I2008. 8法律與政治落實第23條立法時不我待,別無選擇 .................................................................................... 楊允中澳門民事訴訟管轄權制度的完善──對相關《民事訴訟法典》修改的建議 ......................................................................... 劉方煇淺談非有效的行政行為 ............................................................................................................. 林桂桁澳門分層所有權體系中管理機關的法律性質 ..........................................................................陳 轅從“黑沙事件”談政府的危機意識與責任 .............................................................................. 簡萬寧澳門的行政文化路徑選擇 ......................................................................................... 黃志勇、曾翠儀建構香港高官問責制 .................................................................................................................. 鄧木佳經濟有關制度變遷理論的若干看法 ................................................................................................. 謝四德雙子城──新世紀澳珠區域合作的終極目標 ..........................................................................陳 青澳門發展文化產業政策探討 ...................................................................................... 劉伯龍、龐欣新再論移民與外勞對澳門勞動力市場的影響 .............................................................................. 聶林波澳門發展網絡博彩的趨勢分析 ................................................................................................. 林輝蓮The Game Theory and Governmenta l Choice in Macau Gaming Industry ................... CHIANG Wa Fong Cora國際博彩業監管制度對澳門的啟示 .......................................................................... 呂開顏、劉丁己澳門博彩業引發的犯罪及其預防 .............................................................蘇一丹、陳小虎、潘樂陶社會與歷史澳門可持續發展與和諧社會的突破口:教育 ..........................................................................李 略海峽兩岸221旅遊互動前的文化分析 ...................................................................................... 胡幸福從信文結構看澳門中學生之禮貌意識 ...................................................................................... 林詩敏GradeRetention andEducational Expectation:A Study of 15-year-old High School Students in Macau ........................................... HO Tin Lai, CHONG Kin從“世界記憶工程”到“澳門記憶”的啟動 .......................................................................... 楊開荊Images of Macau in 1635: The Diary of Peter Mundy ...................................................... Rogér io Miguel PUGA清朝中葉澳門成為西方侵華跳板及中西聯繫紐帶──兼論鴉片戰爭與澳門(下) ............................................................................................ 鄭光濱鄭芝龍家族與明代澳門的閩商 ................................................................................................. 徐曉望葡萄牙人在澳門半島“漸運瓴甓榱桷為屋”之過程 .............................................................. 金國平明清時期澳門華人人口總量考 ................................................................................................. 張廷茂其他踵美古人,裨益今學──評《七略別錄佚文‧七略佚文》校補本 .......................................邢培順學術動態 ...............................................................................................................《澳門研究》編輯部目錄1817233037425057616474818893101105110115123128133141148151157160
II47Law and PoliticsThe Implementation of Article 23 of the Basic Law: Urgent and Compulsory ........................ IEONG Wan ChongThe Improvements of the Jurisdiction System of Civil Action in Macau:Suggestions on the Relevant Modification of Code of Civil Procedure ...................................... LIU FanghuiShort Analysis on the Non- Effective Administrative Act ............................................................. LAM Kuai HangThe Legal Nature of the Management Organization in the Strata-Title System in Macau .................CHEN YuanViewing the Sense of Crisis and the Responsibility of theGovernment from the “Hac Sa Incident” ............................................................................... KAN Man NengThe Choice of the Path for the Administrative Culture in Macau........................ WONG Chi Iong, CHANG Chui IThe Construction of the Accountability of Senior Official in the Hong Kong SAR Government .... TANG Muk KaiEconomicsSome Views on Institutional Change Theory ..................................................................................... CHE Sei TakTwin Cities: the Ultimate Goal for the Macau-Zhuhai Cooperation in the New Century ...................... CHEN QingA Discussion on the Policy for the Development of Cultural Industry in Macau ......... LIU Bolong, PANG XinxinA Re-Discussion on the Influence of Immigration and Imported Laborson the Labor Market of Macau ........................................................................................................ NIE LinboThe Analysis of the Developing Trend of the Internet Gambling in Macau .......................................... LIN HuilianThe Game Theory and Governmental Choice in Macau Gaming Industry ................... CHIANG Wa Fong CoraThe Implications of International Casino Regulation for Macau................................................................................................. LOI Hoi Ngan Edmund, LIU Ting Chi MattewCrimes Related to Gambling in Macau and their Precautions ..................... SU Dan, CHEN Xiaohu, PAN LetaoSociety and HistoryEducation: The Key for Sustainable Development and the Building-upof a Harmonious Society in Macau ....................................................................................................... LI LueA Cultural Analysis of the Framework of “221” before the Cross-Strait Tourist Interaction ................... HU XingfuFrom the Letter Article Structure Looks at Politeness of Consciousnessin High School Students in Macau ............................................................................................. LAM Si ManGrade Retention and Educational Expectation:A Study of 15-year-old High School Students in Macau ..........................................HO Tin Lai, CHONG KinFrom “the Memory of the World Program” to the Lauching of “the Macau Memory” .............. IEONG Hoi KengImages of Macau in 1635: The Diary of Peter Mundy ......................................................Rogério Miguel PUGAMacau Becoming the Stepping Stone for Foreign Aggression to China and theLinkage between the West and China: On the Opium War and Macau (Part II) ............CHIANG Kong PanThe Zheng Zhilong Family and the Fujian Merchants in Macau in the Ming Dynasty .................... XU XiaowangThe Process of the Portuguese “Getting Concrete Accommodation with Bricks andRafters” in the Macau Peninsula ................................................................................................. JIN GuopingEnquiry into the Total of the Chinese Population in Macau during the Ming andQing Dynasties ..................................................................................................................... ZHANG TingmaoOthersFollow the Best of the Forefathers, Benefit the Present Study: A Review on the Revised Version ofThe Uncategorized Collection of “Qi Lue” ............................................................................. XING PeishuanAcademic Activities ............................................................. Editorial Department of Journal of Macau StudiesCONTENTS1817233037425057616474818893101105110115123128133141148151157160
13《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8在民事管轄上設定之目的 ──其並非在於對個案的事實認定和個別救濟,而在於透過“依據訴訟法律的規定統一司法見解”22以把握法律原則。世界各國,如葡萄牙、法蘭西、德國等國家的制度亦採此種觀點。前西德民事裁判制度改正準備委員會報告書所載多數委員意見認為,“一般事件,歷經兩級法院審判判決,以足以使個人之具體權利獲得保障。兩次事實審的審判,已足以期待裁判之正確”。此外,美國聯邦最高法院院長Chi ef Jus t i ce Hughes也曾謂“聯邦最高法院審判事件,系以法律之適當闡述及有效施行為重心,非為民眾利益 想”23,均足證明此論題。而澳門終審法院的法官本身人數便不多,便形成審級制度的圓錐頂。所以,法典在終審法院的審判範圍條款中以禁止性規範規定終審法院“不得變更上訴所針對之法院就事實事宜所作之裁判”24,對上訴只作法律審而不作事實審。雖然在該條款“但書”的部分又規定了例外,但這種例外終究是極少數的特例。對於意見稿所述,“修改旨在讓終審法院在某些情況下可對中級法院就初級法院所定事實事宜作出的審理進行監督”的建議,並無不當。然而,這種監督,如就“過錯”作出的判斷以及可對一般不確定概念的具體說明進行監督,並不屬於終審法院對事實作出審理的範疇,至多算作一種是釋法性行為。3. 訴訟標的額是否可以作為澳門確定案件分配的惟一標準《民事訴訟法典》雖未對案件分配標準作出規定,但依據《司法組織綱要法》,澳門法院是以“利益值”(即訴訟標的額)為惟一確定標準對案件管轄進行劃分的,並且這種標準不僅僅局限於第一審案件的分配,也是案件上訴的要件之一。因訴訟利益值本身即是量化的概念,在確定案件分配時具有明顯的確定性特點,可以有效避免管轄衝突的出現。另外,利益值標準在一定程度上可以綜合體現案情性質和繁簡程度。有學者認為,由訴訟標的額、案件性質和案件繁簡程度等標準決定的案件的難易程度才應當是確定管轄分配的決定原素。此種觀點是否得當尚可不論,但僅具利益值標準,無論在理論抑或實踐上都會給澳門的民事管轄帶來一些不可迴避的問題。否則意見稿怎會提出引入一個新的利益值標準重新確定案件的分配問題?又怎會建議“為不得上訴至終審法院但涉及重大的法律或社會問題的中級法院裁判引入可向終審法院提出上訴的新機制”?25而後者實際上就是要求引入案件性質的確定標準。可以看出,訴訟標的額標準本身就存有一定的機械性。隨經濟發展,訴訟標的額當然會總體提升。這樣,經歷一段時期即需要對訴訟標的額進行調整,否則將打破各法院各法庭受理案件的平衡,影響相應職能的發揮。另外,在訴訟標的額的計算上,有些案件如何確定管轄並不明確。這容易導致當事人依自身的利益對管轄進行規避,如當事人為適用更簡易的輕微民事案件審判程序,故意降低訴訟標的額。因此,在民事案件管轄的確定上,訴訟標的額雖然是一個基本標準,但並不是一個完善的標準,更不能成為惟一的標準,而是應該和其他標準一起相互補充來確定。因此,建議在《民事訴訟法典》或《司法組織綱要法》中引入或增加有關管轄分配的條款,並對其確定標準作出一般性的多元化規定。(二) 一般地域管轄權之完善現行《澳門民事訴訟法典》在第15條具管轄權的一般情況中規定“當出現下列任一情況時,澳門法院具管轄權︰a)作為訴因之事實或任何組成訴因之事實在澳門作出; b)被告非為澳門居民而原告為澳門居民,只要該被告在其居住地之法院提起相同訴訟時,該原告得在當地被起訴;c)如不在澳門法院提起訴訟,有關權利將無法實現,且擬提起之訴訟與澳門之間在人或物方面存有任何應予考慮之連結點。”這被葡萄牙學人稱為的“因果關係原則、互惠原則、必要性原則或一致性原則”是檢定“澳門法院面對其他審判權時”是否具管轄權的一般情況、首要步驟。26但是,形式上而言,該條款的表述(尤其是第b、 c項)以及葡萄牙學人的釋意好像明顯將確定澳門法院的管轄權置於一種被動的境地──從字面理解,只有出現下面對其他審判權將應為原告的澳門居民作為被告、除非在澳門起訴才能實現權利的被動狀態時,澳門法院才能宣稱具有管轄權。這種表述好像是不能解釋為解決國際民事訴訟管轄權衝突的國內法規制的方法的。無論一般學理還是各國實定法,對管轄權的法律確認首先應當以法院與當事人、訴訟標的或法律事實之間的客觀聯繫為標準,
淺談非有效的行政行為澳門研究18第47期針對具體行為(R el at iv a a um c as o co ncr eto),行政行為是針對一個可界定的具體情況而作出決定,如行政機關就巿民駕駛准照申請、決定開考十個人員空缺、警方驅散約1000示威遊行的民眾、興建政府辦公大樓等決定,這些決定為針對具體狀況或申請而作出。而且有關決定可以針對個人或眾數之人。與其相對的為行政規章(R e g u l a m e n t oAdminis t rat ivo),行政規章是行使行政權而產生之法律規範,為具有抽象性及普遍性。由行政法之主體作出(Part ic ada por um s uj eito deDi reito Admi nis t rat iv o),是指由行政機關作出。但是實質上行政機關實體作出之決定是由自然人作出決定,即由有權限的人員或行政機關據位人作出之決定。行使行政法之權力(No us o de Poderes de Direi toAdminis t rat ivo),行政機關作出的行政行為時,須要根據行政法所賦與之權力作出。如行政機關非行使行政法之權力的行為,則不可視為行政行為,如政治行為或外交活動等。發生外部法律效力(Dest i nados a produzi r efeitosjur ídic os exter nos),行政行為之目的是發生外部法律效力,即創設、變更、消滅法律關係或法律狀況。簡而言之,即巿民之法律狀況因行政行為而改變。但行政行為即使尚未對外產生效力時,亦可被視為行政行為。因為可能存在行政機關決定有時未對外產生效力,如因未通知利害關係人,但有關行政決定之目的是對外產生法律效力。與其相對的是內部行為(Ac tos Inte rnos),內部行為是影響行政內部組織關係,但不對外產生效力。行政行為具產生外部法律效果,而外部法律效果可分積極及消極效力。積極效果(Efeitos Posi t iv os)為滿足行政主體的相對人的法律狀況,如賦予其資格准照、批給工程、作為或不作為等。消極效果(Efeitos Negat iv os)則為拒絕或否定滿足行政主體的相對人要求改變的法律狀況,即作出一個不變更既存之法律狀況決定。在德國,行政行為特徵為:主權性、具體事件的處理、有特定的時期、由行政機關作出、外部直接法律效果。其中主權性,即屬公法,特別為執行公法規範的行為。具體事件的處理,是指針對具體事實案件及指向特定個人或可確定的成群人,而且有特定的時期。4然而,行政行為不同於處理行為。處理行為是具有法律約束力的命令,是一種以實現某種法律後果為目的之意思表示,表現為對法律關係中的權利或義務的設定、變更及消滅或具有法律約束力的確認。然而,處理行為不包括純事實性處理的行政活動(事實行為)、準備行為及階段行為、具有法律意義但沒有命令特徵的意思表示。三、不產生效力的行政行為無效與可撤銷的行政行為在行政法的發展早期是沒有區分的。然而,行政法的不斷發展,逐漸發展出不存在、無效及可撤銷的行政行為制度。行政行為不產生效力標準,主要為基於行政行為不依法定形式作出、構成犯罪、無可能實施、內容違反公共秩序與善良風俗,以及存在重大且明顯的法律或事實瑕疵,以下對此三種不產生效力的行政行為進行分析。(一) 無效的行政行為無效與不存在的行政行為亦十分相似。相同之處為不具有法律效力,而相同之處為無效是一個已成立的行政行為效力,以及在法律秩序世界中被識別。然而,無效與可撤銷的行政行為存在區分的標準及界限。大陸法系中確立一個認定無效與可撤銷的行政行為標準,主要有“法規性質說”、“嚴重說與明顯說”、“重大且明顯瑕疵說”、“具體情形說”、“要素加法律列舉說”、“最低要件標準說”等學說。如奧地利採用“最低要件標準說”;德國採用“瑕疵重大且明顯說”,根據《德國聯邦行政程序法》第44條第1款規定,行政行為具有重大瑕疵或根據理智的判斷絕對明顯的瑕疵(嚴重瑕疵)時無效。根據法的安定性原則考慮賦予行政行為(臨時的或撤銷期限界滿後確定的)存續力,即使行政行為可能存在瑕疵,但在行政行為具有明顯並且重大瑕疵的情況下,不適用法的安定性原則,而應適用實質的正當性原則。而有關標準是一個典型的、理智的公民的認識,而不是服過訓練的法學家的認識能力 5;葡萄牙及澳門採用“要素加法律列舉說”。 6綜上各國確認標準,主要是以瑕疵的內容或形式為標準。在澳門,無效的行政行為根據現行《澳門行政程
建構香港高官問責制澳門研究48第47期高官問責制要真正成功,必須在制訂政策的過程中,有系統地吸納立法會主要黨派的意見,讓政黨參與決策。另外,要與議會協調合作,實行高官問責制之時,必須吸納議會內政黨的代表,讓他們在政策制訂過程中扮演積極角色,才能從根本上改善行政立法關係,減少出現決而難行的局面。推行問責制是要局長們強勢領導,有所作為;另一個便是要受市民問責,使政府民望提高。理順行政長官、3司12局與立法會、公眾之間的協調互動機制,除了保證在政府內部的統一協調之外,還確保政府與立法會,公眾之間形成一種良性互動的關係,對於高官問責制今後的發展亦有 非常重要的意義。首先,行政長官應當建立一種定期前往立法會解答問題的慣例,並定期與立法會各黨派議員非正式會面,加強雙方的溝通和交流,促進彼此的相互理解和信任。行政長官要使自己的施政獲得更廣泛的民意支持,就必須加強與立法會的溝通和交流,爭取立法會的支持,這有利於行政長官在施政的時候能夠減少來自立法會的各種阻力,有利於政策的推行。其次,各政治任命官員亦應該自覺的定期前往立法會解答議員的問題,並約見各社會團體和立法會議員聽取意見。這一機制的形成有助於加強問責高官與立法會以及各社團組織之間的互動,促進彼此之間對各項政策問題的協調,有助於問責高官更好的聽取各方意見,制定反映民意的公共政策,同時也有助於減少問責高官今後政策推行上的阻力。(六) 重視問責文化的建設“問責文化”是高官問責制的靈魂,高官問責制作為旨在加強官員問責性,提高政府管治能力的一項制度,其核心在於“問責”。“問責”的落實則有賴於在政府官員乃至整個社會中形成一種“問責文化”的氛圍,這是推行高官問責制的一個重要前提。因此,在今後高官問責制的施行當中,“問責文化”的形成和逐步強化是高官問責制能否繼續完善發展的基礎,只有將這種“問責文化”內化於人們的潛意識中,才能使問責成為一種自覺的意識體現在人們的日常工作行為中,才能使官員更能積極面對社會的訴求和迅速回應市民的需要,真正為政策推行的成敗負上政治責任。在具體的政策措施上,首先,特區政府可以通過加強對新入職官員的問責教育來提高官員問責意識。在入職前所有問責高官必須接受“問責”的教育和訓練,安排相關的課程和實踐加強問責高官對問責制運作的瞭解,提高官員對問責制的認識,避免長期以來受傳統體制薰陶以及來自非政府部門的問責高官由於認識上的原因或者缺乏經驗而犯錯誤。其次,考慮到“問責文化”的建設具有長期性而且需要有一定社會文化基礎,特區政府可以通過制定長期的“問責文化”發展戰略並通過各種有效的宣傳或者教育方式來達到加強“問責文化”上建設的目的。發展戰略的制定應該具有前瞻性和全局性的戰略眼光,不僅僅 眼於現任問責高官,而且從更高更廣的角度 眼於從整體上提高全民的責任意識,為問責高官今後的推行提供廣泛而深厚的“問責文化”底蘊。六、結語香港回歸後的10年,並不是風調雨順,而是遇到了一個又一個的嚴峻挑戰,香港市民受 經濟轉型帶來的痛苦,再加上經濟全球化、知識化的新形勢下,香港原有的優勢和地位明顯受到重大挑戰。根據國際管理發展研究所(Inter nat iona l Ins t i tute ofManagement Dev elopm ent)的2004年《世界競爭力年報》,港府政策的持續性只有很低評價(3.37分),排行全球倒數第九,比排第一的新加坡足足少了 5分。面對種種困局,香港政府須要具備一套全方位和前瞻性的策略,政策持續性的必需條件是獲得政界、學界及市民的認同,才不會因政治人物的更替而隨意改變。註釋︰1 問責制下主要官員的工作行為守則上載於香港特區政府網站:h tt p: // ww w .in fo .g ov. hk/ pd /g aze tt e 。2 回歸後改為政務司。3 有關“主要官員問責制下公務員的角色和責任”的綜合通告(公務員事務局通告第 8 /2 002 號)請見“數碼政府合署”,網址:ht t p:/ /p or t al. ccgo. hksa rg 。4 《香港基本法》第 5 4 條列明行政會議“是協助行政長官決策的機構”。5 曾蔭權對董建華時期在高官問責制下將 11 個局獨立於 3 個司之外的架構進行了調整,加強了政務司司長和財政司司長在政策統籌和協調上的作用,使其與 11局加強溝通,力圖鞏固問責班子的團隊合作,促進政策的順利推展。6 《香港基本法》第 56 條(2)規定,行政長官在作出重要決策,向立法會提交法案,制定附屬法規和解散立法會前,須徵詢行政會議的意見。
49《澳門研究》第47期2008. 87 《香港基本法》第 48 條(5)規定,行政長官有權向中央人民政府建議免去主要官員的職務。8 調查研究室新聞稿,載於 h tt p:/ /h kupo p. hku. hk;主要官員評分總表 Summa ry Ta ble o f Rat ings of Prin cip al Off icials查閱。9 政制事務局網址: h tt p : / / w w w. i n f o. g o v. h k/ ca b / t op i ca l/i nd ex 6. h tm;查閱主要官員問責制實施 1 年後報告。1 0 內容可歸納為 10 點: 問責制的合憲性; 維護公務員的誠信及政治中立; 將律政司司長一職納入問責制的問題; 將公務員事務局局長一職納入問責制的問題; 行政會議將來的職能、組成及運作; 常任秘書長的職級及角色; 利益衝突及主要官員守則;各個政策局的分拆、合併及保留的問題; 局與署的關係; 諮詢及法定組織的檢討。1 1 曾蔭權連任時重申,新班子將落實其角逐連任政綱的五大施政要點: 讓香港發展為全球金融及財務中心,以基建及文化發展配合; 循食物安全及空氣污染改善港人生活質素; 致力改善貧富懸殊及加大力度扶貧,達至人人有工做; 投放大量資源在教育及培訓,配備良好醫療計劃; 任內致力解決行政長官及立法會雙普選問題。1 2 公務員事務局; 商務及經濟發展局; 政制及內地事務局; 發展局; 教育局; 環境局; 財經事務及庫務局; 食物及衛生局; 民政事務局;勞工及福利局; 保安局; 運輸及房屋局。1 3 例如第 1 0 3 條就規定:“香港原有關於公務人員的招聘、僱用、考核、紀律、培訓和管理的制度,包括負責公務人員的任用、薪金、服務條件的專門機構,除有關給予外籍人員特權待遇的規定外,予以保留。”參考書目:1. 歐文‧ G ‧休斯:《公共管理導論》,北京:中國人民大學出版社, 2001 年。2. 陳振明:《政府再造──西方“新公共管理運動”述評》,北京:中國人民大學出版社, 2003 年。3. 張炳良:《變與不變?危機與轉型下的管治之道》,香港:進一步多媒體有限公司, 2001 年。4. 曹俊漢:《行政現代化的迷思》,台北:韋伯文化,2003 年。5. 鍾士元:《香港回歸歷程──鍾士元回憶錄》,香港:香港中文大學出版社, 2001 年。6. 侯遠長:《中國權力監督論》,鄭州:中原農民出版社, 1993 年。7. 肖蔚雲主編:《香港基本法的成功實踐》,北京:三聯書店, 2000 年。8. 大衛‧奧斯本、彼得‧普拉斯特里克:《摒棄官僚制:政府再造的五項戰略》,北京:中國人民大學出版社, 2001 年。9. 盧兆興、余永逸、鄺錦鈞等:《董建華政府管治危機與出路》,香港:香港明報出版社, 2002 年。10. 杜葉錫恩著,隋麗君譯:《我眼中的殖民時代香港》,香港:香港文匯出版社, 2004 年。
有關制度變遷理論的若干看法澳門研究50第47期一、前言為甚麼要探討制度變遷理論?原因在於:首先,新古典增長理論似乎經不起時間的檢驗。例如新古典一直奉行的自由市場調節,很多時面對市場失靈,又或者是滯脹時,新古典理論卻無法作出合理解釋,一些經濟學家只好回歸到制度基本面去尋求解決;其次,中國的制度經濟發展被受矚目。鄧小平提倡的開放、改革,“摸 石頭過河”的制度改革(變遷)理論,使中國經濟保持了 30年的持續增長。制度促進經濟增長的理論,在中國再次得到驗證。此外,鄧小平的“一國兩制”制度觀,不但成功收回港澳,而且使港澳經濟明顯增長的勢頭。因此,我們要探討制度變遷理論,以尋找經濟增長和社會和諧之道。本文想通過介紹幾種制度變遷理論和個人一些看法,目的只有一個,就是帶出一個訊息,希望澳門學術界跳出新古典思維,開始重視制度變遷的研究。二、制度是甚麼?制度本身是一個複雜的概念,其複雜的程度在於不同的民族在不同的地緣、空間、時間產出不同的制度安排的“歷史集合”。自古以來,有人的出現,就有制度的影子;有民族的出現,就有制度的建立。由於每一個國家民族、文化、歷史背景的不同,其制度也不同;由於制度具有的多重複雜性,因此,在討論制度是甚麼時,只好作出選擇性的探討。西方制度經濟學派和馬克思在制度的研究上都有很大成就。西方制度經濟學派主要圍繞制度對經濟的增長研究,甚麼制度能夠減低交易成本,制度如何創新能提高效率和產生利益最大化;馬克思的制度觀不但針對生產力(經濟),而且還針對生產關係(社會),更加針對上層建築(政治)。應該說,他們在制度的研究上是有分別的,值得比較一下。如:舊制度經濟學家的代表人物托爾斯坦‧凡勃侖( Thor ste in Ve blen)認為:“制度實質上就是個人或社會對有關某些關係或某些作用的一般思想習慣;而生活式所由構成的是,在某一時期或社會發展的某一階段通過的制度的綜合,因此,從心理學的方面來說,制度是一種流行的精神態度。”1另一位舊制度經濟學家約翰‧羅傑斯‧康芒斯( Jo hn Rog ers C ommons)則認為:“制度就是集體行動控制個人行動。”2集體行動範圍很廣,從無組織的習俗到有組織的運營機構(G oing-C oncern),如家庭、公司、公會、政府或國家。傑佛里‧M‧霍奇遜(G eof f rey M. H odgs on)認為:“制度是通過傳統、習慣或法律約束的作用力來創造出持久的、規範化的行為類型的社會組織,在一個錯綜複雜、變化莫測的世界中,正是通過這種持久性和規範性,才使得社會科學有可能運用於一切實踐。”3丹尼爾‧W‧布羅姆利(D anie l W. Broml ey)則將制度視為對人類活動施加影響的權力與義務的集合。4有關制度變遷理論的若干看法謝四德 ** 華南師範大學政治經濟系碩士
51《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8W ‧C‧尼爾(N eal e W. C .)認為:“對制度特徵的歸納比較精細和嚴謹。在他看來,從廣義上講,制度暗指一種可觀察且可遵守的人類事務安排,它同時也含有時間和地點的特殊性而非一般性。具體地說,某一制度可以通過下述三類特徵而被識別:甲、存在有大量的人類活動( p e o p l edoi ng),並且這些活動是可見的和可辨認的;乙、存在有許多規則(ru les),從而使人類活動具有重複性、穩定性並提供可預測的秩序;丙、存在有大眾習俗(fol k v i ew s),它對人類活動和各種規則加以解釋和評價。”5新制度經濟學代表人物 T‧W‧舒爾茨(T .W.Sc hulz e)在《制度與人的經濟價值的不斷提高》一文中認為:“儘管不具有普遍意義,然而經濟學領域內的制度可視為是一種具有經濟價值的服務的供給者,是經濟領域裏的一個內生變數,因對經濟增長動態的反應而發生制度變遷。”6新制度經濟學另一代表人物V‧W‧拉坦(V.W. Latan)則認為,一種制度通常被定義為一套行為規則,它們被用於支配特定的行為模式與相互關係。 7新制度經濟學的重要代表人物道格拉斯‧ C‧諾斯(D ouglas s . C. Nor th), 他在不同時期對制度的表述也不同。在《經濟史上的結構和變遷》中,他將制度理解為“約束在謀求財富或本人效用最大化中個人行為而制訂的一組規章、依循程序和倫理道德行為准則。”8而在《制度、制度變遷和經濟績效》一書中,他則認為“制度是一個社會遊戲(博弈)規則,更規範地說,它們是為決定人們相互關係而人為設定的一些制約。”9比較經濟體制研究學者G‧格魯奇(G. G ruch)認為:“制度表現為構成項目的統一、圖式或有規則的排列。在最一般意義上,制度是構成統一整體的各個項目相互依存或相互影響的綜合體或圖式。”10弗雷德里克‧L‧普瑞爾認為:“制度就是兩個或兩個以上執行某種功能的人之間經常地、有規律地發生關係的方式。這種關係是由參與者的價值觀、調節相互關係的准則、制裁、獎勵以及個人的特殊動機形成的。”11卡爾‧馬克思(Karl Mar x)認為:“制度不能僅僅歸結為表現社會普遍意志的法律和倫理範疇,完整的社會制度是由經濟基礎和上層建築這兩個相互關係的層次組成的。他更認為,對制度的研究,首先要分析作為整個社會制度經濟基礎的生產力及與之相適應的生產關係,然後才能對建立在這個基礎上的道德和法律等上層建築的性質做出合理的說明。”12由上所述,大家大概也清楚制度是甚麼。比較之下,我較認同馬克思對制度的觀點。首先,制度非個人與個人之間博弈的結果,而是集體意志的表現;其次,制度是適應生產力、生產關係發展的一種產物,不是簡單的意識形態、科技、習慣所決定;最後,其觀點是歷史唯物的,經得起時間的檢驗。三、制度如何變遷?一直以來,學術界對制度起源及其變遷的理解,存在 多種視角和多種範式的解釋。從凡勃倫、哈耶克對習俗文化和社會秩序變遷的理解,到諾斯的國家意識形態理論,經濟學家們在探索人類制度之謎的過程中發展出了多種制度變遷模型。對這些模型的分類也存在多種方式,例如布羅姆利將有關制度變遷的主要理論劃分為三種不同的理論模型,即產權模型、誘致性模型和諾斯模型。中國經濟學家史晉川則將制度變遷模型劃分為經濟增長推動說、利益格局調整說、技術決定論、制度變遷自我循環累積論等方式,還有學者,如林崗等認為,諾斯、馬克思和哈耶克分別代表了制度變遷的不同模式。如果從上述經濟學家的核心假設是新古典的還是演化的這一差別出發,我們可以粗略地將制度變遷理論劃分為三大類,即新古典的制度變遷理論、演化的制度變遷理論和以階級分析法為特徵的馬克思制度變遷理論。(一) 新古典的制度變遷模型基本上,新古典的制度分析者們往往將制度變遷歸因於價格現象,認為價格變化改變了預期淨收入流的現值,引起了重新分配的需要,進而導致了制度創新。按照這種共性,新古典制度變遷模型包括以德姆塞茨為代表的產權經濟學家、舒爾茨的經濟增長解釋模型、拉坦等人的誘致制度變遷模型和早期的諾斯──托馬斯模型。雖然他們在觀點上不盡相
有關制度變遷理論的若干看法澳門研究56第47期一些看法,總的來說,本人較傾向馬克思的制度變遷理論──生產力-生產關係-上層建築。但畢竟馬克思年代的社會與現代社會相比,簡單得多,因此,在應用制度變遷理論分析時,最好在馬克思的理論基礎上,可以適當滲入西方制度經濟學理論,如諾斯的心智模型等,必要時,更可結合重大事件發生的因素分析,重點是找出制度變遷的客觀規律。註釋:1 Ve blen, T., Th e Th eory of Leisure Cla ss: An Economic Stud yOf I nstitu tions (N ew York: Va ngua rd Press, 1 899) , p. 17.2 Commons, J. R ., I nst it utiona l Econo mics (Ma diso n: Un iversit yof Wisconsin Pre ss, 196 1), p. 73.3 Hodgson, M. “The Approach of In st it utional Economics, ”Jour-nal of I nstitut ional L iteratu re, Vol. XXXVI (199 8), p. 180.4 Bromle y, D ., Environment and Econo my: Prope rty Rig hts andPublic Policy (Oxford: Basil Bla ckwell, 1991 ). “Institutions co n-sist of cog niti ve , norma tive, and reg ulat ive struct ures andactivities that provide stability and meaning to social beha vior .”5 Ne ale, W. C., “I nst itut ion s,” Jo urna l o f Econ omic , Vol . 21(1 987 ), pp. 1177 –1 206 . “An institu tion is iden tifie d by threecharacter ist ics: peop le doin g, p eople enga ged in observableactivities; rule s, giving the activit ies repet ition, st ability, andpred ictab le orde r; a nd fo lk vie ws, pa r ticipa nts’ sta tem ent sexplaining or justifying the activit ies and the rule s. ”6 舒爾茨:《制度與人的經濟價值的不斷提高》, 19 68年;轉引自 [美] R ‧科斯等:《財產權利與制度變遷──產權學派與新制度學派譯文集》,上海:上海三聯書店, 20 04 年,第 25 7 頁。7 V ‧ W ‧拉坦:《誘導性制度變遷理論》,載於 [美 ]R ‧科斯等:《財產權利與制度變遷》,上海:上海人民出版社, 20 0 0 年,第 2 53 頁。8 [美 ] 道格拉斯‧ C ‧諾斯:《經濟史中的結構與變遷》,上海:上海三聯書店、上海人民出版社, 19 94年,第 1 9 6 頁。9 同上註,第 3 頁。1 0 G ‧格魯奇:《比較經濟制度》,北京:中國社會科學出版社, 19 8 5 年,第 5 頁。1 1 弗雷德里克‧ L ‧普瑞爾:《東西方經濟體制比較研究指南》,北京:中國經濟出版社, 1 9 8 9 年,第 1 4頁。1 2 楊虎濤:《政府競爭對制度變遷的影響機理研究》,北京︰中國財政經濟出版社, 2 00 6 年,第 4 4 頁。1 3 H ‧德姆塞茨:《關於產權的理論》,載於 [美] R ‧科斯等:《財產權利與制度變遷》,上海:上海三聯書店、上海人民出版社, 20 0 0 年,第 1 05 頁。1 4 同註 7 ,第 3 28 頁。1 5 [美]凡勃倫:《有閒階級論》,北京:商務印書館,19 97 年,第 1 38 頁。1 6 同上註,第 1 39 頁。1 7 同註 12 ,第 5 2 頁。1 8 [美]道格拉斯‧ C ‧諾斯:《制度、制度變遷與經濟績效》,上海:上海人民出版社, 1 990 年,第 43 頁。1 9 同註 17 ,第 5 4 頁。2 0 中共中央編譯局編:《馬克思恩格斯選集》,第 2卷,北京:人民出版社, 1 9 76 年,第 8 3 頁。2 1 同上註,第 3 卷,第 57 4 頁。2 2《新帕爾格雷夫經濟學大辭典》,北京︰經濟科學出版社, 19 92 年,第 63 5 頁。2 3 許卓雲:《中國市場經濟專題》,第 52頁(待出版)。2 4 同上註,第 1 2 8 頁。2 5《九一一襲擊事件》,載於維基百科網:h t t p : / / z h .wikipe dia. org/w iki/% E4%B9 %9D %E4 %B8% 80% E4% B8%8 0%E8% A2%AD %E5% 87% BB%E4 %BA%8 B%E4% BB%B6。2 6 翁寒松:《情報機構改革能否使美國更加安全?》,載於中華人民共和國駐休斯敦總領事館網站, h t t p: / /hou ston .chi na-con su lat e.o rg /chn /xw gd/ t17 72 83. htm 。2 7 同上註。2 8 同上註。2 9《次按風暴至 匯控長淌血》,載於《文匯報》網站,htt p:/ /pa per .we nwe ipo. co m/20 07/ 12/2 7/F I0 712 2700 11.ht m,200 7 年 1 2 月 2 7 日。3 0《美國救市與改革相輔相成》,載於《文匯報》網站,ht t p: / / pa pe r . we n we ip o. co m/ 20 0 8/ 0 4/ 0 1/ WW0 80 4 01 00 0 2.ht m , 2 008 年 4 月 01 日。3 1《北京:下月起出租車內全面控煙》,載於中國軍網, ht tp: // ww w. pla da ily.co m.cn /sit e1 /xw pd xw /2 00 7-09 /2 0/cont ent _95 862 3.ht m , 2 007 年 9 月 2 0 日。3 2《北京:將擴大禁煙公共場所範圍》,載於中華人民共和國國務院網站, h t t p: / / w w w. g o v. cn / f wx x/ sh / 20 0 8 -04/ 17/ cont ent _946 824 .ht m , 20 08 年 4 月 17 日。3 3《08 年北京實施第十四階段控制大氣污染措施 改善空氣質量》,載於第 29 屆奧林匹克運動會網站, h tt p: / /ww w. beijin g20 08. cn/b ocog /en viro nme nt/ spor ts/ n21 425 800 8.sht ml , 2 008 年 2 月 27 日。參考書目:1. 許卓雲:《中國市場經濟專題》,廣州:華南師範大學, 2006 。2. 吳群剛:《變革與繁榮》,北京:清華大學出版社,2006 年。3. 思拉恩‧埃格特森著,吳經邦等譯:《新制度經濟學》,北京:商務印書館, 1996 年。
澳門發展網絡博彩的趨勢分析澳門研究76第47期能達到目的,這不但增加賭廳的經營風險,而且對社會安定、澳門形象帶來負面的影響。因而,博彩企業的經營模式和理念在激烈的競爭中產生了變化。博彩企業在鞏固現有優勢的同時,必須努力培育新的經濟增長點,增強發展後勁,加強和完善對博彩業的管理,促使澳門的博彩業向多元化、多渠道,國際化、全球化發展。例如:持有澳門賭牌之一的威尼斯人澳門股份有限公司(Venet ian Macau, S.A.),其大股東(後獲獨立批給)為銀河,母公司為拉斯維加斯金沙集團。 1金沙集團公司擁有世界性網絡,目標是把澳門發展成會展和娛樂中心,該集團利用世界性網絡的關係,引入新的經營方式,發展娛樂場酒店度假村、酒店、娛樂場等項目,不但為澳門帶來新的客源,而且與其博彩業相輔相成。很明顯,隨 美資進入,澳門的博彩業發展產生了巨大的變化,這是博彩經營發展過程的必經階段,改革、轉型是不可避免的必然規律。特別是在網絡、信息技術普及的今天,競爭更從有形的資本競爭轉變為無形的資本競爭,勞動人口的競爭轉化為人力資本、思想觀念和知識的競爭。科技競爭成為現代競爭的主流模式,電子博彩、網絡博彩成為博彩企業發展的趨向。三、國內外網絡博彩發展概述網絡博彩又稱在線博彩(Onl ine Gam bli ng)或虛擬博彩(Vi rtual G ambi ng),法律上一般稱之為網絡互動博彩(Internet Interac t iv e G ambl ing)。它是通過互聯網( Inter net)、電話(Tel ephone )、流動電話(Mobi le)、無線應用協定(WAP)等電子渠道進入博彩、投注系統或指定的網站,實質是賭客方透過電子途徑進行博彩的手段之一。在現實生活中,互聯網的應用為博彩業提供了更大的發展空間。澳門傳統(實體)博彩以外來賭客為主,但受澳門地理、資源的條件限制,利用網絡技術發展博彩業,儼然是澳門向世界推廣博彩服務的手段之一。雖然網上賭博,法律上許多地方處於灰色地帶,出現法律滯後於技術的狀況。但是,由於網絡博彩的低成本、應用範圍廣泛、使用容易,賭客可能足不出門,就可很方便地參與賭博,因而,發展網絡博彩成為不可阻擋的勢頭。網絡博彩主要設置在以美國、英國、澳大利亞等國資本的離岸金融區。據美國一家研究機構Datamonitor的調查給出的估計:全球移動博彩業市場的營業收入從 2001 年的9500萬美元增長到2 006 年的170.5億美元,5年內增長近20倍。2其中,亞洲地區是未來最大的移動博彩市場。估計參與移動博彩的人數美國從 2200萬人上升至1.24億人、歐洲從4100萬人上升為1.5億人。而英國一家權威顧問公司Alexander Resources預計:至2008年,全球移動博彩的收入將達到160億美元。可見,博彩業在網絡技術的支援下,發展網絡博彩不但是可行,而且是必然的。網絡博彩發展速度驚人。克里斯琴森顧問公司的娛樂業分析人士塞巴斯蒂安‧辛克萊指出, 2 003年,亞洲網絡博彩市場佔全球網絡博彩業560億美元營業額的16%。到 2006年,它將佔全球1160億美元營業額的40%。亞裔網上玩家的數量將從 2003年的400萬增加到 2006年的7400萬。 3(一) 國際網絡博彩發展狀況博彩企業為了爭取競爭優勢,不斷發展主題式、綜合型的博彩娛樂場所,或以傳統的博彩加入新元素,利用科技進行改革,務求為顧客提供優質服務,提升自身的競爭力。從博彩網站的數量上看,全球網上賭場由 1996 年的15 家增加到200 6年超過3000家,表現出 10年200翻之勢。在網絡技術應用廣泛的時代,網絡服務遍佈各行各業,網絡技術在博彩的應用逐漸被人們所引用,電子博彩的市場規模逐漸擴大,特別是網上賭博的內容、形式逐漸增加,惟由於受法律的限制,網絡技術雖然己得到應用,但卻未曾使用新科技讓博彩更有效率,或者說網絡服務的無界限使網絡博彩較難規範地有序發展。雖然美國國會通過法案,加強管制近年迅猛增長的網上博彩。但一直以來,美國賭城拉斯維加斯以賭聞名,最近已有拉斯維加斯的著名賭場把它們的業務伸展到互聯網世界。據來自網站ht tp: / /ww w.du88 8.com /news / i ndex .htm 題為“網絡賭博的迅猛發展”所述,1995年8月18日,第一家網上賭場──互聯網賭場公司開始營業,標誌 這種新型賭場的誕生。網絡博彩雖然在法律上仍未合法,相關的法律還處於空白狀態,但網絡博彩是實實在在地存在於全球的每個角落。美國拉斯維加斯美高梅集團MG M Mirage為開拓商機,決心在美國司法管轄以外
77《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8的地方發展自己的網上賭場,以提高自身的競爭力。已在英國本島以外的馬恩島(I sl e of M an,又稱人島、曼島)開始了網上的博彩業,通過互聯網提供不同類型的賭博,或者純粹是娛樂的賭博遊戲。菲律賓是亞洲惟一一個向網絡賭場運營商發放博彩牌照的國家,允許歐洲和加勒比海地區的網站在Fi rs t Cagayan特別經濟區開設實地賭場。據瞭解博彩行業的人士稱,外匯管制政策限制了菲律賓人對網絡博彩的參與。據從事遊戲推廣以及為網絡體育博彩及其它博彩活動銷售定制的博彩項目的澳門博藝傳播事業有限公司(Mac om Communic at ions C ompanyLtd.)首席執行長J ason Chan表示,亞洲目前在全球網絡博彩市場中佔10%,不過這裏的業務增長仍將很慢。澳門智高科技發展有限公司(G -Master Tec hnologyC o. Ltd.)於 2004 年9 月正式被委任為 Fi rs t C agay an(菲律賓網上博彩發牌機構)的審批專業顧問,專責處理申請人其博彩軟體的公平性、以及為該軟體的可靠性等作質量評估。正式為澳門進軍世界網絡博彩領域揭開博彩歷史性的一頁。澳門博彩公司陸續把賭博業務擴展到互聯網。2001年10月8日,澳門首個中文博彩信息網站正式啟動。包含不同類型的博彩信息網站,現場足球賽果報導、莊家賠率比較、網上博彩公司比較、歐洲足球賽程和世界賭場介紹等。再說,當你嘗試從互聯網鍵入“網絡博彩”關鍵字,確有不乏引人注目的各類博彩網站,澳門的網絡博彩正“有實無名”地逐步為賭客提供服務,例如:澳門彩票有限公司的亞洲首創的合法籃球足球博 ht tp: / /w ww. mac aus l ot .c om/s occ er /html /s c- index.html是通過互聯網提供的球類博彩;同樣可通過電子渠道(或網上)進行其他形式的賭博, ht tp: / /ww w.cas ino998.c om/是網上賭博的另一類網站,為賭客提供刺激和吸引的賭場遊戲。網上賭博逐漸被人們所認識。據美國審計總署的統計,2003年各國已經從網絡賭博上收到約50億美元的稅收,2006年網絡賭博達到1000億美元的交易額。目前世界已有 50多個國家將網絡賭博合法化,大多集中在歐洲、加勒比海、大洋洲等地區。雖然網絡賭博在美國仍是非法,2002年,美國參議院通過一項法案,限制美國網民使用信用卡和通過銀行帳戶向國外賭博網站支付賭金,但網絡賭博仍然繼續蔓延。據英國諾丁漢商學院(N ot t i ng ham Bu s i nes sSc hool)博彩研究院預測,如果不考慮美國限制網絡博彩的因素,全球網絡博彩“支出”在2005年達到155億美元,高於2004年的125億美元。根據行業分析家透露,在歐洲,亞洲等地越來越受歡迎的點對點(P2P)賭博方式就是其中一種發展最快的在線網絡賭博。已經有些企業開始引進類似服務到美國。在賭博中介越來越受歡迎的英國,立法者正在熱切討論應該如何規範網上博彩這種新業務。不列顛,哥斯達黎加和加勒比海註冊的網上賭場成為博彩業的競爭對手。(二) 國內網絡博彩發展狀況網絡博彩的特點是成本低,無國界所限,故一向被博彩經營商視為發展的亮點,尤其是對亞洲的網上博彩市場,更是趨之若鶩,其主因是市場龐大。在中國內地,雖然博彩屬於非合法化行業,但網絡博彩已間接存在。利用網絡遊戲的方式,以虛擬的“金幣”(電子貨幣)作為籌碼進行博彩遊戲無處不在。其實,如此的金幣遊戲,從操作過程和資金的流向來說,這與在澳門、拉斯維加斯賭場進門換籌碼博彩、出門即兌換鈔票是沒有區別的。這些金幣在現實上卻是實實在在的貨幣;這種形式是一種網下兌換,網上博彩的模式。如果有了網上銀行支付手段,網上就可以直接進行賭博資金的劃撥,這與在賭場內的現金賭博一樣。自從1987年中國政府允許民政部發行福利彩票以來,中國的博彩業事實上已經合法化。目前在發行“公彩”的同時,已經出現了以足球比賽結果為對象的競猜遊戲,但是開設“娛樂場”仍屬違法。因此,發展網絡博彩可能成為中國博彩的可行性。 2006年 9月16 日,《澳門日報》題為《傳中國開放網上博彩》一文提到:“中國正考慮將線上博彩合法化”。消息認為,開放線上博彩將為政府帶來巨大收入。希望可以借此擴大中國市場業務。由於中國的博彩不是合法,導致私賭泛濫,或驅使大量賭資外流,同時網絡博彩的發展正從國外向中國內地伸延。儘管賭博合法化在國內尚未成勢,但網絡博彩在國際似成潮流,並且其目標人群最集中於中國的青少年。中國青少年在網絡遊戲方面出現的網絡成癮比例高於博彩合法化的西方國家。在香港,網絡博彩已成為青年賭客的首選,並成
澳門發展網絡博彩的趨勢分析澳門研究78第47期為香港特區最大的目標市場與受害群體。由於網絡博彩的開放,且一些西方國家(如英國、意大利等)網上賭球的賠率和獎金遠遠高於香港,因此,香港“捨近求遠”參與網上賭球見怪不怪。香港也是網絡博彩進入中國內地的跳板之一。澳門與香港的情況有很大的不同。澳門作為東方最大的賭城,是世界上歷史最長的賭博合法化地區。澳門人具“他賭我不賭”的習慣,雖然網絡博彩對澳門人一樣開放,但其參賭的程度並不嚴重。反而,因澳門是博彩合法之地區,一些原以歐洲為基地的網上博彩公司覬覦亞洲這龐大的市場,更搶先機登陸澳門,作為開拓中國、香港、台灣和亞洲其他地區網絡博彩業的重要陣地。在台灣,網絡遊戲最為盛行。港澳地區出售的網絡遊戲光碟幾乎是出自台灣,甚至有類似網絡博彩的網站總部設於台灣的。例在納斯達克上市的和信超媒體股份有限公司(G i gaMedia Ltd),在台灣和中國內地頗有知名度,它在網站提供的形式是通過抽獎網站,為你累計贏得的虛擬積分,在一定的條件下,你可以獲得獎品。特別是澳門特區政府 2008年4月份宣佈停發賭牌和不批新賭場用地,台灣賭博合法化的呼聲四起,台灣博彩市場開發成為博彩企業的焦點。四、澳門發展網絡博彩的必要性與可行性網絡博彩是基於開放式的互聯網,是網絡技術應用衍生出來的新型博彩。由於澳門博彩業的合法經營和規模佔有優勢,也由於許多國家(地區)博彩並非合法,因而澳門博彩業更具吸引力,並且以自身的特點迅速發展。從地理環境來說。澳門沒有太大的地理空間發展賭場以及博彩的配套服務。換言之,澳門博彩業的大規模發展,必須體現於高科技含量的形式──電子博彩。以無型代替有型,以“虛擬賭場”代替“現實賭場”,讓澳門博彩業向外拓展,讓澳門博彩業走向世界。網絡博彩的發展不僅是必要的,而且是可行的。從賭博客源來說,澳門以外來的賭客為主。博彩業與旅遊相互推動,共同發展,博彩與旅遊的對接成為必須的機制。特別是中國內地實施“自由行”政策,大量中國內地遊客湧來澳門,形成澳門各大酒店全部爆滿之外,各娛樂場所的人流同樣增多。如果遊客數量不斷增加,而澳門的整體規模、配套方案未必能滿足遊客數量增長的需求,加上周邊地區陸續啟動博彩合法化項目,澳門的客源必定受影響,喜歡博彩就一定要到澳門的優勢日漸減弱,促使澳門博彩業的經營模式則需因應技術、社會、環境的變化而改變。除了固定的賭博場所,提供非固定地點的博彩服務(電子博彩、網絡博彩),無疑是現代博彩業的一種新服務方式,同時能滿足未能親臨澳門賭客的需求。澳門是彈丸之地,通過互聯網提供網絡博彩將博彩業服務範圍由物理場所向虛擬的網絡伸展,對澳門博彩行業來說,是向外發展的機遇。實質賭場與網絡賭博並行發展,既能滿足外來賭客到此一賭的需要,又能將澳門的博彩業向外推廣。(一)網絡博彩是博彩業未來的必然趨勢隨 博彩業技術化程度加強,博彩業發展與現代科技的聯繫日益緊密,各國(地區)從增強自身競爭力的目的出發,加速現代博彩的發展,向具娛樂、趣味性的電子化博彩進軍,重塑企業形象。傳統博彩正逐步將高科技含量的技術運用於博彩行為。例如:傳統的撲克、賽馬、彩票和賭球等形式已由多種多樣的電子博彩所代替。傳統的撲克形式就被先進的Sma rt Car d produc t所代替;賽馬的賭博已由賭客親臨賭場下注轉向多渠道的電話、網上等形式的電子下注;並且支持自助渠道結算的各類電子支付逐漸普遍。可見,在技術層面,網絡博彩已水到渠成。根據統計資料,2001年中國賭場博彩業的收入(主要在澳門)超過20億美元。全球2001年網上博彩的收入達12億美元;2003年網上博彩的收入達到 50億美元,佔全球網上電子商務(B2C)成交額1160億美元的4.3%。美國參與網上博彩的人數最多,約有5300萬人,佔全球網上博彩人數的 50%左右,且有急劇增長的趨勢。對於電子博彩,近年來更出現急劇增長的趨勢。根據中國互聯網絡信息中心(CN NIC)的資料表明,至2004年7月,中國的互聯網網民有 8700萬;香港及新加坡的網民佔當地人口的 50%以上;澳門的網民為7 6,860多人;而在亞洲的網民當中, 18歲以
澳門發展網絡博彩的趨勢分析澳門研究80第47期(四)發展網絡博彩是市場發展的新需求新博彩企業進入,意味 澳門的賭客有更多的選擇,意味 博彩業的經營模式進入新的考驗,競爭的模式將由賭場的規模轉為非賭場的規模,由客源的多少轉為科學技術應用程度的高低。澳門傳統博彩模式客源是主要因素,如果客源受限制將對澳門的傳統博彩帶來負面的影響;然而,網絡博彩則不一樣,由於客戶足不出戶就可以參與賭博,既使客源受限制,只要系統運作正常,對博彩企業並沒有太大的影響。發展網絡博彩不僅是博彩企業發展的需要,而且是澳門博彩業國際化、全球化的途徑之一,它對傳統博彩具互補作用。作為依靠外來客的澳門博彩業,外部市場的關聯性強,周邊地區的博彩業變化對澳門的影響程度高,假如地球上多了一個國家(或地區)開賭,則意味 澳門少了一塊市場,多了一個對手,並且客源產生新的分配,對澳門的傳統博彩模式構成壓力、威脅和挑戰,澳門博彩業的優勢也因周邊開賭逐被削減。在強勢競爭的形勢下,澳門的選擇只有為適應新的競爭環境做好準備。創造條件發展網絡博彩,搶奪先機,並逐漸拓寬博彩的自助渠道,例如:以3G技術發展移動博彩。讓網絡博彩與傳統博彩共存,互相促進,共同發展。五、結束語本文從澳門博彩業發展及其自身優勢,分析在網絡經濟時代澳門博彩業發展的選擇,以及在地理條件、資源受限制的環境下,開拓網絡博彩具必要性和可行性。探討澳門博彩業走向國際化、全球化的途徑。而網絡博彩發展過程,電子支付的支撐是關鍵,可以說,離開了電子結算的系統輔助,網絡賭場是無法存在的。澳門是彈丸之地,面臨傳統(實體)博彩發展趨於飽和,對澳門未來博彩業發展提出了新的要求──博彩國際化、網絡化、自助化。顯然,發展網絡博彩成為必然的趨勢。同時將使澳門博彩業由區域性博彩中心發展成世界性博彩中心;客源由單一的依靠遊客(特別是中國內地、香港、台灣)轉而以全世界為客源地;賭客由對內為主轉為對內外雙向。因此,澳門博彩業不能墨守成規,除了引入外資外,更應該充分利用時代所提供的空間、技術,將澳門的博彩業恰如其分地通過網絡服務、電信技術吸納外地賭客,以達與傳統博彩賭客重新分配、互補,讓澳門博彩業走向國際化、全球化,與時代同步,長盛不衰。註釋:1 拉斯維加斯金沙集團股份有限公司。主要經營酒店、娛樂場、度假村及會展業務,總部設於美國內華達州的拉斯維加斯,公司於拉斯維加斯以及中華人民共和國澳門特別行政區分別擁有威尼斯人度假村 ──酒店、娛樂場、金沙會議展覽中心以及澳門金沙娛樂場。2 Dat amonitor ant icipa ted to tal re ve nue from mobile g aming mar-ket s in th e Unit ed St ate s, Europe a nd Asia-Pa ci fic w ill growfrom abo ut US$9 50 m il lion in 20 01 to $17 .5 bill ion in 2 006 .3 馬曉燕:《網際網絡絡博彩在亞洲》,載於《中國信息報》, 20 04 年 3 月 2 2 日。4 IAGF (In tern atio nal Associatio n of Gaming R egu lato rs) i s anorgan ization of ga ming re gula tors from aroun d t he w or ld whocommun ica te on a cont inuin g b asis abo ut matt ers of co mmonint erest and conve ne ann ually at a formal mee ting .參考書目:1. 烏家培:《信息經濟學與信息管理》,北京:方志出版社, 2004 年。2. 張佔斌:《博彩業與政府選擇》,北京:中國商業出版社, 2001 年。3. 黃漢強、吳志良:《澳門總覽》,澳門:澳門基金會, 1996 年。4. 王五一:《世界賭博爆炸與中國的經濟利益》,北京:經濟科學出版社, 2005 年。5. 謝康、肖靜華、趙剛編著:《電子商務經濟學》,北京:電子工業出版社, 2003 年。6. 烏家培:《信息社會與經濟網絡》,長春出版社。7. 王五一:《賭博爆炸與澳門的選擇》,載於《澳門日報》, 2003 年 1 月。8. 王五一:《博彩全球化與澳門的命運》,載於《第七屆世界華商大會論文集》, 2003 年。9. American Gaming Association, Annual Survey about theCasino Industry (2002).10. 澳門統計暨普查局:《澳門統計年鑒》, 2002–2006 。11. 澳門財政局及澳門特區政府網站:http ://www.dsf.gov.com/ 。12. Gambling I nforma tion, http ://d5 .dir .scd .yahoo.c om/recreation 。
81472008. 81. IntroductionGame theory, also known as the theory of games, canbe divided into non-cooperative games and cooperative games.Game theory mainly models the decisions made in a situationin which decision makers interact with other agents and theequilibrium problems that arise from these decisions.1The decision-making problems arising from the managedliberalization of the Macau gaming industry will be discussedwith reference to the game theory. Since games exist throughthe supply of the gaming industry and the regulations ofgovernment, long-existing games determine that government mustconstantly face different policy options. In view of the world’sgaming history, the choices of governments’ public policieshave played a major role in transforming non-cooperative gamesinto cooperative games.After the establishment of the Macau SAR, the monopolysituation in Macau gaming industry was replaced by an oligopolywhich was a governmental choice made for the managedliberalization of the gaming industry. There are two reasonsfor the emergence of such a choice. Firstly, the restrictionof the technical development level of the social economy haslimited the supplying ability to the gaming industry and thecontrolling ability of society. Secondly, the Macau people’sunderstanding of the social impact, risks and pros and consof the gaming industry varies. Thus, only when the key issuesof the cooperative games and non-cooperative games in thegaming industry, as well as the pros and cons of thegovernmental choice, are properly addressed will the sustainabledevelopment of the gaming industry be effectively attained andlead to a breakthrough. The outcome will be reflected in otherindustries to optimise the industrial structure and achieve adiverse economy.2. Non-cooperative GamesThe difference between non-cooperative games andcooperative games is whether a binding commitment is formedbetween players upon interaction. If there is a bindingcommitment, it is a cooperative game; if not, then it is anon-cooperative game. A non-cooperative game emphasizesself-rationality and self-optimised decisions and the result mightbe efficient. In the past, excessive gambling and strictgovernment regulation in human history were parts of the gamingprocess. For all these years, although gambling has beenextensively criticised by moral groups and sanctioned againstby the law, its presence remains firm.As for public choice (governmental choice), it can beseen as a game issue of public resources. The outcome ofthis problem explains that organization, cooperation and restrictionby the government are crucial to the utilization of public resourcesand the supply of public facilities. As there is contradictionbetween the scarcity of public resources and the profit optimisationof individuals and groups, the government must be determinedto establish a regulatory system to maintain social order andsocial moral standards (public moral standards) for the protectionof public resources, so as to restrict and regulate certainindividuals and groups. History has shown that gambling andThe Game Theory and Governmental Choice inMacau Gaming IndustryChiang Wa Fong Cora** Ph.D. in Public Administration, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
The Game Theory and Governmental Choice in Macau Gaming Industry8247banning of gambling have always co-existed. If it cannot beregulated, gamblers will look for other non-regulated ways toengage in activities which result in underground gamblingbehavior or underground economic activities.2 Althoughunderground behavior is slightly better than excessive gamblingwithout regulation, the development of such behavior will doits best to escape from the government’s and the public’ssupervision which then becomes a permanent social problem.Hence, how to effectively solve gambling problems has alwaysbeen a major concern for governments and the public.In today’s society, the inequality of life cannot be controlledin one’s own hand and theoretical equality would only intensifythis psychological imbalance. Thus, when a social systemis asked to support such cost control and become a publicvoice, egalitarianism rises to create justice and an unconditionalmoral principle. When public resources are extremely scarce,the mandatory egalitarian distribution practiced by authorities(an extreme form is a ration system) becomes an inevitablestrategy to conserve the group.In developmental economics, the income distribution asmodelled by in the inverse U-shape hypothesis explains thatthe long-term changing trend of income distribution demonstratesan inverse U-shape curve-at the beginning of economicdevelopment, aggregate volume of social wealth is limited andincome distribution is relatively more even, thus common povertyis a basic characteristic. Most importantly, a rigid strategyintensifies the supply shortage which makes egalitarianism moreinstitutionalized. However in Macau, along with the managedliberalization of the gaming industry and the rapid economicdevelopment, the rich become richer whereas the poor feelthat they are getting poorer. Gaming itself is opportunistic,due to the uneven social distribution and expansion of thepoverty gap which inevitably exists, the positivism and socialresponsibility of the hardworking and good citizens in societywill either be weakened directly or indirectly. This provesthe tacit consent and complicity of society to the idea andbehavior of “earning something out of nothing” and to beopportunistic which, to a certain extent, causes the socialatmosphere to become speculative. Demoralization thereforeemerges. It was also the cause which induced the controversialdiscussion of deviated value judgment to the gaming industryand even the whole of society.As a matter of fact, in order to deal with the negativeimpact of the gaming industry, society should have a correctunderstanding and judgment whereas the SAR government hasto implement necessary measures to control and solve thein-depth problems which have arisen during the course of socialdevelopment. The gambling problems in society will continueto exist. If action is not taken to deal with its negative impact,social security and order will be challenged.3. Cooperative GamesCooperative games refers to a situation in which playersare able to form binding commitments upon interaction. Players’benefits can be increased through cooperation. It emphasizesefficiency, fairness and equality. Studies of the gaming industryalso make reference to the cooperative game theory.In the case of gaming, the managed liberalization of Macau’sgaming industry can be seen as a gradual development ofnumerous social games. Assuming the SAR government doesnot opt for any policy choices and the monopoly of the gamingindustry continues to exist, social problems would appear andthe beneficial relationship of the society will become complicated.Social security problems before the Handover deterred investorsand therefore the economy could not develop which resultedin a drop in the living quality of Macau people. Therefore,the SAR government opted for a significant public policy change,the liberalization of casino concessions.From the transformation of the casino concession systemand the perception on such transformation, to the governmentchoice of managed liberalization, the government and the casinoconcessionaires as well as the public have formed a cooperativegame, which fully legalized and socialized the managedliberalization of the gaming industry.Looking at the gaming industry all over the world, especiallyin Europe and the US, there have always been cycles ofgovernment prohibition and promotion. The core of the controversyis still the advantages and disadvantages of each approach.The conclusion comes in three levels. Firstly, if the activitiesare underground and run by the public, there will only bedisadvantages. If the activities are run by the government,there will be advantages and disadvantages. Secondly, social
83472008. 8funding is needed for social development. If the funding functionof the gaming industry is not utilised, it could be manoeuvredby non-governmental powers and the government could beplaced in a difficult situation. If the government does not takeany place action, it will certainly be seen as unwise. Thirdly,immoral factors need to be overcome by moral power. Moralitywill be practised under a new, euphemistic name, helpingthe underprivileged, whereby the revenue from the gamingindustry is used for social welfare purposes like charity, relief,culture and social insurance. Thus government can use thenew governance concept to keep the situation of demoralizationunder control. The key question is whether the constructionof the gaming industry and the related social welfare systemare developing alongside each other and whether it is in linewith governmental choices and public choices.Non-cooperative games will gradually transform intocooperative games and during the transforming process in thecourse of persistent games, the value judgement, which didnot gain people’s recognition in the past, will play role realizingsocial profit maximization. However, it is admitted thatcooperative games only formed part of society’s value judgmentof the gaming industry, but not the whole picture. After all,the gaming industry does in fact bring direct and indirect negativeimpact to the society. If the problem is not properly addressed,the government will not be able to work out new strategiesand decisions in the development process.4. The Governmental ChoiceControversy has long existed all over the world aboutgaming activities. Some talk about its disadvantages, somefocus on its advantages. Different stances towards the gamingindustry are opted for by different countries. This kind ofcontroversy is inevitable everywhere. Controversy mightinfluence but not replace governments’ choices. The gamingindustry in a lot of countries has grown out of controversy.As a social welfare provider and social order keeper,the Macau SAR government has adopted a relatively highergaming tax rate policy (the tax rate is 35%; for tax ratesin the U.S. and Australia, please refer to Table 1) after consideringthe benefits to all aspects of society. Undoubtedly, a highertax rate increases the government’s revenue under the conditionthat the gross revenue of the gaming industry does not drop.For example, after the managed liberalization of the gamingindustry in 2002, when comparing Macau’s gaming tax withthat of Nevada, both the gaming tax rate and the overallgaming tax revenue in Macau are higher than Nevada’s. Duringthe period from 2002 to 2006, Macau’s gaming tax has beenincreasing at a rate higher than that of Nevada (Table 2 andFigure 1). Under normal circumstances, an increase in thetax rate, keeping all other factors constant, will see thegovernment’s revenue rise. However, casino concessionairesmight lower the gaming payout ratio (increase the casino’sdeduction) to ensure its own benefits. If the tax rate is raised,a casino will lower the deduction rate (payout ratio) to maintainits profit margin which will in turn influence the betting turnoverin the gaming process and greatly lower the sales turnover.In this case, even if the tax rate is raised, the betting turnover(the stakes) will decrease sharply, and government’s actualrevenue will drop as well.Table 1 Gaming Tax Rate in US and Australia (2006)LocationUSAustraliaNevada New Jersey MichiganCurrent Operating274* 11** 3 13CasinosOperation Format For Public For Public For Public For PublicGross Casino GamingRevenue 12.62 5.22 1.30 3.13(billions of US dollars)Gaming Tax Revenue1.01 0.51 0.35 0.83(billions of US dollars)Gaming Tax Rate onGross Gaming Revenue 6.75 8 24 26(%)* Statistics include only locations with gross casino gaming revenue of atleast 1 million US dollar.** The Sands Hotel & Casino closed on 11th November, 2006. However, mostfigures for New Jersey still reflect data for the full 12 casinos operatingin the state for the majority of the year.1 Australian dollar is equivalent to about 0.85 US dollar.Source: American Gaming Association, Australian Casino Association.Statistics show that in 2003 the average daily incomefrom each gaming table in Macau was 22,962 US dollarswhich was 10.4 times that achieved on the Las Vegas strip.In 2006, the average daily income from each gaming table
The Game Theory and Governmental Choice in Macau Gaming Industry8447in Macau dropped to 6766 US dollars, only 2.4 times the2853 US dollars in Las Vegas. In the first half of 2007,the average daily income from each gaming table in Macaurebounded to 8278 US dollars, but it was just 2.8 timesthat of Las Vegas. Although the status of individual casinosin Macau may vary, the decreasing trend of the averagedaily income from gaming tables is significant.3However, lowering the tax rate might not lead to a dropin gaming tax revenue. As long as the net profit the baseremain high enough, lowering the tax rate might not lead toa drop in gaming revenue but boost the gaming industry fromquantity-oriented to quality-oriented. The prerequisite of adjustingthe tax rate is to enhance the government’s supervision andillegal behavior in the gaming industry. The technical leveland quality of governmental supervision are to be enhancedto avoid loopholes for tax evasion. In this way, tax ratepolicy will truly become an effective tool to adjust the gamingmarket structure.4 Therefore the key issue for the SARgovernment is how to truly raise the gaming revenue. Thepie has to be big enough for everyone to have a share.After the managed liberalization of Macau’s gamingindustry, the SAR government has granted three concessionsand three sub-concessions. The six casino concessionairestogether create a brand new market scenery. On 18th December,2007, the official opening of MGM Grand marked the startof market competition among the six mega gaming operators.However, Macau’s gaming industry is not run by oligopolycollusions, but competition and promotion. Indeed, a rise inthe tax rate does nothing to increase sales revenue, but thepositive impact of the opening up of the market compensatesthe negative impact of a high tax rate. Moreover, the liberalizationof permitting mainland residents to visit Macau on an individualbasis has enhanced the potential customer pool. Thus, in aperiod of time after the liberalization of the gaming industry,the gaming tax revenue of the SAR government will still exceedthe best years in the past. On the other hand, although thesales revenue of the gaming industry did not increase, andeven decreased by 10% compared to the pre-market liberalizationperiod, a rise in the tax rate of 20% still resulted in anincrease in gaming tax revenue. According to economic theoriesand empirical evidence, high tax rate is disadvantageous tothe long-term development of the gaming industry. Therefore,in terms of short or mid-term development, a high tax rateis beneficial to Macau’s overall development. However in thelong term, especially since other Asian countries are planningto open casinos, the SAR government has to cautiously evaluateand adjust the tax rate and the whole gaming industry systemaccordingly.From the experience of the US, the competition amongcasinos in regions with lower gaming tax rates is keener.The benefits reflected in other gaming related industries (suchas tourism, exhibitions and conferences, entertainment,performance, catering, gifts and souvenirs) are more significant.A high tax rate makes investors (the concessionaires) onlyfocus on making fast money from the gaming tables, overlookingthe operation and development of related industries (because43.532.521.510.502002 2003 2004 2005 2006 200750403020100-10YearNevada Macau Nevada Change (%) Macau Change (%)US Dollars (Billion)Change (%)Table 2 Gaming Tax of Nevada and Macau(billions of US dollars)Year Nevada* Change (%) Macau Change (%)2002 0.712 –2.1 0.971 23.42003 0.722 1.4 1.322 36.22004 0.855 18.4 1.916 44.92005 0.904 5.7 2.165 13.02006 1.002 10.8 2.593 19.82007 1.037 3.5 3.668** 41.4* The data for Nevada is based on a fiscal year, from July to June. In otherwords, the data collection period of 2007 started in July 2006 and endedin June 2007.** Source from 2007 is different to those collected in 2002-2006. 2007 datarefers to direct tax from gaming.1 US dollars is equivalent to about 8 patacas.Source: Nevada Gaming Commission, Macau Census and Statistical Department,Yearbook of Statistics.Figure 1 Gaming Tax Revenues in Nevada and Macau
85472008. 8these industries require bigger investments, but the rates ofreturn are lower and the payoff period is longer). Highertax rates also retain the prices of products at a high levelor even make them rise. In the early period of managedliberalization of the gaming industry, the opening up of themarket expanded the customer pool, and thus moved the demandcurve of gaming products outwards. Hence, over a periodof time, the demand volume still seems to be growing. However,the Macau gaming industry is an oligopoly market with onlya few enterprises competing, and so the strategies andbehavior of a certain enterprise influences its competitors, andvice versa. Therefore, when each oligopolist makes a decision,special attention is paid to the effect on other oligopolistsbecause when enterprises make a decision on price andquantity, they have to consider the reactions of their competitorsas they might be various and unpredictable. Thus, the gamesand mutual interdependency existing among oligopolistenterprises lead the gaming enterprises to a certain form ofinternal collusion.If the managed liberalization of Macau’s gaming industryremains stable, the reform of gaming operations must be donewithin the framework of an oligopoly market, in order to boostthe related service industries by its rapid development andto make the Macau SAR become a genuine integrated tourismcity. Hence a market of oligopoly competition but not a marketof oligopoly collusion should be formed according to the legalsystem and under a policy-led condition. The efficiency ofthe former is higher than the latter. Only in this way willthe market develop, and the outcome of the industry be increasedunder such limited conditions, so as to coordinate the developmentof other industries.5. ConclusionSince the central government has included the MacauSAR’s economic diversification into its 11th Five Year Plan,different sectors of society have been cautiously consideringhow to optimise the industrial structure. The competition amongthe six casino concessionaires officially started on 18th December,2007. Facing this dynamic and important social engineeringproject, the SAR government should pay more attention tothe capacity of the gaming market and the saturation of thesupply. Therefore, the Chief Executive Edmund Ho at thequestion-and-answer session of the Legislative Assembly on22nd April, 2008 announced a series of policies including afreeze on new casino licenses and any new land-leaseapplications by gaming companies, a freeze on the existingnumber of gaming tables and slot-machines. The Macau SARgovernment will implement a comprehensive study on theaffordability of the gaming market. The above measures aimto evaluate the effects and influences the gaming industry ishaving on the structure of other industries. The governmentshould also analyse and investigate the customer market froma sustainable development point of view so as to expandthe gaming market. After that, it has to gradually strengthenthe market through experience and thus transform it from beingquantity-oriented to quality-oriented. The market result of thegaming industry will hopefully be reflected in other industriesand the overall social efficiency to reach a new level.Notes:1 The main contribution of Nash, Selten and Harsanyi who wereawarded the Nobel Economics Prize in 1994 was on non-cooperative games. The Game Theory being discussed ineconomics nowadays general ly refers to non-cooperativegames.2 Feige, E. L., The Underground Economics: Tax Evasion andInformation (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House,1994).3 Zeng, Zhonglu, “A Comparison between Average Revenue perDay of Gaming Tables in Macau and Nevada,” in Macau Daily,4 th November, 2007, p. A11.4 Loi, Hoi Ngan, “A Well-Established Gaming Regulatory SystemSoothes the Development Conf l icts,” Macau Dai ly, 25 thNovember, 2007, p. A11.References:1. Brzezinski, Z., The Choice: Global Domination orGlobal Leadership (New York: Basic Books, 2004).2. Buchanan, A., Ethics, Efficiency and Market (Beijing:China Social Sciences Press, 1991).3. Burns, J. P., Government Capacity and the Hong KongCivil Service (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press,2004).4. Chan, Roger C. K., Huseh, Tien-tung and Luk, Chiu-ming, China’s Regional Economic Development (HongKong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies/TheChinese University of Hong Kong, 1996).5. Chan, S. S. and et al., Leading Issues of the Macau
The Game Theory and Governmental Choice in Macau Gaming Industry8647Economy (Macau: Macau Foundation, 2000).6. Estes, Richard J., In co-operation with the Hong KongCouncil of Social Service, Social Development in HongKong The Unfinished Agenda (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 2005).7. From Las Vegas (Visitor Information Publication,2000).8. Goodin, R. E. and Pettit, P., Contemporary PoliticalPhilosophy an Antholog (Malden: Blackwell Publishing,2006).9. Gu, Zheng, “Macau Casino Labor Force Shortage andProposed Solutions,” paper for “The Conference ofThe Impacts to the Macau Economy and SocietyFollowing the Rapid Growth of Its Casino Industry”hosted by Union of Macau Scholars and Centre ofMacau Studies, 22nd November, 2007.10. Gu, Zheng and Gao, Jason Zhicheng, “Financial Com-petitiveness of Macau in Comparison with OtherGaming Destinations,” UNLV Gaming Research &Review Journal, Vol. 10, Issue 2 (2006), pp. 1–12.11. 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89《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8是,有條件有針對性地吸收國外經驗。只有凝聚社會共識,才能制定出符合澳門社會根本利益的博彩業發展模式。二、拉城與大西洋城的博彩業監管機制(一) 內華達州博彩監管機構與政策目前,內華達州設有州博彩委員會(Ne va daG ami ng C ommi s si on)和博彩監管局(Ga ming Cont r olBoard)兩個監管機構,屬於兩層式監管架構。博彩委員會由州長委任,負責重大決策和經營執照審批,並不受薪;博彩監管局為日常行政機構,負責執照申請者的調查,賭場日常運營監管,對博彩委員會負責。另外,內華達州還設置“博彩政策委員會”作為諮詢機構,對內華達州的博彩監管機構提供相關的政策規範建議。由於該委員會性質簡單,並不具備實際的行政效力,所以州長很少召開會議。博彩委員會和博彩監管局的共同職權如下:檢查相關人員是否符合經營條件;檢查各項設備是否符合經營條件;查閱經營者有關經營條件的記錄和檔案,注意其所得之收入以及其他政策上強制措施的執行;查閱經營者財務,管理有關的分支機構以及其經營條件的記錄和檔案;對相關證人發出傳票並強制其出席,但應付予適當費用;原則:拒絕公開行政或司法程序中的任何事項。屬於博彩監管局的職權:調查權:調查執照請求人所出具之證明文件,監督執照持有人的運營;初步審查權:可建議對其認為不適當的申請人士否決申請,或建議對經濟調查認為有違規的執照持有人予以處罰。訴訟權:對於一切罰金、賦稅或相關文件的搜集須於請求日起5年內以訴訟方式請求。屬於博彩委員會的職權:最終決定權:擁有審批執照的最後決定權,並對已審批執照決定有加以限制或吊銷,及有關違反規定的處罰權。相關資料保留請求權:須要求執照持有人年收入在100萬美元以上者,報告或留存其一切有關先進的處理記錄。概括權利:可發動任何其他必要執行唯以實踐立法者的立法目的。緊急命令權:委員會可以作緊急命令。(二)新澤西州博彩監管機構與政策新澤西州根據1976年州憲法增修條款覆決的投票結果,於 1977 年4 月18 日立法通過“新澤西州第2366號法案”,即為“新澤西州賭場監管法”。為避免重蹈內華達州當年發展初期的覆轍,新澤西州特別嚴格監管條例,充分確保該州的賭場運營和全體從業人員符合法律要求。根據法律規定,政府成立兩個監管架構──“賭場監管委員會”和“博彩調查局”。監管委員會是獨立機關,不屬於新澤西州財政部,而且具有“行政管理”和“准司法”的雙重性質。法律賦予該委員會有權頒佈博彩業相關的監管規定,解釋並執行該法律;此外,該委員會還可以“核發、駁回、撤銷、暫停或限制任何相關博彩業許可執照,聆聽及裁決所有違反賭場管理法的案件。”該委會員下設四部門負責對監管賭場的職權:“管理處”──包括“人力資源組”、“運營管理組”與“資訊系統組”三個單位。“人力資源組”負責整個委員會的人員招募、員工的福利和薪酬制定。”運營管理組”負責整個委員會的財產,通訊傳送等綜合事務。“資訊系統組”則負責委員會的各項電子設備的維修和裝配。“合規處”──委員會最龐大的組織,負責全天24小時監督賭場的運營狀況,以確保新澤西州合法徵收的各項稅費正確無誤。“許可申請處”──負責受理及審查所有賭場經營的申請、從業人員的執照申請等事項,如果有必要還負責召開聽證會以篩選出合格的申請者。“財務評估處”──該處負責評估所有賭場的財務狀況。當中,“審計組”詳細審查賭場提供的財務報告,而“稽徵組”則負責向各賭場及各項許可執照申請者徵收“法定稅費”。博彩調查局則隸屬“新澤西州檢察長辦公室”,主要“調查所有博彩業執照申請者”、“起訴違反該州賭場管制法者”與“監督合法賭場的設施和運營”。該局依法負責“調查所有博彩企業、董事、經理、員工及相關服務業等等許可執照的申請案
91《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8理由增收溢價金,以調整博彩業的健康發展。(三)增加監管主體,擴大監管範圍雖然博彩監管局在法律上是最主要的監管機構,但是,受到種種客觀因素的限制,博監局並沒有全面體現法律所賦予的權力。所以,政府應該考慮增加監管主體和層次。首先,可借鑒大西洋城的監管制度,在檢察院下設置博彩業調查局,加強對博彩經營執照的監管。調查內容包括:公司和主要股東的經營資格(有無刑事記錄,財務狀況良好,具備營運經驗,擁有良好的社會聲譽),續約申請,以及對違規操作的賭場停止和吊銷執照的處罰。其次,政府可從博彩企業的公司治理結構入手,如附設各種委員會參與決策機制,並設置獨立董事制度。博彩企業可提名本澳知名人士或學者擔當獨立董事,經過博彩監管當局委任,在法律明確賦予其職能、責任和利益後,就能協助政府監督博彩企業的決策和管理。這些制度有利於各種專業知識搭配,拓寬信息管道,從而使博彩企業的董事會決策更加透明和公開。一旦博彩公司出現重大投資決策或管理層的變動,政府可及時瞭解情況並制定相應措施。最後,擴大監管對象到博彩業的利益相關者(i n teres t stakeholder)。第16/2001號法律制定了娛樂場幸運博彩經營法律制度,第 26/2002號行政法規對控股股東、管理公司及與參與競投公司或承批公司有密切聯繫的實體做出嚴格規定,第 6/2002號行政法規也規定從事博彩中介業務的資格和規則,這些措施法律和行政法規是本澳博彩監管的基本框架。但是,現有的法律和行政法規與本澳博彩業的發展現狀嚴重脫節,被博彩公司鑽了空子,如博彩企業的股權變動,賭場的數目和規模,管理公司不受監管等問題,都迫切需要在監管條例上作出調整和更新。所以,除賭牌持有公司外,政府可考慮擴大監管範圍,如賭場管理公司、中介人、博彩設備供應商及與博彩公司有密切聯繫的實體等。博彩業是澳門一大重要而又特殊的支柱產業。雖然,它在澳門特殊歷史條件下產生並發展起來,但是直接影響 澳門和國內社會的安定。所以,我們必須關注博彩業及其相關的利益相關者,不能過分依賴博彩稅收而給予政策優惠,損害澳門社會及居民的整體利益。(四)督促博彩企業承擔社會責任2001 年9月 19日頒佈的1 6/2001號法律(娛樂場幸運博彩經營法律制度)第二章“批給制度”中第 22條“承批公司之其他義務”規定之第7、 8點:每年撥出不超過其博彩經營毛收入 2%之款項予一個以促進、發展或研究文化、社會、經濟、教育、科學、學術及慈善活動為宗旨之公共基金會;每年撥出不超過其博彩經營毛收入 3%之款項,用以發展城市建設、推廣旅遊及提供社會保障。根據法律規定,承批的博彩公司對澳門社會要承擔一定的社會責任。自賭權開放5年以來,儘管博彩公司履行承批合同的要求,每年都撥出經費支持澳門的社會文化活動。但是,從執行層面來看,博彩公司對社會事務的投入帶有各自發揮的隨意性。建議政府統籌3–4個符合澳門社會發展需求的項目,例如預防病態賭徒、家庭輔導服務、青少年教育、城市建設、環境保護等和市民利益密切相關的問題,指導博彩公司在這些領域內承擔起社會責任,為澳門社會的和諧發展做出更大的貢獻。從國外博彩業的發展經驗來看,政府會設置多個非政府組織負責監督博彩稅收的使用,用於教育、醫療、城市重建或者指定的公益事業。以大西洋城為例,每一家賭場可以將總收入的 1.5%用於“賭場再投資發展委員會”獲批准的城市發展計劃,不然就將上繳總收入的 2.5%給基金會。“賭場再投資發展委員會”是獨立的非官方組織,負責監督和管理賭場再投資發展基金的運用,用於改善城市的基礎建設,例如市容的整潔和美化,停車場的維修,舊區的重建和搬遷,以及歷史文物保留等等。比方說,如果大西洋城的警員和消防員購買再投資委員會興建的房屋,就能夠享受優惠的放貸利率。這些福利措施既能解決警員的後顧之憂,又能夠吸引更多的人投身紀律部隊,緩解大西洋城警力不足的問題。從大西洋城的例子看,非政府組織承擔起監督和分配博彩稅收的責任,加強在社會公益事業的主導作用,協助政府解決城市基礎建設和公益事業投入不足的問題,改善和提高當地居民的生活素質。參考書目:1. New Jersey Casino Control Commission, Casino Gamblingin New Jersey: A Report to the National Gambling ImpactsStudy Commission (1998).
國際博彩業監管制度對澳門的啟示澳門研究92第47期2. State Gaming Control Board andNevada Gaming Commission,Gaming Regulation in Nevada (2006).3 . Thompson, W. N., “Casino de Juegos del Mundo: A Surveyof World Gambling,” Annals of the American Academy ofPolitical and Social Sciences, Vol. 556 (1998).4 . US Department of Treasury Report, A Study of the Interac-tion of the Gambling and Bankruptcy, (1999).
澳門可持續發展與和諧社會的突破口:教育澳門研究10 2第47期了。但教育水平的巨大差異必然導致收入的差異。也許有人會舉出一些反對的例子,如李嘉誠小學沒有畢業卻成為華人首富,因此認為不一定要讀書。某程度上,這樣的情況確實存在,擁有高知識水平的富人不一定很多。但是在社會的總體來看,這些例子又佔多少呢?李嘉誠的成功是由許許多多有利條件促成的,而小學沒畢業可能只是他的一個不利條件而已,而且已經被成功克服,如果只是抓住這一點而爭辯不用多受教育,那是沒有意義的。要說明教育與收入的關係,更有說服力的證據是人均收入的比較:把小學畢業的人士的平均收入與中學、大學畢業的人士相比,這才是可靠的。對整個社會來說,小學畢業的平均收入基本上是低於中學畢業的,而大學畢業的,也高於前兩者。其實大多數家庭都明白教育對孩子的重要性,所以我們會竭盡所能,為孩子們提供盡可能好的教育機會。因為我們知道,有了好的教育,我們的孩子在未來的競爭中,就會更有優勢,就會更有可能擁有一份體面、穩定、高收入的工作。四、社會層面對教育的重視不夠同樣的問題來到社會層面,我們卻似乎不那麼明確了。至少我們沒有那麼竭盡所能,為我們整個社會的下一代提供盡可能好的教育機會。說對個人和家庭來講,良好的教育還不一定能保證孩子們一定能擁有一份體面、穩定和高收入的工作,從而為幸福生活打下堅實的基礎,因為還有太多的個人因素可能影響到結果,比如性格、機遇等等;但對整個社會來說,良好的教育卻一定能帶來持續的發展和繁榮穩定。這是不言而喻、勿庸證明的。我們很難想像,一個大部分人口只有小學畢業程度的社會能比一個大部分人口均為大學畢業程度的社會更富裕、更繁榮。五、高教育水平導致高收入水平事實上,高教育高薪資在各國均為一不爭的事實。雖然暫時沒能找到澳門的相關資料,但美國和台灣的數據非常清楚。對美國來說,1970年的時候,25歲到34歲的大學畢業生的平均收入約是同齡的高中畢業生的 1.4倍(其中男性是 1.38 倍,女性是 1 .42 倍),到了 1999年,這個比例達到了1.6倍(其中男性是1.62倍,女性是1.60倍),差距不可謂不大。表1 美國大學收生率及大學與中學畢業生收入比例項目大學收生率( % )大學畢業生與中學畢業生平均收入比例 *年份 男 女 男 女1970 55.2 48. 5 1.38 1. 421980 46.7 51. 8 1.19 1. 291990 57.8 62. 0 1.48 1. 591999 61.4 64. 4 1.62 1. 60* 年齡為 25 –34 歲,以全年工作統計的全職人士。資料來源:US Depar tm ent o f Educ ation , Digest o f E duc at ion S ta tis -tic s 2000(W as hington DC: US Depar tm ent o f E ducat ion ,2001), Tab le 185; US B ureau of the Cens us, Money Incom eof Fam i lies and Pers ons in the Uni ted St at es , Curr ent Popu-la tion Repor ts P –60, no. 66 ( Tab le 41), no . 129 ( Tab le 53),no . 174 ( Tab le 29), no . 209 (Tab le 9).如果說美國的社會距離我們太遠,那麼同是華人社會的台灣,也是學歷越高,收入越高。 2003年25歲至34歲的台灣大學生平均收入是高中畢業生的1.3倍左右。表2 台灣大學與中學畢業生平均收入比例(年齡25- 34歲)年份 男 女1977 1.24 1.261981 1.26 1.381985 1.20 1.441990 1.23 1.461995 1.18 1.382000 1.21 1.412003 1.26 1.37資料來源:台灣行政院主計處:《2003年人力運用調查報告》,台北:行政院, 200 3 年。隨 年齡的增加,差距也越來越大,美國的數據非常明顯:21歲時,大學畢業生的年收入大約是 2.8萬美元,高中畢業生的年收入大約是 1.8萬,相差1萬美元;到50歲時,大學畢業生的年收入達到了 7.5萬美元,而高中畢業生的只有不到4萬美元,相差達到了3.5萬美元,其差距擴大了2 .5萬美元。
10 3《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8圖1 美國全職人士(男性)全年平均收入比較(1991)圖2 台灣男性工作人士平均月收入比較(2003 年 5 月)資料來源:台灣行政院主計處:《人力運用報告(中華民國 9 2年 5 月)》,台北:行政院, 2 003 年,表 5 2 。台灣也是如此,15至24歲時,大學生和高中生的收入差別很小,到65歲或以上時,大學畢業生的月收入達到了近 7萬5千新台幣,而高中畢業生的月收入只有大約3萬元新台幣,相差了一倍多。六、教育促進和諧發展與適度多元全社會的良好教育還能帶來另外一個好處,就是和諧發展。現代社會的不平等,很大程度上是教育水平的不平等,澳門的貧富差距,背後也包含 教育水平的差距。現在的澳門,一個大學畢業生是不愁找不到一個收入較高的工作的。只有低學歷,無技術特長的人,才很難找到有較高收入的工作。如果全社會都能把教育搞好,澳門的和諧發展不難實現。當全社會都有良好教育時,我們會擁有各式各樣的人才,文化、藝術、科學、技術等等,配合以合適的制度鼓勵,我們的人才自然會去創新發展,我相信適度多元的產業發展更容易實現。畢竟,這一目標僅僅靠政府單方面大力推進是不可能有甚麼大的成效的。因為我們首先要有多元化的人才,然後才能有多元化的發展。多元化的人才短期可以靠引進,長期來講,根本上還是要靠教育。七、澳門現時教育支出不足回歸以後澳門的教育支出有了較大的增加,尤其是實施了 15年免費教育,取得了長足的進步。但考察現在澳門的教育支出,相比經濟發展並不足夠。有學者對比了2000–2004年兩岸四地的教育投入,發現澳門是最低的,甚至低於經濟水平遠遠落後的中國大陸,這是匪夷所思的。 1(表3)表3 兩岸四地教育投入比較年份項目2000 2001 2002 2003 2004公共教育開支佔澳門政府總公共開支百分比13.9 16.1 16.3 15.2 14. 0公共教育開支佔 GDP 百分比3.7 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.3公共教育開支佔香港政府總公共開支百分比22.9 22.0 23.3 23.2 22. 9公共教育開支佔 GDP 百分比4.1 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.3公共教育開支佔台灣政府總公共開支百分比19.18 18.02 19.14 18.52 18.28公共教育開支佔G DP 百分比5.57 6.10 6.14 6.20 6.07公共教育開支佔大陸政府總公共開支百分比13.80 14.31 14.76 14.68 14.90公共教育開支佔 GDP 百分比2.87 3.19 3.32 3.28 2.79資料來源:林發欽:《還富教育,投資未來──澳門教育投入不足淺探》,載於澳門公民網, h t t p : / / w w w .m ac auc i tiz en. org / ?ac tion- v iewnews - i tem id- 159,2007年。表中資料的原始來源為:中國教育部歷年公佈的《全國教育經費執行情況統計》(200 0–20 04 年)、台灣地區教育部網站、香港新聞處歷年出版的《香港年報》(200 0–200 4 年)、澳門教育暨青局出版的《澳門教育數字》。香港的財政年度為每年 4 月至翌年 3 月。年收入(千美元)大學畢業大學(未畢業)高中畢業高中(未畢業)月收入(新台幣) 大學或以上高中(職中)初中或以上
澳門可持續發展與和諧社會的突破口:教育澳門研究10 4第47期澳門2005年的資料只是提高了一點點:公共教育開支佔政府總公共開支百分比是14.1%,佔本地生產總值百分比是2.4 %。 2與國際情況比較來看,根據聯合國教科文組織《2007年全球教育摘要》的資料,發達國家公共教育支出佔G DP比重高於發展中國家,經濟發展水平越高,比重也越大。2004年公共教育經費佔G DP的比重世界平均為4.4 %,北美和西歐為 5 .6%,而澳門2004 年僅為 2.3%, 2005年也只是 2.5%,不僅遠低於發達國家水平,甚至還低於世界平均水平。 3所以澳門需要大力加大公共教育的開支。八、出現有利時機現今正是澳門大力推進教育全面發展的大好時機。一方面政府有大量的盈餘,2007年的財政盈餘超過200億元,政府有足夠的本錢來發展教育,為澳門的未來發展打下堅實的基礎。另一方面筆者認為澳門現在也很難找到比教育更好的投資管道,從長期看,這個投資幾乎是一本萬利。關於這一點,其實古人已經有清醒的認識,春秋戰國時期管仲指出“一年之計,莫如樹穀;十年之計,莫如樹木;終身之計,莫如樹人。一樹一獲者,穀也;一樹十獲者,木也;一樹百獲者,人也。”4現代經濟學的人力資本理論,也強調人在推動技術進步和經濟發展中的特殊作用,認為提高人力資本水平是刺激經濟增長、縮小收入差距、實現社會豐裕的根本所在。 5一般社會制約教育發展的經濟結構問題、就業問題等6,在澳門並不存在。澳門已經是以服務業為主,失業率非常之低,可以說是全民就業。面對的是勞動力短缺,人力資源短缺,社會需要更多的人才,為此不得不不斷地引進外部人才。所以更應該加大力度發展教育。相對於其他一般國家,由於澳門不需要軍費開支,所以我建議一般國家佔GD P中2.6%左右的軍費開支7,在澳門完全可以以同樣的比例用於教育。筆者甚至建議,由於澳門經濟的飛速發展,政府盈餘充足,可以在正常教育支出的基礎上,大大增加有關教育的經費,力求在較短的時期內,使澳門的教育有一個質的飛躍。當然發展教育僅僅靠錢是不足夠的,還要有人員的培訓、制度的改革等等,但轉變觀念、增加開支是第一步。由於篇幅所限,其他的相關問題將在後續的文章中討論。總括而言,維持澳門繁榮穩定、可持續發展,實現適度多元,構建和諧社會的根本在於大力推進教育。註釋:1 林發欽:《還富教育,投資未來──澳門教育投入不足淺探》,載於澳門公民網, ht tp :/ /w ww .m aca ucit izen .org/ ?a ct ion -vie wne ws- ite mid -1 59 , 200 7 年。2 澳門教育暨青年局:《2 00 6 教育數字》,澳門:澳門教育暨青人局, 2 0 07 年,第 9 頁。3 UN ESC O I nstitu te f or Statistics, Globa l Education Digest 2 007(Mont real: U IS, 2 007 ), p p. 8–9.4 《管子‧權修》。5 付泳、郭龍:《人力資本理論問題論析》,北京:中國文史出版社, 2 0 0 5 年;李建民:《人力資本通論》,上海:上海三聯書店, 1 9 99 年。6 李濤:《人力資本投資與城市競爭力》,北京:社會科學文獻出版社, 20 06 年;沈利生、朱運法:《人力資本與經濟增長分析》,北京:社會科學文獻出版社, 19 99 年。7 羅敏:《國防經濟學專家從全球視野預測中國國防費走勢》,載於《科學時報》, 20 0 8 年 3 月 1 2 日。參考書目︰1. McConnell, C. R., Brue, S. L. and Macpherson, D., Contem-porary Labor Economics (7 th Edition) (New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2006).
海峽兩岸221旅遊互動前的文化分析澳門研究10 8第47期(四) 澳門旅遊文化特色澳門從一個荒蕪小半島成為今天一個國際化的都市,400多年歷史沉澱下來的澳門文化呈現出以中華文化為主,相容葡萄牙文化的共融色彩。使澳門成為很有特色的旅遊城市,光“澳門歷史街區”一份世界遺產就充分奠基了其深厚的旅遊文化底蘊。然而,事物不總是按常規展現其特色,幾十年來,澳門國際旅遊都市的知名度不是來自它獨特的歷史文化,而是博彩娛樂。因之它的旅遊業結構十分單一,它以“東方的蒙地卡羅”招徠天下遊客。博彩業的風頭掩蓋了澳門其他旅遊資源的鋒芒。“博彩旅遊文化”成為其耀眼的特色。“文化傳承,中西交匯”的形象主題詞往往被人們忽視。博彩旅遊文化是一把雙刃劍,它一方面能吸引世界豪賭的遊客,大把的金錢刺激了澳門的經濟;另方面它又阻斷了數量可觀的觀光遊客和休閒旅遊者的腳步。“除了去參與博彩,澳門其實沒甚麼好玩”9,這是目前人們對澳門的普遍評價。品牌已經做成這樣了,澳門也只有因勢利導,將特色做透。才能維持長期發展的態勢。這就要將博彩與大旅遊結合起來,擺脫單一的博彩形象。從澳門近來的動作看,出路有兩條:一是外聯;二是內變。外聯,2006年初,澳門主動與內地的中山、珠海聯姻攀親,共同打出了一個“中珠澳──大香山旅遊”的文化概念。以弘揚共同的香山文化為宗旨,意在以文化為先導,對區域內旅遊資源進行重新包裝與整合,提升區域旅遊競爭力。內變,就是要把澳門從“東方的蒙地卡羅”變為“東方的拉斯維加斯”。為此,首先由政府出面引導,將賽馬、賽狗等活動由傳統的賭博項目演變為社會性的運動項目。其次是大打旅遊文化牌,推出了澳門國際音樂節、澳門藝術節、國際煙花節、澳門荷花節、國際龍舟節、動感亞洲自我挑戰越野、“2006澳門世界遺產年”等一系列文化活動。其三是興建了一批新的旅遊景點和文化設施。其最終目標就是要將澳門建成為集博彩旅遊、國際會展商都旅遊、休閒旅遊為一體的國際化旅遊名城。使“文化傳承,中西交匯”的旅遊地形象將名副其實。至於新的旅遊文化特色的表述則還須斟酌。三從以上分析,可以結論出如下幾點:海峽兩岸各省區突出自己小區域的旅遊文化特色的基礎上共同構建起海峽兩岸大區域和諧的旅遊文化是十分必要的。實踐證明,凡是旅遊業發展真正興旺的省區,莫不以旅遊文化取勝,尤其是其特色定位要準確。這是一件很不容易的點睛工程。抓準了會給區域經濟發展和社會文明進步帶來巨大效益。未來旅遊的競爭,主要是旅遊文化方面的競爭,其焦點就是打特色牌。目前最直接、最見效的手段就是“申遺”,從長遠看,還得要有強有力的文化建設與創新。如旅遊大省廣東,已很有領悟,為做成旅遊強省,正在緊鑼密鼓地“申遺”,正在建設文化大省,希望以特色文化吸引遊客。打造旅遊文化除了競爭還需要和諧,區域旅遊文化建設要揚長避短,區域間旅遊文化要以己之短融人之長,以四兩撥千斤,達到共贏目的。省區聯動才能獲得共贏。總之,區域旅遊文化的建設就是要在更高層面上為旅遊者打造更適合其需要的旅遊平台。這個平台越大越好,層次越高越好。這就要求我們不僅突出每個省區區域內旅遊文化的鮮明特色,同時也要為海峽兩岸旅遊文化的和諧建設與共同發展做好準備。註釋:1 《邵琪偉:台當局為“赴台遊”設障礙 溝通仍在進行》,載於中國台灣網, ht t p : // w w w .c hi n at a iw a n. o rg /xwzx/dlzh sh /20 080 3/t 200 803 07_6 008 04. htm , 200 8 年 3 月7 日。2 沈軒:《天府之魂──科學發展觀指導四川旅遊業發展的實踐》,載於《四川日報》, 20 06 年 8 月 21 日。3 黃曉炎:《借助“九八”平台打響“海峽”品牌》,載於《福建日報》, 20 0 5 年 9 月 8 日。4 關於海峽區域經濟政治合作的“2 2 1”概念,參見楊允中:《海峽區旅遊振興與“二二一”思維導向》,載於《澳門研究》,第 31 期, 200 5 年,第 52–56 頁。5 許靜:《廣東旅遊猛打“文化牌”》,載於《羊城晚報》, 20 05 年 1 0 月 8 日。6 常晟、沈威風:《香港迪士尼衝擊波》,載於新浪財經網, h t t p : / / f i n a n ce . si n a . co m. cn / re v i e w / o b s e rv e /200 509 05/ 170 519 430 07.sh tml , 2 005 年 9 月 5 日。7 《赴香港遊當心四大陷阱》,載於新華網, h t t p : / /
10 9《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8n ew s. xinh ua ne t .co m/ tra vel /2 00 6-0 7/ 3 0/ con t en t_ 48 95 59 0.h tm , 2 00 6 年 7 月 3 0 日。8 同註 5 。9 《澳門下一站:東方“拉斯維加斯”》,載於《南方都市報》, 2 0 04 年 6 月 3 日。
115472008. 81. IntroductionThis study is aimed at probing into whether that graderetention acts as one of the factors affecting the level of theeducational expectation of 15-year-old high school students inMacau. Gaining insights of the relationship among the variablescould add reference to the existing knowledge of local careercounseling, for the purpose of enlarging the chance that studentswould develop themselves in higher education. Regarding thecollaborative effort of the Programme for International StudentAssessment (PISA) of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on providing an interna-tionally standardized assessment for 41 countries in 2003, theanalyzing data of this study was extracted from the data setof the Macau-PISA-2003.The awareness of recognizing the negative factors whichmay obstruct postsecondary educational attainment should beincreased. Educational expectation plays a crucial role on theeducational level of students1, although the expectations haveeasily been ignored2. When higher education consideration isaffected by the high demand of labor force in casino, theawareness of the development on the expectations that studentsimagine for future schooling at the time they are engaged indevelopmental exploration deserves more attentions of educators.A better understanding of what factors may affect the levelof expected education level of students undertakes a preventionand intervention task to help bridge the success gap as wellas to promote school success to students in disadvantagesituations. Educational expectation was defined as the levelthat a subject intended to complete in future schooling. Thisstudy emphasized on the influences of grade retention contributingto the educational expectation of 15-year-old high school studentsin Macau.The phenomenon of grade retention appearing in the Macau-PISA-2003 survey is an egregious alert for education. Therewere 658 (52.6%) students out of the 1250 participating students,who were randomly assigned by the Macau-PISA-2003, reportingthat they have ever been retained at least once by 15 oftheir age in the year of 2003. Existing research indicatedthat grade retention was related to subsequent student schooldropout3 and impairment of student’s self-esteem4 . Ironically,some studies supported that grade retention, in fact, did noteffectively help students increase their academic achievementor close the achievement gap.5 Grade retention is meant tohelp students meet the criteria for promotion and build up astronger base for later schooling, unfortunately, there have beennegative effects of it found in a majority of current research.2. Background LiteratureIn a battle of closing the achievement gap, school systemhas been struggling with the growing debate of grade retentionversus the practice of social promotion, which refers to thepractice of passing students who fail to meet the criteria ofpromotion to the next level. As recent research has criticizedthe efficacy of grade retention, social promotion becomes anacceptable option for educators.6 On the one hand, grade retentionhas been warmed to practice; on the other hand, social promotionGrade Retention and Educational Expectation: A Studyof 15-year-old High School Students in MacauHo Tin Lai, Chong Kin** Ho is a master student, Faculty of Education, University of Macau,and Chong is a doctoral student, Faculty of Education, University of Macau.
Grade Retention and Educational Expectation11647demonstrates poor academic performance.7 The compromise isindeed a hard decision.2.1 The Significance of the Educational ExpectationsThe expectation a student inspires toward futureeducation facilitate one’s career planning. Educationalexpectation plays a significant role on educational level andoccupational attainment8, empirical research supported thatindividuals were increasingly concerned with their educationaldevelopment as they grew mature through adolescence9 . Theconcern elicits information from one’s self being as well asoutside environment so that one is more aware of possibilitiesand limitations of future development.The educational expectation of an adolescent reflectshow one sees and wants to identify one’s self. Accordingto Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, adolescence isa stage that an individual is in search of forming one’s selfidentity.10 An adolescent develops a sense of self in theexploration of figuring out “who I am”, in relationships to othersand to one’s own internal thoughts and desires. Up to thispoint, the expectation of future educational attainment in theyears to come outlines “who I am” in future that an adolescentpostulates to pursue. The higher level of expected future schoolingrepresents the higher level of identity formation that an adolescentintends to capture.Emerge of setting goals for the future, which firstly startswith expectations, can more accurately picture adolescents ina position of better preparation. The awareness of exposingto educational expectation initiates and inspires adolescents’interest to trace out a path they are ambitious to pursue.The level of educational expectation is a mirror of the selfbeing of an adolescent not only in future, but also at thepresent time.2.2 The Functions of Grade RetentionThere is a majority of current research opposing to thepractice of grade retention.11 Regarding student’s academicgrowth, the proponents of grade retention believe that repeatinga grade can result in improving low academic performance12and many educators use grade retention as a remedy to assiststudents’ immaturity13 so that students can have the opportunityto catch up the curriculum14 . Research suggests that graderetention should be practiced for a variety of reasons includingstudent’s immaturity, the belief that extra schooling would enhanceacademic performance, and failures of mastering grade levelcontent15, even though the practice of grade retention has beencontroversial as an ineffective intervention.2.3 The Deficits of Grade RetentionThe opponents of grade retention suggested that graderetention, in fact, harms student academic performance suchas achievement, attendance records, and attitudes towardschooling.16 Empirical researches supported that grade retentiondid not effectively help students to increase their academicachievement.17 Grade retention costs a price financially forschool and psychologically for students’ development.18Studies showed evidence of that grade retention resultedin negative behavior and it did not operate as much as itwas planned. In a US prospective longitudinal study of retainedstudents, the findings indicated that students with grade retentiondisplayed more negative classroom behaviors, less self confidentthan their peers with no grade retention.19 Holmes reported thatthere were negative achievement effects moving on to thenext grade level for retained students.20 According to the findingsof the meta-analyses synthesizing over 300 analyses ofsocio-emotional and behavioral adjustment, from over 50 studiesduring the past 75 years, grade retention did not function asan early intervention of enhancing students’ socio-emotional andbehavioral adjustment.21Negative effects on the development of retained studentswere found. Shepard and Smith pointed out that grade retentionturned out a negative impact on the development of a student’sself-esteem since it caused students to feel upset and ashamedof themselves.22 The study concluded that students whoexperience grade retention presented lower self-esteem ascompared to the control group who never experienced graderetention, after examining more than 50 studies. In the perspectiveof psychological concern, grade retention damages the goodsin the development of student’s self-esteem. James proposedthat adolescents with lower self-esteem tend to have lessexpectation toward success, in other words, to have lowerexpectation toward future schooling.23Concerning the exact academic improvement andpsychological health of students, the current research did notsupport that students benefit from grade retention.
117472008. 82.4 Grade Retention and Achievement TrajectoriesGrade retention was related to subsequent student schooldropout.24 In a condition of equally low academic achievement,retained students were more likely to the outcome of droppingout of school than their socially promoted peers.25 Retainingstudents at any grade level has been associated with droppingout of school in later years.26 Meanwhile, Rumberger reviewedthat early grade retention was a greater predictor for highschool dropouts from studies.27There are also researches indicating that studentswith grade retention experience were less likely to attendpost-high-school educational programs, and they were morelikely to give lower educational rating at the age of 20 whencompared with the control group who were low achievingbut promoted.28 Based on the researches, grade retention isassociated with long-term negative outcomes in the educationaldevelopments.3. Method3.1 PopulationAll high school students aged from 15 years and 3 completemonths to 16 years and 2 complete months, whose birthdateswere between 1st March, 1987 and 29th February, 1988, werethe target population in the Macau-PISA-2003.29 The targetpopulation consisted of 6992 15-year-old high school studentswho were enrolled in government schools and private schools(both within and not within the government subsidizing network)in Macau.3.2 SamplingA two-stage stratified sample design was adopted byOECD for the PISA assessment in most countries.30 In thecase of Macau, OECD required that all target schools inMacau were used because Macau was one of the smallparticipating countries with small number of target schools andsmall number of target students.31 Students within school weredrawn with the method of probability proportional to schoolsize at the second stage.3.3 ParticipantsThe Macau-PISA-2003 sampled 1250 students including631 male students and 619 female students between 7th to11th grade level students from government schools, and privateschools (both within and not within the government subsidizingnetwork).3.4 MeasuresThe scores of grade retention were obtained by askingsampled students the question: “Have you ever repeated agrade?” There were three options to be selected: no/never,yes as once, and yes as two or more for three rows: atprimary, at Junior high school, at senior high school. Thescore was a sum up of the most frequency of the threerows. To obtain the level of educational expectation of students,sampled students were required to answer the question:“Which of the following do you expect to complete?” Answersoffered to select were: lower secondary, vocational uppersecondary, senior secondary, associate degree, bachelordegree or above. The answers were coded as the following:lower Secondary = 1, vocational/prevocational upper secondary= 2, senior secondary = 3, associate degree = 4, and bachelordegree or above = 5. Non-responses were defined as missing.3.5 Data AnalysisThis study tests whether grade retention is significantlyrelated to the level of the educational and expectation of 15-year-old high school students in Macau. Spearman correlationcoefficient, which is utilized to measure on ordinal variables,was conducted to examine the relationship between the twovariables.4. Results4.1 Descriptive StatisticsThere were 1250 participants of the Macau-PISA-2003available for the analyses, including 631 male students and619 female students. There were 47.4% of the studentsreporting they were never retained while 32.8% retained once,17.7% retained twice, 1.8% retained three times, and 0.3%retained four times or more by 15 of age. Concerning theexpected education level, there were 4.4% of the studentsanswering that they intended to complete lower secondary,1.8% to complete vocational secondary, 29.7% to completesenior secondary, 16.1% to complete associate degree, and47.9% to complete bachelor degree or above. Table 1 showedthe detailed descriptive statistics and Table 2 showed thecrosstabulation of the two variables.
Grade Retention and Educational Expectation11847Table 1 Descriptive Data on the Variables used inthe StudyVariables Frequency PercentageNever 59 2 47 .4Once 41 0 32 .8Grade retention T wice 22 1 17 .7Three times 23 1. 8Four times or more 4 0.3Lower secondary 55 4. 4Educational Vocational secondary 23 1. 8expectation Senior secondary 37 0 29 .7Associate degree 20 1 16 .1Bachelor deg ree or above 59 7 47 .9Table 2 Crosstabulation of Grade Retention and theEducational Expectation of 15-year-old High SchoolStudentsGrade retentionEducational expectation*1 2 3 4 5 MissingTotalNever 6 2 82 10 2 39 9 1 59 2Once 22 12 15 5 67 15 2 2 41 0T wice 23 7 11 9 29 42 1 22 1Three times 4 0 13 2 4 0 23Four times or more 0 2 1 1 0 0 4Total 55 23 37 0 20 1 59 7 4 12 50* 1=Secondary, 2=vocational/prevocational upper secondary, 3= senior secondary,4=associate degree, and 5=bachelor degree or above4.2 Correlation AnalysisSpearman correlation was completed to examine thevariables of grade retention and educational expectation. Thereis a significant negative correlation found between graderetention and the expectation, r = -.451, p < .01. The findingshowed that students with higher score of grade retentionpresents lower level of educational level and vice versa. Resultsindicated that grade retention is significantly related to educationalexpectation.5. Discussion and Suggestions5.1 Discussion of the FindingThe finding indicated that grade retention is negativelyassociated with the educational expectation of 15-year-old highschool students in a significant level. Experience of beingretained does affect the level that students aspire for educationattainment in future. The finding is consistent with the someprevious researches that retained students reported lower levelof educational expectation.32It is a disconcerting data that there were 52.6% of theparticipating students of the Macau-PISA-2003 reporting theyhave experienced grade retention at least once by 15 of theirage. It means there are over half of the population in riskof the negative effects of grade retention. The experience ofbeing retained seems temporary in a way that every timeof grade retention represents only one time of failing to passone grade. Nevertheless, its profound negative effects evenappear in the level of expected future educational level. Retainedstudents do not deserve dissuasions of poor academicachievement to pursue goals in life. The failure seems permanentand needs to be remedied by extra efforts.Grade retent ion is meant to remedy poor schoolper formance. Regardless its eff iciency that empiricalresearches proposed that grade retention is an ineffectivelyremediation strategy appearing to fix the problem it purportsto address33, the negative effects along with grade retentionstill sounds malleable. No doubt, there are some students maybenefit from the practice of grade retention, which offers theman extra year to pick up the study behind. However, thereare negative effects found on self-esteem34 and classroombehaviors35, and risk in school dropout36. In the mean time,taking the perspective of educational and occupationalexpectations, the finding indicated that students with higherlevel of grade retention presented lower lever of expectededucational level. It reveals one more deficit that grade retentioncan have done to the development of students. The negativeeffects of grade retention are explicit in several aspects ofthe academic and career developments of retained students.If the linchpin is a practice intended to help students academically,alternatives to grade retention which can provide remediationof students’ insufficiencies should be considered. The use ofgrade retention should not be practiced before exhausting allpossible resources to try and build the necessary supportsfor students who do not meet the criteria of promotion.Factors of school are the only control can be madeby efforts of educators, while factors of family and social
119472008. 8backgrounds are totally not in the control of school. It isworth of reflections of that it is not necessary to place studentsin a position of experiencing losses. Based on the literaturereferences on grade retention, between academic achievementand the health of development, how the compromise shouldbe made is a big question for the retention decision makers.In favor of student’ development, grade retention should beabstained as much as possible because of its negative effectsindicated by research.5.2 SuggestionsAlong with the profound impacts of grade retention, thefeasibility of retaining students is confronting challenges. Onthe one hand, educators on the front lines treat grade retentionas prevention as well as intervention of helping students bequalified to promote to the next level. On the other hand,it has been suggested that grade retention is not as efficientas they were expected. Between the concern of closing theachievement gap and the psychological heath of students,educators should deliberate the compromise. As there arenegative effects found, indeed, retaining students is a dilemmasituation.In particular, it is suggested that students with graderetention experience should be the primary group of receivingintervention career counseling in the present study. Respondingto the findings of the study that grade retention is negativelycorrelated with lower educational and occupational expectations,the following suggestions are made for assisting retained studentsto overcome their difficulties in career development.5.3 Alternatives to Grade RetentionOther alternatives to grade retention may compromise ause of the practice of retaining students. Some researcherspromoted that there are alternatives to grade retention forstudents who are generally retained because of difficulties withacademic achievement, classroom behaviors, or a combinationof both.37 They are preschool programs, comprehensive programsto promote social and academic development, summer schooland after school programs, looping and multi-age classrooms,school-based mental health programs, parent involvement, earlyreading programs, effective instructional strategies andassessment, and behavior or cognitive behavior modificationstrategies. They emphasized that no single program can meetthe needs of all students. According to the context and specificneed of the students who are at risk of being retained, teachersare suggested to deliberate the alternatives of grade retentionby providing specific helps for specific difficulties5.4 Interventions for retained studentsEqually to making strategies to assist retained studentsto improve their academic achievement, it is imperative todiscover the difficulties with which retained students have beenencountered. Start from the root, having students who areretained at the first time or even just at risk of being retainedreferred to take the assessments detecting the difficultiescausing the study behind is vital. It enables teachers andparents to accommodate corresponding supports for thestudents. Students encountering the first time of grade retentionshould be immediately referred to take the assessments andarranged interventions in order to minimize the possible negativeeffects of grade retention. At the mean time, the availabilityof the assessments and the qualification of school counselorshave to be accounted for considerations. School counselorsneed to be trained to master the abilities and skills of providingthe assessments or there are supplementing resources to whichteachers and school counselors can refer. Rooting out thedifficulties that students are experiencing may decrease therisk that retained students will be retained again, and it willhelp the students resolve their academic problems right attime problems appears.Corresponding counseling arranged to retained studentsshould be considered as one of the supplement interventionsprograms in school. As grade retention is a strong signalto tell teachers and parents that retained students are confrontingwith diverse difficulties, pertinent reinforcements are required.In the part of school counseling, school counselors shouldbe aware of the needs of retained students and providerelevant programs, such as individual and group counselingprograms, to help them overcome their difficulties. To assistretained students to improve their academic performance, schoolcounselors do have a significant role of supplying interventions.In addition, enhancing the achievement motivation ofretained students is meaningful to explore. According to Maslow,well known for establishing the Hierarchy of Needs Theory,human’s instinct needs as physiological (biological), safety
Grade Retention and Educational Expectation12047(security), love (love, affection, and belonging), esteem (egostatus), and self-actualization (self-fulfillment) are on a laddersharp of predominance.38 Maslow reiterated that human behaviorsare motivated by the five “deficiency needs” in hierarchy39;somehow individuals are motivated to satisfy the certain lowerneeds before higher need can be satisfied. Individuals movetoward growth and toward self-actualization through the stagesof needs and the process of satisfying the cravings. In thecareer-exploration process, the higher order needs in thehierarchy generate motivating force to achieve.40 Based on theconcept, creating programs to boost up retained students’ selffulfillment and recognition of their unique characteristics, potentials,and competences, which satisfy the needs of self-actualization,may stimulate them to study and their development towarda positive way. The self-actualization programs allow studentswho failed in academic achievements to be able to find theirself-value, satisfaction, and hopes, which should not be treatedless important than academic achievement.5.5 Future ResearchLocal research is suggested to investigation the influencingfactors of educational expectation as well as the profound impactsof grade retention. Research on the educational expectationof students can continuously seek for other factors affectingits levels. For the intention for building literature of the educationalexpectation of students, the extent to other variables of familybackground, social background, and school experience notaccounted for this study can be later explored. Meanwhile,research on grade retention could be further extended in threeorientations. First of all, local studies in examining the efficiencyof grade retention is valuable it has been found to be associatedwith the issues of self-esteem, negative classroom behaviors,school dropout and so on. Secondly, regarding the culturedifferences, future research can examine the variables in localcircumstances and compare the findings with the west ones.Thirdly, future studies may address the relationships betweengrade retention and other issues of development or variablesof interests. Further research on the two variables not onlyadds reference to local studies, but also accelerates thecommunion of cultures and research between western and localliterature.6. ConclusionIn the purpose of discovering negative factors influencingstudents’ expected education level, the study sought toexamine the relationship between grade retention and theeducational expectation of 15-year-old high school students inMacau. Literature pointed out three negative effects of graderetention. First, the literature argued that grade retention is notan effective strategy to remedy the poor school performanceof students.41 Second, grade retention combine to placestudents at a risk of early school leaving.42 Third, the experienceof being retained impairs student’s self-esteem.43 The dataused in the study is extracted from the data set of Macau-PISA-2003, and Spearman correlation was conducted to examinethe relationship. A negative correlation relationship was foundbetween the two variables in the study.It is suggested that students with grade retention experiencedeserve primary concern while providing intervention careercounseling. In the crossroad of achievement concern andpsychological health damage, alternatives to grade retention aresuggested to be used instead of grade retention according tothe needs of students. The use of relevant assessments todig out the study difficulties of retained students is significantto help them remedy their school failure. Moreover, the self-actualization programs was suggested to stimulate the motivationtoward study of retained students; somehow it allows the studentswho failed in academic achievements to be still able to findtheir own self-value, satisfaction, and hopes, which shouldnot be treated less important than academic achievement. Baseon the western findings, local research on educational expectationand grade retention could further develop. Since there is astrong association between grade retention and the level thatstudents expect for future along with the negative effects ofgrade retention that research has been found, the practice ofgrade retention should be definitely deliberated by educators.Notes:1 Wilson, P. M. and Wilson, J. R., “Environmental Influences onAdolescent Educational Aspirations,” Youth & Society, Vol. 24(1992) , pp. 52–70; Trusty , J . , “Fami ly Inf luences onEducational Expectations of Late Adolescents,” The Journal ofEducational Research, (2001), pp. 260–270.2 Green, P., Baldridge, J., Zahs, D., and Ingels, S., High School
121472008. 8Seniors Look to the Future: Statistics in Brief (Washington DC:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), pp. 93–473.3 Dawson, P., “A Primer on Student Grade Retention: What theResearch Says,” NASP Communique, Vol. 28 (1998), pp. 8;J imerson, S. R., “Meta-analys is of Grade Retent ion:Impl icat ions for Pract ice in the 21 s t Century ,” SchoolPsychology Review, Vol. 30, Issue 3 (2001), pp. 420–437;Shepard, L. S., and Smith, M. L., “Synthesis of Research onGrade Retention,” Educational Leadership, Vol. 47, Issue 8(1990), pp. 84-88; Roderick, M., “Grade Retention and SchoolDropout: Investigating the Association,” American EducationalResearch Journal, Vol. 31 (1994), pp. 729–759.4 Shepard, L. S., and Smith, M. L., “Synthesis of Research onGrade Retention,” Educational Leadership, Vol. 47, Issue 8(1990), pp. 84–88.5 Bowman, L. J., “Grade Retention: Is It a Help or Hindrance toStudent Academic Success?” Preventing School Failure(2005), pp. 42–46; Dawson, P., “A Primer on Student GradeRetention: What the Research Says,” NASP Communique, Vol.28 (1998), pp. 8; Jimerson, S. R., “Meta-analysis of GradeRetention: Implications for Practice in the 21st Century,” SchoolPsychology Review, Vol. 30, Issue 3 (2001), pp. 420–437.6 Wiley, R. F., Exploring the Impact of Grade Retention onStudent’s Aspirations and Educational Outcomes (Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, Morgan State University, 2006).7 Jimerson, S. R., Anderson, G. and Whipple, A. D., “Winninga Battle and Losing the War: Examining the Relation betweenGrade Retention and Dropping Out of High School,” Psychologyin the School, Vol.39 (2002), pp. 441–457.8 Trusty, J., “Family Influences on Educational Expectations ofLate Adolescents,” The Journal of Educational Research,(2001) , pp.260–270; Wi lson, P. M. and Wilson, J. R.,“Env i ronmental Inf luences on Adolescent Educat ionalAspirations,” Youth & Society, Vol. 24 (1992), pp. 52–70.9 Mello, Z. R., Across Time and Place: The Development ofEducational and Occupational Expectations from Adolescenceto Adulthood in Relation to Gender, Racial/Ethnic Group, andParental and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status (Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, the Pennsylvania State University, 2005).10 Erikson, E., Identity: Youth and Crisis (1st Edition) (New York:Norton, 1968).11 Wiley, R. F., Exploring the Impact of Grade Retention onStudent’s Aspirations and Educational Outcomes (Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, Morgan State University, 2006).12 Jackson, G., “The Research Evidence on the Effects of GradeRetention,” Review of Educational Research, Vol. 45 (1975),pp. 613–635.13 Light, H. and Morrison, P., Beyond Retention: A Survival Guidefor Regular Classroom Teachers (Novato: Academic Therapy,1990).14 Clearinghouse, R., “Synthesis of Research on Grade Retentionand Social Promotion,” Educational Leadship, Vol. 4 (1982),pp. 471–473.15 Bowman, L. J., “Grade Retention: Is It a Help or Hindrance toStudent Academic Success?” Preventing School Failure(2005), pp. 42–46.16 Kelly, K., Retention v.s. Social Promotion: School Search forAlternatives (Harvard Education Letter, 1999, Retrieved on 13thNovember, 2007, from http://www.edletter.org/past/issues/1999-jf/retention.shtml).17 Bowman, L. J., “Grade Retention: Is It a Help or Hindrance toStudent Academic Success?” Preventing School Failure(2005), pp. 42–46; Dawson, P., “A Primer on Student GradeRetention: What the Research Says,” NASP Communique, Vol.28 (1998), pp. 8; Jimerson, S. R., “Meta-analysis of GradeRetention: Implications for Practice in the 21st Century,” SchoolPsychology Review, Vol. 30, Issue 3 (2001), pp. 420–437.18 Thomas, A., “Alternatives to Retention: If Flunking Doesn’tWork, What Does?” (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED343209, 1992).19 Jimerson, S. R., Carlson, E., Rotert, M., Egeland, B. andSroufe, L. A., “A Prospective, Longi tudinal Study of theCorrelates and Consequences of Early Grade Retention,”Journal of School Psychology, Vol. 35 (1997), pp. 3–25.2 0 Holmes, C., “Grade Level Retention Effects: A Meta-analysisof Research Studies,” in Shepard, L. A. and Smith, M. L.(Eds.), Flunking Grades: Research and Policies on Retention(London: Falmer Press, 1989), pp. 16–33.2 1 Jimerson, S. R., Pletcher, S. M., Graydon, K., Schnurr, B. L.,Nickerson, A. B. and Kundert, D. K., “Beyond Grade Retentionand Social Promotion: Promoting the Social and AcademicCompetence of Students,” Psychology in the School, Vol. 43,Issue 1 (2006), pp. 85–97.2 2 Shepard, L. S., and Smith, M. L., “Synthesis of Research onGrade Retention,” Educational Leadership, Vol. 47, Issue 8(1990), pp. 84–88.2 3 James, W., The Principles of Psychology (New York: Dover,1950).2 4 Dawson, P., “A Primer on Student Grade Retention: What theResearch Says,” NASP Communique, Vol. 28 (1998), pp. 8;J imerson, S. R., “Meta-analys is of Grade Retent ion:Impl icat ions for Pract ice in the 21 s t Century ,” SchoolPsychology Review, Vol. 30, Issue 3 (2001), pp. 420–437;Shepard, L. S., and Smith, M. L., “Synthesis of Research onGrade Retention,” Educational Leadership, Vol. 47, Issue 8(1990), pp. 84-88; Roderick, M., “Grade Retention and SchoolDropout: Investigating the Association,” American EducationalResearch Journal, Vol. 31 (1994), pp. 729-759; Roderick, M.,“Grade Retent ion and School Dropout: Investigating theAssociation,” American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 31(1994), pp. 729–759.25 Jimerson, S. R., “On the Failure of Failure: Examining theAssociation between Early Grade Retention and Education andEmployment Outcomes during Later Adolescence,” Journal ofSchool Psychology, Vol. 37 (1999), pp. 243–272; Jimerson, S.R., Ferguson, P., Whipple, A. D., Anderson, G. E. and Dalton,M. J., “Exploring the Association between Grade Retention andDropout: A Longitudinal Study Examining Socio-emotional,Behavioral, and Achievement Characteristics of RetainedStudents,” The California School Psychologist, Vol. 7 (2002),pp. 51–62.2 6 Jimerson, S. R., Pletcher, S. M., Graydon, K., Schnurr, B. L.,Nickerson, A. B. and Kundert, D. K., “Beyond Grade Retentionand Social Promotion: Promoting the Social and AcademicCompetence of Students,” Psychology in the School, Vol. 43,Issue 1 (2006), pp. 85–97.2 7 Rumberger, R., “Dropping Out of Middle School: A Multi levelAnalysis of Students and School,” American Educational
Grade Retention and Educational Expectation12247Research Journal, Vol. 32 (1995), pp. 583–625.2 8 Jimerson, S. R., “On the Failure of Failure: Examining theAssociation between Early Grade Retention and Education andEmployment Outcomes during Later Adolescence,” Journal ofSchool Psychology, Vol. 37 (1999), pp. 243–272; Anderson, G.E., Whipple, A. D. and Jimerson, S. R., Grade Retention:Achievement and Mental Health Outcomes (Washington DC:National Association of School Psychologist, 2002 retrieved on10th December, 2007, from http://www.cdl.org/resource-library/articles/grade_retention.php).2 9 Lo, L. F. and Cheung, K. C., 2003 Macau-PISA Final Report(Macau: The Macau-PISA Centre, Faculty of Education,University of Macau, 2005).3 0 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD), PISA 2003 Technical Report (Paris: OECD, 2005).3 1 Lo, L. F. and Cheung, K. C., 2003 Macau-PISA Final Report(Macau: The Macau-PISA Centre, Faculty of Education,University of Macau, 2005).3 2 Jimerson, S. R., Anderson, G. and Whipple, A. D., “Winninga Battle and Losing the War: Examining the Relation betweenGrade Retention and Dropping Out of High School,” Psychologyin the School, Vol.39 (2002), pp. 441–457.3 3 Bowman, L. J., “Grade Retention: Is It a Help or Hindrance toStudent Academic Success?” Preventing School Failure(2005), pp. 42–46; Dawson, P., “A Primer on Student GradeRetention: What the Research Says,” NASP Communique, Vol.28 (1998), pp. 8; Jimerson, S. R., “Meta-analysis of GradeRetention: Implications for Practice in the 21st Century,” SchoolPsychology Review, Vol. 30, Issue 3 (2001), pp. 420–437.34 Shepard, L. S. and Smith, M. L., “Synthesis of Research onGrade Retention,” Educational Leadership, Vol. 47, Issue 8(1990), pp. 84–88.3 5 Jimerson, S. R., Carlson, E., Rotert, M., Egeland, B. andSroufe, L. A., “A Prospective, Longi tudinal Study of theCorrelates and Consequences of Early Grade Retention,”Journal of School Psychology, Vol. 35 (1997), pp. 3–25.36 Dawson, P., “A Primer on Student Grade Retention: What theResearch Says,” NASP Communique, Vol. 28 (1998), pp. 8;J imerson, S. R., “Meta-analys is of Grade Retent ion:Impl icat ions for Pract ice in the 21 s t Century ,” SchoolPsychology Review, Vol. 30, Issue 3 (2001), pp. 420–437;Jimerson, S. R., Pletcher, S. M., Graydon, K., Schnurr, B. L.,Nickerson, A. B. and Kundert, D. K., “Beyond Grade Retentionand Social Promotion: Promoting the Social and AcademicCompetence of Students,” Psychology in the School, Vol. 43,Issue 1 (2006), pp. 85–97; Shepard, L. S. and Smith, M. L.,“Synthesis of Research on Grade Retention,” EducationalLeadership, Vol. 47, Issue 8 (1990), pp. 84-88; Roderick, M.,“Grade Retent ion and School Dropout: Investigating theAssociation,” American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 31(1994), pp. 729-759; Rumberger, R., “Dropping Out of MiddleSchool: A Multi level Analysis of Students and School ,”American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 32 (1995), pp.583–625.3 7 Jimerson, S. R., Pletcher, S. M., Graydon, K., Schnurr, B. L.,Nickerson, A. B. and Kundert, D. K., “Beyond Grade Retentionand Social Promotion: Promoting the Social and AcademicCompetence of Students,” Psychology in the School, Vol. 43,Issue 1 (2006), pp. 85–97.3 8 Maslow, A., “A Theory of Human Motivation”, PsychologicalReview, Vol. 50 (1943), pp. 370–396. Retrieved on 3rd January2008, from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm.3 9 Maslow, A., Motivation and Personality (2nd Edition) (NewYork: Harper & Row, 1970).4 0 Zunker, V. G., Career Counseling (3rd Edition) (Pacific Grove,CA: Brooks/Cole, 1989).4 1 Bowman, L. J., “Grade Retention: Is It a Help or Hindrance toStudent Academic Success?” Preventing School Failure(2005), pp. 42-46; Dawson, P., “A Primer on Student GradeRetention: What the Research Says,” NASP Communique, Vol.28 (1998), pp. 8; Jimerson, S. R., “Meta-analysis of GradeRetention: Implications for Practice in the 21st Century,” SchoolPsychology Review, Vol. 30, Issue 3 (2001), pp. 420–437.4 2 Dawson, P., “A Primer on Student Grade Retention: What theResearch Says,” NASP Communique, Vol. 28 (1998), pp. 8;J imerson, S. R., “Meta-analys is of Grade Retent ion:Impl icat ions for Pract ice in the 21 s t Century ,” SchoolPsychology Review, Vol. 30, Issue 3 (2001), pp. 420–437;Shepard, L. S. and Smith, M. L., “Synthesis of Research onGrade Retention,” Educational Leadership, Vol. 47, Issue 8(1990), pp. 84–88; Roderick, M., “Grade Retention and SchoolDropout: Investigating the Association,” American EducationalResearch Journal, Vol. 31 (1994), pp. 729–759.4 3 Shepard, L. S. and Smith, M. L., “Synthesis of Research onGrade Retention,” Educational Leadership, Vol. 47, Issue 8(1990), pp. 84–88.
12 7《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8內容知識的創造、傳遞、典藏、保存與再利用的數字典藏管理環境。(六) 社會參與性“澳門記憶”系統工程的可持續發展,要從社會全面性來闡述,所以它強調的是城市整體環境和信息機構的相互關係。信息管理為社會提供精神食糧,令人們獲取資訊和知識,是社會必需的,它的可持續性也是必然的。可持續發展 重於過程,強調改善、進步和良性變化,將各種因素融合起來,籍此獲得可持續性。總而言之,主要依賴於政府支持、法律法規、協調機制、信息部門、等方面的配合。澳門經濟近年高速增長,而深厚的文化底蘊將為大大豐富“澳門記憶”的題材,可挖掘的內容資料空間非常深廣。所謂盛世修志,乃古今文化發展之道。只有將澳門有價值的史料有效地保存、管理、揭示、利用,才能夠推動澳門的社會科學研究,以及更好地規劃將來。五、結語澳門經歷數百多年的中西文化撞擊、交融,其獨特文化在世界寶典中已刻下了閃爍的篇章:遠東第一所西方式大學就是在澳門創立;歐洲傳教士曾以澳門作為向東方傳教的基地;這裏曾是國際貿易繁華的重要港口;中國境內第一份外文報章誕生於澳門……可供我們考證這些一切最重要的是許多仍在塵封中的文獻,從中可尋回歷史的印記。當中更不乏具劃時代意義的文獻資源。那麼,如何對這些文獻進行深入挖掘、疏理、揭示,將是我們保護澳門文化的一項重要工程。文化的傳承可令我們清晰地瞭解過去,瞭解過去是為了更好地創造未來。澳門,堪稱歷史文化名城,開埠至今四百多年,經歷了不少具劃時代意義的事件。在這小城中發生過許多值得和極有必要成為澳門人集體回憶的“情”、“景”、“物”和“人”。“澳門記憶”的構建,不僅僅彌補人們對變遷所產生的失落遺憾,向世界提供澳門文化信息,更是傳承文化、傳播知識、掌握信息的重要平台。註釋:1 “Wha t is A mer ican Memo ry? ” f rom The Li brary of C ong ressw eb sit e, h tt p: / /me mo ry. loc. g ov/ le arn /st ar t / ind ex .h tm l, re-t ri eved o n 23 rd May, 2 00 5.2 《“青島嶗山區全面啟動”城鄉記憶工程》,載於山東省情網, ht t p: / /sd . in fo ba se . go v. cn/ in t ro/ n ew s/ ne w s33 2.h tm , 20 05 年 7 月 6 日。參考書目:1. 《“廣州城市記憶工程”全面啟動》,載於廣東建設報網站, http ://www.ycwb.com/gb/content/2004-10/19/content_778698.htm, 2004 年 11 月 19 日。2. “W hat is American Memory?” from The Library of Con-gress website, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/about/index.html, 9 th June, 2005.3 . 《山海關古城記憶工程完工,正申請國家級科研立項》,載於中國新聞網, http://61.135.142.194:89/gate/b ig5/www.heb.chinanews.com.cn/news/whws/2007-11-26/19424.shtml , 2007 年 11 月 26 日。4. 《山海關區啟動“古城記憶工程”》,載於北戴河聲屏網站, http://www.bdhvs.com.cn/oldnews/ReadNews.asp?NewsID=4982&BigClassID=30&SmallClassID=68&SpecialID=0 , 2004 年 2 月 19 日。5. 《武昌“城市記憶”工程定格城市歷史》,載於新華網, http ://news.xinhuane t.com/newscenter/2004–11/22/content_2245318.htm , 2004 年 11 月 22 日。
Images of Macau in 1635: The Diary of Peter Mundy12847In the summer of 1637, two years after the Englishceased to attack the Portuguese in the Eastern seas dueto the Goa Convention, four English ships belonging to theWilliam Courteen Association and under the command of CaptainJohn Weddell, anchored among the islands south of Macau,bringing some Jesuits from Malacca.1 It was the first completelyEnglish trading voyage to China. Aboard one of the vesselswho left England in April 1636, was Peter Mundy, commercialofficer of the voyage, who went ashore, on the 28th June1637, to deliver a letter from King Charles I to the Captain-General D. Domingos da Câmara Noronha and the Senateof Macau. Mundy, who spoke some Portuguese – lingua francathroughout the East - and Spanish, John Mountney and theinterpreter Thomas Robinson were invited to have lunch atthe Jesuit seminary, and visited the city two years after thestone façade of the church of Our Lady of Assumption (ofthe Jesuit College of Mother of God) had been built.Mundy’s journal of the voyage contains a descriptionand sketches of the city and its Asian, European and Eurasianinhabitants, which the author saw while Weddell decided totravel up to Canton and try (in vain) to trade directly withthe Chinese merchants, while both the Chinese and Portuguese,one month after the fleet’s arrival, wanted the English as faraway as possible. In September, the Chinese authorities advisedMacau’s Senate to force the English to fleet leave BoccaTigris and return to Macau, where Peter Mundy rented ahouse and carried out some trade. Weddell returned to Macauand formally recognised he had disobeyed Portuguese andChinese orders. However, the tribulations of the voyage werenot over, as in November, the Portuguese fleet returning fromJapan brought back Portuguese refugees fleeing from Christianpersecution which was then at its height in Japan. Theserefugees came to Weddell seeking for a place to travel westward,thus annoying the Portuguese. The Captain-General demandedthe English fleet to leave the city and six months after theirarrival, Peter Mundy and the rest of the crew sailed awayfrom the Pearl River to India and then Europe, in January1638.2Peter Mundy’s adventures are recorded in his diarypublished as Travels of Peter Mundy, while his descriptionof Macau was written shortly during the city’s height of prosperity,due to the commerce with Japan. Throughout the text, Mundyportrays the enclave’s daily life as well as its differentcommunities’ habits and cultural differences. Therefore,anthropological and literary exoticism is a constant presencein the journal, revealing the ways of life of the Macanesepeople, nearly absent from other seventeenth centurydescriptions of Macau, namely those of António Bocarro (1635)and Marco D’ Avalo (1838).3 Mundy refers and describesthe local architecture (“the roffe of St. Paules Church [...and its] New Faire Frontispice”), local fruits such as the“Leicheea”,4 comparing it to similar objects and fruits alreadyknown in Europe. Like other writers of the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies, Mundy compares what is different and what is similarto European objects and habits, using these the former asreferents to represent the newly found exotic objects andImages of Macau in 1635: The Diary of Peter MundyRogério Miguel Puga** Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Faulty of Social Sciences and Humanities,University of Macau
129472008. 8products.5 He also compares Macau’s size to the islands backhome, in England (Moorestones),6 and its geographic situationand aspect to Goa: “Macao standeth at one end of a greattIland built on rising hills, some gardeins and trees amongtheir houses making a pretty prospecte somewhatt resemblingGoa, although not so bigge...”7After describing the city and the islands, the Englishtraveller starts presenting the political and economicalsituation, which determined the English fleet’s destiny in theChina Seas. In the chapter called “A Fleete For Japan”,the author mentions six Portuguese vessels on their way toJapan, waiting for the arrival of the “lanteea” or “Caphila”8with goods from Canton,9 which was being held by the Chinesewho demanded money in exchange for the boats and theircargo. The trade with Japan was of great importance to theinhabitants, missionaries10 and administration of Macau. On the12th July the fleet arrives at the city, “where the Portugallsmake yearly investments For the lading off their JapanFleete..., who [is] to Depart within these few Daies, untilwhen (if then) wee are not like to have any trade in thisplace...”11The English were not allowed to trade, communicate withlocal fishing ships or come ashore until the Japan fleet departed,as the Portuguese wanted to keep and protect their profitabletrade monopoly and avoid the problems that newcomers couldcause in China. The author, therefore, presents the “Reasonsof the Portugalls not admitting us trade”:“... when the Japan Fleete is gon wee shall have pratticke,that voyage beeing the Mayne upholding of this place.”“... if wee had Free trading here would allsoe traffickeFor Japan, and thatt theirby theirs would Decay ...”12“[Peter Mundy concludes that the Portuguese] kept theMaine cause of all themselves, which was thatt our Commingin Would quickly eat them outt of all trade.”13On the 23rd July, at night, “Departed the Japan Fleeteto sea on their voyage. And now expected wee open admittanceof trade”.14 Which did not happen. On the contrary, thePortuguese advised the English to beware, as the Chinesewould have no problems to shoot them. Four days later,the General sent some merchants to the English fleet to informthem that the Chinese would not allow the Portuguese inMacau to trade with any other nation, even with the “Spaniards”,although subjects of the same king. As we said before, Weddelldecided to trade directly with the Chinese in Canton, findingseveral fleets of Chinese junks on their way up the PearlRiver. At this moment, Mundy describes several boats usedby the Chinese, referring “others thatt trafficke abroad viz.,To Japan...”15 Macau was, therefore, the bridge for Europeansaiming to trade with Japan, but the Portuguese would notopen their door to other nations. Defence and awareness areconstant in Macau as the Dutch “await all oportunityes toDispossesse them off this as well as of others.”16When some members of the fleet returned from innerChina in October, after all the trouble they had had withChinese and Portuguese messengers, the Admiral of the fleet,as well as the rest of the Commanders, were invited togo to Macau and Mundy joined them. While being receivedby Councell and the “Antients of the [city]” they were takento a “very faire house retchedly furnished with Plate, Beeumbos,Chaires, Cottes, hanguings...”17 and other exotic elements.Surprised while observing the screens (beeombos), Mundydescribes the uses of these decorative objects: “certaine skreenesof 8 or 9 Foote Deepe, made into sundry leaves which principallyserve to Divide a roome or to sequester some part therof,as allsoe for Ornament, placing them against the walles. Theymake a Most Delightsome shew... They are commonly in2 pairts [sic]...”18In several chapters of his Journal, the English travellerdescribes other exotic habits (“A Dinner served in”) and elementsof the city: “Sundry habitts of Chinois”, informing that theterm “Mandareenes” is “a portugall word”.19 Another curiousfact that the author mentions is the existence of only one“Portugall woman in Macau”.20 Portuguese men married eitherto Chinese women or to “Mestizninhes”.While staying at the house of Captain António OliveiraAranha,21 Mundy and his friends could watch “3 or 4 verypretty Children playing... that except in England, I thinckenot in the world to bee overmatched For their pretty Featureand Complexion, their habitt or Dressing beecomming themas well, adorned with pretious Jewells and Costly apparrell,their uppermost garmentts beeing little Kimaones, or Japan coates,which graced them allsoe.”22 The reason why Mundy identifies
Images of Macau in 1635: The Diary of Peter Mundy13047Japanese costumes is explained by the fact that there weremany Japanese people (exiled Christians) and priests, whohad returned from Japan, living in the city.23 Japanese clothes– brought by these people or imported – were, therefore, notan unusual sight in Macau’s streets. These exotic garments,different from the also exotic Chinese ones, made the girlsthat Mundy saw playing look prettier. In the whole world,one could only find children as pretty as these in England.Again, the author compares “here” and “there”, makingOtherness more visible, even for the Other. This comparisonis also present when Mundy describes “the Cavallero”, “onehalffe of them like Moores or Barbary and the other halffelike Christianes, each having their Negroes or Capher, Claddin Dammaske, an ordinary wear here for slaves andServauntts.”24 Clothes, once again, are seen as symbolical andcultural marks, distinguishing different Cultures andcivilisations. While rich girls dressed expensive and probablyrare Japanese clothes, Portuguese Christians dressed likerespectable Europeans and African servants were alsodistinguished because of their colourful clothes. “very Manyritche Men, Claddle after the Portugall Manner... Only thebetter sort [of women] are carried in hand Chaires like theSidans att London, all close covered, off which there arevery Costly and ritche broughtt From Japan.25Japan is once again associated with prestige and luxuries(litters and vests) which only the rich can afford. The influenceof the Japanese culture was, therefore, highly noticeable inthe Christian city: women in Macau, “when they are withinDoores wear over all a Certaine wide sleeved vest caledJapan kamaones or kerimaones because it is the ordinarygarment worne by Japanese, there beeing Many Dainty onesbroughtt From thence off Died silke and of others as CostlyMade here by the Chinois off Ritche embroidery off colouredsilk and golde.”26 After the written description, Mundy refersto the sketch he has done, which portrays a Chinese womandressed in Japanese costumes. These women, according tothe author, are as beautifully presented in these quick to dressclothes as those women who spend half a day in front oftheir mirror.Nearly four months after the departure of the Japanfleet, heading for Nagasaki – the Portuguese permanent tradingbase since 1570, it returned to Macau, on the 5th Novemberand Mundy compares the dangers of the fleet’s voyage toand from Japan with the uncertain life and fate of the Englishin Macau. The Japan fleet goes and comes and the Englishdon’t know where they stand. All these defensive measurestaken by the Portuguese had a reason to be, as Mundylearns from the Japan fleet that twelve Dutch vessels hadarrived in the archipelago before the Portuguese and harmedtheir trade with the local traders. In a chapter called “TheEmperour of Japan his hatred to Christians: his Cruell Lawesagainst them”, Mundy refers to the persecution which wastaking place in Japan against Christians, both European andJapanese. Many of these ran away to Macau and otherPortuguese settlements nearby. Mundy explains the harshmeasures taken by the Shogun Tokugawa Iyemitsu – whogoverned Japan in the name of the Emperor – to stamp outChristianity since the beginning of his rule in 1623:27“This Emperor beareth Mortall batred to the Jesuitts, havingof late yeares putt Many of them to Death by sundry sortsof tormentts. And Now lastly this voyage they kil led 5Churchmen thatt came From Manilla; And by relation, if anyshippe bee knowne to have broughtt any, the said shippeis to be burned, the goods conffiscated, the Company imprisioned,the house thatt harbours them shallbee rased, the owner ofMaster Foffeits his life and all the Neighbours Fined.”28The Shogun left no one unpunished, thus making surethat his orders were obeyed by the whole community, fromtraders to lodgers and their neighbours. Terror was widespread,so that people would not take any chances or hide anythingthey knew or saw related to namban matters. As João PauloOliveira e Costa says, “History, completely separated Macaufrom [Japan] the country that had justified its creation as agreat Chinese city controlled by foreigners without giving ita similar fate, as the Macanese managed to adapt to thewinds of History, finding alternatives by creating new traderoutes in the Far East.”29 According to all the facts describedin Mundy’s Journal, it is clear that the will to trade andconvert must have been strong in Macau, as many triedtheir luck knowing what could await them in Japan.The Jesuits in Macau used theatre plays, with childrenand adults as actors, to teach the Christian doctrine to local
131472008. 8people, overcoming the difficulty of explaining strange Europeanreligious concepts to Chinese and Japanese people living inMacau. As said before, Mundy saw several Japanese inthe city, most of them Christians and distinguishes the JapaneseChristians from those who are not:“those thatt are nott [Christians] shave the one halffeof their heads. From the Crowne Forward, the rest of theirhaire tied beehind in a little knotte, butt very short. Theywere buskins like Mittens, in 2 parts, one For their greattoe and the other For the rest On thatt a sandall whichone tye coming tharwt over and the other before in thepartition.” 30The way that non-Christian Japanese people dressed musthave surprised Mundy as he describes their appearance ina quite long paragraph. Dressing again separates people withdifferent religious beliefs, even people from the same country,that is Japan.Mundy also describes another strange and exotic habitthat he observes amongst the Japanese people in Macau:“They blow their Noses with a certaine sofft and tough kindof paper which they carry aboutt them in small peeces, whichhaving used, they Fling away as a Filthy thing, keepinghandkercheifes off lynnen to wype their faces and hands.”31The author describes how this paper is produced as wellas its uses, continuing to describe the way Japanese mendress, while complementing his text with some sketches ofthese same men: “I have hereunder sett the Figure off aJaponian, as allsoe of a Chinois Doing his salutation. A.A Japan(ese) in his Kimaone or vest, with his Cotan byhis side, and Dagger or Cuttbelly, of whome I cannot saymuch. You may read off them att large in Mr. Purchas hispilgrimage.” 32The English traveller confesses his lack of knowledgeregarding Japan and the Japanese way of clothing, addressingthe reader of his Journal and advising him to read moreabout the Japanese in another English travel account by SamuelPurchas: Mr. Purchas his pilgrimage.33It stands clear that the Dutch and English presence inthe China seas became a threat to the trade between Macauand Japan, leading to several disputes between these tradersand, later, to the banishment of Portuguese and JapaneseChristians from the Empire of the Rising Sun.34 This sametrade also gave place to the emigration and exile of Japanesepeople to Macau, which influenced the city’s culture, turningit into an even more multicultural platform in the East. Silver,clothes and fashionable and expensive objects from the neighbourEmpire became a constant presence in Macau and PeterMundy’s journal describes the importance of the trade betweenthe Portuguese and Japan to the city and presents reasonsfor the measures taken by the administration of Macau tokeep other nations away from their routes.The description of the enclave presented in the text reflectsan era of the city’s history on the edge of its end. Thetrade with Nagasaki, after years of great stress, finally cameto an end. Famine stroke in the city in 1648 affecting its40,000 inhabitants, and in the 1660´s the Manchus invadedthe South of China, while most of the Chinese were forcedto leave the city, which was fighting for a “poverty-strickenand cowed survival”.35 The Journal is the very first descriptionof Macau and both Catholic Portuguese and exotic Chinesewere cultural others for the author who lived in and describedthe City of the Holy Name of God.Notes:1 Cf. Peter Mundy, “Descrição de Macau”, in Charles R. Boxerin Macau na Época da Restauração /Macao Three HundredYears Ago, col. “Obra Completa de Charles Ralph Boxer”, Vol.2, Fundação Oriente, Lisbon, 1993, p. 53.2 According to Charles Boxer. For other accounts of Weddell’sexpedition see Foster, English Factories in India, 1634–1644,2 vols., Oxford, 1911–12 and Hose Ballou Morse, Chroniclesof the East India Company, Vol. 1.3 These other accounts were also published by Boxer, op. cit.4 Peter Mundy, op. cit., p. 53. The same happens on pages 57,65–66 (comparison of local games and horses with Europeanones).5 For studies on exoticism see: Maria Leonor CarvalhãoBuescu, “O Exotismo ou a ‘estética do diverso’ na LiteraturaPortuguesa”, in Literatura de Viagens. Narrativa, História eMito: Actas do Colóquio Real izado na Universidade daMadeira, 11–14 de Julho de 1995, Edições Cosmos, Lisbon,1997, pp. 565–578; Rogério Miguel Puga, “A Dimensão daAlteridade em Os Lusíadas”, Revista Lucero: A Journal ofIberian and Latin Studies, vol. 12, Spring 2001, pp. 73–80;idem, “Da Baía Cabrália ao Maranhão: O Exotismo enquantoEstética do Diverso”, in Actas do Congresso “Portugal-Brasil:Memórias e Imaginário”, organizado pelo Grupo de Trabalho doMi n i s té r i o d a Edu ca ção p a ra a s C om issão pa ra aComemoração dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, Novembro
Images of Macau in 1635: The Diary of Peter Mundy13247de 1999, vol. 2, Grupo de Trabalho do Ministério da Educaçãopara as Comissão para a Comemoração dos DescobrimentosPortugueses, L isbon, 2000, pp. 327–338; idem , s. v.“Exotismo”, in Car los Ceia (di r.) , Dicionário de TermosLiterários, Lisbon (forthcoming); Victor Segalen, Essai sur l’exotisme, Le Livre de Poche, Paris, 1999; Jean-Marc Moura,Lire l’ Exotisme, Dunod, Paris, 1992; Tzevan Todorov, Nouset les autres, Éditions du Seuil, Paris, 1989 and Ania Loomba,Colonialism/Postcolonialism, Routledge, London, 1998, passim.6 Peter Mundy, op. cit., p. 54.7 Idem, ibidem.8 Convoy of small cargo ships.9 Peter Mundy, op. cit., p. 54.1 0 Regarding this topic, see Ana Maria Leitão, “The Jesuits andthe Japan Trade”, in Review of Culture, n. 17, pp. 23–34.1 1 Peter Mundy, op. cit., p. 55.1 2 Idem, ibidem, p. 55.1 3 Idem, ibidem.1 4 Idem, ibidem, p. 56. According to Boxer, the Japan fleet of1637 consisted of 6 galiots under the command of the Captain-Major Dom Francisco de Castelbranco.1 5 Idem ibidem, p. 59.1 6 Peter Mundy, op. cit., p. 67.1 7 Idem, ibidem, p. 59.1 8 Peter Mundy, op. cit., pp. 59–60.1 9 Idem, ibidem, p. 60.2 0 Idem, ibidem, p. 64.2 1 According to Charles Boxer, op. cit., p. 64, António de OliveiraAranha had been Captain-Major of the Japan voyage in 1629,staying there for nearly two years.2 2 Peter Mundy, op. cit., p. 64.2 3 In 1636, Macau received 287 Japanese women and children,all married to Portuguese men or children of those mixedmarriages. Another group arrived in 1638 (cf. Almerindo Lessa,“The Population of Macao”, in Review of Culture, n. 20, 2ndseries, p. 98.2 4 Peter Mundy, op. cit., p. 65.2 5 Idem, ibidem, p. 67. According to Charles Boxer, Mundy isreferring to the Japanese morimo or kago. The word morimowas naturalised in Portuguese under the form of norimanosince the end of the sixteenth century. In the chapter “Japanlanguage”, Mundy translates “2 or 3 words off the Japonianlanguage, viz., as [he] was told. Sagashoo gooseeka, howDoe you? Yunggosere, well or good. Varoogoosere, ill or bad.Goodaree, Come(e) Mundalee, goe. Sakee, wine, Mesh, Rice”(ibidem, p. 74). Boxer (p. 74, note 27) says these words area good deal corrupted and presents their correct spelling.2 6 Peter Mundy, op. cit., p. 67.2 7 Cf. Charles Boxer, op. cit., p. 69 and Juan Ruiz-de-Medina,“The Underground Work of the Missionaries in Japan”, inReview of Culture, n. 17, p. 148.2 8 Cf. Peter Mundy, op. cit., p. 69.2 9 Cf. João Paulo Oliveira e Costa, “Macau e o Japão nosSéculos XVI e XVII”, in MacaU, 2nd series, n. 67, November1997, p. 197.3 0 Peter Mundy, op. cit, p. 73.3 1 Idem, ibidem.3 2 Idem, ibidem.3 3 Samuel Purchas (c. 1575–1626): English historian and travel-writer, and also an assistant to Richard Hakluyt in his lateryears, who publishes Purchas His Pilgrimage, or, Relations ofthe World and the Religions Observed in All Ages (1613),Purchas His Pilgrimage: Microcosmus, or, the Histories ofMan (1619). Purchas also inherits Hakluyt’s manuscripts andcompiled the extensive Hakluyt Posthumous, or, Purchas hisPilgrims: Containing a History of the World, in Sea Voyagesand Land Travels by Englishmen and Others (1625–26: 5vols.). The second part of this last work contains Will iamAdam’s description of his journey to Japan and his residencethere. Peter Mundy may have been referr ing to this lastvoyage’s account by Will iam Adam, who tried to set up aFactory in Japan until the English left the country in 1623.3 4 For a descript ion of the context that lead to the Anglo-Portuguese entente cordiale against the Dutch India Companyat the Strai ts of Mallaca in the seventeenth century see:Marcus P. M. Vink, “The Entente Cordiale-The Dutch IndiaCompany and the Portuguese Shipping through the Straits ofMalacca (1641–1663)”, Review of Culture, n. 13/14, January-June 1991, pp. 289–309. Regard ing the he ight o f thepersecution to Christians, see Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, op. cit.,pp. 144–150.3 5 Cf. John E. Wills, Jr., “The Survival of Macao, 1640–1720”,in Jorge M. dos Santos Alves (coord.), Portugal e a China:Conferências no II Curso Livre de História das Relações entrePortugal e a China (Séculos XVI–XIX), Fundação Oriente,Lisbon, 1999, pp. 111–124.
13 3《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8一、清代中葉澳門發生的突出事件(一) 葡萄牙政治變革對澳門產生的影響18世紀50年代葡國王約瑟夫一世寵臣龐巴爾侯爵執政時進行一系列改革及清算澳門耶穌會的事件,已在上半部分提過。1725年葡國廢除王家貿易壟斷制度,葡人得以自由將船隻駛來澳門經商。當時葡政府鑒於中國茶葉在歐洲擁有廣大市場,曾大力支持葡商在澳門建立中國茶葉出口中心。然而由於遲來一步,英商已控制了中國茶葉的外銷業務,結果未能成功。不過葡國的積極推動促進了澳門經濟貿易的發展,財政收入亦大為增加。1820年葡國的民主革命對於澳門亦有明顯的衝擊,促使澳門掀起一股民主運動的潮流,澳門成為當時受到歐洲民主革命影響最大的遠東少數地區之一。在民主運動中,澳門葡人分成以巴波沙為首的立憲派(以土生葡人為主)和以地方長官阿利加為領袖的保守派(以葡國來澳的貴族階層為主)兩個勢力集團。立憲派上書葡萄牙國王,提出恢復原來的澳門市議局體制,在文職機構和軍隊中任用土生葡人以及免除澳門對果阿和帝汶的財政補貼等要求,但卻遭到保守派的抗拒。1821年8月19日澳門市民舉行大會,決定恢復1784年以前的議事局政體,授予新議事局不受總督和地方長官控制的立法權、行政權和司法權。巴波沙還創辦了澳門第一份報紙《中國蜂報》(Abe lha da C hi na),這份報紙創辦於 1822年9月 12日,終刊於1823年12月 27日,是外國人在中國創辦的首份外文報刊(葡文),比香港於1841年創辨的第一份英文報《香港公報》還早2 0年。1823年6月16日,印葡總督派遣包也率巡洋艦抵達澳門海面,準備在澳恢復舊政制。後經立憲派的抗爭,特別是中國政府出面干預,該巡洋艦只得駛出澳門海域。可是後來由於立憲派產生內部矛盾,保守派聯合乘坐小船偷登澳門的包也逮捕了巴波沙,再加上葡國本土王子米格爾發動解散議會、廢除立憲的反動政變成功,於是澳門保守派得以恃勢恢復舊的政制,組織了由印葡派來的依德費基澳門主教和議事局新選首席長老組成的政府委員會,阿利加官復原職。保守派舉行盛大慶典,宣誓效忠葡王的君主專制政制。1825年包也就任澳門總督。這個時期,澳門的經濟雖有起色,可是由於失去鴉片貿易中心的地位(英人仍以伶仃洋為鴉片買賣集散地),財政陷入困境。1833年葡國立憲派最終戰勝保守派,建立君主立憲政制,新政府委任晏德那為澳門總督,接 頒佈多項命令,包括183 4年撤銷“地方長官”職務,1835年解除議事局總督擁有軍政實權,市政委員會只限於處理市政事務,禁止黑奴買賣,解散家奴,削弱教會勢力,籌建博物館、圖書館和植物園,妥善保留歷史文獻,將大批中文著作翻譯成葡文等等。這些改革對澳門的發展不蒂具有很大的促進作用。(二) 清政府加強對澳門的管理清朝政府為了維護對澳門的主權,不斷加強對澳門的管理,防止葡人的越軌行為損害到中國的利益,除了限制葡人的活動以外,並嚴格控制中國公民在澳門的作為。早在明朝萬曆四十二年 (1 614年),中國政府已不准華人向住澳葡人販賣私貨,清朝中葉澳門成為西方侵華跳板及中西聯繫紐帶──兼論鴉片戰爭與澳門(下)鄭光濱 ** 原澳門經濟學會顧問、前南光(集團)有限公司業務研究部總經理
清朝中葉澳門成為西方侵華跳板及中西聯繫紐帶(下)澳門研究13 4第47期如有發現則將“奸徒”“送提調司執道,將所獲之貨盡行給賞首報者,船器沒官。”清乾隆年間下令禁止在澳華人信奉天主教、穿夷服、用夷名以及在葡人住宅區進行貨品買賣。另一方面,還規定由澳門縣丞對澳門華人實行里保甲制度,協助清廷官員管理澳門的華人和葡人。當時英國人為了迫使清府開放口岸和市場,屢犯澳門,還在廣州和澳門製造事端,這時里保甲制度負責社區保護治安工作,處理各項大小地方事務,在組織基層群眾中確顯示一定威力。澳門是中國的領土,中國政府加強對澳門的管理是完全必要的。然而在嚴格的管制下,也使澳門居民喪失一些自由發揮潛能的空間,增加一些不必要的矛盾和磨擦,這對澳門本地和周邊地區的經濟發展及中外文化交流未必有利。試想,如果能讓華人與葡人直接貿易,不是可以活躍市場、增加人民收益嗎?林則徐當時提出“奉法者來之,抗法者去之”是正確的。當時中國政府應該區分正當貿易和不正當貿易,充分發揮正常的民間貿易,擴大中國貨品經澳門打開西方市場,使澳門起到中外交流的橋樑作用。(三) 澳門經濟陷於衰微境地鴉片戰爭後,香港崛起,五口通商,澳門的貿易地位一落千丈,經濟陷入不景。據同治年間成書的《香山縣誌》海防卷紀述:“澳夷昔多而今少,昔富而今貧,昔強而今怯。”“各番生齒日繁,回易之利亦減於昔,以故來粵之夷頗少。而在澳者又多死徙而去。今在澳之夷約六百餘家,每家約三男而五女。而樓房多空曠無居人賃。”“今澳夷中已有流為乞丐匪類者,行乞之夷婦尤多。”隨 中外直接貿易的迅速發展,外國商船直開廣州黃埔口岸或北上上海諸埠經商,澳門的中間橋樑特殊作用大為減弱,並逐漸由貿易港轉變成為到中國做生意的外國人居留、度假休息和旅遊娛樂的場所。鴉片戰爭後,伶仃洋的鴉片貿易中心消失,英商將鴉片交易基地遷移香港,澳門葡當局亦將澳門變成自由港,力圖擺脫中國的管理。在此情況下,澳門的鴉片走私生意再度興旺起來。鴉片戰爭後,香港同澳門輸入中國的鴉片每年有2–3萬箱,其中經由澳門輸去的佔15,000箱左右。此外,非法的“苦力”貿易亦猖獗起來,賭博、吸毒、色情事業應運而生,十分蓬勃。 1875年廣東“闈姓”賭博遷移到澳門,澳葡政府公開招商開賭,於是澳門一時出現一片虛假“繁榮”,政府財政收入大增。但是隨 香港的崛起和發展,澳門始終逃脫不了逐漸走上衰落和藏污納垢地方的命運。二、澳門的鴉片貿易活動和鴉片戰爭(一) 澳門的鴉片買賣活動澳門曾是外國鴉片輸入中國的轉口地,在 18世紀中期澳門正常貿易式微以後,鴉片貿易更是一枝獨秀,長期支持 澳門的財政收入。過去南洋一些國家向中國呈送的“貢品”,其中有鴉片一項是作為藥品獻給皇帝的。18世紀初葉葡人亦曾從土耳其採購鴉片經澳門進入中國,但其貨質低劣,數量很少。1 7 2 9 年以後,葡人由印度果阿(G o a )和達曼(D amam)運鴉片到澳門,每年約200箱,1767年增至 100 0 箱。荷蘭東印度公司亦在澳門做過鴉片生意,但多數通過葡商進行。英國佔領印度後,控制了鴉片的生產和貿易,並通過英國東印度公司大量販賣鴉片到中國。英國東印度公司於1 600 年在倫敦成立,並領得英皇的“皇家特許狀”,還在1684年中國開放海禁之後在廣州開辦分行,1779年又在澳門設行。該公司並不直接將鴉片運華,而是在加爾各答拍賣市場上將鴉片售予一批“自由”商人(亦稱散商或港腳商行),其中最著名的有最早在中國建立怡和洋行、寶順洋行及旗昌洋行等商業機構的渣甸、馬地臣和顛地等鴉片販子。據英國歷史學家摩里斯‧考利斯(M a u r i c eCol l is)所著《鴉片戰爭實錄》記載:“港腳商人在販賣鴉片上做得十分成功,生意越做越大,東印度公司在加爾各答的拍賣場上,從港腳商那裏獲得的收入也在持續增長,在 1793 年,那還只是25 萬英鎊,在1809年就超過了50萬英鎊,而到1832年就接近了100萬英鎊,這個數字大約相當於整個印度收入的六分之一。”英國商人於1786年開始運鴉片到澳門,當年是用兩艘小船停泊在澳門南面的雲雀灣作為儲存點,然後運進澳門上市,後來則直接由雲雀灣運至黃埔販賣。1800年(嘉慶五年)中國政府禁止鴉片輸入,
葡萄牙人在澳門半島“漸運瓴甓榱桷為屋”之過程澳門研究14 8第47期葡萄牙人租居澳門的形態,從政治角度來講,從未取得過主權。即便是亞馬勒(Fer reir a do Amaral)於19世紀中葉強迫推行殖民統治政策,獲得對澳門的實際管理權之後,中國亦未放棄對澳門的主權。1887年《中葡和好通商條約》雖然在法律的層面確認了葡萄牙業已在澳門行使的管理權,其更為重要的意義卻是確保了中國對澳門的主權。充分認識這一點,對我們正確理解澳門歷史至關重要。而這一點,又與澳門開埠、葡萄牙人逐漸入據的進程密切相關。我們知道,葡萄牙人早期據居澳門經歷了一個隨船-草棚-半永久性建築土坯牆草頂或瓦頂-永久性磚石瓦頂的建築過程。中國史料對於這一過程有所記載,但大多語焉不詳。近期看到的一份耶穌會函件,其中有涉及澳門建築物何時出現瓦頂年代的內容,對進一步瞭解此一過程不無助益。該函作者為佩羅‧戈麥斯(Pedr o Góm ez),所涉及的時限是1579–1582年。相關段落文字雖不多,信息量卻很豐富,披露了16世紀下半葉澳門葡人瓦頂建築結構出現的原因及年代。此函儘管 1975年便有了刊本,至今尚未得到國際學術界的重視,更未將其作為澳門歷史研究之素材,故詳細譯註如下:“從此(馬拉巴爾海岸)視察員神甫范禮安要求省會長神甫派一名神甫學習漢語。因此,省會長派他(羅明堅)於(15 )79年乘唐‧米格爾‧達‧伽馬(D . Mi guel da Gama )的大船從柯欽啟程。”“抵達此地後,他用葡萄牙人給他的施捨興建瞭望教生之家(Cas a de Ca tec úmenos)。又在那裏蓋起了主教廳和主管神甫(P. Mi nis t ro)的騎樓。他立刻編了一本《教義問答(Cathec i smo)》。 1 這是一個在此的基督徒用漢語給他寫的。這個文人本來準備考取功名,然而上帝(似乎是要給他基督教的功名)讓他沒有中考。其妻因而絕望上吊自盡。他棄家出走,來找羅明堅神甫。羅神甫非常和善地接待了他。他留下來當了幾年老師。羅明堅神甫讓人用中文刊刻了《教義問答》,一時傳遍了中國。當他和葡萄牙人一起去2廣州時,許多人慕名而來拜見他。我跟他一起去參加了一個集市(fe ira)。海道在暹邏營(c ampo dos Si amês)給了他一座帶天井的小房子。我們在集市期間的兩個月內一直住在那裏。羅明堅神甫為葡萄牙人做彌撒。他花費時間學習漢話和漢字,同時為來向他求教《教義問答》的文人答疑。他一直在尋找可以永久留下來的辦法,但這在當時是不可能的。他於( 15)81年 12月隨葡萄牙人回到澳門。(邊注:在佩羅‧戈麥斯(Pero G óm ez)3 神甫的命令下,於(15)82年給澳門天主之母教堂蓋上了瓦片。這一教堂於(15)73年由唐安東尼奧‧德‧維耶納(D .Antóni o de Vi l hena)4用夯土(ta i pa)建成。當時的視察員是後來跟他一起逝世的貢薩羅‧阿爾瓦雷斯(G onçal o A l va res)神甫。”5“到了1582年,必須將我們的教堂蓋上瓦片,因為當時是草頂。有人常常放火燒房子,搶劫東西。城市派來了許多奴隸,熱火朝天地幹了起來,工程很快便完成了,同時還在裏面鑲上了木板。”6起始段落告訴我們,耶穌會視察員范禮安神甫是該會在華適應政策7的奠基人。其所作的一項重要決策,便是要求當時的省會長神甫派選一名神甫到澳葡萄牙人在澳門半島“漸運 甓 為屋”之過程金國平 ** 旅葡語言兼歷史學者
14 9《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8門來學習漢語,人選為我們所熟悉的羅明堅。這封信披露了羅明堅來澳門的具體年代,所乘坐的船隻名稱及出發地。雖然我們通過其他史料對這一史實有所瞭解,但此信集中提供了有關細節。羅明堅應於1579當年抵達澳門。他用葡萄牙人的施捨興建望教生之家的時間應在1579–1580年間。這裏披露的一個新信息是,在這所望教生之家中,還設立了“主教廳和主管神甫的騎樓”。關於羅明堅編印《教義問答》的始末,佩羅‧戈麥斯神甫也為我們留下了珍貴記述。《教義問答》是羅明堅與一位科場失意的中國文人合作的結晶。利瑪竇也曾涉及此人,但未提供如此之多的細節。這位喪妻的落魄文人為羅明堅神甫所收留,做了幾年漢文塾師。可惜的是,迄今為止見到的文獻中,未留下這位老師的名字,但其事蹟永遠地留在了中國的傳教史。《教義問答》可能由羅明堅口述,經這位中國文人筆錄潤色。通過此函,我們還得知羅明堅因此書而在全中國知識精英界名躁一時。當他同葡萄牙人一起去廣州參加交易會時,許多文人竟然慕名從各地趕來拜見他。信中提供的關於廣交會的信息同樣十分寶貴。首先,葡萄牙人在廣州貿易仍然於海道管轄之下。其次,至少在1581年前,葡萄牙人已經不是隨船而居,中國當局已經把他們安置在暹邏營內。如此安排,有其道理。葡萄牙人於 1511年佔領麻六甲後便與暹邏人發生了關係,常去該地經商。葡萄牙人在中國沿海活動時,常常假託暹邏人。此種例子在《遠遊紀》中比比皆是。澳門歷史上,有過Campo do Mandarim此葡語地名。龍思泰記曰﹕“1787年,議事會命令理事官馬托斯(Phil ip Lawr enc e Mat tos)拆毀在望廈(Mong- há)和沙梨頭(曠野上的中國村)新建的幾座房屋。……為了防止將來再起騷亂,在城牆外曠野沙梨頭地方,花王堂之處新開了一個集市。這實際上並沒有為居民提供方便,因為很多人的黑奴和僕役在前往該集市或回來的路上遭到搶劫。而那個老集市的地點,在人們看來卻是最合適的。那裏叫做官營地(C ampo de Mandari m)。因為不法行為從前都在此得到很適當的處置。”8澳門的沙梨頭,葡語稱“Cam po dos Patanes(北大年營)”,可以看出沙梨頭最早是北大年人的“聚落”或“營地”。“Cam po dos Si amês”、“C ampod e Ma nd ar i m”和 “C a m po do s Pa ta ne s”中的“ campo”,雖然形式上是一個純粹的葡語詞,實際上,在這些片語中,其辭源是馬來語“Kampong”,意即“村落”。廣州設有暹邏營,可見暹邏人不少。作者還為我們報告了羅明堅努力學習漢語的情況。耶穌會要入華傳教,必須首先立足國內省市,所以羅明堅一直設法留下。羅明堅後得入肇慶的史料很多,研究亦不少,無需贅述。不過,此信所包含的有關信息對於澳門教堂其建築的研究具有重大文獻意義,值得認真解讀。澳門聖保祿學院9前身教堂初建於1573年,是土坯牆加草頂建築,至 1582年才“蓋上了瓦片”。這一外文史料,為我們解讀漢語文獻的相關記載提供了一個起始年限的參考。(萬曆)《廣東通志》稱:“嘉靖三十二年,舶夷趨濠鏡者,托言舟觸風濤,縫裂水濕貢物,願暫借地晾曬。海道副使汪柏徇賄許之。時僅篷累數十間,後工商牟奸利者,始漸運磚瓦木石為屋,若聚落。”10《澳門記略》云:“三十二年,蕃舶托言舟觸風濤,願借濠鏡地暴諸水漬貢物,海道副使汪柏許之。初僅茇舍,商人牟奸利者漸運瓴甓榱桷為屋,佛郎機遂得混入,高棟飛薨,櫛比相望,久之遂專為所據。”11通常而言,教堂為葡萄牙人海外居留地中最好、最重要的建築物,12民居只可能在此年代之後才開始過渡到瓦頂。根據佩羅‧戈麥斯所言,“始漸運磚瓦木石為屋”應該不早於1582年,而改為瓦頂的原因是“有人常常放火燒房子,搶劫東西”。草頂易燃,不得不採用耐火的瓦頂。1598–1599年間,在澳門暫居的佛羅倫斯商人卡勒奇(F ranc es c o Ca rl et t i)記載說:“1599 年那年我在澳門城。7月28日,我看到10或12處房屋被水和颱風摧毀。在菲律賓島,西班牙人稱颱風為‘huracan’。房子是用土和生石灰的混合物建造的。到一定的高度是石質牆基,牆壁內外都塗抹 石灰,屋頂上按照西班牙的方式蓋 瓦片。”13卡勒奇與佩羅‧戈麥斯見聞的不同之處在於前者見到的是“牆壁內外都塗抹 石灰”,後者稱“還在裏面鑲上了木板”。葉權在1564年目擊的也是“其屋室四面板壁,從脊下出,地藉軟草,坐胡床及凳。”14質言之,早期室內鑲木板。可能由於房屋數量的增
葡萄牙人在澳門半島“漸運瓴甓榱桷為屋”之過程澳門研究15 0第47期加,木材供應不多,或價格貴,遂改用內外塗抹石灰的更經濟的方式。在“始漸運”的“磚瓦木石”四種建築材料中,最早的可能是木,再依次是瓦、石和磚。至少,瓦和石在磚之前。我們將木排在首位是根據葉權上述的描述。當時葡人的建築規格為:石灰土坯牆、瓦頂、鑲了木板的內壁和鋪 軟草的地面。後又出於經濟原因,按照葡萄牙建築傳統,將土坯牆內、外側以石灰塗成白色。這已是一種比較永久性建築。如此可見,澳門最早期的建築史大概經過了這樣一個過程:葡萄牙人從早期的隨船而居、臨時棚寮過渡到土坯牆、草頂的半永久性結構,然後再發展到磚石牆、瓦頂的永久性建築,逐步建設成為遠東最繁榮的港口城市,“雄踞海畔若一國”。 15註釋:1 即《新編西竺國天主實錄》。2 當時同葡萄牙人商人隨行的神甫任務有三: 試圖與中國當局接觸,謀求在中國大陸立足; 為葡萄牙商人提供宗教服務; 調停葡萄牙人商人之間的矛盾。參見 D o mi n g o d e S a l a za r , Yn f o r m a ci o n so b r e l o simp ed imen to s a la p re dica ción e n Ch ina rea liza do po r elobi sp o Do mingo de Sa lazar para e l Papa Greg or io XI II y elrey Fel ipe II , M an ila 1 9 de Abr il de 15 83 , AGI , Pat ro na to25, 8。3 亦稱佩德羅‧戈麥斯,時任副省會長,參見 Lu ís Fróis,Histor ia de Ja pam,Lisboa ,Bibliote ca N acional de L isb oa, 1 976,Vol. I, I ntrod ução , p . 13 。另見 Jo sé Eu gen io Bo ra o Mate o,Sp an ia rds in Tai wa n, Na n T i en (SMC Bo ok C o.), Vol. I(1582 –1 641), Ta ipei, 20 01, p .2, n ota 2.4 時任日航司令,參見文德泉:《1 6 世紀澳門》,澳門:澳門教育暨文化司, 1 98 1 年,第 54 –5 5 頁。漢語文獻中,早期音譯作“加必丹末”,但鄭舜功的“航海王”似乎更傳神。5 時任視察員,參見 Hist or ia d e Jap am, Vol. I, I nt rod ução,p. 2 7.6 Mo n u m e nt a h i st o r i ca Ja p o n ia e(日本歷史文獻)p o rSC HÜ TTE, Jo sef Fra nz, S. J., ed . l it. ; R U IZ-D E-MED IN A,Juan , S. J. , Vo l. 1 : Textu s cat alogo rum Jap onia e: aliae que dep ers on is d om ib u sq ue S. J. i n Ja p on ia in fo rm at i on e s e tre la t io n e s 1 5 4 9–1 6 54 / pr op o su it Jo se f F ra nz S ch ütt eS.J. , 19 75 , p. 3 86 .7 沈定平:《明清之際中西文化交流史:明代:調適與會通》,北京︰商務印書館, 2 0 0 1 年。8 龍思泰著,吳義雄、郭德焱、沈正邦譯,章文欽校註:《早期澳門史》,北京︰東方出版社, 199 7 年,第 40 頁。9 李向玉:《澳門聖保祿學院研究》,澳門:澳門日報出版社, 20 01 年。1 0(明)郭棐:《廣東通志》,載於楊繼波、吳志良、鄧開頌總主編,中國第一歷史檔案館、澳門基金會、暨南大學古籍研究所合編:《明清時期澳門問題檔案文獻匯編》,北京:人民出版社, 199 9 年,第 5 卷,第 18 6 頁。1 1 趙春晨:《澳門記略校注》,澳門:澳門文化司署,19 92 年,第 6 5 頁。1 2 有關研究可見湯開建《明代澳門地區華人居住地鉤沉》,載於《澳門開埠初期史研究》,北京︰中華書局, 1 999 年,第 254 –2 77 頁及《文化雜誌》“澳門四百年城市建築遺產特輯”之一和之二。還可參考劉先覺、陳澤成及趙淑紅近期的有關著作和論文。日本方面有西山宗雄《澳門聖保羅學院教堂正立面的構成──關於葡萄牙人在亞洲的建築活動及其建築樣式變化過程的研究》,載於中國建築學會編:《2 00 0 年中國近代建築史國際研討會》,北京︰清華大學出版社,2 0 0 1 年,第 2 1 2 –2 2 2 頁。西方語言的著作及論文有McCa ll, J. E., “Ea r ly Jesu it Ar t in th e Fa r Ea st , IV: In Ch inaan d M aca o be fo re 1 63 5, ” Art ib us Asi ae , Vo l. 11, N o. 1 /2(1 948) , p p. 45–69 ; Mar ia de Lo urd es Rodr igue s C ost a, H istó riada Arq uit ectu ra em Ma ca u, cole cção Docu men tos & e nsaio s– 1 3, Macau , I CM, 1997 ; Francisco Vizeu Pinh eiro, Kogi Yagian d Miki Ko re na ga, “Th e Ro le of Ib er ian Inst itu ti ons in t heEvo lution o f Macau,”Journal of Asian Architectu re a nd BuildingEng ine er in g, Vol. 4, N o. 2 (20 05) , pp. 28 5–29 2; Fra nciscoVize u Pinheiro, Koji Yag i and Miki Koren aga, “St. Paul C ollegeHist or ica l R ole and In flu ence in the D evelop ment o f M acau, ”Jou rn al of Asi an A rchi te ct ure a nd Bu il di ng En g ine e r in g,Vol. 4 , No. 1 (200 5) , pp. 4 3–50 。近期出版了兩種澳門城市化研究的專著:P e d ro D i a s , A U r b a n i za ção e aArquit ectura do s Portu gue se s em Macau , 1 557 –1 911(澳門葡萄牙城市規劃及建築, 1 5 5 7 – 1 9 1 1),(L i s b o a ,Por tu ga l Tel ecom, 2 005)及嚴忠明:《一個海風吹來的城市:早期澳門城市發展史研究》,廣州:廣東人民出版社, 20 06年。阿封索(José Afon so)建築師在《行政》雜誌上的有關澳門 1 9 世紀城市建築規劃的論文亦值得注意。1 3 Fran ce sco C ar l et t i, R ag io n am en t i d i F ra n ces co Ca r le t tiF io ren ti no so pra l e co se da lu i ved ut e ne śu oi via gg i sidell’I ndie Occid ent ali, e Or ien tali co me d ’altr i p aesi, F ire nze,St amp er ia di Giu sepp e Man ni , 17 01, pp. 197 –19 8. 手稿見Códice 1 33 1, Bi blio teca Ang elica , f. 139 。感謝澳門科學文化中心高埃麗(El isab et t a C oll a)女士提供原文。1 4 葉權:《賢博編》,北京:中華書局, 19 97 年,第 4 5頁。1 5 王之春、趙春晨校點:《清朝柔遠記》,北京:中華書局, 19 8 9 年,第 7 頁。
15 1《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8一、前言16世紀葡萄牙人入居後,隨 商業的發展,澳門逐漸形成了一個華洋雜居之地。但是,在澳門歷史的各個時期,華人一直佔澳門人口的大部分或絕大部分,始終構成澳門人口的主體,對澳門歷史的發展起 重要的作用。然而,長期以來,由於各種因素的影響(如有關華人群體的資料分散難覓等),對澳門華人群體的研究一直是澳門歷史研究中最薄弱的方面。就明清(鴉片戰爭前)時期的澳門歷史而言,雖然葡萄牙學者完成了大量的著述,但有關澳門華人群體的歷史,只在一些著作的個別章節中有所涉及1,至今仍缺少研究澳門華人的專題論文,更沒有專著問世。在中國學者的研究成果中,對明清時期澳門華人群體也有所涉及 2,但是,總體言之,到目前為止,作為澳門人口主體的華人群體,尚未作為專題研究的對象而受到應有的重視。對華人群體加以系統研究,首先遇到的一個問題,就是華人人口的發展情況。關於這方面的內容,雖然以前的論著有所論及,但只有幾個點綴性的人口資料,在很多時間段上留有空白,甚至依據了錯誤的資料。故長期以來對澳門華人群體發展的情況知之不詳,在不少方面存在 模糊認識。本文將作者多年積累的有關中葡文獻加以系統梳理,整理出明清(鴉片戰爭前)時期澳門華人人口的系列資料,以期較為清晰地再現澳門華人群體發展的歷史進程,為全面研究澳門華人的歷史打下可靠的基礎。二、 16 世紀 –17 世紀 40 年代在葡萄牙人到來之前,澳門半島已有為數不多的中國漁民和農民在澳門半島沿岸和島上進行季節性的捕撈和耕種。對這一階段澳門人口的數量,現已無文獻記載可考。1557年葡萄牙人獲准入居之後,隨 海上貿易的發展,移居澳門的中外人口不斷增多,關於人口規模的記載也逐漸增多。(一)16世紀後期的澳門人口資料隨 葡人商業活動的開展,澳門很快成為外國來華貿易的泊口並迅速興起為遠東地區重要的國際貿易的商埠 3,從而吸引了更多的華人入居澳門。史載:“(澳門葡人)挾其重貲招誘吾民,求無不得,欲無不遂,百工技藝,趨者如市。”4“閩粵商人,趨之若鶩,久之其來益眾。”5隨 中外人口的不斷遷入,中外文獻中逐漸有了一些關於澳門華人的記載。佛朗西斯科‧德‧索薩神父(Pe. Fran ci sc o de Sous a)在描寫盛大的1564年復活節宗教遊行時說:這個剛剛產生的 “殖民地”僅有900名葡萄牙人,但是,卻有大量的中國人、印度人和黑奴。 6根據這項記載,定居澳門的葡萄牙人口增加到了900人,但對華人及其他種族的人口僅有大致的描述,缺乏具體的資料資料。在這個時期的中國文獻中也有一些關於澳門華人的記載。 1565年遊歷嶺南的葉權,在《遊嶺南記》中描寫了澳門人口增長的情況:“乃今數千夷團聚一澳,雄然巨鎮,役使華人妻奴子女。”7這裏提到有華人在澳門為葡萄牙人服務,關於華人的數量,則缺少明確的記載。明清時期澳門華人人口總量考張廷茂 ** 暨南大學文學院歷史系副教授
明清時期澳門華人人口總量考澳門研究15 2第47期16世紀70–80年代,澳門人口總量持續上升,種族構成亦更加多樣化。1578年11月29日,馬特烏斯‧羅佩斯(Pe. Mateus Lopes S. J.)在一封信中說,澳門有 10,000名居民,其中包括異教徒和基督徒。 81578年,一位訪問澳門的耶穌會士報導說,澳門居民由來自各種族和持有各種信條的人組成,有 10,000人左右。9這些外文資料顯示, 16世紀 70– 80年代,澳門人口達到萬人左右。但就華人而言,仍沒有一個具體的數量指標。不過,我們可以根據有關記載做出一個大體可信的推測。據龍思泰記述, 1583年,“除了婦女、奴隸和數百名被買來的中國兒童外,澳門有900名葡萄牙人;此外還有許多來自葡屬亞洲的人。”10“被葡萄牙人買來的中國兒童”即達到數百名,如果再加上沒有具體統計資料的中國商民、傭工技藝人等,可以推測,16世紀後期,澳門半島上中國人的數量已接近外國人口數量。(二) 17世紀前 40年17世紀初,澳門的中外人口都在增長。 1601年(萬曆二十九年)遊歷澳門的王士性說:香山澳“今則高居大廈,不減城市,聚落萬頭。”11稍後的中文文獻記載,澳門人口總量基本上還在10,000人左右波動。“番人既築城,居(聚)海外雜番,廣通貿易,至萬餘人。”12到1619 年(萬曆四十七年)總兵許弘綱、巡按御使王命璿奏稱:“澳夷,佛郎機一種。先年市舶於澳,供稅二萬以充兵餉。近且移之島中,列屋築台,增置火器,種落已至萬餘。”13可見,到17世紀的最初20年,澳門城內中外人口總數已經超過一萬。明朝末年,統治腐敗、經濟衰退、社會動盪、民不聊生,背井離鄉的中國民人四處尋找出路。內地特別是沿海地帶許多無法生存的中國人選擇入海為盜,更多無以為生的貧民選擇經濟發展較好的澳門謀求生路,於是, 17 世紀初澳門中國人口大量增加。荷蘭駐巴達維亞總督科恩(P. Coen )寫於1621年1月的報告稱:“目前在澳門有 700–800葡萄牙人和混血兒,約10,000名中國人。”14 一名匿名作者寫道:16 21 年,澳門有 700– 800 歐洲葡萄牙人,約10,000名中國人。15這兩條資料顯示,17世紀20年代初期,中國人較之以前明顯增加,達到約10,000名。這是目前為止我們所得到的第一個有關華人的具體資料,據此,我們對澳門華人的規模有了一個比較明確的認識:到17世紀20年代,澳門原有的中國人口,加上陸續遷移進來的中國人,澳門的中國人口已有萬名左右。另據到過澳門的英國人理查(Ri chard)1621年的記載,四分之三的澳門人口是中國人。16可見,澳門的華人在數量上已經佔據了明顯的優勢。17 世紀 30 年代,澳門的葡萄牙人數目有所回升,由17世紀20年代的700–8 00人回復到1 630年的900–1000人。17至於該時期的中國人口,中文文獻有一些大概的描述。 1630 年,禮科給事中盧兆龍上言:“閩之奸徒,聚食於澳,教誘生事者不下二三萬人。粵之盜賊亡命投倚為患者,不可數計。”181631年,胡平運疏稱:“而大蠹則而在閩商,其聚會於粵,以澳為利者亦不下數萬人。”19 根據這些記載,澳門此時有2–3萬名華人,顯示了華人快速增長的趨勢。法利亞‧伊‧索薩( Fari a e Souz a)描寫1636年澳門黃金時代時指出:“就人數和類型來說,澳門不算大,有大約1000名葡萄牙人;在穿 和生活上完全葡萄牙化的中國基督徒為數甚眾;而那些仍舊保持其異教徒生活方式的人,即手藝人、店舖攤主、商人和倒賣者,達到6000人。”20 這是一段描寫華人人數的重要史料,第一,試圖將華人群體按基督教徒和異教徒分類記述,這有助於對華人群體的深入研究;第二,為我們提供了又一個華人人口的資料,據此我們得知,澳門有6000名沒有皈依天主教的華人。17世紀40年代,澳門人口因為明清戰爭而達到了前所未有的巔峰。烏塞比奧‧阿爾內茲神父(Pe.Euse bio Arnaiz)說:在1640年,澳門的總人口已達到40,000人。21 1644年11月7日,澳葡議事會議員羅倫索‧門德斯‧科爾代羅(Al derm an Lourenço MendesCordei ro)致信國王若昂四世,向國王請求設法與襲擊澳門商船的荷蘭人修好,否則,將會失去這裏的40,000生靈。22據此報告,澳門居民有40,000人。這無疑是由於中國人為了逃避明朝與滿洲人的戰爭而從廣東湧入而造成的。又據卡爾丁神父說:這一年澳門有40,000多名天主教徒,分別來自大約 1000個葡萄牙家庭和同樣數量的中國基督徒家庭。每個家庭或家族平均有20名基督徒,包括在上述家庭內生
15 3《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8活的士兵、槍手和奴隸。23考慮到前述此期澳門人口增長的特殊情況,我們認為,澳門總人口達到 40,000人是可信的,而卡爾丁神父關於澳門有40,000名天主教徒的說法是誇大之詞,不可作為衡量此時澳門人口天主教化程度的指標加以引用。三、清前期澳門的華人人口資料(一) 17世紀50–80年代1645年以後華洋人口都在減少。主要受 1639年以後澳門海外貿易危機 24的影響,澳門葡萄牙人及其它國家和地區的商民日益減少。中國人口浪潮隨戰爭進程和尋求海外移民而漸漸消退,居住澳門的華人數量逐漸回落到戰前的規模。 17世紀 40年代末直到60年代前期,中外史料普遍缺乏記載澳門人口的具體資料。隨清政府“禁海”、“遷界”政策的推行,澳門的葡萄牙人口逐漸增長,而中國人口卻因這一政策的實施而大量減少,所剩只是隸屬於葡萄牙人的中國基督徒人口以及小股明朝遺民抗清勢力。按照清政府的要求,澳門的中國人幾乎全部遷往內地,導致澳門人口驟然下降。與 17 世紀前期比較,華洋比例突然倒置,澳門幾乎沒有中國人, 1683年(康熙二十二年),工部尚書杜臻巡視廣東海防後寫道:“島中居人皆番彝,約千餘家。土人有非時闌出者,關吏呵止之,彝亦不得輒入焉。然嶴人食糧皆仰給內地,土人常繈負至關前與為市。”25同一時期的其他作者也有類似的描述:“澳門離香山百里,向在界外,……有城 26皆鬼子所居,無漢人。”27“城中皆番人所居,無漢人。”28這是澳門人口史上的一個特殊時期。(二) 17世紀末至 18世紀30年代1684年清政府解除海禁後,外國商人可以在粵東自由貿易,並可以租屋居住澳門,葡萄牙人受到衝擊,人口減少,而非葡萄牙籍的其他外籍人數量卻漸漸增多。同時,海禁解除後,內地的中國人又一次掀起返回澳門和移民澳門的熱潮。澳門中國人數量穩步增加,很快扭轉了外國人多、中國人少的比例狀況。169 1 年,澳葡議事會召開會議,與會人員認為:“中國人要比葡萄牙人多得多;而葡萄牙人幾乎都是在印度或澳門出生的混血兒。”29到了1696年,澳門的中國人口進一步增多,食品亦更加昂貴,以至於議事會曾發佈一個公告,要把他們趕出去。 30 又據佛朗西斯科‧德‧索薩(F rang ci s co deSouza)記述,1697年,澳門有150個葡萄牙人家庭,基督徒總人數達19,500人,其中16,000是婦女,在城市內生活 1000名中國異教徒、工匠(of ic i a is)31 和商人32。1724年12月11日(雍正二年十月二十六日),兩廣總督孔毓珣派人清查澳門西洋人數和船隻數目後稱:西洋人男婦共3567口,附近民人在澳居住生理,共男婦2524口。 33綜合上述記載可知,從康熙末年至雍正早期,澳門的人口有了較大的恢復,雖然尚不知華人的總人數,但卻有了一個有關城內華人的具體資料:華人比外籍人口少千名左右。四、乾嘉道三朝澳門華人人口資料(一) 乾隆時期1727年(雍正五年),雍正皇帝下令取消南洋貿易禁令,澳門葡萄牙人的南洋貿易壟斷權隨之喪失,貿易逐步轉向衰弱。34這不僅影響了經濟,而且損失了大量的葡屬人口,致使葡萄牙人口的發展一度處於停滯狀態。18世紀30–40年代,澳門的中國人數量繼續增長。耶穌會士杜赫德在 1735年(雍正十二年)記述道:“中國人的數目越來越多,而葡萄牙人仍然幾乎全是混血兒。”35 1742年8月,廣東按察使司潘思 奏報:“澳夷計男婦三千五百有奇,內地傭工藝業之民雜居澳土者二千餘人,均得樂業安居。”36 1743年,廣州將軍策楞等奏稱:“澳門地方原系西洋夷人賃地居住,自前明至今垂二百年,在內開設市舶,共計番夷男婦約有三千五百餘名口,加以內地傭工術藝之民雜居澳境者,又不下兩千餘人。”37另一項記載更為具體:“今澳地夷人計四百二十三戶,男婦三千四百三十餘口。漢民賃居澳地者,計八百五十四戶,男婦二千五百七十餘口。”38據當時生活在澳門的瑪利亞神父(J os é de J es usMar ia)記載,1745年澳門有外籍人口 5212人,中國人8000人。 39這裏的華人資料,應該包括了城外的人數。1747年1月(乾隆十一年十二月),兩廣總督臣策楞等奏報:“計在澳番人共四百二十餘家,男婦三千四百餘名口,而民人之附居澳地者,戶口亦約略相同,俱僦屋以居,在彼營工貿易。”40上述資料顯示,18世紀40年代,澳門的外籍基
明清時期澳門華人人口總量考澳門研究15 4第47期督徒人口大致保持在3000–4000人之間,中國人增加到8000人,而在澳門城內居住的中國人有了較大增長,已經接近外籍人口的規模。於是,關於澳門的華人人口,我們獲得了這樣一個重要的事實:至乾隆早期,華人不僅在澳門人口總量上大大超過了外籍人口,甚至在澳城以內,也接近外籍人口,華洋比例大體相當。這是明清時期澳門人口發展中的一個重要變化。18世紀40年代以後,澳門的貿易一直處於勉強維持的低潮時期,“各番生齒日繁,回易之利亦減於昔,以故來澳之夷頗少,而在澳者又多死徙而去。”41同時,可能由於葡屬人口的減少,騰出了更多的生存空間,也由於內地生存環境的惡化,澳門的中國人數量因中國人的湧入而突然增加了。據張甄陶寫於1750年的文章記載,“澳中民夷雜處,數盈二萬”42,“今在澳之夷約六百餘家,每家約三男而五女”43,即接近5000人,可知華人人數為15,000左右。約1757年,澳門葡萄牙“其戶口三千有奇,白主黑奴”44。顯示在18世紀50年代中期,居住澳門的葡萄牙人略有減少,而中國人口則顯著增加。據《1 772年1月22日澳門人口報告》記載,1772年澳門共有 26,000 人,其中外國人 6000 ,中國人20,000。 45據《 1775年1月8日澳門人口概覽》記載,1775年,澳門總人口達到25,0 00–27,000人,其中外籍基督徒人口4973人,中國人口20,000–22,000人。461777 年 8月 8 日,澳門主教基馬良斯(Ale xa ndre d aSil v a Pedr os a G uim arães)在致澳門議事會的信中說:該市的中國人有近22,000人;而所有基督徒的人數,不論老幼、黑白、男女,總數不超過 6000人。471779年,據澳門總督給葡印總督的信函記載,澳門有18,000–20,000名中國人。48可見,乾隆中後期,澳門的中國人約佔人口總數的3/4以上,中國人的人數大大超出外國人。18世紀80–90年代,正處在清朝乾隆末年與嘉慶之交,當時清政府的吏治腐敗,貪污搜刮,天災連年,沿海地區內地民人不堪清政府的賦役重負,一部分人被迫轉向澳門地方,結果使得澳門華人數量有了進一步的增長。1784 年葡王馬利亞一世發佈的《王室制誥》中稱,本市住 大量的中國家庭,其數目為中、葡基督徒家庭人數的三、四倍。49這一年,澳門有30,000名中國人,1788年,仍保持這個數位。 50若澤‧瑪利亞‧馬亞(Dr. Jo sé Mari a M aia)報導說:“中國人逐漸被允許在城內和牆界外(ext ra- muros)居住。一些中國人的住宅與葡萄牙人的房屋相互交錯地建立起來;在沙梨頭(Patane)、望廈和其他一些不太起眼的地方開始出現居民,並且迅速增長,結果,在短短數年當中,葡萄牙人被圍在了佔絕大多數的華人中間。1788年,由議事會出資在城內建立了一個新街區;中國人口不僅被保留下來,而且不斷增長,以至多年以來他們的人口就6倍於葡人。從那以後,中國人逐漸佔據了牆界外最大部分的地區,……在牆界內,中國人也建立起了一些居民點,而葡萄牙人完全被包圍起來了。”51 18世紀80年代後期至18世紀末期,中國人與外國人的數量差距在原有的基礎上明顯起來。根據《179 1年12月28日、29日澳門主教的兩封信》記載,1791年澳門總人口27,223人,其中,外籍人口5233人,中國人口22,000人52,中國人口居明顯多數。1793年,由於限制中國人居住的各種措施被廢除,加上澳門附近地區常受海盜的侵擾,中國人紛紛湧入澳門,致使澳門人口大增。 53據路過澳門的英國赴華使團成員斯當東記載,1793年,澳門共有12,000人,其中一半以上是中國人。住在澳門的葡萄牙人有4000 多。54(二) 嘉慶道光時期進入19世紀,中外人口都有增長。據德吉格內斯(De G ui gnes s)在 19世紀初的估計,當時澳門人口達12,000人,其中華人有8000人。55這兩個資料應該不是澳門華人的總數。一項合理的估計認為,此時澳門的總人口應該在25,000–30,000之間。561817年4月11日(嘉慶二十二年二月二十五日),澳門西洋理事官 哆回稟署香山知縣舒懋官:“至若澳夷男婦名口,生齒日繁,比照上年名數,有增無減。”57華人的增長更為顯著。據統計, 1825年,加上牆界外的人口,中國人有22,500人58,另據議事會官員 哆在其公文中提供的資料,到1829年,中國人增加到40,000。59 華人佔據了澳門總人口的絕大部分。此後有所下降,1834年,澳門華人約 30,000人。60直到鴉片戰爭爆發後的1842年,澳門華人人口仍維持在30,000人的規模。 61值得注意的是,嘉道年間,由於中國政府和澳葡
15 5《澳門研究》第47期2008. 8當局相繼取消了華人進入澳門城內的禁令,城外的中國人也漸漸遷入城內,致使澳門城內的中國人有了較為顯著的增加。嘉慶十四年(1809年)二月,廣東巡撫韓崶奏報:“近年(澳葡)生齒日繁,大小男婦約計共有三千餘口。其華人在澳開舖落業者,男婦共有三千一百餘名口。”62澳門城內華人人數已經接近澳葡人數。1822年,澳門約有8000中國人63,這個資料應該是指澳門城內的華人人口。據 1839年林則徐派人調查的結果,澳門有西洋夷人 720戶,男女5612口;華人共 1772戶,7033口。 64澳門城內華洋比例已發生變化,在中國史料中,澳門城內的中國人數量第一次明顯超過了外國人。五、結束語綜上所述,在鴉片戰爭前的整個明清時期,受政治、經濟、軍事等因素的影響,澳門華人人口的規模一直處在不斷的波動之中,體現出移民人口的顯著特色。但波動之中依然顯示出不斷增長的必然趨勢。華人人口不僅在澳門總人口中大大超出外國人的數量,約佔澳門人口總數的3/4以上,而且,在臨近本文論述的時期結束時,華人在澳門城牆內的人數也趕上甚至超過了外籍人口。華人已經明顯地成為澳門半島人口的主體。華人成為澳門人口的主體,是明清時期澳門歷史發展進程中最值得注意的重要現象之一,對澳門歷史的發展具有深遠影響。華人大量入居澳門,深刻影響了澳門的社會結構,形成了澳門人口的混合性特徵以及分佈格局上的華洋雜居;華人在澳門從事各種職業,成為澳門社會不同社區得以運作的必備條件。華人成為澳門人口的主體,還有更加深遠的文化意義。隨 華人的大量入居,中華文化在澳門地區紮根、成長和發展,不僅使得澳門歷史文化形成了中西合璧的特色,也在中西文化雜陳的所謂“天主聖名之城”造就了一塊中華文化走向世界的前沿陣地。註釋:1 Pa dre Ma nu el Te ixe ira, Os Ma cae nse s (Maca u: I mp re ns aN aciona lde Macau , 196 5) , p p. 61 –65; A. M. Martin s do Vale,Os Portu guese s em M acau (1 750 –1 800) (Ma ca u: Insti tut oPor t uguês do Orie nte, 19 97) , pp. 117–13 0.2 陳偉明:《明清澳門與內地移民》,北京:中國華僑出版社, 200 2 年;楊仁飛:《清中葉前的澳門平民階層及社會流動》,載於《文化雜誌》(中文版),第57 期, 2005 年,第 87–98 頁。3 張廷茂:《明清時期澳門海上貿易史》,澳門:澳亞週刊出版有限公司, 2 00 4 年,第一章《澳門海上貿易的基礎》。4 [明] 陳吾德:《謝山存稿》卷 1 ,《條陳東粵疏》,載於《四庫全書存目叢書》集部,第 13 8 冊,濟南:齊魯書社, 1 99 7 年,第 3 1-3 2 頁。5 [清]張廷玉等:《明史》卷 325 ,載於《佛郎機傳》(標點本),北京:中華書局, 1 97 4 年,第 84 33 頁。6 Pe . Manu el Te ixeira, Pr imórd ios d e Macau (Ma ca u: I nstit ut oC ultu ra l d e Ma cau, 1 990 ), pp . 36–37 .7 [明]葉權著,凌毅點校:《賢博篇》,北京:中華書局, 19 87 年,第 44 頁。8 Pe . Man ue l Te ixeira , Ma ca u no Séc. XV I (Maca u: D irecçãodo s Se rvi ço s d e Educa ção e Cu ltu ra , 198 1) , p. 5 8.9 C har le s Ral ph Bo xer , “Ma cao as a R elig iou s a nd C om mer-cia l Ent rêpo t in t he 1 6t h an d 17 th Ce ntu r ies, ”A cta Asiat ica,Vo l. 2 6 (1 974 ), p . 65.1 0 An de rs L jung ste dt , An H isto r ical Sket ch o f th e Po rt ug ue seSe ttle ment s in Ch ina and of t he Roma n C at holic Chu rch an dMi ssion in C hi na (B ost on , 1 83 6; Ho ng Kon g: Vikin g K on gH ong Publ ica tion s, 1 992) , p. 22 .1 1 [明]王士性:《廣志繹》卷 4 ,載於呂景琳點校:《江南諸省》,北京:中華書局, 1 9 81 年,第 1 00 頁。1 2《明史》卷 325 ,《外國傳‧佛郎機傳》,第 8433 頁;[ 清] 王之春著,趙春晨點校:《清朝柔遠記》,北京:中華書局, 19 8 9 年,第 8 頁。1 3《明神宗實錄》卷 5 7 6 ,台北:台灣中央研究院歷史語言研究所, 1 9 62 年,第 8 頁。1 4 C ha r les R a lph Box er , E stu do s pa ra a Hi stó r ia de Maca u,Sécul os XVI a X VII I, 1o Tom o (Li sbo a, Fu nd ação Or ie nt e,19 91 ), p . 75.1 5 Almer ind o Le ssa , A Histó ria e o s Home ns da Prime ira Rep ub-lica De mocrát ica do Orie nt e – Bio logi a e So ciolog ia de um aI lha Ci vica (Ma cau: I mpren sa N acio nal, 197 4) , p. 15 4.1 6 Pe . Man uel Te ixeira, Os Macae nses , p . 3 7.1 7 Pe . Man uel Teixe ira, Ma ca u no Séc. XVII (Ma cau: Direcçãodo s Se rvi ço s d e Educa ção e Cu ltu ra , 198 2) , p. 5 0.1 8 中國歷史研究社編:《崇禎長編》卷 34 ,“崇禎三年五月”條,上海:上海書店, 1 98 2 年,第 2 0 54 頁。1 9 [清‧光緒]史澄:《廣州府志》卷 12 2 ,《列傳‧胡平運傳》,北京圖書館古籍珍本叢刊第 4 0 冊,北京:書目文獻出版社, 19 98 年,第 1 60 頁。2 0 Fa r ia e Sou za, I nd ia Por t ug ue sa, Vo l. VI (P or t o: L ivrar i aC iviliza ção , 19 45 ), p. 2 30 ; Pe . Ma nue l Teixe ira, Maca u n oSéc. XVII , p. 63 .2 1 Pe . Eu seb io Arn aiz, Maca u, Mãe das M issõe s n o Ext rem oOrient e (M acau , 1 956 ) , p. 34 .2 2 Pe . Man uel Tei xe ira, Os M acae nses , p p. 2 5–26 .2 3 Pe . Man uel Te ixeira, Os Macae nses , p . 3 7.2 4 同註 3 ,第 13 2–1 50 頁。2 5 [清] 杜臻:《粵閩巡視記略》卷 2 ,文淵閣四庫全書縮印本,第 2 1 頁。2 6 亦稱澳城,係指澳門葡人於明朝末年在澳門半島中部所修建的城牆。主要由兩段構成:北段開始於沙梨頭,經過大砲台、水坑尾,到加斯欄砲台;南段開始
明清時期澳門華人人口總量考澳門研究15 6第47期於燒灰爐砲台,經由西望洋山砲台,結束於內港岸邊。參見劉芳輯,章文欽校:《清代澳門中文檔案匯編》,澳門:澳門基金會, 1 9 99 年,第 29 頁;Jo rgeGra ça , The For tificat ions of Macao: Their Design and Hist ory(2nd Editio n) (Macau : Direcção dos Serviços de Tur ismode Ma cau, 198 4), p. 1 21.2 7 [清]吳震方:《嶺南雜記》,載於《四庫全書存目叢書》史部,第 2 49 冊,濟南:齊魯書社, 1 99 6 年,第13 頁。2 8 [清]張渠,程明校點:《粵東聞見錄》卷上《澳門》,廣州:廣東高等教育出版社, 1 9 9 0 年,第 6 頁。2 9 Almer indo Lessa, A Histór ia e os H omen s da Pr imeira R epu b-lica De mocrática d o Or ien te – Biol ogia e Socio logi a d e umaIlh a Civi ca , p. 115.3 0 Memor ias de M acau, Ms. BN L, II, 15 7 v., in Alm er in do Lessa,A Histó ri a e o s H omen s d a Prim eira Re pub lica D emo crá ticado Or ient e – Biolog ia e Sociologia de uma I lha C ivica , p. 115.3 1 有將“ch ina s ge nt io s, o fici ais e me rca do res”譯為“友好的中國官吏和商人”者(施白蒂:《澳門編年史(十六──十八世紀)》中譯本,澳門:澳門基金會,199 5 年,第 66 頁),誤。此處應為“中國異教徒、工匠和商人”之意。3 2 Pe. Francisco de So uza, Orient e Co nqu istad o à Je su Cr isto(Por to: Le llo, 197 8) , p. 1131.3 3 中國第一歷史檔案館等編:《明清時期澳門問題檔案文獻匯編(一)》,檔案卷,北京:人民出版社, 19 99年,第 1 4 4 頁。3 4 同註 3 ,第 25 0–27 0 頁。3 5 Almer indo Lessa, A Histór ia e os H omen s da Pr imeira R epu b-lica De mocrática d o Or ien te – Biol ogia e Socio logi a d e umaIl ha C ivica, p . 12 6.3 6 廣東按察使潘思 :《奏請於澳門地方移駐同知一員專理夷務折》,載於《明清時期澳門問題檔案文獻匯編(一)》,檔案卷,第 1 92 –1 93 頁。3 7《廣州將軍策楞等奏請移同知駐紮澳門前山以重海防折》,載於《明清時期澳門問題檔案文獻匯編(一)》,檔案卷,第 1 9 6 –19 7 頁。3 8 [清]王植:《崇雅堂稿》卷二,《香山險要說‧覆撫都堂王》,載於《四庫全書存目叢書》集部,第 2 72冊,濟南:齊魯書社, 1 99 6 年,第 39 頁。3 9 José d e Je su s Mar ia, Ásia Sínica e Jap ónica, Vo l. I I (Ma ca u:Inst itut o C ultural de Macao / C entro de Estudo s Marítim os deMa cau , 1 988 ) , p p. 23 1, 2 32 . 作者按:有著作將華人人數 8 000 誤刊為 5 000 人。見施白蒂:《澳門編年史(十六──十八世紀)》中譯本,第 1 35 頁。4 0 兩廣總督策愣等:《奏明查封澳門進教寺不許內地民人入教折》,載於《明清時期澳門問題檔案文獻匯編(一)》,檔案卷,第 2 26 頁。4 1 [清] 張甄陶:《澳門圖說》,載於 [清] 賀長齡等編:《清經世文編》卷 8 3 ,《兵政十四‧海防上》,光緒十二年(1 8 86 年)思補樓重校本,第 59 頁。4 2 [清] 張甄陶:《上廣督論制馭澳夷狀》,載於[清 ]賀長齡等編:《清經世文編》卷 83 ,《兵政十四‧海防上》,第 6 7 頁。4 3 同註 41 。4 4 [清]湯彝:《盾墨》卷 4 ,《澳門西蕃》,載於《續修四庫全書》第 4 4 5 冊,上海:上海古籍出版社,20 02 年,第 1 0 頁。4 5 “Rela ção da Po pula ção da C idad e de Maca u, 22 d e Ja neirode 17 72”, in Arq uivo Hi st ór ic o Ul tra mar in o (AH U), M aca u,cx. 6 , d oc. 4 8.4 6 “Re zum o d e t odo s os h ome ns d e M acau , 8 de Jan eiro de177 5”, in Arqu ivo H istór ico U ltrama rin o (AH U), Macau, cx. 8,do c. 6 .4 7 “Ca rt a do Bispo D . Ale xand re da Si lva Ped rosa Guim arãe sao Sena do a 8 de Ag osto de 1777 ”, in Arq uivos d e Ma ca u, 3asér ie, vo l. XVI, 197 1, p . 204 .4 8 “Carta do governad or da Ind ia ao gove rna dor de Maca u, d e 9de M aio de 178 0”, in Arq uivo s d e M aca u, 3 a sér ie, vol. X,196 8, p. 2 58.4 9 “P rovide ncias dad as pela Rainh a No ssa Se nho ra para o por toe cid ade de Macau em 4 d e a br il de 178 3”, in Ant ónio Aresta& Ce l in a Ve ig a d e Ol ive ir a (ed s. ) , O Se n a do : Fo nt e sDo cu me nt ai s pa ra a H ist ór i a d o Le al Se na do de Ma ca u,Maca u: Le al Se na do de Macau , 199 8, p. 2 43.5 0 “O t ermo do C on selh o Geral d e 1 5 de Ju nh o de 1 78 4”¡AinArquivos de Macau, 3a série , vo l. I V, 196 5, p. 235 ; “C arta doSen ad o a Rai nha D . Ma ria I , de 1 2 de Ja neiro d e 178 8”, inArqui vo s d e M acau , 3a sér ie , vol. XVI I, 1 972 , p. 5 3.5 1 Pe. Man uel Teixeira, Ma ca u no Séc. XVII I (Ma ca u: I mprensaNa ciona l, 198 4) , p. 6 69.5 2 “Ca rt as d o Bisp o d e Ma cau de 28 e 29 d e D eze mb ro de17 91 ”, in Arq uivo H ist or ico U ltra mar in o (AH U), M acau , cx.19 , docs. 2 0 e 21.5 3 C. A. Mo nta lto de Jesus, Ma ca u Histó r ico (Ma ca u: Livros doOrie nte , 1990 ), p . 183.5 4 [英]斯當東(Sir Ge orge Stau nton),葉篤義譯:《英使謁見乾隆紀實》,香港:三聯書店有限公司, 1 9 9 4年,第 45 5–4 56 頁。5 5 José de Aqu ino Guima rães e Freita s, Memo ria so bre M acao(Coim bra: R eal Imp rensa da U niversida de , 1 82 8) , p. 15 .5 6 A. M. Ma rti ns do Va le , Os Po rtu gu ese s e m M acau (17 50 –180 0) , p p. 119–12 0.5 7 劉芳輯,章文欽校:《清代澳門中文檔案匯編》,第18 頁。5 8 C. A. Mo nta lto de Jesus, Ma ca u Histó r ico (Ma ca u: Livros doOrie nte , 1990 ), p . 183.5 9 Pe. Ma nu el Teixe ira , Os Ma caen ses , pp . 32 –3 3.6 0 Pe . M an ue l Te ixei ra, Ma cau Atra vês de Século s (Ma ca u:Imp rensa Na ciona l, 1 981 ) , p . 55.6 1《澳門統計處關於此地區的華人人口報告》,載於古萬年、戴敏麗:《澳門及其人口演變五百年( 1 5 0 0–20 00 年)》,澳門:澳門統計暨普查司, 19 9 8 年,第82 頁。6 2《明清時期澳門問題檔案文獻匯編(一)》,檔案卷,第 7 24 –72 5 頁;又見盧坤:《廣東海防匯覽》卷 3 1 ,《方略二十》,第 9 –1 0 頁。6 3 Almer indo Lessa, A Histór ia e os H omen s da Pr imeira R epu b-lica De mocrática d o Or ien te – Biol ogia e Socio logi a d e umaIl ha C ivica, p . 15 4.6 4 [清]林則徐:《林文忠公政書》乙集卷 6《使粵奏稿》,北京:中國書店, 19 9 1 年,第 2 頁。