為澳門主教,後者於1568年5月抵達澳門。當時澳門還未建立教區,所以卡內羅不能在職銜上稱為澳門教區的第一任主教,但實際上已執行第一位主教的職務了。因為卡內羅主教到澳門任職,公匝勒斯即被馬六甲主教召回馬六甲,被派到摩洛哥群島去視察教務。卡內羅應該說是公開以主教身份到澳門傳教的第一位主持人。他到澳門任主教後,從1562年開始,陸續修建仁慈堂(Santa Casa da Miser i có rd ia)辣匝祿麻瘋院(Hospita l de Lazaro),和聖拉菲爾醫院(Hospi ta l de S. Rafael,又稱白馬行醫院),以收容棄嬰孤兒、替人治病為手段,號召和勸誘澳門華人居民信奉天主教。同時於1569年在澳門建立第一所正式天主教堂聖望德堂( Igre ja de São Lázaro)進行傳教活動。從此,澳門遂成為天主教在遠東的駐地。在卡內羅在澳門傳教取得順利進展的情況下,教宗額爾略第十三世(Gregor ius X VI I I)即於1576年1月23日,承葡萄牙國王士巴斯梯亞斯的請求,頒佈詔令:正式成立澳門教區,負責管理中國、日本和越南的天主教傳教事務,受印度果阿教宗管轄。到1588 年,因日本單獨設立教區而脫離澳門地區。1618年,耶穌會總會會長維特洛斯奇(Vitel leschi)即將澳門教區隸屬羅馬耶穌會直接管轄。2在設立澳門教區的同時,教宗正式任命遠居里斯本的費基拉(Diogo Nunes Figueira)神父為澳門教區的第一任主教。但因費神父堅決推辭任職,卡內羅即以署理主教身份繼續主持管理澳門教區的教務工作。由於建立了澳門教區,耶穌會士來澳門傳教者更是絡繹不絕。其他教會的傳教士如方濟各、奧斯定、多明我會的會士也接踵而來,同時興建教堂作為傳教的場所。隨 教堂的興建與傳教活動的開展,澳門居民信仰天主教者與日俱增。雖然天主教在澳門傳教事業已順利開展了,耶穌會士並未因此而滿足。他們提出到內地傳教的要求。 1565 年(明嘉靖四十四年),傳教士方濟各‧貝勒茲等在澳門議事亭謁見明朝守澳官時向他提出到中國內地傳教,但遭到守澳官婉轉地拒絕了他們的要求,問他:“你會說中國話麼?不。那麼,最好你先去作學生,學習我們的中國話,以後你再作我們的老師給我們講解你們的教理。”3鑒於貝勒茲等耶穌會士因為不懂中國語言而不能進入內地傳教的教訓,耶穌會決定派遣懂得中國語言的意大利會士范禮安( A l e x a n d r eVal ignani)為遠東教務視察員,帶領41位新會士(其中有意大利人、西班牙人、葡萄牙人,但以西班牙人居多)於1578年7月到達澳門視察。他在澳門住了9個月之後,悟出一個道理,於是寫信給耶穌會總會長,說:如要打通進入中國傳教的道路,惟一可行的辦法就是改變目前在其他國家所採取的傳教手段。最重要的條件是耶穌會士會讀、會寫、會講中國話,並盡量熟習中國的禮儀和民情。同時,他認為要進入中國內地傳教,必須另派一批新的,有中文基礎的會士來中國傳教。他還寫信給駐果阿的耶穌會籍省長,積極推薦主張用中國語言文字在中國傳教的意大利會士羅明堅(Michele Ruggieri)來到澳門和中國內地傳教。羅氏在澳門請了一個中國畫家教他學習中國語文。經過2年2個月時間的刻苦學習,他掌握了12,000個中國單字。那時他已36歲,學說中國話仍感困難。在1580–1583年間,他跟隨葡萄牙商人多次進出廣州,參加在這裏舉行的春秋交易集會,以此練習講中國話和接近廣東地方政府的官員。與此同時,卡內羅又教他學習中國的禮儀:“在你參見中國長官的時候,要下跪,要磕極深而又經過工夫很長的頭;在提起別人的時候,要用讚美的口吻;在說到自己的時候,卻要用很謙卑的詞句。”4由於會說中國話且彬彬有禮,故贏得當時的兩廣總督陳文峰的好感,於1582年承總督之請到肇慶(總督駐地)去居住。為了傳教,羅明堅又在澳門耶穌會修院旁邊建立一間很小的學校,名為“聖瑪爾定經院”,一方面向澳門居民講授天主教教義,另一方面為新來澳門的耶穌會士提供學習中文的場所。1582年8月7日抵達澳門的意大利會士利瑪竇(MatteoR i c c i),就是先在聖馬爾定經院“學華語、讀華書”5,對中國話很快稍有成就,最後陪同羅明堅到肇慶佈道,進而入韶關、南昌、南京、北京等內地傳教,成為在中國傳教最有成效的領導人和創始人。到1610年,中國內地的天主教徒已發展到2500
明清時期澳門教會社區事業淺議澳門研究148第49期人,其中包括徐光啟、李之藻、楊廷筠等有學問的明朝高級官吏。羅、利兩人利用中文入內地傳播天主教的成功,使耶穌總會長充滿了信心。於是,他責成 1609 年新任中國傳教區區長龍華民(Nic dasLongobardi)根據羅、利的成功經驗,規定:凡入華傳教的耶穌會士,一律要先在澳門學習中國語言文字和禮儀。耶穌會本土化的傳教策略,得到了羅馬教皇的承認。至1644年(明崇禎十七年),澳門的天主教徒已有4萬多人,標誌 天主教在澳門傳教的成功,教會的社區事業得以順利開展。18世紀末,因英國先後擊敗多國西方列強,奪得了海上霸權,並竭力向海外擴張殖民地。為了適應擴張的需要,在英國國內紛紛成立對外傳教的基督教(佈道會)機構。這些佈道會機構訓練了一批傳教士,陸續往亞洲、非洲國家去傳教。19世紀初倫敦佈道會選中了馬禮遜來澳門傳教,他在1805年將基督教(新教)傳入澳門。 6馬禮遜雖為英國人,但他來到中國所乘坐的船卻是美國船。原因是當時中國海禁甚嚴,外國人不能隨便進入中國內地,只有東印度公司的商船和商人能坐公司商船,東印度公司恐怕會影響到他們的商業活動,拒絕馬氏登船。馬氏惟有先坐船到美國,再從美國到中國來。他在中國時,先秘密地寄居在一個美商貨棧裏,繼續學習中文(馬氏來華之前,曾向一個名叫容三德的中國人學習中文)。後來馬氏退居澳門,而東印度公司也在這時候聘他為中文翻譯員,這樣便可以免去被中國政府驅逐的擔心。馬氏一方面領受公司薪水,一方面翻譯聖經,並經常來往廣州和澳門之間。倫敦傳道會也贊成他的做法,並授受權馬氏一切便宜行事。後來馬禮遜因事工繁忙,請求倫敦會派多一位宣教士名米鄰(Will iamMi l ine),他其貌不揚,但博學多才,後因天主教對當時馬禮遜工作之監視,故此影響他的事工,並未能發展,因此米鄰被送到馬來西亞的馬六甲開始他的宣教事業,隨行亦有兩位肢體同工,其中一位就是梁發。除了翻譯聖經工作外,他還創辦了當時中國第一所神學院英華書院,設有語文及聖經科目;而梁發在當中協作印刷,出品一本中國報業史上第一份雜誌,內容有福音、科技及新聞,這份被稱為第一份報紙,而梁發也被稱為第一位報人,當時行銷馬來西亞、印尼及中國一帶。因梁發雕刻工作緣故,在1816年,他決志信主後,十分熱心及長進,貫徹米鄰牧師對文字工作的志趣,他亦寫福音單張來派發,後回到中國時,在馬禮遜還未離開世界之前,確立他為第一個中國的傳教士(因當時還未有牧師稱謂之設立)。正當梁發在澳門、廣州等地傳教期間,西方國家的傳教士10多人接踵而來澳門進行傳教活動。在1831年底荷蘭教會派德國籍傳教士郭實臘(Rev. Gut l iaf f)被派到澳門傳教。他個人獨力翻譯聖經,名為郭實臘譯本,後更成為太平天國的聖經,被洪秀全所使用。同時他利用自己會說流利中國語這一有利條件,既在澳門傳教;又以澳門為基地,從澳門出發到內地收集情報。基督新教傳入澳門後,馬禮遜牧師等傳教士雖然竭力進行傳教工作,但適逢是清政府的禁教時期,澳門耶穌會又禁止天主教徒與基督徒來往,因此基督教在澳門發展緩慢下來。鴉片戰爭之後,基督新教的傳播仍受到一定的障礙,如澳門的華人聚集之地,基本上是信仰佛教和道教等傳統宗教;加上天主教勢力龐大和影響深遠,教徒增加不多,規模亦較小。7基督新教在澳門傳教,與天主教同樣注意興辦社會服務和社會福利事業,借此達到擴大傳教的目的,為促進澳門的文化教育事業出一份力量。三、明清兩代澳門教會社區事業概述無論是天主教或基督教的傳教士均以興辦教會、發展醫療和慈善事業為媒介,輸入異質文化,為澳門社區事業的發展注入了某種活力。這也正是明清時期澳門教會社區事業得以順利開展的原因。在卡內羅任澳門主教期間,天主教會陸續興辦學校、修建仁慈堂、麻瘋院、醫院,採用發展教育、醫療、慈善等社區事業等手段,吸引澳門華人信奉天主教。(一) 教會在澳門的教育事業及其影響澳門的教會教育歷史可追溯至開埠初期。傳教士在澳門開辦教育的初期,通常為附設在教堂裏的洋學堂,規模很小,程度均為小學。這些學校不僅免收學費,並且還提供一切膳宿生活甚至路費,學生主要為貧苦教徒子弟或無家可歸的乞丐。至晚清時期從偏重宗教教育漸轉變為重視世俗教育、科技教育。1. 教會在澳門的教育事業及其影響
149《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12在澳門辦學的天主教會主要有耶穌會、仁愛會、方濟各會、嘉諾撒會和慈幼會等,在相當長時期,教會盡了澳門教育的主要職責。早於1572年創辦了澳門聖保祿公學。在這所公學正式創辦前,意大利傳教士羅明堅還創辦過一所教會學校“經言學校”或稱“聖瑪爾定經院”(即專門培養中國初級修士的學校),作為講授道理之用,同時也給予中國初修士或來華的歐洲傳教士提供了一個學習漢語的場所。8在澳門初級學校創辦後,首任校長為瓦斯(Anton io Vaz),另有8名耶穌會神父輔佐,並以此學校作為培養遠東天主教傳教士的基地。到1594年耶穌會長魯德拉斯(Anton iusLuadros),即委託貝勒茲、代宰拉和平托三人,在澳門初級學校和聖瑪爾定經院合併的基礎上將原來只有小學規格的聖保祿公學升為大學規格的澳門聖保祿學院。9澳門聖保祿學院於當年12月1日正式註冊成立,是為澳門歷史上第一所高等學校,專門培養入華傳教的耶穌會士。從此以後,凡是耶穌會、方濟各會、多明我會、遣使會等傳教士要入中國傳教者,必須先在學院修讀兩年,從而使澳門聖保祿學院成為一所名副其實,培養入華傳教士的高等學府。聖保祿學院設置的課程有數學、天文、醫學、神學、哲學、漢語、拉丁文、音樂等,其中漢語是學時最多的必修課。兩年後畢業授予學位。曾在聖保祿學院攻讀畢業而入華傳教的耶穌會士約200多人,明清時期入華傳教的472名會士中的50%左右,其中有年代可考者 109 人。 10 在這 200 多名畢業生中,幾乎包括了入華傳教的主要骨幹,當中不少是研究中國文化的學者,出版了不少研究成果,成為中西文化交流的溝通者。至1727年創辦澳門聖若瑟修院,初期由耶穌會主辦,主要為栽培在中國傳教的神職人員,是澳門的第二所高等學府。修院的創立還極大地促進了澳門科技教育與世俗教育的發展,在明清中西文化交流史上亦佔有重要地位。在澳門可以學習漢語的地方並非只有聖保祿學院。因為從16世紀末開始,除耶穌會外,其他各天主教修會亦開始在澳門設堂建院,如1579年,首批方濟各會士六人到澳門建修院,名曰“聖方濟各修道院”,又名“天使聖母修道院”,在一段時間裏,那裏還曾設過一所神學院;1584年則有一名西班牙籍奧斯定會士在澳門建修院1586年擴建,到1589年時,修院達36人之多,名“恩寵聖母修道院”,1589年由葡籍奧斯定會士接管;多明我會,1588年時即獲葡印總督批准,有13名西班牙籍多明我會教士來澳門建修道院,後被葡萄牙籍多明我會接管,並建起了一所讀寫與拉丁文學校,此外學校還設立藝術課程;1633–1634年間方濟各會之嘉諾撒修女會來澳門建“嘉諾撒女修道院。”11在中國封建社會,女性長期受到歧視,被剝奪了受教育的機會。澳門教區對女子受教育的問題亦十分重視,認為女子教育是整個教會教育不可或缺的組成部分。女學的發展不再只是一個單純的教育問題,而是與一個國家的興盛有莫大的關係。誠如梁啟超所說“女學愈盛,國家愈強”,女子受到良好的教育,就能“上可相夫,下可教子,近可宜家,遠可善種”,於個人,“皆可各執一業以自養”,於國家,“保國保種”,使國富強。晚清時期澳門女子教會教育已比較發達,聖羅撒學校的興辦即是其重要標誌。興辦女子教會教育的天主教修會主要有嘉諾撒會、仁愛會、慈幼會等,可以說澳門女性接受正規的學校教育是以教會女校為發端的,這種有別於封建傳統教育的教會教育,向澳門女性傳授了大量先進的科學知識和技能,宣導了男女平等、婚姻自由的新觀念。與同時期的中國內地、香港比較,澳門的女子教會教育,不僅創辦時間較早,而且所辦學校亦較多。 1792 年由澳門教區主教施利華(D.Marcel ino José Da Silva)開辦原名聖羅撒培幼院,是最早的西式女校,其招生的對象為葡籍女童和華人女童。另有由嘉諾撒修女會在1873年興辦大炮台山麓要理識字班。1886年嘉諾撒修女會仁愛書院在白鴿巢開辦葡文女校,該校在嘉惠勞主教任內曾擴建校舍。其後嘉諾撒修女會再於1895年在 仔開辦要理識字班,教授當地村民子女識字。1901年開辦私塾,接受政府津貼。1903年創辦嘉諾撒恒毅書院於十六柱大屋,教授女生刺繡、縫紉等技能。同年在路環開辦女生私塾。至 1906年耶穌會高美士神父(Pe. Adriano de Souza Gomes S.J .)在望廈建救濟院“望廈聖方濟各學校”,交由嘉諾撒修女管理,內附女童學校。12 1911年鮑理諾主教(D. Joáo Paul ino DeAzevedo E Cast ro)遣嘉諾撒修女在 仔開辦聖善學校,收女生60人。在堂側設有男校,學生10人。這是天主教在澳門 仔興辦華文義學之始。葡人稱該校
明清時期澳門教會社區事業淺議澳門研究150第49期為鮑理諾主教紀念學校。晚清澳門的教會學校從原先主要培養傳教士,招收佈道人員,變為主要招收華人、葡萄牙世俗子弟;教學內容方面,從偏重宗教教育轉變為重視世俗教育、科技教育,譬如聖若瑟修院重視科技教育,在1881年重建後,聖若瑟修院仍保留航海和商業課程13;1903年創辦,由嘉諾撒修女管理的嘉諾撤恒毅書院,主要教授女生刺繡、縫紉等技能。它被譽為“澳門第一所女子職業學校”14; 1906年由雷鳴道神父(Fr. Louis Vers ig l ia)創辦的無原罪工藝學校(前身是收容男孤兒的“無原罪孤兒院”,至1937年正式獲澳門教育廳批准立案,且易名為“鮑思高紀念中學”。1952年因與“葡光學校”之葡文校名相同再易名為“慈幼學校”。開校時有走讀生35人,寄宿生50人。15 1910年開始成立木工、縫紉、革履、排版、印刷、釘裝等6項工藝課程,成為一所職業學校。它的辦學宗旨是:“教之以學藝,導之以修德,使諸生能養成工業之技能,處世之知識,優美之人格。”從上述內容可知,自澳門開埠以來,天主教在澳門教育發展史上擔當了極為重要的職責。基督新教是在19世紀初傳入澳門,馬禮遜牧師是基督新教第一個來澳門傳教的牧師。當倫敦佈道會選中他來中國傳教時,他便開始學習中國文字。其後西方國家的傳教士10多人接踵而來澳門進行傳教工作。1831年底荷蘭教會派德國籍傳教士郭實臘被派到澳門傳教,其後他要求自己的妻子溫施黛在澳門寓所內開辦了一所女塾,專門招收一些貧窮家庭的女子入學,後來兼收男生。溫施黛(Wamf i l l)除了用少量時間教學生讀英語外,大部分時間致力向孩子灌輸基督教的教義,這是基督教(新教)在澳門辦學之始,也是華童女子學校在澳門之始。16 1836年為紀念傳教士馬禮遜(Dr. Robert Morr ison, l780–1834)在華傳教的業績,在該學塾的基礎上籌辦了馬禮遜紀念學校。至1839年11月4日在溫施黛關閉其辦的女塾和男塾後,由應邀而來的美籍傳教士布朗(Rev.Brown)正式成立,最初招收了容閩、黃勝、黃寬、李剛、周文、唐傑六名中國學生的中國近代第一所西式學校“馬禮遜學堂”。這是一所基督教(新教)為傳教而在中國創辦的“洋學堂”,校內教授算術、地理、英語、國文等科。課時安排半天讀漢語,半天讀英語。早上6時開始上課,至晚上9時結束,給學生以一個基督家庭的教育。17“馬禮遜學堂”的興辦對促進教育、培養人才、更新觀念都起了積極作用。因適逢是清政府的禁教時期,基督教在澳門的教育事業一度停頓下來。至1836年,浸信會來華傳教的第一位牧師叔未士(Rev. J . Lewis Shuck)夫婦來澳門從事教育,華籍牧師黃煜初也於1885年辦過盲女教育。1900年7月因義和團運動爆發,由美國長老會在廣州創辦的格致書院遷至澳門,改名嶺南學堂(即後來嶺南大學的前身),招收對象以男生為主,只兼招少量女生。該校於1904年再遷回廣州。1906年由新教傳教士發起成立中華基督教會志道堂後,在澳門監牢斜巷設立志道堂小學。1919年教友余美德醫生倡辦志道堂幼稚園,這也是澳門第一所西式幼稚園。1932年募捐籌辦蔡高紀念學校,以紀念當年馬禮遜在澳傳教第一名信徒蔡高先生,因而原有之志道小學亦名為蔡高紀念學校。至 1946 年辦初中,1949年辦高中,在蔡高先生的夫人余豔梅校長經近半個世紀的努力,辦了一所完全中學。儘管天主教、基督新教在澳門的境遇在不同的時期各不相同,但教會這種辦學的傳統得到了很好的嗣承,在相當長的歲月裏,教會承擔了發展澳門教育事業的任務。2. 教會在澳門的醫療事業及影響葡萄牙等西方國家的天主教耶穌會士紛紛隨商船來到澳門,並希望由此進入中國傳播基督的訊息,為古代東西方文化提供延綿不斷的交流機會。醫學也是文化交流的一部分。西方的醫藥理論和診斷方法等也順勢相繼傳入,繼而擴展到中國各地,但對當時的中國傳統中醫學並未產生強烈衝擊。中國第一所西醫院誕生於澳門:西方近代醫院在中國的出現,來華傳教士當推其首功。明代隆慶三年(1569年),耶穌會士、葡人卡內羅主教在澳門建立聖拉菲爾醫院18,因位於白馬行路(今伯多祿局長街),故該院俗稱白馬行醫院。卡內羅主教述說:“我既到“澳門”之後,就開設一座醫院,不分教內教外之人,一律收容”。19 據《澳門紀略》一書記載此院稱為“醫人廟”,“凡夷人鰥寡煢獨,有疾不能自療者,許就廟醫,其費給自支糧廟……東南城外有發瘋寺,內居瘋蕃,外衛以兵,月有廩。”白
151《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12馬行醫院初時規模很少。當時的澳門居民絕大多數是中國人,他們對西醫治療方式感到驚奇,繼而又產生懷疑,傳說紛紜,絕不會輕易上門就醫。後來,當他們發現前往接受西醫診治的葡萄牙人多藥到病除,才有勇氣和信心接受西醫治療。該院是中國第一所西醫院,存在400多年,1973年10月31日關閉。20 19世紀,很多不同種類的西醫院(包括診所)首先在澳門出現,並陸續向全國各地發展。例如1806年,皮爾遜首先在澳門開辦種痘診所。繼而1815年,在廣州成立種痘處。1828年,在北京設立京都種痘局。1841年,在上海開設了一座醫院進行牛痘接種。1852年,天津設保赤堂,後改名保赤種痘局,施種牛痘。21 1863年,江南始設牛痘局。1865年,湖南設牛痘局。入清以後,澳門西醫院不斷增加。又如,1820年馬禮遜與東印度公司外科醫生李文斯敦(J. L iv ingstone)在澳門合設診所和藥房,對窮人實施救助,並請中醫坐堂行醫。1827年,東印度公司的英國醫生郭雷樞(T h o m a s R i c h a r d s o nCol ledge)在澳門開設眼科醫院;第二年,又開設養病院,容納住院留醫者40人,5年間入院受醫者達4000多人。可以說,郭雷樞創辦的澳門眼科醫院是“中華醫療傳道會”澳門醫院的先聲。西藥首次在澳門使用,後傳入中國內地:白馬行醫院有內外兩科,看內科病除了診脈外,還以玻璃瓶盛溺水驗其色,以查病因;內外科所用的藥品皆為露汁,此為西藥蒸餾製造技術傳入我國之始。“露藥有蘇合油、丁香油、檀香油、桂花油、皆以瓶計,永片油、以瓢計”等22,在中國古籍中,西藥稱為“露”。這是中國醫院最早使用西藥和化驗的文字記錄。西藥治病效果良好,漸受澳門居民歡迎。在清朝康熙年間,西醫在中國已經進入應用階段,連康熙皇帝也用耶穌會士充當御醫,食用西藥了。在1693年(清康熙三十二年),康熙皇帝身染瘧疾,在澳傳教士洪若翰(J. de Fontaney)、劉應(Claudede Visdelou)北上,用從印度寄來的西醫名藥金雞納霜即奎寧,(quinium,原產秘魯)治癒康熙皇帝。23從此,康熙皇帝更加重視西醫和西藥,召征不少有西醫專長的耶穌會士入宮當御醫。史稱:“康熙沉入深痛中,心臟弱,跳得很快,臥病幾死。羅德先逵藥痊癒,遂榮任內廷御醫。”24牛痘術登陸澳門再傳入中國內地:1805年(明嘉慶十年),英國東印度公司外科醫生皮爾遜(Alexander Pearson)將西方國家種牛痘的痘苗運入澳門,並加以宣傳和說明。適逢廣州十三行商鄭崇謙來澳門,將其文譯編成介紹種牛痘接種術的書《牛痘奇法》(全稱為《英吉利國新出種痘奇書》)出版。不久後皮氏到廣州行醫,得十三行巨富行商伍秉鑒、潘有度和盧觀恒的資助,在洋行會館設立牛痘局,向廣州市民施種牛痘。中國第一位留學歸來的著名西醫生黃寬在並調查報告中說:“在目前可以這樣估計,大約至少有95%以上的城市兒童受到種痘的好處。”30年間,種牛痘者達100萬之多。牛痘術在中國的迅速傳授和成功推廣,感動了它的發明人堅娜,他說中國人似乎比他家鄉的英國人更信賴牛痘術。25 30年間,種牛痘者達100萬之多。後有邱 在澳門開業種牛痘,並奔走於澳門與廣州之間施種牛痘,並著《引痘略》一書加以宣傳。道光初年,兩廣總督阮元請邱 為其子種牛痘,果奏奇效,於是建議全國皆種牛痘、以防天花病。1828年(清道光八年)由番禺人潘仕成傳至北京,在南海會館設牛痘局,由余心谷主持,向北京市民施種牛痘。從此,種牛痘防天花之醫術遂傳播全中國。西醫書籍在澳門編譯或編著:西醫學和西藥學理論的傳入與澳門普遍建立西醫院醫病是相輔相成的。首推其功者為耶穌會傳教士利瑪竇。他於1594年撰《西國記法》一卷,其中《原本篇》說:“記含之室在腦囊,蓋顱囪後枕骨下。”是為神經學傳入中國之始。其次是鄧玉函,他於1620年(明萬曆四十八年)抵澳門後,一面傳教行醫,作臨床病理解剖;一面編輯《泰西人身概說》(又稱《人身概說》)二卷,上卷介紹人體的骨骼、肌肉、皮膚、筋脈、神經、血液等15個組織和系統 ;下卷介紹人體的眼睛、耳朵、鼻喉、舌頭、行動器官、語言系統等8個方向的器官和組織。 所論生理器官、形態、部位十分詳細。這是西方的人體解剖學知識傳入澳門和中國其他地區的始端。接 鄧玉函又與1624年來澳的羅雅穀等人編譯另一部人體解剖學書籍──《人身圖說》。此書內分為28篇,分別介紹臟腑、脈胳、體液、生殖器官、胚胎等,而且載有軀體、五臟等21幅圖例,成為上書的姊妹篇。26中國人開始和西醫院有了接觸。西醫的診所和醫院也從澳門、廣州推廣到香港、上海、福州、廈
明清時期澳門教會社區事業淺議澳門研究152第49期門、寧波等通商口岸。27教會醫師在華醫療事業的成功,揭示了這樣一個事實:西式醫院在中國社會的紮根,既推動了中國人對西醫院這一新型醫療空間的認知,也扭轉了中國人亙古不變的醫療觀念,成功催生了20世紀初中國傳統醫療衛生制度的變革,近代公共衛生事業也隨之啟動。3. 教會在澳門慈善事業的發展及其影響澳門長久以來為中國領土的一部分,但現實上葡人在澳門生活和管治了400多年,其慈善和社會福利事業當然不可能只從1930年才開始。眾所周知,澳門處於亞熱帶季風氣候區。季風在便利古代帆船貿易的同時,使澳門飽受熱帶風暴的侵襲。在影響澳門的災害中,颱風實為禍首。從損失程度看,火災在澳門的危害較之颱風絲毫不稍遜色,火災的形成大多是人為的不慎,可往往是火借風勢,風助火威,造成的損失尤為巨大。在自然災害之外,流行性疾病也是20世紀前長期困擾澳門社會的災難。澳門,地處嶺南,嶺南則地處熱帶和亞熱帶,氣候炎熱,潮濕多雨,山林茂密,物種繁多,生物性致病原容易滋生。柳宗元《嶺南節度饗軍堂記》陳:“涉野有蝮虺大蜂”,“近水即畏射工沙虱”。28 自古嶺南即被人們稱為“瘴癘之地”。可知,澳門當為疫病多發之區。不管是疫病還是颱風,任何一次大型的災難勿然帶來一系列十分嚴重的社會問題,大批死亡者必須掩埋、安葬、染病者急待施藥治療,喪失勞動力者必須救濟食品,無依靠之婦孺及病殘均需要安置收容。救災、賑濟是政府最重要的公益職能,也是政府提供的重要公共物品。面對肆虐的災害,貧苦華人特別需要醫療救助及其它慈善機構的救濟。但自澳門開埠直到鴉片戰爭前,澳門所有醫療衛生及慈善事業幾乎全部由教會承擔。成立於1569年的仁慈堂是政府之外規模最大的宗教公益團體,作為提供綜合性慈善公益服務的組織,仁慈堂發揮了重要作用。澳門天主教區首任主教卡內羅創立了“仁慈善會”。仁慈堂是一個由天主教會支持,澳門葡商資助的慈善組織。它的服務物件基本上只限於澳門城內的葡籍居民,負責向貧苦的葡人後人、孤兒、寡婦提供援助,向貧者施米粥和衣服的救濟工作,所提供的服務是無償的或收取很少費用。29 僅以收養棄嬰為例,從1857年1月1日到1866年12月31日的10年間,仁慈堂收容的棄嬰總數達2286名之多。即使是在1867年總督頒佈禁止仁慈堂收容棄嬰的法令之後,許多棄嬰仍然被放在仁慈堂門口。可見,仁慈堂作為收養棄嬰的慈善組織得到了澳門民間社會的認同,開創了澳門慈善事業的先河。除仁慈堂外,在19世紀澳門公益活動中,專業性的宗教公益性團體也比較活躍。其中,“中華醫療傳道會”與“馬禮遜教育會”較具代表性。醫療與教育是教會慈善活動的傳統領域。如前文所述,1827年,英國東印度公司外科醫生郭雷樞在澳門創辦眼科醫院,收治澳門及周圍地區患眼疾的窮苦人。該院被當時為英國在華事務主管的朴勞頓(W. H. C.Plowden)稱作為“這個國家建立第一所醫院”。30要慈善事業得以順利開展,社會各界的捐助是非常重要的。在5年的時間內該院因成功地治癒了4000多名患者,吸引了外國人社會的注意,得到了許多人的自願捐款:1828年370.02元,1829年1213.95元,1830年2102.14元,1831年1613.64元,1832年1900.21元,1833年246.74元。至1832年底,該醫院由於人手不足而關閉。四、小結明清時期在社會救助和社會服務方面,非政府組織(包括宗教團體和民間慈善服務團體)一直擔當不可或缺的角色,政府幾乎是沒有介入。各種社會福利觀念長期並存,和諧相處。華人社會傳統之福利觀念是圍繞家庭和宗族關係建立起來,所謂“老吾老以及人之老,幼吾幼以及人之幼”的傳統觀念和追求大同的社會願望。天主教和基督教宣揚耶穌“愛人如己”的博愛主義。它們共同地推動澳門民間社會救助和慈善福利事業的發展,並逐步形成一個由不同類別的服務模式交織、互補而成,形成了較為穩健的社區支援網路,至今仍發揮 積極的影響和作用。澳門眾多非牟利民間慈善組織歷史悠久,有的已有上百年的歷史。諸如仁慈堂、鏡湖醫院慈善會、同善堂等在一百多年前就已開展各類社會慈善活動。教會社區事業(包括教育、醫療和慈善服務)十分廣泛,它們都經歷不同時期的發展,形成了有各具的特色的社會救助模式。教區推展的社區事業不僅彌補了當時
托斯卡內利的信件對哥倫布探險活動的暗示意義及其所謂“中國使節”問題澳門研究154第49期一、前言1474年,意大利著名數學家、天文學家托斯卡內利(Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanel l i)通過葡萄牙教士費爾南‧馬爾丁斯(Fernão Mart ins)向葡萄牙國王轉交了一封信件。在信中,他闡述了自己的觀點,大膽地提出了希臘時代的“地圓說”,並根據自己的推算認為從歐洲出發向西航行到達中國、日本的距離比環非洲穿越印度洋的東向航線更短──儘管他的推算事實上是錯誤的。他隨信附上了一幅自製的地圖,加以解釋和支援其論點。這份郵件並沒有得到葡王的重視,葡萄牙的航海探索繼續沿 非洲海岸進行。但托斯卡內利隨後重新撰寫了這份信件,並將其寄給了克里斯多夫‧哥倫布(Christopher Columbus)。受 前者的啟發和鼓舞,哥倫布雄心勃勃地展開了他向西的遠航,並在托斯卡內利推算的靠近亞洲的海域發現了陸地──也就是他一直堅稱是“亞洲”的新大陸。1托斯卡內利因此也被一些人稱為“美洲發現的啟發者”(T h e I n i t i a t o r o f t h e D i s c o v e r y o fAmer ica)。這是一個廣為流傳、並被廣為接受的解釋對哥倫布靈感和理論來源的說法。但這兩封信件來歷和內容當中的幾個不明朗之處,讓這段浪漫的歷史故事略帶了幾分神秘的色彩。在信中,托斯卡內利甚至聲稱他曾經與一名可能來自中國(Cathay)的使節會面,並在談話中瞭解到許多中國的情況。在此,我將首先簡要介紹有關這兩封信件的三點疑問,並隨後 重分析所謂托斯卡內利會見“中國使節”的問題。二、對信件真實性的質疑這是一個始於一個世紀之前的爭論。19世紀末20世紀初,塞諾‧德‧拉‧羅薩(Senor de la Rosa)和魏格諾(Vignaud)就先後對“信件說”的真實性提出了挑戰。後者在其著作《托斯卡內利之信件、地圖與西印度航線》(La let ter et la Car te de Toscanel l isu r la Route des Indes par l ’Oues t)中表示這兩封信很可能是哥倫布的弟弟──巴托洛梅烏‧哥倫布(Bartholomew Columbus)──為了挽回其兄臉面而偽造出來的,因為在其晚年,哥倫布常遭其對手攻擊,認為他只是靠無端的猜想和運氣、或者依靠一個不知名的垂死的水手的意外發現才得以開闢西行路線的。通過提出這份信件,哥倫布的後人(包括其子費爾南德‧哥倫布)便可以表明克里斯多夫的成果並不是依賴空想或者竊取他人的發現,而是基於他自己對當代科學界權威人士的諮詢和研究得來的。 2 魏格諾的懷疑基於許多理由,我從 E d w a r dGaylord Bourne 1903年的書評中提取和總結了其中關鍵的幾點。信件的原件已經不復存在,而且當時沒有明確記錄顯示有哪個人曾經接觸過它們。在葡萄牙15–16世紀史官若昂‧德‧巴羅斯(João de Barros)在其基於官方史料和檔案撰寫的航海發現史中,找不到任何葡王阿豐索向托斯卡內利諮詢意見的內容。在他同時代的意大利作家撰寫的有關托斯卡內利及其活動的著作當中並沒有提及有這樣的信件的存在。托斯卡內利甚至不見得曾經對開闢印度航托斯卡內利的信件對哥倫布探險活動的暗示意義及其所謂“中國使節”問題余 果 ** 香港城市大學商學院會計系本科生
155《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12線問題產生過興趣。就連他的密友彼斯蒂奇(Vespasiano da Bis t icci)也從來沒有提及托斯卡內利與當代的地理發現有任何關聯。在托斯卡內利自己的稿件中,沒有關於這方面研究的文章。信件包含了大量與馬可波羅(Marco Polo)和托勒密(Ptolemy)的觀點相似的內容。在哥倫布四處尋找資助的時候,他竟然從來沒有表示他的觀點得到了意大利著名學者的贊同,而這,如果屬實,將會使他在說服贊助人的活動中處於非常有利的位子。信件的許多觀點與哥倫布的想法是一致的。但哥倫布公開表示他的想法來源於蒙迪( I m a g oMund i)、馬可波羅、曼德維爾(Mandev i l l e)和托勒密,卻從來沒有提及托斯卡內利。最早談及這兩封信件存在的是兩部撰寫於16世紀的史書。一本是著名學者拉斯‧卡薩斯(L a sCasas)的《西印度史》(His to r ia de las Ind ias),資料由哥倫布家人所提供。另一本是哥倫布的兒子費爾南德為其父所寫的傳記《海軍上將克里斯多夫‧哥倫布生平及史實》(His tor ie del la Vi ta e de ‘Fat t i de l l ’Ammiragl io D. Ch. Colombo)。但這兩本著述只分別記錄了信件的西班牙文和意大利文譯版,而並沒有記載拉丁文原件。由哥倫布持有的拉丁文信件直到1871年才被找到,上述兩書參考的很有可能就是這份文件。但這份拉丁文信件的字體明顯屬於哥倫布本人的。而附加的地圖、以及傳說中轉交葡萄牙國王的信函的原件,則從來沒有被發現過(後人僅僅根據信中的內容才得以“重建”托斯卡內利的地圖)。魏格諾等人的觀點儘管並未能證實托斯卡內利信件為偽造(他以此為基礎匆忙下的結論遭到了嚴厲的批評),但讓我們在取得更多文獻、資料支援之前似乎確實應該對信件的真實性保留謹慎的態度。3三、關於信件意義的疑問即便托斯卡內利的信件確實存在,它們對於哥倫布的航海是否具有如傳說中般重大的意義也是值得懷疑的。除了基於自己空想的錯誤的地理推算,托斯卡內利信件中的其他內容基本上與同時代或者更早的歐洲知識水平保持一致;尤其,對於中國和日本等地的描述與馬可波羅《遊記》等著作十分相似,並沒有任何有新意的認識(這點下文會詳細證實和說明)。當然,它們也不比哥倫布的看法更有前瞻性。所以,它們對哥倫布及其他同時代航海家的指導意義是有限的。此外,哥倫布是否真正重視過這份信函也值得進一步探討。正如上文所述,哥倫布在其最困難的時期也並沒有把他托斯卡內利的支持這一十分有利的事實提出來維護自己(縱使信件並無新意的內容並沒有甚麼可保密之處),後來也從未將其成就歸功於後者。相反,他不但反覆提及馬可波羅、托勒密等人的著作和觀點,甚至在其持有的馬可波羅《遊記》上作了詳細的筆記和批註。4另外,學者在1871年找到其拉丁文原件時,發現它竟然被哥倫布用來當作教皇庇護二世(Pope Pius I I)的著述 His to r iaRerum Ubique Gestarum的包書紙。5可見,對於哥倫布與托斯卡內利關係的許多傳說、以及給後者賦予的“美洲發現的啟發人”稱謂,都未免帶有了一些浪漫主義的渲染色彩。四、有關托斯卡內利會見“中國使節”的疑問在描述中國(Cathay)的文段中,托斯卡內利提及了一件東方使節到訪歐洲的事:“……在教皇尤亙紐斯四世(Pope Eugenius IV)的時代,有一位使者拜訪了他,並向他轉達了他們對於基督教徒的友善之意。我與這位使節進行了一次長時間的對話,談及了許多事情:關於他們皇宮建築物的大小,關於他們河流的驚人長度和寬度,關於沿岸為數眾多的城市……”6顯然,這裏談及的是中國。鑒於前文也是在描述中國、中國大汗(Great Khan)和他們派出的使者,有人便認為托斯卡內利曾經會見了一位中國使節。這一段內容以往並沒有引起太多的重視,因為它對激發哥倫布航海沒有太多重大意義,而且看起來也不符合常理和邏輯。但這樣一段話畢竟會留給一些人遐想和臆測的空間。因此,我將在下文對使節的身份作重點分析。五、初步分析明朝建立於西元1368年(亡於1644年),而托
托斯卡內利的信件對哥倫布探險活動的暗示意義及其所謂“中國使節”問題澳門研究156第49期斯卡內利生於1397年──這都是毫不含糊的事實。所以,如果托斯卡內利真的遇見了中國人,那他(們)必定來自明朝。然而,在這次會面之後,托斯卡內利對中國的瞭解仍然停留在前人對宋末元初的中國已有的認識水平上──不但與明朝建立以後的基本情況相違背,而且連中國(及日本)的一些基本的地理和資源狀況也沒弄清楚。明顯的錯誤列舉如下:(一)文字使用問題1.“Zaiton”的使用托斯卡內利所敘述的Zaiton便是馬可‧波羅筆下的Zai tum。Zai ton/Zai tum為中文“刺桐”的音譯,意指泉州。由於城中遍種原產印度、馬來西亞的刺桐樹,“刺桐城”便成為了許多來往中國的阿拉伯、印度商人對泉州城的雅稱(金國平、吳志良,未刊)。托斯卡內利使用此綽號的音譯而不知泉州城的正式名稱,便可間接說明他對此城的瞭解並不來源於中國官方。2.“Cathay”和“Mang i”的使用與馬可‧波羅一樣,托斯卡內利以“Cathay”稱呼中國,有時又使用“Mangi”,而且弄不清兩詞到底是國家的統稱還是分別代指兩個省(prov ince)。其實,Cathay和Mangi都是宋末元初那個特殊的年代裏才出現的描述中國的代詞。 C a t h a y 源自Khi tay /Khi tan,是“契丹”的音譯,專指南宋末年中國北部由北方民族統治的地區。7 蒙古大軍一統全國建立元朝以後,Cathay/Khitay/Khitan的指代範圍也就理所當然地可以擴大至全國了。Mang i則來源於Manj i 8,對應中文“蠻子”,是北方政權統治者對不斷向南撤退的南宋政權及其人民的蔑稱,Mangi /Manj i後來也就成為了中國南方地區的代名詞。狹義上的Cathay在1368年元朝覆滅以後便不復存在。但歐洲人當時並不瞭解──他們直到16世紀末才弄明白Cathay與後來他們到達的China其實是同一個地方。此後, Cathay 仍會偶然被用來指代中國。無論如何,明朝官方派出的使節不可能以“契丹”或“蠻子”的音譯稱呼自己的國家。即便接觸的是一位民間人士,托斯卡內利也應該能弄清中國稱謂的問題──除非他接觸的本身就是不瞭解中國、並習慣用Cathay/Mangi指稱中國的阿拉伯、印度等國的人士。3.“Great Khan”的使用托斯卡內利稱Cathay皇帝為Great Khan。GreatKhan是“大汗”的翻譯;Khan又作Cham,專指蒙古部落首領。9這也就是為甚麼托斯卡內利同時解釋Great Khan為“眾王之王”(The King o f K ings)。顯然,這又是一個元代特有的稱呼──再次說明托斯卡內利不可能接觸過明朝官方使節。同樣,Great Khan也是馬可‧波羅《遊記》裏的詞。(二) 基本描述問題1. 泉州每年裝卸上百艘裝運胡椒的船隻?托斯卡內利信中有如下描述:“……特別是在一個叫Zaiton的主港,每年都有上百艘船隻前來裝載和卸載胡椒,更不用說更多滿載其他香料的船隻了。”10宋元時期,中國沿海比較開放,民間貿易十分發達,作為東南地區主要港口之一的泉州便成為了往來中國與西洋、南洋的中外海商的貨物集散地,迎來大量滿載胡椒的船隻。明初,朝廷加緊了對沿海的管制,禁民間私商,海上對外貿易只通過官方的“朝貢貿易”進行,民間海上貿易則只能通過非法的走私形式。外國前來的貢使由廣州、泉州、寧波三地的“市舶司”負責管理接待、進貢、貿易事宜。而此時泉州主要負責琉球等地,不再負責接待來自東南亞的貢使。“因設市舶司……洪武初,設於太倉黃渡、尋罷。復設寧波、泉州、廣州。寧波通日本,泉州通琉球,廣州通占城、暹羅、西洋諸國。”11這使得廣州在這不平等的地區待遇中成為贏家,而泉州可進行的合法貿易量則相對較少12,進行來自東南亞的胡椒貿易則更加困難。儘管琉球也常進貢胡椒,但泉州作為“主港”(pr inc ipa l por t)並且“每年上百艘船隻前來裝 /卸胡椒”的描述,顯然更接近宋、元的泉州場景,而與明初的狀況不符。2. 在中國可大量購得白銀和香料?“這個國家比我們目前所瞭解的任何其他國家都要富有。她不僅能提供巨額利潤和其他值錢的物品,還擁有大量的黃金、白銀、寶石和各種各樣的香料──都是我們的國家目前所沒有的。”13這一段的說法是有誤的,說明作者和來訪者都並不瞭解中國,因為中國本身並不盛產白銀和香料。明代中國國內白銀的開採量並不可觀。儘管15
157《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12世紀初中國曾大量開採銀礦,但隨後年產量下降至4–6噸左右(豐產年大概能達致20噸)14;而且即便如此,當明中、後期國內工商業開始急速發展時,國內產的白銀仍然遠遠無法滿足商業市場的需求,絕大部分白銀都需要從日本或美洲進口,1550至明末總共進口了超過7000公噸的白銀,明代中國是世界上最大的白銀進口國,而不是出口國。15 另有人估計1390–1520年間中國年均白銀產量在30萬兩左右。 16另外,明初政府發行紙鈔和銅幣,並嚴禁民間使用白銀交易。洪武初,便有令“禁民間不得以金銀物貨交易,違者罪之……”洪武30年“乃更申交易用金銀之禁”;永樂初年又明令“犯者以奸惡論,惟置造首飾器皿,不在禁列”;由於鈔法敗壞,朝廷不得不在仁宗、宣宗、英宗統治期間多次重申對金銀交易的禁令,並加強懲罰力度。17所以在中國市場上能找到大量白銀的說法與明初的政治、商業實情略有出入。至於後者,中國所需的香料基本產於東南亞熱帶地區。明初的香料絕大部分都依賴海外進口。3. 中國有大量為國家發動戰爭而服務的精英?“那裏有很多的學者,哲學家、天文學家和其他精於自然科學的人士。他們統治 這個王國,並發動戰爭。”18這一段描述也顯然更接近元代(尤其宋末元初)的情況。明朝建立以後,除了對北方夙敵──蒙古各部──採取政治與軍事雙重施壓的政策以外,明初的政府基本不向外部擴張、征戰。明朝剛建立,明太祖便表示“朕……疆宇大同,已承正統,方與遠邇相安於無事,以共用太平之福”19,後又說明“諸蠻夷小國,阻山越海,僻在一隅,彼不為中國患者,朕絕不伐之”。20他相對和平的外交政策,包括列明“十五不征之國”等措施,基本上被後代較好地執行。 214. 日本盛產黃金?“日本(Cipangu)……這個島上盛產黃金、珍珠和寶石,它的寺廟和宮殿都用金包裹。”22日本事實上並不盛產黃金,更不是甚麼“黃金之國”。這又是一條與馬可‧波羅《遊記》內容如出一轍的誤解。歐洲人對日本“生產黃金”的虛幻理解後來還持續了很長時間。托斯卡內利隨後更補充道:“但由於到這個地方的航路仍然是未知的,所有這些事物都還是暗藏的和秘密的。儘管如此,人們還是很有可能能夠安全抵達該地的。”23至此又一次表明作者不可能接觸過中國人。六、幾處釋疑15世紀初,明朝政府確實向周邊國家派出了許多使節。對此,明代官方的記史資料《明實錄》有詳細的記載。但《明實錄》中並沒有任何關於朝廷遣使歐洲的紀錄。其實僅憑這一點,就可以說明托斯卡內利所提及的使者不可能是明代官方使節。加上以上的分析,我們可以確定:托斯卡內利不可能會見過一位來自中國的官方來使或民間賓客。此外,他本人對中國的理解也很少,並基本停留在元代。鑒於其書信內容與《遊記》的描述及其它同時代的阿拉波、印度、歐洲人對中國的認識與誤解有驚人的相似和重複之處,我們有理由認為兩封信件的內容只是轉抄和轉述自《遊記》及其它坊間傳言所得──這對於15世紀歐洲學者是一種可行的做法:因為他們通常並不親自參與航海探險和旅遊,所以在進行自己的地理學、天文學計算時採用前人和其他當代人的資料和描述是可以理解的──儘管這些資料和描述並不見得精確,並往往已被其他人反覆使用。還有一種可能性:當時確實有一位東方使者覲見教皇,並在與教皇及其身邊的學者的交談中提及了他所瞭解的Cathay,但那使者本人並不來自中國。托斯卡內利轉抄、或者親自經歷了這一事件並寫入信中,但由於他自己本人和其他人隨後的誤解、誤抄、誤譯,這一段敘述便變得含糊不清,以至於最後被理解成了“來自中國的使節”。無獨有偶,同一時期的另一位學者波季奧(Pogg io)同樣記敘了如下事件:“有一位來自印度北部(Upper India)的使節奉其本國主教之命來拜訪教皇,搜集關於西方基督教的情報。他的國家是一個景教王國(Nes tor ian Kingdom),距離Cathay有20天的路程。然而,他“提及了大汗(Great Khan),和他所統治的九州大地(his dominion over nine potentk ings)。”24托斯卡內利信中提及的很可能就是同一次會面
托斯卡內利的信件對哥倫布探險活動的暗示意義及其所謂“中國使節”問題澳門研究158第49期──這在很大程度上支持了以上的推測。七、總結托斯卡內利的兩封信件並不像人們渲染的那樣具有濃厚浪漫主義和神秘色彩。魏格諾證明信件為偽造品的嘗試並沒有成功,但對信件原件瞭解的缺乏確實仍然是一個值得引起關注的問題。此外,信件本身對哥倫布的影響是否如傳說中那般大,也需要客觀和冷靜地看待。至於信件當中的一個含糊之處──托斯卡內利聲稱的與一個“疑似中國使節”的人物的會面──則可以通過細緻的考察辨清真相。可以肯定,托斯卡內利沒有會見過任何來自明朝的官方或非官方人士。這段模糊的文字──如果不是他從別處轉載得來──只能是與一個非中國的來使的談話,而這個使者對中國的認識也十分有限,沒有讓托斯卡內利以及其他歐洲學者對中國有更進一步的認識,所以,這只是一個普通的事件,並不見得暗含了甚麼特別的信息。托斯卡內利的信件代表了至15世紀之時歐洲學者對中國等東方國家的瞭解水平,並闡述了他個人對地理學、天文學的一些問題的看法。它們並沒有從根本上超出同時代的知識水平,也沒有隱含具有“超前指導意義”的暗示信息。相反,它們作為當時歐洲學者的其中一個知識份子,與其他人的著述、推測和觀點一起共同構建了哥倫布等航海家的靈感來源和理論基礎。(筆者謹借此機會感謝金國平教授和Geoff Wade教授。他們所提供的參考資料和建議是我寫成本文的關鍵。文中疏漏之處,都屬筆者個人失誤,與二師無關。)註釋:1 參見:Streicher, F., In The Cathol ic Encyclopedia(1913)/Pao lo da l Pozzo Toscane l l i (New York: Robe r t App le tonCompany, 2008), website: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/1 47 8 6 a . h t m; C hr i s t o p he r Co l u mb u s , I n E n cyc l o p æd i aBritannica (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007);金國平、吳志良:《“刺桐”──哥倫布的靈感》,未刊。2 Strange, G. Le., “Review: La Letter et la Carte de Toscanellisur la Route des Indes par l ’ Ouest by Henry Vigaund,” TheE n g l i s h H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , V o l . 1 7 , N o . 6 7 ( 1 9 0 2 ) ,pp. 568–570.3 Bourne, E. G., “Review: La Letter et la Carte de Toscanell isur la Route des Indes par l ’ Ouest by Henry Vigaund,” TheAmerican Historical Review , Vol. 8, No. 2 (January, 1903),pp. 341-346; Strange, G. Le., “Review: La Letter et la Cartede Toscanel li sur la Route des Indes par l’ Ouest by HenryVigaund,” The Engl ish Histor ical Review , Vol . 17, No. 67(1902), pp. 568–570.4 哥倫布批註馬可波羅《遊記》的掃描件,網址:http :/ /u p l o a d . w i k i m e d i a . o r g / w i k i p e d i a / c o m m o n s / c / c e /ColombusNotesToMarcoPolo.jpg 。5 Streicher, F., In The Catholic Encyclopedia(1913)/Paolo dalPozzo Toscane l l i (New York : Rober t App le ton Company,2008), website: h ttp:/ /www.newadvent.org/cathen/14786a.htm.6 “In the days of Pope Eugenius, there came an ambassador tohim, who told him of their great feelings of friendship for theChristians, and I had a long conversation with the ambassa-dor about many thing…,” in website: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/LMwebpages/252mono.html 。7 Cathay, In Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia BritannicaOnline: 2008), http://0-search.eb.com.lib.cityu.edu.hk:80/eb/article-9020800.8 Po lo Marco, In Encyclopædia Br i tann i ca (Encyc lopædiaBritannica Online: 2008), http://0-search.eb.com.lib.cityu.edu.hk:80/eb/article-5842.9 Khan, In Encyclopædia Bri tannica(Encyclopædia Bri tannicaOnline: 2008), http://0-search.eb.com.lib.cityu.edu.hk:80/eb/article-9045263.1 0 “…especially in the principal port called Zaiton [Marco Polo’sZaitum] where they load and unload a hundred great ships ofpepper every year , not to ment ion many other sh ips withother spices.” in website: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/LMwebpages/252mono.html 。1 1 李洵:《明史食貨志校注》,第 2 5 1 頁。1 2 Roderich, P., “Ming Maritime Trade to Southeast Asia, 1368-1567: Visions of a System” In Gui l lot , C., Lombard, D. andWiesbaden, R. P. (Eds.), From the Mediteranean to the ChinaSea: Miscel laneous Notes (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz,1998).1 3 “This country is richer than any other yet discovered, and notonly could it provide great prof it and many valuable things,but also possesses gold and silver and precious stones andall kinds of spices in large quanti ties - things which do notreach our countries at present.” in website: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/LMwebpages/252mono.html 。1 4 Von Richard, G., “Myth and Real ity of China’s Seventeenth-Century Monetary Crisis,” The Journal of Economic History,Vol. 56, No. 2 (1996), pp. 429–454; Von Richard, G., Foun-tain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).1 5 同上註。1 6 李隆生:《明末白銀存量的估計》,載於《中國錢幣》,第 01 期, 2005 年。1 7 李洵:《明史食貨志校注》,第 210 –212 頁。1 8 “And there are also many scholars: phi losophers, astrono-mers and other men skil led in the natural sciences, who gov-ern that great kingdom and conduct i ts wars.” in website:http:/ /www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/LMwebpages/252mono.html 。
159《澳門研究》第49期2008. 121 9《明太祖實錄》,卷 37 ,第 0751 頁。2 0《明太祖實錄》,卷 68 ,第 1278 頁。2 1 莊國土︰《明朝前期的海外政策和中國背向海洋的原因──兼論鄭和下西洋對鄭國海洋發展的危害》,載於楊允中主編︰《鄭和與海上絲綢之路──紀念鄭和下西洋六百週年學術研討會論文集》,澳門︰澳門大學澳門研究中心, 200 5 年。2 2 “Cipangu…That island is very rich in gold, pearls and pre-cious stones, and its temples and palaces are covered ing o l d . ” i n w e b s i t e : h t t p : / / w w w . h e n r y- d a v i s . co m/ M A P S /LMwebpages/252mono.html 。2 3 “But since the route to this place is not yet known, al l thesethings remain hidden and secret; and yet one may go there ingreat safety.” in website: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/LMwebpages/252mono.html 。2 4 Yule, H. Cathay and the Way Thither (The Hackluyt Society,1915), pp. 177–178.
175《澳門研究》第49期2008. 12有針對性地學習、借鑒了內地的發展經驗,另一方面也把實踐“一國兩制”的澳門特區的最新信息傳遞出去,這種有益的雙向交流令團員受益良多。在此,澳門學者同盟謹向中央駐澳聯絡辦以及劉曉航部長、陝西省教育廳領導及有關人員表示衷心的感謝,並祝願陝西省繼續延續中華文明及民族精神同時積極進行現代化建設,讓其作為大西部的龍頭,不斷發展,取得更大成就。註釋:1 楊允中等:《澳門文化與文化澳門》,澳門︰澳門大學澳門研究中心, 2005 年版,第 2 頁。2 包括重視科技與人才的文化精神,其中一個體現,是各大學的校訓,如交通大學的“精勤求學、敦篤勵志、果毅力行、忠恕任事”,陝西師大的“厚德、積學 、勵志、敦行”,西北大學的“公誠勤樸”,延安大學的“立身為公、學以致用”等等,陝西高校都以科教興國為己任,樸實而敦厚。3 《視點:文化名人望重鑄陝西文化精神》,載於“人民網”網站,網址:h t t p : / / w w w . p e o p l e . co m . cn / B I G 5 /wenhua/27296/2534399.html , 2004 年 5 月 31 日。