I2008. 2法律與政治類三部選舉法律的修訂與政治民主化進程的加快 ......................................................................楊允中 1比較法視野下復原性物權變動的善意保護 ..............................................................................李磊明 6“一國兩制”下法律信息共享的若干思考 ................................................................................李燕萍 13澳門環境刑事立法現狀與思考 .................................................................................................王思遠 16經濟類義烏“小商品市場經濟”的成功及對澳門的啟示 ..........................澳門大學澳門研究中心課題組 20新時期澳門加速發展中新問題應對思考 .............................................................周運源、李一瀟等 36澳門經濟發展中產業定位問題研究 ..........................................................................黃燕芬、董進修 43澳門博彩業產業組織結構的選擇 .............................................................................................張作文 50Value Judgment and Public Responsibility of the Macau Gaming Industry .................. CHIANG Wa Fong, Cora 59問題賭徒在澳門 .........................................................................................................蘇恆泰、鄭雪珍 65澳門移民與外勞對勞動力市場的影響 ......................................................................................聶林波 76Environmental Awareness and Initiatives amongst Hotels in Macau ....................................... WAN Yim King 84社會與歷史類探索澳門文化建設的新理路──關於澳門新移民文化現狀的調查分析 .........................................................朱壽桐、王一暉 93Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?......................................................................................................... MORRISON Keith, GU Wei Ping Heven 97Nursing Safety: An Increasingly Global Issue and the Challenges for Macau’sNursingEducation ................................................................................................................................ LIN Wei 114明朝守澳官的行政架構及其對後世之影響 ..............................................................................張海珊 120廣州體制與澳門模式差別性研究 .............................................................................................王巨新 127賈梅士與澳門 .............................................................................................................................黃鴻釗 134清季江南儲材學堂略論 ............................................................................................ 夏一泉、于保山 143其他調整思維,擴大共識,澳珠實現同城化共同繁榮 ............................................《澳門研究》編輯部 148知識、信任與溝通──第二屆中歐論壇記實 ..........................................................................婁勝華 153重拾澳門記憶──評《早期澳門史論》....................................................................................瑪爾丹 159目 錄
澳門研究II第44期Law and PoliticsThe Modification of the Laws for Three Elections and the Acceleration of thePolitical Democratic Progress ......................................................................................... IEONG Wan Chong 1Comparison Study of the Bona Fide Protection of “the Restitution of Transfer of Property”................ LI Leiming 6On the Legal Information Sharing System of “One Country, Two Systems”....................................... LI Yanping 13Current Situation and Some Thoughts of Macau Environmental Criminal Law ............................ WANG Siyuan 16EconomicsThe Success of Yiwu Small Commodities Economy and Its Implications to Macau............................................................ Research Group of Centre for Macau Studies, University of Macau 20On Several Issues about the Development of Macau in the New Era .................. ZHOU Yunyuan, LI Xiao, et al 36Study of the Industry Orientation in Macau’s Economic Development ................ HUANG Yanfen, DONG Jinxiu 43Macau’s Choice on the Industrial Structure of the Gambling Industry ................................ CHEONG Chok Man 50Value Judgment and Public Responsibility of the Macau Gaming Industry .................. CHIANG Wa Fong, Cora 59In-depth Analysis of Problem Gamblers in Macau ......................................... SO Hang Tai, CHEANG Sut Chan 65The Influence of Immigration and Imported Labors on the Labor Market of Macau ............................. NIE Linbo 76Environmental Awareness and Initiatives amongst Hotels in Macau ........................................... WAN Yim King 84Society and HistoryA New Route to Build Macau Culture: An Analysis to the Investigation of theNew Immigrants’Cultural Life in Macau ............................................................. ZHU Shoutong, WANG Hui 93Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System? ...... MORRISON Keith, GU Wei Ping Heven 97Nursing Safety: An Increasingly Global Issue and the Challenges for Macau’sNursingEducation ............................................................................................................................... LIN Wei 114The Principal Officials in Macau of Ming Dynasty Governments’Organization for the Administrationand the Influence on People at that Time and the Following Generation ........................... CHEONG Hoi San 120On the Differences between Canton System and Macau Model ...................................................... WANG Juxin 127Luis de Camões and Macau ................................................................................................... HUANG Hongzhao 134On Jiangnan Chucai School in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Period of Public of China.................................................................................................................................. XIA Quan, YU Baoshan 143OthersSummary of the 3rd Forum of Macau-Zhuhai Development ............. Editorial Dept. of Journal of Macau Studies 148Knowledge, Trust and Communication: on the Second Sino-European Forum .......................... LOUShenghua 153Recall the Memory of Macau .................................................................................................................. MA Demi 159CONTENTS
15《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2中下階層的基本生活要求,對社會秩序的穩定發展有 舉足輕重的作用。這對於內地許多城市正在發展的經濟適用房管理制度有一定的參考價值。此外,隨 內地與港澳地區經貿活動日益頻繁,執法信息共享有助於打擊跨境違法犯罪行為,共同創建和諧的法治社會。最後,有必要建立完善的司法案例共享體制。在司法領域內,特別行政區存在一個完全獨立於國家司法組織的地區司法組織。兩部基本法第 19條都規定,特別行政區享有獨立的司法權和終審權。可見,地方法院擁有相對完整終審權的局面已經出現,這是對各國奉行的司法權統一觀念的重要突破。因此,認真觀察回歸後特別行政區法院的司法案例對於衡量港澳地區居民自由權利受保障狀態,總結特別行政區司法獨立運行效果對內地法治發展有 重要的借鑒價值。此外,基本法明確規定,特別行政區法院負責對基本法的相關條款予以適用和解釋。從某種意義上說,區域憲政已經出現,基本法適用過程中發生的司法案例既是特別行政區本身案件,也是研究中國憲政發展不可或缺的資料,值得認真對待。信息是現代社會中個人、組織進行活動的基礎與原動力,是決定其發展與進步的舉足輕重的因素;而信息化的程度則是衡量一個國家發展程度與文明程度的重要標誌。正是隨 信息在社會中的重要性的凸現,信息公開的價值也日益突出。然而,在“一國兩制”的背景下,不僅要重視政府對公民的信息公開行為,保障公民的知情權,更應當關注內地與港澳地區法律信息共享平台的建設,促進法治領域交流,真正建成富有中國特色的法治社會。註釋:1 周黎明:《法律資訊特性及其傳播》,載於《圖書館論壇》,第 3 期, 19 99 年。2 王四新:《資訊和表達為甚麼都要自由》, 200 7 年 11月 1 4 日, h t t p: / / a r t ic le . ch in a la w i nf o . co m/ a r t i cle / u se r /ar t icle _displa y. asp?Article ID= 381 06 。3 季衛東:《以法治指數為鑒》,載於《財經》雜誌,總 1 96 期。
19《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2該代表人系為被代表人的利益而作出行為。 作為代表依據的行為不生效力,不妨礙上款規定的適用。”這一規定是代表人或者代理人以被代表人或者被代理人的名義而實施犯罪的情形,但是否可以理解為是《澳門刑法典》對法人犯罪的處罰規定,即僅處罰法人的代表人和直接行為人,尚值得學理上的探討。然而,現今法人正逐步成為危害環境的最主要主體,如果不對法人犯罪做出明確的規定,那麼對於環境刑法的內容顯然是一個重大的缺失,也不利於澳門的環境保護。第三,關於環境刑事違法加重處罰。鑒於環境問題涉及的範圍之廣泛,已超出了一個國家或地區所能控制的範圍。所以,環境刑事違法行為的社會危害性也必定加大。基於此,是否應當考慮加重環境違法的刑事處罰力度,也是目前世界各國及地區所探討的內容。亦是值得澳門本地環境刑事立法專研和思考的內容。四、結語本文僅僅是試圖通過對澳門環境刑事立法的現狀作一個較為詳細的介紹,並且結合當今主要國家對環境刑事立法的制度,產生的一些簡單思考。除此之外還應當看到澳門的環境刑事立法還涉及到更多需要我們探討的東西,諸如環境犯罪產生的刑事司法區際協助問題、制定環境刑事特別法中相關的立法技術問題等等。澳門作為具有一套獨立於中國大陸的司法體系,如果在法律建制上不夠完整和完善,那麼對於人們所期待的“依法治澳”則會顯得力不從心。況且,環境刑事立法在全世界大部分國家都已經充分重視的情況下,澳門再不積極的回應,亦會使得其脫離環境治理的隊伍。同時,環境刑法制度作為環境保護法律制度裏重要的組成內容,更加需要得到本澳相關的學者、專家的重視。希望能夠把澳門的環境刑事立法理論研究推向一個新的高潮。註釋:1 楊春洗:《刑法理念新探索──楊春洗文集》,北京:北京大學出版社, 2 00 3 年,第 29 1 頁。2 陳泉生等:《環境法學基本理論》,北京:中國環境科學出版社, 20 04 年,第 5 09 --51 0 頁。3 同註 1 ,第 27 4--27 5 頁。4 詳見澳門特別行政區環境委員會網頁, h t t p : / / w w w .am bie nte .g ov.mo /t chin ese/ 03/ 。5 除外的規定也僅僅限於少數的單行刑法中,可以說澳門刑法體系中基本上沒有對法人犯罪做出具體的規定。參考書目:1. 汪勁:《環境法律的理念與價值追求──環境立法目的論》,北京:法律出版社, 1999 年。2. 肖劍鳴、歐陽光明等:《比較環境法專論》,北京:中國環境科學出版社, 2004 年。3. 黃明健:《環境法制度論》,北京:中國環境科學出版社, 2004 年。4. 周珂:《環境法》,北京:中國人民大學出版社,2000 年。5. 王秀梅:《破壞環境資源保護罪》,北京:中國人民公安大學出版社, 2003 年。6. 馮軍譯:《德國刑法典》,北京:中國政法大學出版社, 2000 年。7. 趙秉志:《澳門刑法典、澳門刑事訴訟法典》,北京:中國人民大學出版社, 1999 年。
義烏“小商品市場經濟”的成功及對澳門的啟示澳門研究20第44期一、前言“一個沒有特殊自然資源的小型經濟體如何在全球市場做強、做精?”“小型經濟體如何實現產業多元化?”“經濟發展與文化之間有怎樣的關係?”2008年1月15--19日,由澳門大學澳門研究中心代主任楊允中教授、博士後研究員李紅、武漢大學博士生連信森組成的課題組,圍繞上述問題及其對澳門的借鑒,對快速崛起的國際商貿城義烏市進行深入調查,在該市外僑辦的精心安排下,先後走訪了義烏國際商貿城、工商學院、市建設規劃局、市發改局、市委宣傳部、市政府主要領導、市對外貿易經濟合作局、義烏市志編輯部、市經濟發展局及多個產業協會,以及榮獲“中國名牌”、“中國馳名商標”、“中國免檢商品”稱號並以品牌創新著稱的中國飾品行業龍頭企業新光控股集團有限公司、具“世界襪王”和“中國襪業第一品牌”之稱的浪莎集團、義烏第二中學等,廣泛地向當地政府官員、高校學者及工商社團負責人請教取經,聽取業內外專家和普通居民的見解。所到之處、所見之人從不同側面、不同角度,為義烏這顆改革開放新星的成長提供了令人十分敬佩的見證。以下是本次調查的初步報告。二、義烏經濟發展的基本經驗──“微型經濟理論”的解讀著名英國經濟學家E. F. Sc humac her 在 30多年前指出:我們大部分人都生長在“[家庭、公司、國家]越大越強”、“巨無霸[無敵]”、“規模經濟[規模越大越經濟]”等追求大規模產出的政治學與經濟學理論普及的年代,但是,1960年代以來,當我們仔細觀察,就能看到,一旦大規模組織成立,常伴隨 力圖化大為小的意圖。1所以,發展經濟學家曾提出“小的是美好的”說法。 2特別是 1 980 年代以來,隨 經濟全球一體化融合步伐的加快,並購(合併與收購,Mer ger and Ac qui si t i on)和擴張如火如荼,同時,跨越邊境的國際經濟合作也呈現分割化(F ragmentat i on)且分工日益細小化 3,“分包/外包”(outs ourc ing)、“細胞型組織”(C ell organi zat i on)、“小商品”、“縣域經濟”( c ounty -l ev el ec onomy)等等理念湧現,世界經濟逐步變成由無數產銷供應環節及大量活力十足的微型經濟體所集成。早在1990年代初期,本課題組的楊允中教授就已經提出澳門“微型經濟”學術理論 4,並在 21世紀初進一步發展,認為世界經濟在加速全球化、一體化同時,也伴隨一個有不斷細分、向微小化發展的趨勢。 5我們認為,義烏的“小商品市場經濟”不僅是全國改革開放的優異樣板,同時也是當代全球經濟微小化發展的一個成功典型。(一) 義烏總體概況義烏,古名烏傷,浙江中部的縣級市,屬金華市管轄,面積1105平方公里,2006年末戶籍人口 70.7萬人,暫住人口91.3萬人。6市場是義烏經濟的最大特色和優勢。7這座自稱為“建在市場上的城市”8,近年來,外來建設者數量均以 10%以上的年增長率飛速遞增。至2007年6月30日止,義烏登記發證的暫住人口突破100萬人,超過本地人口近30萬人,成為義烏“小商品市場經濟”的成功及對澳門的 示澳門大學澳門研究中心課題組* 中國人民大學國際關係學院政治學系碩士研究生
29《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2已提出文化大市建設目標。以全面提高市民的文明素質和全面提升城市文化內涵為重點,把義烏建設成市民素質優良、城市品位一流、教育科技發達、社會文明進步、文化繁榮開放,傳統文化與現代文化並存,華夏文化與世界文化交匯,物質文明與精神文明輝映,具有鮮明時代特徵和商貿特色的具有較大影響的文化大市,成為區域性的文化、休閒、娛樂中心。 47(四) 澳─義兩地經濟發展的關聯與合作建議儘管,從經濟發展類型來看,澳門是微型海島經濟,走資本主義道路,義烏是小型內陸經濟,走社會主義道路;兩地的經濟結構與產業發展水平都有很多差異,但是,從區域經濟的角度看,義烏與澳門具有一定的相似性: 都立足於“小”字──雖地域和本地市場狹小、沒有重大的自然資源和雄厚的產業基礎,但卻都以中小企業、小商品或特殊產業為開端,做活了本地經濟,形成豐富獨具特色的小城經濟; 兩地都受中國沿海經濟開放步伐的影響,都具有敢冒風險、敢闖市場的外向型商業文化精神,以商貿為帶動,積聚國際資源、形成經濟優勢產業,並發展成國際商貿城市; 兩地政府對市場都採取“有所作為”且“放水養魚”式的靈活監管措施,通過發放牌照、攤位營業執照等發牌的形式和會展業發展戰略,服務和管理市場;兩地都在制訂並完善全面打造國際性商貿都市以及壯大會展業和文化產業的發展戰略。從歷史上看,澳-義兩地人員與經貿來往密切,嘉慶《義烏縣誌》記載有義烏名人虞國鎮在任香山知縣時提出對澳門防禦策略。 48近年來,澳門義烏籍商界人士(如已故賀田先生、全國人大常委澳門廠商聯合會理事長賀一誠先生、澳門中國企業協會前任會長吳亦新先生等等),對義烏經濟的發展曾經作出過重要貢獻;2006年1月18日,浙江省首張澳門個體工商戶營業執照也是在義烏頒發、落戶於義烏國際商貿城的,如今,“澳門豆撈”在義烏頗負盛名。義烏方面, 2004--2007年間,連續在澳門舉辦“中國義烏國際小商品博覽會澳門推介會”,並隨浙江團參加澳門貿易與投資促進局舉辦的歷屆“澳門國際投資貿易展覽會(MIF)”,以及“澳門國際消費品展”(M ega Show Mac ao),積極利用“中國與葡語國家經貿服務平台”,擴大與葡語國家的經貿交流;在澳門投資、居留的義烏人也漸漸增多。近兩年,已先後有數批次澳門考察團到義烏參訪。重要的是,互相學習、互相支持、資源共享、優勢共用,雙方都應保持一個強烈的深度合作意願,具有審時度勢、順勢而進的雙贏思維。義烏良好的發展態勢與澳門近年快速發展,客觀上對澳義兩地在商品門類、產業內部及產業之間,擴大合作提供了新的平台,也為兩地廠家和商家的擴大合作提供了新的空間。註釋:1 Sch umach er , E. F., Sm all is B eau tif ul: A St ud y of Econ om-ics as if Peo ple Ma tt ered (UK: B lond a nd Br ig gs Ltd , 19 73 ),pp .5 2-53.2 參閱註 1 及其 1 985 年(商務印書館)和 20 07 年(譯林出版社)中文譯本。3 Jo ne s, R. W. & Kie rzko wski , H . , “Th e R ol e o f S ervi ces i nProdu ct ion an d In ternat ional T rade: A Theoreti cal Framew ork,” in Ron ald W. Jo nes an d Ann e O. Krue ger , (e ds.) , The Po liti-cal Econ omy of I nt ernat ion al Tra de (Basil Blackwe ll, 19 90 ),pp . 31 --48 .4 楊允中:《微型經濟:定位與發展》,澳門經濟學會出版, 1 99 9 年。5 I eong W. C ., Ieo ng S. L ., Tang O. L ., Lin S. S. et at ., A Stu dyon Co nt emporary Mini-econo mies (Un ion of Macao Scho lars,20 07) .6 義烏市統計局:《義烏統計年鑒 20 07》,第 12 2 頁。7 義烏市市場貿易發展局:《關於義烏市場發展情況介紹》。8 見於義烏市的多種宣傳資料。9 中國義烏門戶網站, h t t p: / / w w w . yw . g o v. c n/ l jy w / yw g l/csr k/ 。1 0 中國義烏門戶網站, h t t p: / / w w w . yw . g o v. c n/ l jy w / yw g l/w sjl / 。1 1《澳門展貿》,第 8 期, 2 00 7 年 12 月,第 83 頁。1 2 義烏市外僑辦:《看義烏》,第 1 期, 20 0 7 年,第 1頁。1 3《澳門展貿》,第 8 期,第 83 頁。1 4 義烏新聞網, 2 0 0 8 年 1 月 2 8 日的消息, h t t p : / / yc .yw ne ws. cn/ con te nt /2 00 801 /2 8/ ywn ew s_6 65 .h tm 。1 5 同上註。1 6 在 19 92 年 3 月舉行的全國十大市場新聞發佈會上,時任國家工商局副局長的曹天玷宣佈:浙江省義烏市小商品市場以成交額 1 0. 3 億元的業績榮居榜首。同年 9月 3 日,經國家工商局批准,義烏小商品市場正式命名為浙江義烏中國小商品城。經過 2 0 餘年的培育和發展,中國小商品城擁有篁園市場、賓王市場、國際商貿城三大市場集群,市場成交額連續多年位居全國工業品批發市場榜首,成了中國小商品的流通、研發、展示中心和重要的出口基地。1 7 這份報告的中文名稱是《震驚世界的中國數字》,其評估大致依賴於以下資料:義烏市場已經歷了 2 4 年的發展歷程,市場經營面積由最初的 4 000 多平方米擴
義烏“小商品市場經濟”的成功及對澳門的啟示澳門研究30第44期展到現在的 2 6 0 萬平方米,經營商位也由當初的 7 5 0個發展到現在的 5 萬個,從業人員則由當初的 8 0 0 多人發展到現在的 1 8 萬人,經營商品種類從當初的22 00 多種增加到現在的 3 4 個行業 15 02 個大類的 32 萬種。引自中國義烏對外經濟貿易合作局網站, h t t p: / /ww w .jh f te c.g ov. cn/ yiw u/ Re ad N ew s.a sp? Ne ws ID =6 73 。1 8 義烏市新聞辦:《中國.義烏》, 2 0 0 7 年,第 9 --1 0頁。1 9 調查資料並參閱“中國義烏門戶網站”, 20 08 年 1 月2 8 日的消息, h t t p : / / w w w . yw . g o v. c n / zw g k / zw x x / jr t t /20 08 01/ t2 00 80 11 0_ 99 89 4.h tm l;義烏市統計局:《義烏統計年鑒 2 00 7》。2 0 何美華:《政府工作報告》,載於《義烏商報》, 200 8年 1 月 30 日,第 1 版。2 1《澳門展貿》,第 8 期, 20 07 年 1 2 月。2 2《義烏商圈》,浙江人民出版社, 20 0 6 年,第 2 8 --2 9頁。2 3《義烏市新聞發佈稿》, 2 0 07 年。2 4 參閱義烏市市場貿易發展局:《關於義烏市場發展情況介紹》。2 5 見《義烏發展之文化探源》第 1 章和第 2章,以及《義烏發展經驗》第 4 1--5 2 頁。2 6 義烏方面有時也用“小而全”這個說法,例如,劉俊義先生在《小商品市場之經營特點和運銷區域淺析》一文中認為:“小而全”“這是義烏中國小商品城的第一個顯著特點。”詳見《義烏方志》,第 3 期, 2007年,第 38 --41 頁,2 7 義烏市市場貿易發展局:《關於義烏市場發展情況介紹》。2 8 相似語言在義烏當地隨處可見,也可見於:何美華:《政府工作報告》,載於《義烏商報》, 2 0 08 年 1 月30 日,第 2 版。2 9 19 82 年 9 月,義烏縣委、縣政府尊重群眾發展小商品貿易的強烈要求,毅然作出開放小商品市場的決策,提出“四個允許”:允許農民經商、允許從事長途販運、允許開放城鄉市場、允許多渠道競爭,並出資搭建了簡陋的市場設施。第一代小商品市場自此應運而生,並迅速發展。3 0 劉俊義:《小商品市場的“劃行歸市”》,載於《義烏方志》,第 2 期, 2 0 07 年,第 3 2--3 3 頁。3 1 198 4 年 10 月,義烏縣委、縣政府提出“興商建縣”戰略,把市場擺在義烏經濟社會發展的龍頭地位,把商貿業作為主導產業。同年 1 2 月,第二代小商品市場建成。當局的“興商”戰略雖然在 1 984 年提出,但其前後歷史脈絡相承。3 2 詳細的相關專題分析,可參閱中國社會科學院課題組:《義烏發展之文化探源》,社會科學文獻出版社, 20 07 年。3 3 同上註,第 3 42 --3 46 頁。3 4 參見中國義烏門戶網站 200 8 年 1 月 16 日的消息, ht tp: //ww w. yw. gov. cn/ zwg k/zw xx/j r tt /2 00 80 1/ t2 00 80 116 _1 01 37 2.htm l。3 5《義烏髮展經驗》第 1 頁,第 7 頁。3 6 翁本忠:《義商的傳統交易》,載於《義烏方志》,第 2 期, 2 00 7 年,第 20 --2 2 頁。3 7 2 00 8 年中國義烏文化產品交易博覽會宣傳資料。3 8 兩指標值均根據義烏市統計局: 《義烏統計年鑒20 07》第 11 3 、 35 1 、 48 3 頁的資料計算而得。3 9 參見:蔣亞娟:《環境法學案例教程》,廈門大學出版社, 20 06 年;沈滿洪:《水權交易與政府創新──以東陽義烏水權交易案為例》, 載於北京:《管理世界》,第 6 期, 20 05 年,第 45--5 6頁;沈滿洪:《水權交易與政府創新──以東陽義烏水權交易案為例》,載於北京:《中國制度變遷的案例研究》, 200 6年,第 64 5--69 0 頁。4 0 資源網, h t t p : / / w w w . l r n . c n / p o l i cy / ca s e s / 2 0 0 8 0 1 /t20 080 111_ 188 022. htm。4 1 陸立軍:《促進“義烏模式”的創新發展──對義烏商圈發展問題的調查》,載於《浙江日報》, 200 6 年3 月 13 日,第 11 版。4 2 中國義烏網站之“[義烏 ]遠景目標”, ht tp :/ /ww w .yiw u.g ov. cn / lj yw/ yw g l/ yj mb / 。4 3 吳蔚榮市長:《義烏市第十二屆人民代表大會第四次會議政府工作報告》;中國義烏小商品網, h t t p : / /ww w .yw bb .co m/ view t hre ad -1 24 87 92 .h t ml 。4 4 中國義烏政府門戶網站:《義烏概況》, 20 07 年 9 月1 0 日, h t t p : / / w w w. y w . go v . cn / lj yw / yw g l / yw g k/ 2 0 07 0 9 /t20 070 910_ 775 57. html。4 5 中國義烏政府門戶網站:《義烏城市建設》、《義烏市城市總體規劃 2 00 0-20 20 年簡要說明》, ht tp :/ /w ww .yi w u. g o v. c n /l jy w / yw g l/ c sjs / 2 00 7 0 8 / t 20 0 7 0 83 1 _ 7 6 5 90 .htm l。4 6 中國義烏小商品網:《我市在澳門舉行投資環境暨義博會推介會》, 2 0 06 年 9 月 2 4 日, h tt p : / /w w w .y w bb .com/ vi ewt hread -930 711. html 。4 7 中國社會科學院課題組:《義烏發展之文化探源》,社會科學文獻出版社, 20 0 7 年,第 3 56 頁。4 8 參見嘉慶《義烏縣誌》,卷十五政事十八。虞國鎮崇禎元年 (1 62 8 )成進士,授香山知縣。遏制了轄區澳門的葡萄牙殖民者的侵佔行為,修改《海道禁約》,拆毀天啟二年時葡人私建的城牆城堡,收繳葡人武器,並增派提督、備倭、巡緝三名官員,加強對居澳葡人的治理。任滿回朝時,又向朝廷奏述治理香山經過,提出加強海防建設和治理居澳葡人的建議,得崇禎皇帝讚賞,被任命為翰林院檢討。亦可見於:義烏日報電子版, ht t p : / /w w w . yw n e w s. cn / yw g k/ yw m r/ wd a n / yg z.ht m。參考文獻:1. [明]熊人霖:《崇禎義烏縣誌》(影印本),義烏市志編輯部, 2004 年。2. 陸立軍、白小虎:《從“雞毛換糖”到企業集群──再論“義烏模式”》,載於北京:《財貿經濟》, 2000年,第 11 期。3. 白小虎:《專業市場集群的範圍經濟與規模經濟──義烏小商品市場的實證分析》,載於北京:《財貿經濟》, 2004 年,第 2 期。4. 楊雪萍、郭金喜:《市場型產業集群的結構、功能與運行機理──以義烏小商品集群為例》,載於《嘉興學院學報》, 2005 年,第 1 期。5. 饒寶紅等:《產業集群與城市化發展的實證研究──以浙江義烏、江蘇昆山為例》,載於昆明:《經濟問題探索》, 2006 年,第 9 期。6. 《產業集群與城市化發展的實證分析──以浙江義烏、廣東東莞為例》,載於長沙:《經濟地理》,第 26 卷增刊, 2006 年。
35《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2附錄 3 :中國義烏小商品價格指數資料來源:中國義烏小商品指數網站,ht tp : // yw i ndex .c om /CI S/ index .h t m l和htt p :/ /www. yw index .c om /c is web/ index .h t m l。
澳門博彩業產業組織結構的選擇澳門研究52第44期這些差異構成了博彩產業內部的企業間的第一重產品差異化。表2 各種博彩遊戲的扣除率一覽表博彩遊戲 扣除率(% )百家樂(Bac c ar a t) 1.17-14.121 點(B lac k jac k) 10-20雙色子(Crap s) 1.4-16.7KENO 29.5彩票(Lo tte r y) 50輪盤賭(Roule t te) 5.26角子機(Slo t M ac h ine) 2-35球類(S por ts B ett ing) 4.54跑馬(Hor s e Rac ing) 19資料來源:The 2003 Casino and Gaming Mar ket Resear ch Handbook(Ter r i C. Walk er Consu l ting Inc), p . 17 .第二,賭場服務的差異性。由於博彩業並不存在實物的買賣,主要產品是投注權,雖然可以在提供的博彩項目上存在差異,但是往往差異並不大,而且同一地區的賭場扣除率一般是趨於一致的,因此各家賭場為了吸引賭客,往往在服務上面大做文章。賭場服務的差異性可以表現在服務生提供的服務、賭場營造的氛圍、賭場經營的理念等方面,而這些差異往往對不同偏好的賭客有非常大的吸引力。例如澳門葡京賭場內的飲料一般是收費的,而金沙賭場內有端 飲料的服務生穿梭於賭客之間,無論下注與否都為其提供免費飲料。又如拉斯維加斯各家賭場在內外裝潢和建築設計上各具特色。以上這些差異性使得各個賭城各有特點,且同城內的博彩企業也各具特色,因此本文認為博彩市場內的產品屬於中度差異產品,即表1中的取值應當在0.75和0.25 之間取值。在這種情況下,寡頭壟斷各個模型都有較大的效率損失,寡頭企業可以獲得超額壟斷利潤。而壟斷競爭在長期下企業獲得零利潤,這就意味 壟斷競爭情況下,企業的產出水平較寡頭壟斷要高。對於博彩業來說,更高的產量意味在壟斷競爭情況下行業中的企業可以提供更多的博彩服務,即提供更多的賭 、角子機等博彩娛樂產品所需的設備,為賭客提供更多的參與博彩的機會。所以如果博彩業整體呈現規模效益遞增,那麼選擇壟斷競爭模式意味 在現有資源下可以擴大規模,創造更大的社會福利和效益。從博彩業的特性來看,博彩企業異質性中等,面對的大多是散戶,而且各個賭場相互之間價格非常公開,都對市場有充分的瞭解。如果博彩市場由少數大型寡頭企業壟斷,則這些企業非常容易形成共謀。雖然博彩產品價格相對穩定,價格競爭比較困難,但是這些博彩業寡頭只要稍加合謀,就可以將競爭控制在一定範圍內,並且略微提高賭場抽頭。從博彩業的本質來看,博彩業的競爭,其實是各賭場所能提供的服務的競爭,如果是寡頭壟斷的情況,那麼這些企業會更傾向於通過合謀獲得壟斷利潤,而非通過競爭來擴大自身份額,從而為消費者提供更多更加優質的差異性更大的產品。在壟斷競爭條件下,企業進入門檻很低,新進入者為了和在位者進行抗爭,獲得市場份額,其採取的手段必定是降低價格或者提供差異性產品,在新進入者的壓迫下,原在位者為了自保會有更強的創新動機。在這種競爭壓力下,相對於寡頭壟斷,壟斷競爭模式將使整個行業能夠提供更多的差異化產品。三、澳門博彩業市場績效自從賭權開放後,澳門博彩業毛收入總額持續增長,2004年增長率為 44%,200 5年為8.3%,2006年為22%。2007年前3個季度各博彩項目毛收入總額為589.05億元,已經超過了 2006年全年博彩毛收入近14億元。從總量而論,澳門2006年就已經發展成為世界第一大賭城,超過了美國的拉斯維加斯。但是,澳門博彩業的迅速膨脹一直被部分學者所詬病,主要原因是在於博彩收益增加的同時,賭 和角子機以更高的速度增長。從圖 2 中可以看出,2004、2005、2006 年賭 和角子機的增長率大大高於博彩業毛收入的增長率。由此而必然導致的結果是,澳門賭權開放後單位賭 的創收率較大幅度下降。2004年資料顯示,賭權開放後單位賭 的創收率下降幅度為44%。所以許多學者擔心過度的規模膨脹和競爭,會導致澳門博彩業經濟效率的下降。但是本文認為,經濟效率不等於賭 效率,也不等於賭場效率,經濟效率是個宏觀概念,不能僅僅從一張賭 的好壞來判斷整體是否有效,而是要看宏觀效率,即社會整體效率。
53《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2圖2 賭權開放後博彩器械和博彩收入增長率資料來源:澳門博彩監察協調局網站, ht tp :/ / www. d ic j .g ov .m o /CH/index.h tm澳門在賭權開放之前,單張賭 的創收率非常高,澳門賭 的利潤水平是拉斯維加斯的 8.5倍。2001年澳門339張賭 的收入高達195億港幣,而同期拉斯維加斯2711張賭 的收入僅為164億港幣。 2如果僅僅從賭 效率來衡量經濟效率,那麼拉斯維加斯相對於澳門幾乎是無效的。而事實顯然不是這樣,拉斯維加斯一直是世界上開發最成功、最具吸引力的賭城之一。澳門賭場在賭權開放前之所以能夠獲得如此高的利潤,其中一個很重要的原因就是客源充足,大量的內地遊客湧入澳門,使得澳門賭場生意興旺。在澳門回歸後,內地已經取代香港成為了澳門賭場的最大客源地,而且隨 自由行的展開,越來越多地內地旅客前往澳門。在如此有利的市場和政策環境下,澳門賭場不必千方百計地改善環境,提高服務質量,發展新的博彩品種,就可以獲得高額的回報,因此這種賭 高創收率其實是政策支持和壟斷經營雙重條件下的特殊產物。目前的創收率降低,僅僅是使其逐漸回歸到市場正常水平而已。所以本文認為澳門的博彩業市場總體向好,規模的快速擴大和賭 收益率的降低都是市場競爭的必然產物,而且目前競爭剛起步,並不能因此就說明澳門的博彩業進入了惡性競爭的狀態。從穆迪投資 2007年發表的新聞稿來看,亞太區博彩及娛樂事業的整體評級展望為穩定,但一般信用趨勢卻逐漸減弱,而穆迪香港辦事處分析師曾啟賢表示,澳門具備發展博彩及娛樂事業的優厚條件,也受惠於有利的周邊人口發展趨勢及經濟環境向好等因素。可見澳門博彩業發展雖然擴張速度較快,但是並沒有出現過度膨脹的跡象。但是,值得注意的是,除了總收益, 2006年博彩業行業利息收益則為 3.3億元。此外,博彩企業固定資本形成總額大增 2.8倍,達35.9億元,顯示博彩企業加大投資力度。與此同時,行業總支出為 305.9億元,購貨及傭金支出較2005年增長20%,為171.5億元;經營費用及員工支出亦分別升 26%及61%,為72.6 億元及4 9.8億元。資料反映出,博彩收益急速上升的同時,博企成本開支亦不斷擴大。所以有部分學者認為澳門博彩業這樣擴張下去,在 2010年會出現賭場過剩局面。目前,博彩業收入的持續增長和博彩業上繳稅收的持續增長顯然強力支持 澳門經濟的發展。賭權開放對於澳門經濟至關重要,如果開放成功,則澳門經濟更上一層樓。如果出現過渡競爭和惡性競爭,則澳門博彩業,乃至整體經濟可能受到衝擊。而從政府角度考慮開放的成功與失敗,不是看某家博彩企業是否經營良好,而是看博彩業能否對澳門經濟、社會發展做出更大的貢獻。四、數據包絡法(DEA)分析:澳門博彩業規模報酬遞增或不變通過數據包絡法,分析澳門博彩業的產業組織結構對經濟效率的影響,弄清楚澳門博彩業是否存在競爭過度導致經濟效率損失的問題。數據包絡法(DEA: data envel opment analy si s)應用觀測資料(即生產單位的投入產出向量),包絡出確定的實際最佳生產前沿面,並可得到每個生產單位的效率指數(即與生產前沿面的距離),是管理科學和經濟分析中廣泛使用的非參數效率測量方法。與其他評價方法不同,DEA對具有多項投入指標和多向產出指標的複雜系統有很強的適用性, DEA的優勢主要表現在:第一,D EA致力於每個決策單元的優化,通過n次優化運算得到每個決策單元的優化解,而不是對決策單元集合的整體進行單一優化,從而得到更切實的評價值;第二,D EA以決策單元的各個投入指標和產出指標的權重為變數進行評價運算,而不是預先借助於主觀判定或其他方法確定指標的權重,從而避免了確定權重的誤差,使得評價結果更具有客觀性;第三,DEA方法可以直接採用統計資料進行運算,而不像一般統計評價模型那樣,需要對指標體系重新定義或需預先對指標進行相關分析,從而避免了建立指標體系以及確定某已投入指標對若干產出指標的貢獻率等繁瑣的智
澳門博彩業產業組織結構的選擇澳門研究54第44期力勞動,是評價方法更具有簡明性和易操作性;第四,D EA方法強調在被評價決策單元群體條件下的有效生產前沿的分析,而不是像一般統計模型那樣眼於平均狀態的描述,從而使研究結果更具理想性;第五,DEA通過最佳決策單元子集的選擇,可以為決策者提供眾多有效計劃的管理資訊,從而使在“生產”計劃中尋求有效而有目的地確定減少投入指標或提高產出指標的數量成為可能。因此,D EA方法特別適用於多個投入和多個產出的系統效率的評價,如對多產品的生產系統的評價、對資源分配效率的評價以及對企業知識管理績效的評價等。區域創新系統作為一項從研究開發、成果轉化、規模生產、經營銷售到取得經濟社會雙重效益的系統工程,是一個具有多種投入和多種產出的複雜大系統,因此特別適合應用 DEA 進行評價。在運用DEA方法評價時,評價物件是決策單元(D MU, dec is io n mak ing uni t),評價結果是所有決策單元的相對有效性,也就是在所有組成績和中,根據各個DM U的輸入和輸出,通過利用一定的模型得出決策單元的輸入輸出是否相對於其他單元是最優的。(一) DEA模型的設立DEA 假設有 n 個 DMU ,每個D MU 有m種輸入 s種輸出,令X j = (x 1j ,x2j ,… ,x mj )T,Yj = ( y1j ,y 2j ,… ,y s j )T,其中x ij> 0為D MU j的第 i種輸入的投入量, y r j>0為DM U j的第 r種輸出的產出量(j = 1, 2, … , m; r =1, 2 ,… , s)。為方便,記DMU j0對應的輸入和輸出資料分別為X 0 = x j0,Y 0 = yj 0, 1 j 0 n ,本文將採用 C2R、BC2、模型進行分析。1. C 2R模型C 2R 是在規模報酬不變的條件下計算的各個DMU的總效率,C2R的線性規劃投入模型如下:(公式 6-1)其中 為效率評價指數,即我們的目標函數,w= tu,= t v,u 和 v分別為m種投入和s種輸出對應的權向量。線性規劃的對偶規劃即在既定產出下投入最少,線性規劃( )的對偶規劃模型為:(公式6- 2)其中為D MU的效率, 01,j表示通過線性組合重構一個效率最高的DMU時,第 j個決策單元的組合比例。根據定理可知線性規劃( )和對偶規劃( )都存在最優解,且最優值 1。若 =1則稱DMU j 0為D EA弱有效,即=1時D MU j 0為D EA弱有效。0<<1時為DMU j0的D EA無效,是一個有效性排序的相對值,越大意味 DMU j0 的效率越高,當=0時,DMU j 0是完全沒有效率的。2. BC 2模型BC2是在規模收益可變的情況下進行有效性分析的,用以衡量技術效率,並借此推算規模效率,BC 2的線性規劃投入模型如下:(公式 6-3)其對偶規劃為(公式6 -4)BC2模型中各項指標的解釋,以及的評判標準與C2R中的相同,因此不再贅述。3. 各項效率指標的分解DEA效率評估中常用的效率指標有總技術效率(OT E, ov era ll t ec hni c al ef f ic i enc y)、純技術效率(PTE, pur e tec hni c al ef f i ci enc y)、規模效率(SE,s c a l e e f f i c i e n c y )、利用度(C M , c o n g e s t i o nmeas ur e)、成本效率(C E, c os t ef f i c ien cy)、分配效率(AE, al loc at i v e ef f i c ien cy)等等。DEA 的C 2R和BC 2模型將O TE 分解為SE、C M和
55《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2PTE,以判斷決策單元相對無效率的來源。其中OTE為衡量整體是否有效的標準,即創新系統整體的效率;SE為單純衡量規模是否有效,若SE=1,表示規模有效,即規模收益不變,此時創新系統處於最優狀態,若SE<1,表示規模無效,即規模收益遞增或遞減,此時說明創新系統中投入需要追加或者減少;CM為投入項的利用程度,若C M = 1則說明投入被完全利用,若CM<1,則表明至少有一項投入沒有得到充分的利用,如科研設備存在閒置等; PTE為剔除了規模和投入利用度後的純技術項目的效率,PTE= 1表示技術有效,PT E< 1表示技術應用無效,如生產工藝的陳舊落後等。以上各項具體的分解如下:通過BC2模型求解強處置下的效率可以得到:BC2模型下的效率值再通過BC 2模型求解弱處置下的效率可以得到:C M = BC2模型求解強處置下的效率值 / BC2模型求解弱處置下的效率值通過C2R模型求解可以得到:C2R模型下的效率值 = O TE根據公式有:O T E = SE× CM× PTESE = 規模收益不變的效率/規模收益可變的效率= C2R模型下的效率值 / BC2模型下的效率值(公式 6-5)根據以上的分解可以得到 OT E、SE、CM,因此可以計算得到:O T EPET= (公式6- 6)SEx CM為進一步判斷城市是處於規模效益遞增或遞減的狀態,在C 2R模型中加入約束 ,得到規模報酬非增條件下的模型,計算得非增效率值。若非增效率大於O TE,則表示城市規模報酬遞增,反之則遞減,若相等則規模報酬不變。(二) 指標和資料的說明1. 指標的說明因為考察的是博彩業對經濟發展的支持效率,所以投入應當是博彩業的有關衡量指標,產出是經濟發展的有關指標資料。記第 i種投入為xi,第 j種產出為 y j。其中投入有:澳門接待的遊客總人數(x 1):很多到澳門的遊客都是慕賭城之名而來,雖然觀光為主,但是也不免小賭怡情,這其中還有一部分是專門為賭博而來的賭客。無論是遊客還是賭客,在進場賭博的同時,其消費也對澳門經濟起了不小的帶動作用。這些遊客對澳門經濟發展起到動力作用。酒店客房總數(x2):無論是旅遊還是賭博總是與賓館住宿密不可分,酒店客房數也直接反映 澳門對於過夜旅客的接待能力。酒店客房數總是與賭場、賭 、賭客等的增長或回落趨勢保持一致。博彩業毛收入(x3):博彩業毛收入是博彩公司最大的收入來源,由於博彩產品的特殊性,故在此用博彩業毛收入來說明博彩業的發展規模。而且毛收入與博彩公司上繳的稅收有直接關係,所以博彩業毛收入也是影響博彩業對經濟影響的重要資料。其中產出有:博彩稅額(y 1);這是博彩業對澳門經濟的最直接貢獻,目前博彩稅已經佔到澳門財政收入的 70%以上。澳門GD P(y 2):GD P反映澳門經濟整體運行情況。2. 資料的說明分析需要應用的資料如表3所示。由於澳門博彩業開放時日尚短,可用年度資料較少,因此採用半年度數據代入模型,選取的資料為 1999年至2007年上半年的資料,資料來源為:澳門特別行政區財政局、澳門特別行政區政府博彩檢查協調局網站、澳門統計暨普查局網站。設有 s 個投入項,m 個產出項, n 個決策單元(D MU),由於弱D EA有效的充分必要條件是:相應輸入和輸出為多規劃的弱Pareto解,一般來說,目標越多(即m+s越大),弱Pareto解會隨之增多,即弱D EA有效決策單元的個數會增大。在建立評價系統的時候,取m,s,n的C harne s的經驗公式是:(公式 4- 7)我們的投入和產出共有5項,而決策單元數為17個,符合以上公式,可以代入資料進行運算。(三) D EA結果分析根據結果來看(表4),在17 個決策單元中,4個決策單元的總效率是 1,說明這些年份博彩業對經
59《澳門研究》第44期2008. 21. IntroductionMorality is innate in humanity and its influential poweron economies exceeds market and government impacts.In the society, moral regulation is playing an increasinglysignificant role in the development of trade and non-tradesectors alike. Due to its distinctive nature, the gamingindustry triggers social crit icism and controversy whichdemand a higher moral standard and in turn intensifies therequired strength of moral regulation. This requirement hasbecome a challenge for individuals, communities, the MacauSAR government and even the entire society. Thus, socialcriticism and moral standard must be taken into accountin the study of value judgment of the gaming industryin the society, especially when much of its revenue isspent on social welfare such as social security and culture.Hence a firm stance on the right moral direct ion is abasic principle that the gaming industry has to follow.2. Value JudgmentIn general, the science of economics can only analyzethe likely economic consequences (identification of the optimalpoint) of different allocation combinations. Yet the allocationcombinations adopted by society are usually determinedby ethical criteria beyond economics. Economics as ascientific subject, all hypotheses must be confirmed or refutedby the proof of empirical evidence, whereas “value judgment”and “ethical criteria” depend solely on personal subjectiveopinions which cannot be proved by empirical evidence.In other words, economic analysis must be carried outunder the premise and basis of a “pre-defined incomeallocation combination”which is determined by social ethicalcriteria or ideas which are generally accepted by the societyunder prevailing conditions. Two things to bear in mindare, first ly, value judgment is inevitably embedded ineconomic analysis, which is carried out under the premiseof certain value judgments. Secondly, economics itself cannotscientifically work out these value judgment criteria whichare actually society’s choice or defined by moral philosophy.As a matter of fact, human economic and moral behaviorare ultimately inseparable. James McGill Buchanan haspointed out that a “clear distinction” between moralist andeconomist views is a moot point.1 Economics excludingethics denies the moral nature of human economic life,whereas economics taking ethics into account appears tobe an additional knowledge or voluntary mission undertakenby economists seeking to show their caring to the community.Market economics can indeed achieve a scientif ic formof higher knowledge standard (such as quantification andprovability), but its burden of values can never be relieved,just like humanities, social sciences and moral philosophy.2Value judgment refers to people’s interpretation of rightsand wrongs, good and evil, as well as their conceptionand priority of social values. Freedom, happiness, honorand equality are all important elements which affect individualbehavior. Different social backgrounds, cultures and traditionsof various countries, races and organizations form differentValue Judgment and Public Responsibilityof the Macau Gaming IndustryChiang Wa-Fong, Cora** Ph. D Candidate, School of Public Administration,Huazhong University of Science and Technology
Value Judgment and Public Responsibility of the Macau Gaming Industry澳門研究60第44期sets of value judgments which diverge in attitudes andbehaviors among the public.Due to the specific characteristics of the Macau gamingindustry, the value judgments of the society must beemphasized; neglecting such influences might greatly affectpublic support for this important public policy.Generally speaking, in countries where gaming isstrictly banned, negative criticism dominates. However, thereis a stronger demand for the liberalization of the gamingmarket, in l ine wi th social development and certainbreakthroughs in the development of the gaming industry.Such voices will become a positive force which goes againstnegative crit icism, and the result will be subjected to thechoice and policy of the government. In the Macau SAR,public opinion about the positive impact of the gaming industryafter having been liberalized from monopoly to oligopolymay gradually come to dominate. However, controversiesabout the gaming industry have hardly been curbed andthe confrontation of the two sides has become even moreconspicuous. Although the SAR has experienced aneconomic boom since the managed liberalization of the gamingindustry, social “hardware” and “software” have not comein accordance with the economic progress, and this hasgenerated various kinds of social conflict. Even though morepeople have realized the concomitant benefits of the gamingindustry and become more aware of the relevant regulatorymeasures, the criticisms have provoked extremely negativemoral judgments on the gaming industry. Therefore it isvital to foster a correct understanding and rational judgmentof the gaming industry.In western countries where gaming industry is moredeveloped, gaming activities have been growing amidstcontroversy and opinions vary. Some people believe thatpublic policy should maintain social ethics whereas othersemphasize individual rights. Nevertheless, the developmentof the gaming industry is meant to seek for more economicbenefits for the society. However, if the inherent shortcomingsand potential exploitations are not handled properly, onewill suffer from serious social costs leading to potentialrisks to social harmony and stability.Discussion on the Macau gaming industry drove theSAR government to liberalize the market, changing itsstructure from a monopoly to an oligopoly. The government’schoice was mainly determined by the positive impact broughtby the gaming industry. To be precise, it is consideredthat the tremendous economic benefits could diminish negativemoral judgment. The economic income and social benefitsof the gaming industry were the result of the governmentdecision to liberalize the market and even make it theleading industry of Macau. To solicit social understandingand public support, the government must define the moraland imperative objective of the profit-making business andcommit to maintaining the morality of, and institutionalisingthe use of, the gaming industry’s revenue. That said,excluding the part which is counted in the SAR fiscalincome, it must be a basic and major undertaking to allocatethe remaining gaming income to areas like social securityand public welfare industries. Besides, it is worth notingthat making the gaming industry a “permanent pillar of theeconomy” is unrealistic. If social development completelyrelies on the gaming industry, people’s adverse attitudeswi l l be provoked which might cause a social andpsychological imbalance towards the gaming industry.Furthermore, if the issue of public value judgment on thegaming industry is not properly addressed, the SAR mighthave to pay an unpredictable price for this public policy.3 . So c i a l No r ms a n d Go ve r nmen tResponsibilityRegarding the issue of the contribution of the gamingindustry to social security and public welfare, some westernscholars like Berkowitzh and Daniels emphasize the effectof internalized social norms. Social norms are part of socialculture, encompassing ethnic spirit and tradition. They canbe divided into two categories: social responsibility normand moral norm.3 Social responsibility norm refers to thefact that everyone in society ought to be responsible forthe community and the needy, while moral norm refersto those helping the needy will eventually be rewardedby society. Certainly this reward is not only limited toone-on-one individual behavior, but in various forms, spatialdimensions and times. Thus it can be inferred that individual
61《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2moral responsibility is about contributing one’s own effortto society and the needy. The government must give duerecognition to those who contribute to the society throughinstitutionalization in order to ensure the sustainable promotionof such public responsibility.Realistically, people’s moral choices and behaviorscan be categorized into two forms. One is individual choiceand individual behavior determined by one’s own reasoning.The other is public choice and collective behavior in whichrationality is the determining factor. As a result, one mustpay attention to both factors. Any individual is inevitablya part of society and individual development is closelyrelated to social development. Uplift ing individual moralconsciousness and standards means enhancing that of theentire society. Macau society should highlight individualcontributions to society, so as to foster higher moral values,especially since an imbalanced value judgment on the gamingindustry has emerged. A will to help one another andto serve the ent ire society is necessary for society atlarge to reach higher moral standards.Therefore, the Macau gaming industry should not onlyfocus on economic benefits, but also on how to rewardsociety by using those benefits in real terms. Culturaltradition, institutionalization and the power of public opinionare needed for this to happen. Enhancing individual moralconsciousness and sense of publ ic responsibi lity is aprerequisite and an advantage for the development of theSAR gaming industry. Neglecting this and relying merelyon economic benef i ts wi l l weaken people’s moralconsciousness and sense of public responsibility, especiallywhen it comes to public responsibility concerning the interestof the entire SAR. In such event, deep-rooted social problemsare likely to emerge.To mitigate the negative attitudes of the public towardsthe gaming industry, the SAR government announced thefollowing measures during its Policy Address for 2008:To study the possibility of inaugurating a licensingsystem for gaming professionals so as to further enhancetheir psychological qualities and raise the technical levelof the entire gaming industry.To study the feasibility of raising the lower agelimit of working at or entering casinos from 18 to 21,and to encourage society at large to join the governmentin shouldering the responsibility of promoting and buildinga positive social image on the gaming industry.To prevent the gaming industry from affecting publicmorals and value judgments of society, betting stations andslot machine casinos will be banned from communities fromFigure 1 The Institutionalization of the Macau Gaming Industry
Value Judgment and Public Responsibility of the Macau Gaming Industry澳門研究62第44期2008 onwards. The existing slot machine casinos in suchareas will have to gradually withdraw from the communityso as to bring a balance between gaming industrydevelopment and social values.The measures mentioned above show that the MacauSAR government was determined to shoulder up itsobligations which resulted from the evaluation of the existingsystem. Figure 1 illustrates the composition of the Macaugaming industry as well as the linkage between the stages:evaluation, establishment, feedback, amendment and theperfection of the system.4. Publ i c Respons ib i l i t y o f GamingEnterprisesIn view of the development of the Macau gamingindustry and in terms of the public moral constraints ofgaming enterprises, the following four points should be givenspecial attention.Firstly, gaming enterprises and their staff must bearin mind that the strategic goal of the development of thegaming industry is to advance the development of societyand the economy. A correct moral consciousness mustbe established in order to eliminate commercial fraud. Insocial culture, “money is omnipotent” or “individual benefitcomes first” underlines unhealthy social values which aredeeply influencing the new generation of the SAR. Somecitizens are strongly against this social atmosphere andblame on the rapid development of the gaming industry.To put it another way, if morality takes effect and gamingenterprises and their staff have not abandoned their rightfulgoals, individual morali ty will come in line with socialbenefits, and the social objective of the gaming industrywill see greater development, more social resources willbe accumulated, and a higher level of publ ic moralresponsibility will be attained. On the other hand, if gamingenterprises translate social public benefits into self-benefits,and seek individual benefits at the expense of public interestsin market competition, serious deterioration in the levelsof public moral responsibility will occur which in turn willtrigger a psychological imbalance in society. In a free market,gaming enterprises gaining economic benefits throughcompetition is totally reasonable, yet private profits cannotcome before public benefits. Otherwise the existence ofthe gaming industry will be questioned, leading to adverseconsequences that are hard to predict.Secondly, gaming enterprises must fulfil and consistentlyput into practice the obligations and activit ies set out inoperation contracts, and announce development plans andprogress regularly. The success of managed liberalizationof the gaming industry depends very much on constructionprojects which demonstrate the actual performance of thegaming industry. It also relies on the wide and penetratingpublicity to make the performance known to the public,so as to gradually enhance public understanding, trust andsupport towards the managed liberalization of the gamingindustry.Thirdly, gaming enterprises have to solicit support andcoverage from the public and the mass media, and atthe same time deliver relevant messages accurately, ina timely manner and honestly. Such coverage is favorablefor the promotion of a positive image which in turn helpsto build up a good image of the industry and enhancesthe sense of responsibility among gaming enterprises andstaff in fulf i l l ing their dut ies and fol lowing rules andregulat ions. As to the problems encountered in thedevelopment of the gaming industry, public opinions,discussions, analyses as well as resolutions on the issuesare helpful to influence government’s and people’s focuson the value judgment of the gaming industry. Such publicdiscussions also facilitate the solving of new problems whichemerge in the course of development, and expedite thedevelopment of relevant skil ls and techniques. Publicinvolvement in revealing illegal behavior in the gamingindustry helps enhancing the legal awareness of staff andorganizations, as well as policy effectiveness. People willstay more alert and cautious, thereby better regulating theindustry and forming a strong social foundation to combatirregularities. Healthy development after managed liberalizationof the gaming industry is therefore ensured. Publicationof the business performance of gaming enterprises willencourage organizations, communities and individuals tovalue the hard-earned fruit of managed liberalization, leading
63《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2to less fraudulent activities, more efficient capital investment,more effective capital utilization and therefore greater socialbenefits. The involvement of the public and the mass mediasupervision, the regular release of news by the gamingenterprises, constitute constructive interactions. Throughannouncements about various investment projects, theimportance and positive image of the industry in the eyesof the public will be further promoted, which also providesthe gaming staff with spiritual support and encouragement.Fourthly, gaming enterprises and their staff should alsofully realize their power of moral influence and enhancethe sense of public responsibility. They should promoteselfless contribution and the spirit of helping one another.These values can purify the social moral atmosphere andpromote moral consciousness. These should be the focusof social opinions, publicity and communications, and theultimate positioning of the publicity of the gaming industry.5. ConclusionIn the course of Macau’s social development, effectiveinstitutionalization is crucial, which to a certain extent iseven more important and effective than moral imperatives.Yet systems alone cannot work without people’s implementation.Therefore, moral power should not be overlooked duringmore forceful system construction. Moreover, the gamingindustry is of an exceptional social nature, which meansthat, after managed liberalization, economic and moral impactsare two “hands” which actually complement each other,and therefore must be closely “held” together.Notes:1 Buchanan, A. E., Ethics, Efficiency and Market (Beijing: ChinaSocial Sciences Press, 1991), p. 3.2 Wan, Junren, Moral Foundation: Int roduct ion of EthicalEconomics (Guangzhou: Guangdong People’s Publishing House,2000).3 Sun, Liping, The Case Study of the Donation System of NGOs(Hangzhou: Zhejiang People’s Publishing House, 1999), p. 192.References:1. Brzezinski, Z., The Choice: Global Domination or GlobalLeadership (New York: Basic Books, 2004).2. Burns, J. P., Government Capacity and the Hong KongCivil Service (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).3. Chan, R. C. K., Huseh, Tien-tung, Luk, Chiu-ming,China’s Regional Economic Development (Hong Kong:Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, The ChineseUniversity of Hong Kong, 1996).4. Chan, S. S. and et al., Leading Issues of the MacauEconomy (Macau: Macau Foundation, 2000).5. Estes, R. J. and Hong Kong Council of Social Service,Social Development in Hong Kong: The UnfinishedAgenda (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press,2005).6. From Las Vegas (Visitor Information Publication, 2000).7. Goodin, R. E. and Pettit, P., Contemporary PoliticalPhilosophy an Antholog (Malden: Blackwell, 2006).8. Gu, Zheng “Macau Casino Labor Force Shortage andProposed Solutions,” presented in Conference of theImpacts to the Macau Economy and Society Followingthe Rapid Growth of Its Casino Industry, 22nd November,2007.9. Gu, Zheng and Gao, J. Zhicheng, “Financial Competitive-ness of Macau in Comparison with Other GamingDestinations,” UNLV Gaming Research & Review Journal,Vol. 10, Issue 2 (2006), pp. 1--12.10. Guo, Xiaochong, The Economic Duty and Macro Manage-ment of Government (Guangzhou: Sun Yat-Sen UniversityPress, 1999).11. Haddock, B., A History of Political Thought: 1789 to thePresent (Cambridge: Polity, 2005).12. Hsueh, Tien-tung and Woo, Tun-oy, The Economics ofIndustrial Development in the People’s Republic of China(Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies,The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1991).13. Ieong, Wan Chong, The Growth of Macau and ModernEconomy (Macau: Macau Association of EconomicSciences, 1992).14. Ieong, Wan Chong and et al. A Study on ContemporaryMini-economies (Macau: Union of Macau Scholars, 2007).15. Kale, S. H., “Internal Marketing: An Antidote for Macau’sLabor Shortage,” UNLV Gaming Research & ReviewJournal, Vol.11, Issue 1 (2007), pp. 1--11.16. Kancher, A. J., Lotteries (Transaction Publishers, 1989).17. Li, Zhihong, A Study of Development and Management inMacau Gaming Industry (Macau: Macau Foundation,2000).18. Liao, Kuang-Sheng, Politics of Economic Cooperation inthe Asia-Pacific Region (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Instituteof Asia-Pacific Studies, The Chinese University of HongKong, 1993).19. Liao, Kuang-Sheng, The New International Order in EastAsia (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-PacificStudies, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1993).20. Macbeth, H. and Collinson, P., Human PopulationDynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).21. McCartney, G. J., “Casinos as a Tourism RedevelopmentStrategy – The Case of Macau,” Journal of Macau
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問題賭徒在澳門澳門研究66第44期色,相信澳門是國際上的極小數,可見博彩業在澳門壓倒性的地位在短期內將難以改變。表3 澳門政府稅收與支出比較年份項目2003 2004 2005 2006博彩稅 102 億 14 7億 166 億 198 億總收入 184 億 23 9億 282 億 273 億資料來源:財政局網站, h t t p : / / w w w. ds f . g ov . m o/ C o n _P u b/c_ConP ub_Fs .h tm表4 澳門出入口逆差年份項目2002 2003 2004 2005 2006赤字 14 億 14 億 5 3 億 115 億 161 億增幅 0% 282% 116% 40%資料來源:統計暨普查局網站, h tt p : // www. ds ec . gov . m o/i ndex .asp?s rc =/ch inese/ind ica tor /c_c e_ind ica tor .h tm l但是,博彩業真的是百利而無一害?當傳媒和社會對澳門未來發展充滿憧憬時,我們可有發現博彩業為社會帶來的潛在隱憂?過去,有不少人認為澳門人有抗賭的免疫力,因此不會過分沉迷賭博,但實情真的如此嗎?其實,任何發展博彩業的國家或地區都會出現以下兩個結果6:為當地政府帶來可觀的直接和間接稅收;當地受賭博問題影響的人數將會不斷增加。美國精神病學會(A m e r i c a n P s y c h i a t r i cAss oc iat i on)在1980年出版的《心理疾病診斷統計手冊(第三版)》(DSM- I I I)將過度沉迷賭博與濫用藥物和酗酒一樣定性為上癮行為,更在1994年出版的第四版手冊中,將病態賭博等同於精神活性物質的依賴(ps y c hoac t iv e s ubs tanc e dependenc y)7,估計病態賭博在成年人口的發病機會為1-3%。8美國亦有研究指出離賭場50哩範圍內的地區,病態賭博的發病率較其他地方高出近倍,離賭場越近,發病的機會越高。 9澳門大學在2003年曾進行研究,指出澳門有近 70% 居民有賭博習慣,當中有4.3%人口(約14,000人)可被界定為問題賭徒。 10相比起澳門50萬人口,14,000人看似是微不足道的數字,不過,一名問題賭徒動輒可影響身邊10--17個親友11,若以此推算,澳門社會大概有 40 %人口受不同程度的賭博問題影響。不過,該研究是在美資賭場開幕前進行的,當年的賭場、賭 ,甚或至市民參與賭博的方便程度遠較現在為低,可以預期澳門現在受賭博問題困擾的市民應較2003年時高。為回應社會對相關輔導服務的需求,澳門工業福音團契於2004年開辦澳門首間問題賭徒復康中心,為賭徒和家人提供戒賭和輔導服務。在這三年間,熱線電話接獲逾千名賭徒和家人的查詢和求助,更為數十名家人和過百名賭徒提供小組和個人輔導服務,去年的新增個案較前年激增一倍,當中所有求助者都曾在賭場投注,大部分更有向高利貸借錢,可見病態賭博問題亦緊隨澳門博彩業“興旺”起來。二、促成問題賭博的環境因素不論你身處在那個時空、那處地方和接受那一種文化,均可發現林林總總的賭博活動,根據文獻記載,中國的賭博活動已有4千多年歷史,而巴比倫、埃及和印度亦早於公元前1800、1600和1000年開始有不同形式的賭博活動出現。可見,賭博行為是人類社會中,一種自古常有的普遍性現象。 12戈春源13指出,“賭博來源於遊戲娛樂,把貪求物欲的功利性與競賽智力、鍛鍊思維的技巧性相結合,具有周而復始的間歇性刺激。牌桌上的競爭、贏後的喜悅恰恰滿足了人性這種戰勝對手的潛意識和真切的快感,這就是賭博長期存在的心理原因。”正因為這種自古常有的普遍性現象在每一個人的心裏都揮之不去,配合周遭國家的禁賭政策和日漸衰落的轉口貿易帶來的機遇,澳門慢慢將自身的經濟發展成如今有“東方蒙地卡羅”,甚或至“東方拉斯維加斯”之稱的現代化賭城。 14縱使澳門已蛻變成一個現代化的賭城,不過賭博始終涉及不同團體和人士的利益,勢必為當地社會治安帶來沉重負擔。回歸前,澳門黑社會橫行的情況令遊客卻步,使澳門經濟度過數年的黑暗時期,為根治治安問題,政府投放大量警力,縱使回歸後治安大致穩定,不過博彩業仍是澳門治安的頭號敵人,根據司警提供的數字, 2006年有31%嚴重罪行與賭博有直接關係。 15更何況,澳門政府在2002年開放賭權後大幅增加前線執法部門的開支,以應付潛在的治安問題,這令澳門政府自開放賭權後,海關、警察總局和司法警察的開支分別增加 418%、188%和41%,可見維持一個以賭為生的城市治安,
67《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2政府需付出龐大的財政承擔。 16雖然賭博會為社會帶來種種問題(如治安、病態賭博等),但美國拉斯維加斯將沙漠變成綠洲的成功例子卻令全世界趨之若鶩,爭相倣效。時至今日,社會對賭博的態度從以前的負面和模稜兩可變得越來越正面 17,在加拿大更有調查發現, 67%市民寧願政府透過發展博彩業而增加收入,而非增加稅率和稅種;66%市民贊成政府透過開放賭權償還負債;過半數市民認同博彩業對促進經濟的角色不容置異。總括而言,社會對賭博的評價大致如下 18:賭博與否是個人選擇,政府不能和無權去限制個人如何使用自己的金錢;賭博只不過是一種娛樂;博彩業有助本地就業和旅遊業,促進經濟發展;病態賭博是個人問題多於社會問題;賭博是一種文化;賭博有助窮人脫貧。由於社會對賭博的評價由負面轉向中性,由中性轉向正面,令人們普遍對賭博的接受程度愈來愈高,連帶社會對賭博的需求也不斷提高,促成博彩業近年在世界各地急劇發展的原因。 19經過數十年的發展,賭博可謂無處不在,除賭場外,更有角子機、體育博彩、賽馬、網上賭場等,令賭徒安在家中亦可投注。 20在眾多博彩活動中,角子機和賭場最大機會引致病態賭博的行為 21,因為當地的居民較容易接觸高風險的博彩活動,而病態賭博的發病率往往與當地的博彩活動的普及程度、方便參與度和認受性成正比,因此,病態賭博定必是開放賭權的副產品。 22相比起賭場,角子機的危險性往往被人低估,因為大多數人認為角子機只不過是一種電子玩意,注碼亦較賭場內其他博彩活動低,因此,市民普遍對角子機戒心最小。不過,根據澳洲生產力委員會在1999年進行的調查,角子機是澳洲問題和病態賭博的根源,雖然問題和病態賭徒只佔成年人口的2.1%,但其投注額卻佔全國總投注額的 33%,近300億澳門幣,當中有43%是投注在角子機上。報告亦指出,市民參與賭博的方便程度、政府角色、賭博資訊流通性、營運者的經營手法等均是賭徒形成嗜賭習性的重要社會因素。角子機在澳洲非常普遍,差不多所有便利店均有擺設角子機,而政府當時在賭博防治教育的工作上明顯不足,加上沒有適切的政策和宣傳工作,令澳洲成年人參與賭博比率高達 82%。23在澳門有研究指出,僅有半數市民認為六合彩、足球和籃球博彩為賭博活動,而認為在賭場投注不是賭博的比率亦未逾70 %,有超過7 0%市民更認為社交賭博只不過是一種娛樂,該研究亦同時指出市民參與某種博彩活動的程度與其對該博彩活動是否一種娛樂成絕對正比。 24其實,賭博可滿足部分人的潛意識需要,更可被周遭的人和環境影響而不斷強化,有時賭徒即使出現賭博問題,他們也有可能不知何故 25,因此,有學者認為賭博是一種可被學習的行為,參賭者可能是因為身邊的人有賭博習慣或在社會的環境和氣氛薰陶下而參與賭博 26,而病態賭博的成因更直接地與當地參與賭博的方便程度有關。 27三、促成問題賭博的個人因素究竟,那一種類型的人較容易沉迷賭博?很多研究指出賭徒越外向(ex t ro ver s ion ),喜愛尋求刺激(s en sat i on seeki ng),和受外在控制力影響(ex ter nall ocus of c ont rol),會較其他賭徒容易出現病態賭博的行為。因為,外向型賭徒喜愛刺激,較注視外在的人和事,只要間歇性贏錢,他們對賭博的興致便不會減退,因此,較享受賭博所帶來的樂趣。相反,內向型賭徒對輸錢的經驗較深刻,因此,他們輸錢時,通常較外向型賭徒早離場。 28這有助我們明白為何在匿名賭博會(G ambler s Anony mous)接受治療的病態賭徒大多屬外向型賭徒。29此外,喜歡尋求刺激更加是賭徒持續參與賭博的原因之一 30,因為他們偏向接受高風險的活動,風險愈高,他們愈能享受都中的樂趣和快感。而受外在控制力影響的賭徒較認同外在力量和環境可改變自己命運,因此他們深信命運、機會和運氣,認為賭博可改寫他們的一生。 31根據美國精神病學會的定義,問題賭博是一種持續和失控的行為,全面地影響參賭者個人、家庭和事業。問題賭徒的身心會被一切與賭博有關的事物佔據,例如過去的賭博經驗、計劃下一次“搏殺”或想辦法尋找更多賭本。根據大部分病態賭徒所述,金錢並非單一誘因,反而尋求刺激和快感才是他們
問題賭徒在澳門澳門研究68第44期不斷參與賭博的原因。因此,為了達到一定程度的刺激,參賭者會不惜冒更大的風險而加大賭注。 32當然,不同類型的人會基於不同的原因而參與賭博33,贏錢可能是大部分賭徒,甚或至病態賭徒,參與賭博的原因,不過並不是全部病態賭徒是為了贏錢而賭錢。工福的臨床經驗亦證實,有部分病態賭徒(以女性為主)是希望藉賭博逃避現實生活中的不快。總括而言,抑鬱、焦慮、關係破裂、工作壓力和非賭博而引起的財務問題都可能是病態賭徒參與賭博的原因。34其實賭徒開始參與賭博的原因是多元的,有人為賺取更多金錢,也有人因為刺激、寂寞、擴闊社交圈子等參與賭博。不過,大部分參賭者成為病態和問題賭徒前均經過以下階段:最初,他們認為賭錢十分新奇,享受當中帶給他們的樂趣 35;及後,賭博變成間歇強化的行為,令參賭者愈來愈沉迷其中。社會學習理論(So ci al Lear ning T heory)指出,賭博行為可透過持續賭博而被強化的,每當有贏錢經驗時,其賭博行為便會被強化。可悲的是賭徒以為可以控制其賭博行為,其實他們是將自己推向深淵 36,不斷停留在追贏或追輸的階段,縱使贏了錢也不願離場,直至輸盡所有金錢為止。 37梁國香和周兆鎏 38指出:“賭錢的環境和運行會激勵(ar ouse)賭徒的中樞神經系統。賭博好像一種刺激,要是參賭者適應了它的運作環境或模式,在習以為常之後,它就會失去原有的激勵力。”所以賭博的上癮行為與藥物無異,兩者皆會令上癮者愈來愈依賴它來尋求“自我解脫”,而當上癮者適應了原有量數帶給他的激勵力後,上癮者需要更大的量數來達至原有的滿足感。39最後,參賭者愈來愈依賴賭博來尋求滿足感,令其投入和專注度愈來愈高。眾所周知,參賭次數愈多,輸錢機會愈大,當參賭者贏回來的錢長期未能抵銷輸去的金錢,參賭者會開始面對精神上的問題。40自此,參賭者的行為變得失控,不能由自己控制,而且還會變得更自我中心,忽視身邊的家人和朋友,每當不參與賭博時,更會坐立不安。 41目前,尚未有研究證實病態賭博與基因遺傳有關42,相反,學術界普遍認為問題或病態賭博的成因與賭徒的性格和環境因素有較直接的關係,不過亦有研究指出人們參與賭博的動機與參與其他娛樂沒有太大分別43,但臨床經驗始終證明了解賭徒參與賭博的動機,對病態賭博的治療有顯著作用。 44四、澳門問題賭徒背景澳門工業福音團契在2004年5月開設問題賭徒復康計劃,為澳門受賭博問題困擾的賭徒和家人提供小組治療、財務輔導、個人輔導和24小時熱線查詢服務。在短短3年間接獲過千宗電話查詢和求助,直至2006年,共108名賭徒在中心接受治療。中心輔導員在初次與求助者見面時,都會進行南奧克斯評量表(South O ak s Gambl ing Scr een, SO GS)的評估問題,以確定求助者是病態賭徒。Lei seur和Blum e在1987年按美國精神病學會出版的 DSM-I I I有關評估病態賭徒的標準而制訂的,南奧克斯評量表共列出20條用作測試病態賭博的準則,若有5條或以上答“是”,那該名求助者便可被界定為病態賭徒。是次研究有關南奧克斯評量表的可靠度(Cr onbac hAlpha)為0.7,顯示其內在一致性尚可接受,是一份可以信任的量表。所有過去在中心接受治療的求助者,在南奧克斯的評估中都超過5分,平均值為13,表示全部求助者都可被界定為病態賭徒,有求助者更出現 18項病態賭博的病徵。有超過九成的求助者出現以下病徵:輸錢後會即時想追回輸掉的金錢、覺得自己有賭博問題、賭錢時經常超出預算、曾有人批評自己有賭博問題、曾對自己的賭博問題感到內疚和曾嘗試戒賭,但不知從可入手。另外,有超過3/4求助者出現向別人隱瞞自己賭博行為和因賭博而引起的財務問題與家人爭執兩項病徵(表5)。此外,當求助者出現賭博問題時,他們大多選擇向親人借錢(7 5%),逾半數會扣減家用(55%),四成變賣資產(42%),值得留意是求助者大多會選擇高息貸款,以解決即時的財務問題,如信用卡透支(4 9%)、向銀行或財務公司借錢(51%),甚至向更高息的高利貸(53%)借錢(表 5)。中心求助者以男性為主,佔75%,只有 1/4求助者是女性,男性和女性求助者在南奧克斯評量表都平均出現13項病態賭博的病徵,並沒有任何分別。求助者平均年齡為38歲,年紀最少的是一名21歲的大學生。有近半數求助者已婚,未婚的亦有 40%,近10%求助者已離婚或分居(圖1),大多數已婚求
問題賭徒在澳門澳門研究72第44期表 13 回歸分析(Regre ss i on An aly s is)B 標準差 t p- valu eConst ant 25.485 2.201 11.577 0.000對家庭生活影響 0.45 0.409 0.110 0.914對社交生活影響 0.289 0.060 4.813 0.001對心理 / 精神影響 -0 .875 0.186 - 4.710 0.001對工作影響 0.793 0.360 2.201 0.05註:應變數(D ep en de nt V ar i ab le ):南奧克斯評估量表分數R 2=0.753六、預防問題賭博的建議若博彩業真的是百利而無一害,相信不會有人對開放博彩業提出保留建議,可惜,不論甚麼地方,世界上總會有1--3%成年人口出現病態賭博的問題 53,而病態賭博更會衍生出不同的社會成本,在香港,問題賭博為社會帶來120億元的社會成本54,因此,澳門政府必需從多方面 手根治病態賭博的問題,讓澳門社會既能享受博彩業所帶來的經濟成果,又能免受病態賭博的問題困擾,因此,政府有必要推行責任賭博政策,為博彩活動訂下底線。 55責任賭博並不泛指要求參賭者有節制地賭博,相反重點是要求各有關單位(政府、賭場營運者、社福界、教育界和社會等)履行本身的責任,以防止問題賭博的情況在社會蔓延。 56其實,澳門政府可參考澳洲生產力委員會的建議,就減少賭博禍害、壓抑需求和控制供應三方面落實責任賭博政策,包括:有關賭博產品定價(賠率的計算方法)的資料、有關問題賭博風險的資訊、廣告或宣傳監管等。(一) 減少賭博禍害現時博彩監察協調局只從經濟角度監管賭場的營運狀況,確保政府的財政收入,不過政府鮮有措施檢視賭博所引致的問題。其實,澳門政府可擴大該局的職權,因為責任賭博牽涉就賭博所衍生出的問題進行持續研究,以便政府了解市民的賭博情況,從而推出相關的預防措施,而全面的賭博防治教育和宣傳亦有賴政府投入人力物力。57為此,政府每年可從博彩稅收抽撥某百分比,用作支持相關的研究和宣傳開支,並設立24小時求助熱線,轉介求助者到各區的戒賭中心,因應未來的發展需要,在 仔成立問題賭徒輔導中心。以現時政府的博彩稅收入計算,若政府每年在博彩稅中抽取0.5%,注資博彩監察協調局,該局每年便有近1億元推行責任賭博的教育、輔導和研究的工作。青少年預防教育亦十分重要,政府應鼓勵青少年參與運動,並強調運動賭博(如:賭波)與運動的相矛盾處。因為運動賭博往往是青少年參與其他各種形式賭博活動的門檻58,若及早向青少年灌輸運動的正確觀念,將更有效預防賭博的蔓延。 59加拿大政府已將賭博列入健康教育課程內,將賭博聯繫其他上癮行為,如酗酒、吸毒等,向學生闡明何為賭博問題、賭博對個人、家庭和社會的影響,更會為學生提供輔導和找尋相關社區資源的方法,目的是要在賭博合法化和普及化的趨勢下,推遲甚或至防止青少年參與賭博60,而加拿大有研究指出青少年因賭博而引致的上癮行為遠遠高於酗酒、吸毒,甚至吸煙等,由於青少年心智尚未成熟,而且當青少年不斷進行酗酒、吸毒和吸煙等行為時,體內各器官會向大腦發出信息要求當事人停止該行為,相反持續不斷的賭博行為只為刺激大腦,令青少年繼續沉迷其中。 61(二) 壓抑需求限制賭場營運者的宣傳和推廣手法對遏止持續蔓延(特別是青少年)的賭風尤其重要。美國國家賭博影響研究委員會曾建議政府立法阻止任何形式的廣告和宣傳,更要求各賭場營運者在所有印刷品和版面內印上警告字句,讓參賭者知悉持續賭博的潛在禍害。62在外國,賭博與香煙和酒精一樣,同被定性為容易上癮、不被鼓勵和要設法杜絕青少年接觸的“產品”,為此,政府應研究如何制訂業界守則,以監管賭博資訊的發放。其實,所有形式的合法與非法賭博“產品”均不能以任何形式公開賣廣告,唯賭場就其舉辦與博彩活動和“產品”沒有任何關連的活動則不應受到限制。即使建議未被接納,但政府亦應規範賭場發佈任何有誤導成分的廣告和資訊(如:以某種方式投注可增加中獎機會、誤導投注者可能成為百萬富翁等)。此外,賭場不可以向投注者或入會市民送贈表12 賭博對求助者工作的影響對工作影響(是 = 68 %) 百分比( %)遲到早退 42經常不能投入工作 55因賭博而經常轉工 21因賭博而被解僱 11
73《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2或以低於市價形式售賣任何精品,以防止賭場向市民促銷賭博“產品”,但賭場仍可在無任何附加條件和宣傳博彩活動的情況下,向市民派發紀念品,而賭場亦可獨立發行與博彩無關的商品。合法賭博的目標是提供足夠的賭博設施、條件和空間來滿足社會大眾對賭博的需求,不然,那些未能滿足的需求會由非法或鄰近地區的賭博提供者來滿足。63不過,筆者論點的核心是希望政府在推出新賭博方式滿足社會需求前,政府應同時提出相應的方法來壓抑市場過盛的需求和供應,如:限制賭場營運者在民居開設任何形式的博彩設施。(三) 控制供應其實,政府、市場和市場參與者均不能以滿足市民的賭博意欲為由,無止境地興建賭場和相關的博彩設施,因為從商業角度出發,只要社會有需求,有利可圖,總有營運者願意投資。64因此,政府需要做的是盡快擬定澳門城市規劃的藍圖,避免賭場營運者無止境競爭,令社會的賭風愈來愈熾熱。針對愈來愈多求助者(女性較為明顯)在摩卡場染上賭癮,政府和賭場應考慮設定每次最高投注額,而每次最高投注額亦不宜訂得太高,因為美國有研究指出,這有助減少參與角子機博彩的賭徒出現病態賭博的機會。 65未成年中學生參與賭博情況令人擔心,根據澳門大學在2004年的研究,逾30%中學生有賭博習慣,為防止賭風在中學蔓延,筆者建議參照其他國家的做法,將合法參與賭博年齡提升至 21歲,因為有很多18--21歲的青少年尚在求學階段,即使在社會工作的一群亦缺乏賺錢能力,因此,政府應限制他們參與賭博。中心過半數的求助者都是來自基層家庭,筆者認為政府可為公眾製定“健康賭博”的準則,如每月的賭注不應超過月薪的某百分比 66,至於有關該百分比的計算方式牽涉複雜的計算方法,因此政府應就此課題盡快展開研究。不過,按國際慣例,家庭收入少於該地區家庭入息中位數一半可被界定為低收入家庭,政府應向外界發出明確的信息,勸止所有低收入家庭人士參與賭博,以減低賭博對家庭造成的潛在傷害。當然,要求賭場營運者和政府推行責任賭博確實有一定困難,因為博彩稅是澳門政府最大的收入來源。不過,本論文的建議非但不會減少政府和賭場的收入來源,相反更會為社會、賭場和政府帶來三贏的局面。眾所周知,參賭者是賭場的“顧客”,愈多“顧客”成為問題或病態賭徒,賭場的客戶基礎會不斷萎縮,因為他們最終會山窮水盡,變相令賭場的生意和政府的博彩稅減少。相反,若責任賭博成功推行,賭場的客戶基礎不但會更加穩固,而且賭博為社會帶來的“負作用”亦可因此而減低,最終減少社會的整體負擔和政府在社會福利的財政負擔。因此,我們希望政府和賭場以其自身和社會整體利益 想,盡快推行責任賭博,共創三贏。註釋:1 博彩監察協調局: h t t p : / / w w w . d i c j. g o v . m o / C H / E st a t /D adosEsta t/2 007/ esta t.h tm#n 4。2 統計暨普查局:h t tp :/ /w ww . dse c.g ov. mo/ in de x.a sp? src=/chin ese/in dicato r/ c_tu r_ indicat or .ht ml 。3 博彩監察協調局: h t t p : / / w w w . d i c j. g o v . m o / C H / E st a t /D adosEsta t/2 006/ esta t.h tm#n 1。4 統計暨普查局:h t tp :/ /w ww . dse c.g ov. mo/ in de x.a sp? src=/chin ese/in dicat or /c_pib _ind ica tor . html 。5 Pao , J. W., “Recen t D evelop ment s an d Prospe cts of Ma ca u’sTo ur ism I ndu stry, ”AMC M Qu arte rl y Bull etin , Vo l. 13 (20 04 ),p . 88 .6 Milt on, S., “Add ict ions With out Substan ce Ser ies: The Con un-drum s of Gamblin g,”D rugs an d Alcoh ol Toda y , Vol. 6 (2006 ),pp . 37 --41 .7 Walke r, M., “The Medicalization of Gambling As An ‘Addiction’,”in McMi llen, J. (Ed .) , Gamb ling C ult ures: S tud ies in Hist oryan d Int erpreta tion (Lon don : Rou tled ge, 19 96) , pp . 2 23-24 2.8 Ame ri ca n Psych iatr ic A sso cia tio n, Dia gno stic a nd Sta tist ica lMan ual of Ment al D isorde rs (4th ed. ) (Washing ton, DC: Auth or,19 94) .9 N atio nal Gam bling Imp act St udy Commi ssion , N atio nal Gam-b ling Imp act S tu dy Co mmissio n F ina l Re po r t, 1 99 9, h tt p: //g ovinf o. library. unt .e du/ ng isc/in dex. ht ml.1 0 Fong, K. C . and Ozor io, B. “Ga mbling Pa rt icipa tion and Preva-len ce Estimat es of Pat holog ical Gamblin g I n a Fa r-east Gam-blin g City: Macao,”U NLV Gamin g Resea rch & R eview Journa l,Vo l. 9 (20 05) , pp. 1 5--2 7.1 1 Le iseur , H ., The Ch ase: Ca reer of th e C omp ulsive Ga mble r.(Ca mbr idg e: Sche nkma n B ooks, 19 84) .1 2 McM ille n, J. , “U nd ersta nd ing Gamb lin g: H isto ry, C on cept san d Theor ies,” in McMille n, J. (Ed.) , Gambl in g Cu ltures: St ud-ie s in Histo ry an d I nt erpret atio n (L ond on: R ou tled ge, 1 996 ),pp . 6--4 2.1 3 戈春源:《賭博史》,台北:華成圖書出版股份有限公司, 2 00 4 年,第 18 頁。1 4 蘇恒泰:《澳門賭業早期發展史》,載於《澳門研究》,第 38 期, 200 7 年,第 96 --1 00 頁。1 5 司法警察局:ht tp :/ /w ww .p j.g ov. mo/ 10 24 /pj _ch/ ma gazin e.ht m 。
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75《澳門研究》第44期2008. 25 5 Byb ee, J. D. , “Re spo nsib le Gamin g: Th e Bot to m Line ,” Ac-cou nti ng and Tax Per iod ica ls, Vol. 13 (19 98) , pp . 8--1 0.5 6 Bla szczyn ski, A. , La do uceu r , R. and S haf fe r , H. J. , “A Sci-en ce-based Fra mewo rk f or R esponsib le Gamb ling: The Ren oMo de l, ” Jo urn al of Gam blin g S tu die s , V ol. 20 (20 04 ) , p p.30 1--31 7.5 7 Gol aszew ski, T ., “The Prolif erat ion of Le ga lized Ga mbl ing:Imp lica tions fo r H ealth Education ,”Amer ican Jo urnal of Healt hEd ucatio n, Vol. 35 (2004 ) , p p. 20 5--2 11 .5 8 蘇恒泰、郭毅權:《監察賭風聯盟:賭波合法化後18 歲以下中學生參與賭波活動研究報告》,香港:明光社, 2 00 5 年。5 9 N atio nal Gam bling Imp act St udy Commi ssion , N atio nal Gam-b ling Imp act S tu dy Co mmissio n F ina l Re po r t, 1 99 9, h tt p: //g ovinf o. library. unt .e du/ ng isc/in dex. ht ml.6 0 同註 57 。6 1 Gupt a, R . a nd Derevensky, J. L., “An Empir ical Examinin atio nof Jacobs’General The ory o f Add ict io ns: D o Adole scen t Gam-bl ers F it t he Theo ry?”Jo urnal o f Ga mbl ing Stu die s, Vol. 1 4(19 98) , p . 1 7.6 2 N atio nal Gam bling Imp act St udy Commi ssion , N atio nal Gam-b ling Imp act S tu dy Co mmissio n F ina l Re po r t, 1 99 9, h tt p: //g ovinf o. library. unt .e du/ ng isc/in dex. ht ml.6 3 Mie rs, D., “Ob jectives and Systems in th e Re gulat ion of C om-me rcia l Gamb ling, ” in McMillen, J. (Ed.) , Gamb ling Cu ltu re s:St ud ies i n Hi sto ry a nd In te rpre ta tio n (L ond on : R ou tl edg e,19 96) , pp. 288 --311.6 4 Bu tte rwor t h, J., The The ory of P rice C ont ro l a nd Bla ck Mar-ket s (Ald ersho t: Ave bury, 19 94) , p p. 4 6--6 2.6 5 Sh a rpe , L ., Wa lke r , M ., C ou g hl an , M. , En e rsen , K. a n dBla szczyn ski, A ., “St ru ctura l C ha nge s t o Elect ro nic Ga min gMach ines As E ffe ct ive H arm Minimizat ion Strate gies f or N on-proble m and Problem Gamble rs,”Journal of Gam bling Stud ies,Vo l. 2 1 (20 05) , pp . 5 03--520 .6 6 Ko rn, D . A. , “E xp ansion of Gamb ling in C ana da: Imp licatio nsf or H ealt h and So ci al Po licy, ”Ca nad ian Me dical Associa tio nJou rn al, Vol. 1 63 (200 0) , pp. 61 --66 .
83《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2社, 19 91 年,第 10 9 頁。3 黃枝連:《社會情境論》,北京:中華書局, 1 9 9 0年,第 3 頁。4 《羊城晚報》, 20 0 6 年 8 月 2 2 日。5 《澳門日報》, 2 00 5 年 4 月 1 日。6 吳志良:《生存之道──論澳門政治制度與政治發展》,澳門:澳門成人教育出版社, 1 9 9 8 年,第 5章,第 3 0 3 、 31 4 頁。7 澳門街坊總會提供的論文。8 黃漢強、程惕潔:《新來澳定居之內地移民論析》,澳門:澳門大學澳門研究中心, 20 0 5 年 4 月,第 3 4 --3 5 頁。9 1 99 6 年澳門統計局報告。1 0 Ku zne t. S . an d e t. a l. , Pop ula t ion R ed ist ri bu tio n Grow th –U nit ie d St ate s: 1 87 0-19 50 , Vol. 2 (Ph ilad elp hi a: Am er ica nPh ilosop hical Socie ty, 19 75) , p. 2 .1 1 2 0 05 年澳門統計暨普查局報告。1 2 記者尹丹丹,中新社澳門 1 2 月 2 0 日電。1 3 新華網:ht tp://ww w.xinhu anet.com/, 2004 年 1 2月 14 日。1 4 黃鴻斌,中新社澳門 1 2 月 20 日電。1 5 唐思:《澳門風物志(續篇)》,北京:中國文聯出版社, 1 99 9 年,第 13 頁。1 6 同註 6 ,第 85 --8 6 頁。1 7 吳志良、陳欣欣:《澳門政治社會研究》,澳門:澳門成人教育學會, 2 00 0 年,第 26 9--27 9 頁。1 8 同註 8 。1 9 房地產門戶─搜房:h ttp :/ /w ww .sou fu n.co m/ , 200 6 年 8月 7 日。2 0 中國人口網:ht tp: // ww w.ch inap op .go v.cn/ , 200 4 年 3 月2 6 日。2 1 澳門統計暨普查局:《2 00 1 人口調查》,第 13 8 頁;澳門中期人口普查 20 06 年顯示 5 0. 3 萬常住人口。2 2 同註 8 ,第 1 3 頁。2 3“關閘事件”是 1 8 49 年的關閘事件。2 4 余振、余永逸、鄺錦鈞:《雙城記 I I ──回歸後港澳的政治、經濟及社會發展》,澳門:澳門社會學學會出版社, 2 003 年 10 月,第 1 02 -103 頁。2 5《深圳商報》, 20 05 年 04 月 0 5 日。2 6 吳曉波:《第一財經日報》, 2 0 06 年 3 月 24 日。2 7 澳門經濟財政司司長譚伯源 20 0 5 年 1 1 月對議員的回應。2 8 根據澳門博彩監察協調局公佈的資料顯示。
Environmental Awareness and Initiatives amongst Hotels in Macau澳門研究84第44期1. IntroductionThe degradation of the environment constitutes a mainconcern today as it poses significant environmental threats tosociety, including the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer,over consummation of non-renewable resources and global airpollution. Business has always played an essential role inpreventing environmental damage, as many environmentalproblems are generated by business activities.1 Hotels, inparticular, are under increasing pressure to improve theirenvironmental practices. Although the hospitality industry doesnot grossly pollute the environment, nor consume vast amountsof non-renewable resources, it does have a significant effecton global resources.2 It is estimated that 75% of all environmentalimpacts caused by the hotel industry are from excessiveconsumption of local and imported non-durable goods, energyand water, followed by emissions released to air, water andsoil.3 Other reasons that encourage hotels to “green” theirpractices include growing consumer pressures, reduced costsassociated with improved efficiency, and the reassurance ofregulatory compliance.4 Also, some hotels adopt “green”practices to raise their corporate image, to develop new productsand opportunities and, thus, to gain a competitive edge.5Following global trends, hotels in Macau are also underincreasing pressure to improve their environmental performances.Macau is located on the Southeast coast of China to thewest of the Pearl River Delta. It is 28.2 km2 in size andhas a total population of about 503,000. 6 The tourism industryis regarded as one of the main generators of income, especiallythe gaming sector, and contributes more than 50% of Macau’sgross domestic product (GDP) and 70% of governmentrevenue.7 The City is currently experiencing a very rapidgrowth in the number of tourists. The figure grew from 9,162,212 in 2000 to 18,711,187 in 2005.8 Reasons for suchgrowth are many. First, the expansion of new gaming andtourism products resulting from liberalization of the gaminglicensing in 2002 led to a sharp rise in the number of tourists.Furthermore, the implementation of the Individual Visit Scheme(or so called “facilitated individual travel”, FIT) by the Chinesegovernment in 2003 allowed Mainlanders to travel to HongKong and Macau individually without the need to join a grouptour, and the designation of the historical center of Macauas a World Heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2005 further pushedup the tourist figures. Presently, the largest source of touristarrivals in Macau is FITs, accounting for 50%, followed bytourists from Hong Kong and Taiwan.Growths in the number of tourists lead to higher hoteloccupancy rates, rapid hotel development, as well as higherresources and energy consumption. The average hotel occupancyrate increased from 60% to over 75% from 2005 to September2006.9 In order to cope with future tourism development, 59new hotels will be developed and 2 hotels will be expanded,providing an extra 30,000 hotel rooms.10 The hotel industryconsumes a great deal of energy. In 2004, the energyconsumption in terms of waste, water and electricity consumptionincreased by 57%, 20% and 56% respectively comparedEnvironmental Awareness and Initiativesamongst Hotels in MacauWan Yim King, Penny** Assistant Professor, Faculty of Business Administration, University of Macau
85《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2to 2003.11 Over 40% of it was consumed by the hotel, retailand recreation industries, just below the residential sector.12High energy consumption has, therefore, placed tremendouspressure on hoteliers to seek ways of saving energy andcosts. Besides, as the Macau government is determined todevelop the city as a Meetings, Incentives, Conventions andExhibitions Center13 , it is expected that more international touristswill visit Macau in the future. Improving environmentalperformances, therefore, will become a key strategy for hotelsin meeting the needs of a variety of customers and in gaininga future competitive edge.Despite the pressing needs to investigate the environmentalchallenges that hotels in Macau are facing, most of the researchon the environmental practices of hotels is on hotels of Westerncities and their clienteles rather than in Asia, especially smallplaces like Macau. But these environmental concerns are differentfrom the Asian cities.14 It is necessary to fill in some of theresearch gaps. As a pioneering study, this article aims toacquire a general understanding of the environmental awareness,attitudes and practices of hotels in Macau. This article consistsof 5 sections. Section 2 follows this introduction and reviewsliterature on hotel environmental management while sections3 and 4 present the methodology used in this study andthe findings. Finally, some concluding remarks and policyimplications for hotels in Macau and other similar destinationswill be discussed.2. Environmental Management in the Hospi-tality IndustryEnvironmental management can be defined as “the studyof all technical and organizational activities aimed at reducingthe environmental impact caused by a company’s businessoperations”.15 It can be traced back to the post-war yearswhen people began to realize that the expansion of an industrywas causing damage to the environment and to the heathof people. Initial concern was with the pollution caused bythe discharge of toxic materials. Following the release of adefinition for sustainability by the World Commission onEnvironment and Development and the United Nations conferenceon environment and development held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazilin 1992, concern for environmental management expanded toinclude the protection of biological and ecological systems forfuture generations.16 After these events, the green movementgained more recognition in hotels worldwide through efforts madeby various associations such as the International HotelsEnvironment Initiative (IHEI), an international network of hotelexecutives launched in 1993 by the Prince of Wales to promotegood environmental practices in the hotel industry.17 Associationssuch as the Hotel Catering and Institutional ManagementAssociation and the World Travel and Tourism Council alsoparticipated in Green Globe in 1994. In the same year, 16hotel groups in the Asia Pacific Rim formed the first RegionalChapter – the Asia Pacific Hotels Environment Initiative.18Reasons for the growing interest of hotels in undertakingenvironmental practices are many. Meeting the growing consumerpressure is one of them. In a survey of American frequenttravelers, 75% claim to be environmentally minded consumersand 54% say they want to stay in hotels that show concernfor the environment.19 Governments such as the State ofPennsylvania and giant companies like Fortune are alsoasking their employees to choose green hotels for businesstrips and meetings, believing that this will not only enableemployees to become healthier, but also boost the company’simage.20 Cost savings is another major reason. For instance,the Novotel and Hotel Ibis Homebush Bay in Sydney alsoreduced their portable water consumption by 50% through adual-piping system.21 Other popular reasons which encouragehotels to “green” their practices include the need to complywith local regulations22 as well as to raise corporate imagein order to develop a competitive edge.23 The Triton hotel,for instance, received so much positive publicity after it installedsolar equipment that its revenues in 2005 increased by US$110,000 from that of the previous year.24What constitutes a good environmental managementprogram? Good environmental practice starts with seniormanagement committed to establishing the system and ensuringit is developed, implemented and maintained. Their commitmentcan be demonstrated by having a clear environmental policywhich tells stakeholders – employees, guests, businesspartners – that management is committed to environmentalimprovement.25 It should also be supported by a concreteaction plan specifying short-term targets and medium-to-long
Environmental Awareness and Initiatives amongst Hotels in Macau澳門研究86第44期term objectives, and by showing how and when these willbe achieved, including the allocation of human resources andfunds. Kirk further points out that a hotel’s commitment towardsenvironmental improvement is very much determined by whethersenior managers have acquired positive attitudes towardsenvironmental management or not. Hotel managers whorecognize green practices as an economic and competitiveadvantage rather than an annoying cost or an inevitable threatusually show more commitment to environmental managementthan others.26Once an environmental policy has been enacted, thenext step is to develop an implementation plan.27 As mentionedearlier, 75% of all environmental impacts caused by the hotelindustry are related to the excessive consumption of localand imported non-durable goods, energy and water, and theemissions released to air, water and soil.28 An implementationplan should, therefore, aim at reducing waste, energy andwater consumption and lowering the levels of emissions orpollution.29 To ensure that the green plans are implementedsuccessfully, a systemic day-to-day operation method is needed.First, it is necessary to raise the environmental awarenessamong staff. A good way to do this is for the environmentalco-coordinator and the training manager to attend local andcorporate training courses to expand their knowledge of thesubject and then provide staff training.30 Another method isto collect their opinions on the issue. For instance, in 1989,The Opryland Hotel in Morgantown, West Virginia found thatafter conducting an employee survey regarding ideas aboutrecycling, their acceptance of the recycling programincreased.31 Staff should be motivated to follow company’sgreen practices by receiving rewards or recognitions for theirefforts (i.e. a cash incentive or a mention in a companymagazine).32Also, customers must be aware of the green plans andbe encouraged to participate in them. For instance, the ColonyHotel, a seasonal resort in Kennebunkport, Maine, places ineach guest room a rattan bin with four compartments labeledfor cans, paper, glass and other trash. The hotel also offersits guests a chance to tour its private beach with a wildlifebiologist or to take the family on a self-guided ecology scavengerhunt.33 In addition, purchasing decisions can make a greatcontribution to environmental protection in the hospitality industry.It is necessary to communicate well with business partnersabout the company’s green policy and initiatives and ask fortheir support in providing environmentally-friendly materials.34A good example includes the Hotel Inter-Continental, LA. Liquidamenities are packaged in 100% PRT-G resin recycled fromsoft-drink bottles; soap ingredients are vegetable-based; andonly recycled fibers are used in packaging.35Environmental programs can also be exercised throughactively participating in local community activities. In the UK,Forte Plc has joined with the local Conservation Foundationto launch a community chest scheme. Monthly grants areprovided to aid local environmental programs such as plantingtrees and reseeding village greens. This led to significantimprovement of the streetscape and landscape surrounding thehotel.36 At the Days Inn in Baltimore, outdated sheets andbedspreads are given to local ministries that assist the homeless.This helps boost the corporate image of that hotel.37 Hotelswhich take a more serious approach to environmentalmanagement will become a member of some environmentalorganizations, will collaborate with universities to conductresearch, and will also seek and use published informationon environmental matters. Finally, a good environmental planmust consist of an environmental auditing scheme.38 Its purposeis to check whether targets and objectives have been metand to see what improvements have been made.39Having discussed the concepts and elements of anenvironmental management plan, the following is a case studyof Macau. It examines the environmental awareness and attitudesamongst hotels in Macau and explores their environmentalinitiatives and strategies. It is hoped that a better understandingof the extent to which these hotels have adopted a goodenvironmental management program can be gained.3. MethodologyA survey was conducted using a questionnaire thatcontained closed, open-ended and some attitudes questions.A postal questionnaire was developed, addressed to the GeneralManager of 81 hotels, including guest houses, in Macau inAugust 2006. A complete list of these hotels was obtainedfrom the Macau Government Tourist Office’s website.
87《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2Respondents were given 6 weeks to complete the questionnaires.Three pilot tests were conducted in order to check for ambiguity,misunderstanding and conclusion over terms and questions.The nine-page questionnaire was categorized into 3 sections.The first section of the questionnaire aimed to identify someof the characteristics of the hotels and the respondents (orthe hotel manager). The second section sought the GeneralManager’s attitude towards environmental management in hotels.The third section, then, examined the awareness and initiativesof hoteliers in adopting green practices. To encourage a higherresponse rate, a stamped envelope and a fax hotline wasprovided. Follow-up calls to each non-respondent, approximatelyevery 2, were also made. Eventually, a total of 37 questionnaires(46%) were received, which was an excellent response ratefor an unsolicited survey to still be considered significant andrepresentative. Of the 37 responses, 34 were completedsatisfactorily and 3 needed follow-up calls for completion ofmissing blanks. Analysis of the questionnaire was conductedby using the SPSS program.The profile of the respondents is depicted in Table I.All of the respondents were either hotel owners (5.5%) orsenior managers such as general managers (29.7%),administrative managers (8.1%), chief engineers (16.2%),housekeeping managers (24.3%), and front office managers(16.2%). Most of them had a secondary education level(54.1%), followed by those having a university and aboveeducational level (32.4%). Of the 37 hotels, 75.7% of themwere independently-owned and the rest were part of a consortium(10.8%), chain-affiliated hotels (10.8%) or the government’straining hotels (2.7%). Most of the hotels had less than 50rooms, (40.6%) followed by those having more than 150 rooms(37.8%). Over 83% of the hotels indicated that FITs weretheir major source of customers, followed by Hong Kongholidaymakers (54.1%) and corporate bodies (21.6%). Finally,about 95.6% of the hotels did not have any associationsor memberships with any environmental organizations and all(100%) of them had received no accreditations (e.g. ISO14001)for their environmental management practices.Table 1 Profile of the RespondentsCharacteristics Number PercentageManagement rankOwner 2 5.5General manager 11 29.7Administrative manager 3 8.1Senior engineer 6 16.2Housekeeping manager 9 24.3Front office manager 6 16.2Total 37 100Educational background of managersUniversity 12 32.4Polytechnic 1 2.7Technical/vocational 3 8.1Secondary 20 54.1Primary 1 2.7Total 37 100Hotel typeIndependent 28 75.7Consortium 4 10.8Chain 4 10.8Government training hotel 1 2.7Total 2.7 100Number of roomsSmall (<50 rooms) 15 40.6Medium-size (50-149 rooms) 8 21.6Large ( 150 rooms or above) 14 37.8Total 37.8 100Regular customersFree individual travelers 31 83.8*Hong Kong holidaymakers 20 54.1*Group tour 6 16.2*Foreign holidaymakers 9 24.3*Foreign businessmen 6 16.2*Local holidaymakers 6 16.2*Local businessmen 3 8.1*Corporate bodies 8 21.6*TotalAssociation with environmental organizationsYes 2 5.4No 35 94.6Total 37 100Accreditations for environmental management practicesYes - -No 37 100Total 37 100* Percentage adds up to more than 100 due to multiple responses4. FindingsThe first set of questions aimed to examine managers’attitudes towards environmental management. Hotel managerswere asked to rate their agreement or disagreement with 5
Environmental Awareness and Initiatives amongst Hotels in Macau澳門研究88第44期attitude statements on a 5-point Likert-scale (1 = strongly agree,2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree).The results are listed in Table 2. When asked whether hotelfacilities had an influence on the natural environment, 86.5%(81.1% agreed, 5.4% strongly agreed) replied positively. Also,most respondents agreed or strongly agreed that adopting greenwould bring economic benefits (62.2%, 54.1% agreed,62.2% strongly agreed) and contribute to the hotel’s brandimage and competitiveness (64.9%, 51.4% agreed, 13.5%strongly agreed).Table 2 Managers’ Attitudes on EnvironmentalManagementPointAttitude Statements1 2 3 4 5Hotel facilities have an influence on thenatural environment5.4 81.1 8.1 5.4 -There are economic benefits to take actionin environmental issues8.1 54.1 27 10.8 -Taking action on environmental issuesincreases employee satisfaction10.8 43.2 37.8 8.2 -Taking action on environmental issuesincreases customer satisfaction2.7 54.1 37.8 5.4 -Taking action on environmental issuescontributes to hotel’s brand image and 13.5 51.4 35.1 - -competitivenessAlthough hotel managers were aware that hotel facilitiesinfluence the natural environment and can help improve imageand economic performance, they also perceived that there mightbe difficulties in gaining their customers’ support. Table 2shows that 56.8% of the respondents either disagreed orwere uncertain that improving environmental performanceswould increase customer satisfaction. When asked further theirperceptions of their customers’major considerations in selectinga hotel (Figure 1), 86.5% of respondents claimed that pricewas the major consideration, followed by location (56.8%) andservice quality (54.1%). Concern for the environment (13.5%)was considered by Managers to be the least important factorinfluencing their customers’decisions.Figure 1 Managers’ perceptions of theConsiderations of Their CustomersManagers explained that their major customers’(HongKong holidaymakers and FITs) environmental consciousnessis not high enough to motivate hotels to go green. This explanationis reasonable because the concept of environmental protectionhas only been widely known in Hong Kong since the mid-1990s. Hong Kong is still working very hard to translate thenotion of sustainable development into the Hong Kongcontext.40 For China, the concept of environmental protectionis rather new and is still developing.41 Managers also perceiveddifficulties in gaining employee support. Referring again to Table1, 54% (8.2% disagree, 37.8% uncertain) of the respondentseither disagreed or were uncertain that improving environmentalperformances would enhance employee satisfaction. Employeeswere generally less willing to practise green if customers hadless demand for eco-friendly practices. Several respondentsreported that complaints were often received from their customersabout their environmental practices. Common complaints werethat putting shampoo and bath jell in ceramic containers insteadof disposable ones and reusing towels were not hygienic enough.The next set of questions examined the hotels’environmental strategies for reducing environmental impact.Results show that only 29.7% of the hotels had a writtenenvironmental policy. The percentage was low especially whencompared with hotels in Western countries such as Sweden(56.9%)42 and Greater Accra Region of Ghana (58%).43 Ofthose hotels which had established a policy, their major concernswere to reduce energy consumption (70%), followed by reductionof water consumption (50%), waste consumption (50%), andthe overall operational costs (40%). To most of the hotels,environmental management, therefore, meant cutting costs andso the environmental policies were action or result oriented.
89《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2Policies, structures, resources and systems for actions werenot stipulated clearly. When the respondents were asked whetherthey had designated a staff or a team to be in charge ofenvironment management, the response was also verydisappointing; only 13.5% of hotels did so. These results reflectedthat hotels in Macau lacked commitment to implementingenvironmental practices, even though there was a widespreadrecognition amongst hoteliers that eco-friendly practice couldbring many benefits.The lack of commitment and the economic drivenenvironmental management approach adopted by most hotelsin Macau were also reflected in their environmental strategies.Figure 2 shows that 81.1% of the hotels had strategies toreduce energy consumption, followed by reducing waterconsumption (77.8%) and waste (77.8%). Although it wasdifficult to judge here the motives behind these initiatives, itappeared that most of these initiatives were associated withcost savings.Figure 2 Environmental Strategy of the HotelsAlso, Figure 3 shows that the ten most commonly citedenvironmental initiatives adopted by the hoteliers were associatedwith cost savings. The most frequently cited initiatives wasinstalling systems (e.g. timer and temperature control systemsand power cut sensor control systems) to control the useof electricity (10.6%). Other initiatives that aimed at reducingenergy consumption included using energy-efficient light bulbs(7.1%), displaying signs to remind and encourage guests tosave energy (5.8%), installing water control systems to reducethe use of water (3.9%), turning off lighting/electrical equipmentwhen not in use (3.2%) and using low-flow shower headsand sink aerators to reduce water consumption (3.2%) etc.All of these initiatives were aimed at reducing energy consumptionand saving costs. Hoteliers claimed that by adopting theseenvironmental strategies, they were able to reduce energyconsumption by 5-15% and to save water consumption by540m3 water per year. Other popular efforts included reducingthe use of paper and stationary (4.2%) and separating wastefor recycling (3.2%). The former initiative helped hotels toreduce daily overhead cost, and the latter one allowed hoteliersto earn money by selling the collected waste to some recyclingcompanies. Apart from having strategies to save energy andcosts, Figure 3 also shows that the hotels made efforts toreduce noise (2.9%) because under the Decree Law no. 54/94/M, minimizing noise level is a requirement for applyingor extending hotel business licenses.44 Therefore, it could besaid that the main motives of hoteliers to practice green inMacau were to save cost and to comply with governmentregulations.Figure 3 The Top Ten Commonly Cited EnvironmentalInitiativesFigure 2 also shows that only 59.3% of the respondentshad strategies for increasing employee awareness of actingin an eco-friendly manner. Even though training workshopswere given, they were mainly aimed at raising the generalenvironmental awareness of employees instead of educatingthem about an individual hotel’s environmental policy. It wasperhaps due to the lack of a strategic environmental policyof most of the hotels. Most employees had no clue as tohow they were expected to perform for their employers andwhether they would have technical and financial resourcesto back up their actions. Finally, the awareness program wasnot so effective because less than 13% of the hotels activelydrew employee’s participation by collecting their opinions onthe issues and providing recognition rewards for their efforts.Without a clear explanation of environmental policy or anyincentive program to motivate them to act in an eco-friendlymanner, employees would gradually lose their enthusiasm to
Environmental Awareness and Initiatives amongst Hotels in Macau澳門研究90第44期practice green.As shown in Figure 2, hotels were not active enoughin seeking information about environmental matters (55.6%).This was partly due to the fact that their environmental awarenesswas not so high, and partly because of the low educationallevel of our respondents. As previously discussed, 58.8%of the respondents had only primary or secondary levels ofeducation. Many of them did not know how to find the informationand so relied on the government and the local environmentalcouncils to provide it. Finally, less than half (48.1%) of therespondents negotiated with suppliers for eco-friendly rawmaterials and products and for those who did, efficient lightbulbs was the most common eco-friendly product that theypurchased from suppliers. Respondents generally expressed that“environmentally-friendly products are expensive”. They wouldconsider using environmental products and raw materials “ifthe price is right”. Finally, the three areas of environmentalmanagement that the hotels did not practice much were donatingoutdated products to community organizations, sponsoringuniversity or institutional research on environmental issues(21.6%), as well as auditing the hotel’s environmentalperformance (21.6%). Hotels that had their environmentalperformance audited mainly focused on auditing their energyconsumption (87.5%) instead of thoroughly reviewing theirenvironmental management methods, strategies and styles.5. Discussion and ConclusionAs a pioneering study, this survey conducted amongMacau hoteliers sheds some light on the perception ofenvironmental issues and practices within the hotel sector. Thehoteliers participating in this study, in general, have highenvironmental awareness. It is reflected in their recognitionthat their facilities influence the natural surroundings and thatpracticing green is good because it can bring economic benefitsand boost the hotels’image and competitiveness.However, in spite of widespread environmental awarenessamongst hoteliers, these “good” intentions are not alwaystranslated into action. Results show that only 29.7% of thehotels have a formal environmental policy and only 13.5%of them have designated a team/staff to be in charge ofenvironmental management. The hotels which do haveenvironmental impact reduction strategies are more concernedwith reducing energy (81.1%), and water (77.8%) consumption,and waste (77.8%). In addition, efforts to raise employeeawareness of acting in an eco-friendly way by offering trainingand incentives for practicing green (59.3%) are lacking. Hotelsin Macau are also not active enough in seeking informationabout environmental matters (55.6%) as well as negotiatingwith suppliers for eco-friendly raw materials and products(48.1%). Moreover, only a few hotels have donated theiroutdated products to the local community or sponsored universityor institutional research on environmental issues (21.6%).Environmental auditing is not widely practiced amongst thehotels in Macau (21.6%) and those who do so only focuson having their energy consumption audited, which is alsofinancial driven.Factors prohibiting hoteliers in Macau from translating their“good” intentions into actions are many. First, there is littledemand from their regular customers to pursue eco-friendlypractices. Price, location and service quality were found tobe the three major considerations of customers in selectinga hotel, instead of environmental concern. This, together withcustomer complaints of their environmental practices, also leadsmany employees to lose enthusiasm for practicing green. Thelow educational level of hotel managers is another reason.Many hoteliers do not have enough knowledge and techniquesto implement their green plans. They become very passivein terms of receiving information and training provided by thegovernment and the local environmental councils. Finally, thelack of government regulations is another reason leading tothe low commitment of hotels to go green. The existinggovernment regulations are minimal and are mainly aimed atcontrolling noise level. As a result, most hotels in Macauare only interested in improving areas where there are directfinancial gains and where there is a fiscal/legislative requirement.Only a few, however, appear to be socially responsible enoughto be proactive and take actions in advance of customer andcommercial pressures so as to reduce their impact on theenvironment.The findings of this study provide a number of insightsthat may have significant relevance to the development ofsustainable practices in Macau hotels as well as hotels in
91《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2other destinations. First, although initiatives to save energyand costs are many, to achieve more environmentally responsiblebehavior in the hotel sector, it is necessary to further demonstratethe close association of cost savings with such practices.Hoteliers, sector associations and representatives of academiashould collaborate in developing new and less expensivetechnologies. Information about best practice and findings ofcost-benefit analyses should be widely disseminated in theform of published materials, seminars, and interactivepresentations and programs. Governments should play a moreactive role in providing incentives for the industry to adoptsound environmental practices by giving certain financingschemes. Since the government is the major information provider,it should actively cooperate with other institutions such asthe local environmental councils, green groups and universitiesto organize more training programs for hotel mangers whichnot only raise their environmental awareness, but also showhow to implement the green practices. The training should coverareas like hotel purchasing and environmental policies, trainingprogram design, recycling of waste, governmental andenvironmental requirements and intensions. Also, policy makersshould consider enacting more laws on environmental protection.Perhaps the government should start by discussing how toprohibit smoking in hotel public areas. Penalties for offendersof such legislation should be punitive enough to serve asdeterrents.Hoteliers in Macau should also participate in the processof enlightening customers, raising their environmental awarenessand creating demand for “going green”alternatives. One wayto achieve this is to promote and advertise the hotel’senvironmental commitment. Instead of merely putting signageto remind and encourage guests to participate in eco-friendlypractices, a more diversified educational strategy should beused in the form of brochures, exhibitions, ecological corners,seminars and multimedia presentation kiosks, or inviting guestsfor ecological activities. To facilitate the customer decision-makingprocess, hoteliers can apply for eco-labels. This type ofcertification has the potential of becoming a valuable marketingtool to reach environmentally conscious travelers. Evidenceshows that some travelers are willing to pay a premium forthe privilege of staying in a green facility.45 This extra income,combined with lower operating costs resulting from the useof resource-efficient facilities, makes environmentally-friendlypractices a good business decision.Notes:1 Wong, C. K. and Chan, E. S. W., “Motivations for ISO 14001in the Hotel Industry,” Tourism Management, Vol. 27, 2006,pp. 481--492.2 Kirk, D., “Environmental Management in Hotels,” InternationalJournal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 7, No.6, 1995, pp. 3--8.3 APAT, Tourists accommodation EU eco-label award scheme– Final Report (Rome: Italian National Agency for the Protectionof the Environment and for Technical Services, 2002).4 IHEI, Challenge and Change: 1992-2000 (London: InternationalHotels Environmental Initiatives, 1996).5 Taylor, S. R., “Green Management: The Next CompetitiveWeapon,” Futures, 1992, pp. 669--680.6 MGTO, “General Information”, http://www.macautourism.gov.mo/english/info_en.phtml, 20th November, 2006.7 Ibid.8 Ibid.9 Macau Hotel Association, “Month End Results (September2006),” http://202.175.17.144/GetPublicFile.jsp?objID=94688,20th November, 2006.1 0 Macau Daily News, 29 th June 2006.11 Environmental Council of Macau, Report on the State of theEnvironment of Macau (2004), http://www.ambiente.gov.mo/tchinese/05/2004/indexe.htm, 20th November, 2006.1 2 CEM, Annual Report 2005, http://www.cemmacau.com/english/AnnualReport2005.pdf, 20th November, 2006.1 3 MSAR, Macau Policy Address (Macau: Macau SAR Government,2005).1 4 Bohdanowicz, P., “European Hoteliers’ Environmental Attitudes,”Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 40,No.2, 2005, pp. 188--204; Bohdanowicz, P., “EnvironmentalAwareness and Initiatives in the Swedish and Polish Hotel Industries– Survey Results,” Hospitality Management, Vol. 25, No. 4,2005, pp. 662--682; Mensah, I., “Environmental ManagementPractices Among Hotels in the Greater Accra Region,” InternationalJournal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2006,pp. 414--431.1 5 Cramer, J., “Environmental Management: from ‘Fit’ to ‘Stretch’,”Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1998,pp. 162--172.1 6 Kirk, D., “Environmental management in hotels,” InternationalJournal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 7, No.6, 1995, pp. 3--8.1 7 Mensah, I., “Environmental Management Practices Among Hotelsin the Greater Accra Region,” International Journal of HospitalityManagement, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2006, pp. 414--431.1 8 Chan, W. and Lam, J., “Environmental Accounting of MunicipalSolid Waste Originating from Rooms and Restaurants in theHong Kong Hotel Industry,” Journal of Hospitality and TourismResearch, Vol. 25, No. 4, 2001.1 9 Feiertag, H., “Boots Sales with Environment-Driven Strategy,”
Environmental Awareness and Initiatives amongst Hotels in Macau澳門研究92第44期Hotel and Motel Management, Vol. 209, No. 2, 1994, p. 8.2 0 Airoldi, D. M., “More Groups Going for the Green,” MeetingNews, Vol. 27, No. 27, 2003, p.1.2 1 Hotel Online Special Report, Consumer Attitudes towards theRole of Hotels in Environmental Sustainability/International HotelsEnvironment Initiative Research (2002), http://www.hotel-online.com/News/PR2002-3rd/Jul02-IHEL.html.2 2 Wong, C. K. and Chan, E. S. W., “Motivations for ISO 14001in the Hotel Industry,” Tourism Management, Vol. 27, 2006,pp. 481--492.2 3 Taylor, S. R., “Green Management: The Next CompetitiveWeapon,” Futures, 1992, pp. 669--680.2 4 Hotel Online Special Report, Consumer Attitudes towards theRole of Hotels in Environmental Sustainability/International HotelsEnvironment Initiative Research (2002), http://www.hotel-online.com/News/PR2002-3rd/Jul02-IHEL.html.2 5 Gilbert, M. J., Achieving Environmental Standards (London:Pitman, 1993); IHEI, Challenge and Change: 1992-2000 (London:International Hotels Environmental Initiatives, 1996).2 6 Kirk, D., “Attitudes to Environmental Management Held by aGroup of Hotel Managers in Edinburgh,” International Journalof Hospitality Management, Vol. 17, 1998, pp. 33--47.2 7 IHEI, Challenge and Change: 1992-2000 (London: InternationalHotels Environmental Initiatives, 1996).2 8 APAT, Tourists Accommodation EU Eco-Label Award Scheme– Final Report (Rome: Italian National Agency for the Protectionof the Environment and for Technical Services, 2002).2 9 Mensah, I., “Environmental Management Practices Among Hotelsin the Greater Accra Region,” International Journal of HospitalityManagement, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2006, pp. 414--431.3 0 IHEI, Challenge and Change: 1992-2000 (London: InternationalHotels Environmental Initiatives, 1996).3 1 Jesitus, J., “Ecoviews: Green Business is Now Everybody’sBusiness,” Hotel and Motel Management, Vol. 207, 1992,pp. 133--134.3 2 Kirk, D., “Attitudes to Environmental Management Held by aGroup of Hotel Managers in Edinburgh,” International Journalof Hospitality Management, Vol. 17, 1998, pp. 33--47.3 3 Enz, C. A. and Siguaw, J. A., “Best Hotel EnvironmentalPractices,” Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,Vol. 40, No. 5, 1999, pp. 72--77.3 4 Bohdanowicz, P., “European Hoteliers’ Environmental Attitudes,”Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 40,No. 2, 2005, pp. 188--204; Bohdanowicz, P., “EnvironmentalAwareness and Initiatives in the Swedish and Polish HotelIndustries – Survey Results,” Hospitality Management, Vol. 25,No. 4, 2005, pp. 662--682.3 5 Selwitz, R., “Hotels Look to Recycle, Reduce Waste withAmenities,” Hotel and Motel Management, Vol. 28, No. 33,1993.3 6 IHEI, Environmental Management for Hotels EnvironmentalInitiative (Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 1993)3 7 Hasek, G., “Waste-Removal Remedies,” Hotel and MotelManagement, Vol. 208, Part 19, 1993, pp. 89--90.3 8 Goodall, B., “Environmental Auditing: Current Best Practice (withspecial reference to British tourism firms),” in Bennett, M. andSmith, R. (Eds.), Tourism: The State of Art (New York: JohnWiley and Sons, 1997, pp. 655--674).3 9 IHEI, Challenge and Change: 1992-2000 (London: InternationalHotels Environmental Initiatives, 1996).4 0 Chiu, L. H., “Hong Kong: How Sustainability is Managed ina High Density City,” in Dubois-Taine G. and Henriot, C. (Eds.),Cities of the Pacific Rim: Diversity and Sustainability (PlanUrbanisme Construction architecture, 2001), pp. 95--113.4 1 Hills, P., Ng. M. K. and Chan. R., “Sustainable Developmentin China: From Knowledge to Action,” International Journalof Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol. 2, No. 1,2003, pp. 36--61.4 2 Bohdanowicz, P., “European Hoteliers’ Environmental Attitudes,”Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 40,No. 2, 2005, pp. 188--204; Bohdanowicz, P., “EnvironmentalAwareness and Initiatives in the Swedish and Polish HotelIndustries – Survey Results,” Hospitality Management, Vol.25, No. 4, 2005, pp. 662--682.4 3 Mensah, I., “Environmental Management Practices Among Hotelsin the Greater Accra Region”, International Journal of HospitalityManagement, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2006, pp. 414--431.4 4 MGTO (2006), “General Information,” http://www.macautourism.gov.mo/english/info_en.phtml, 20th November, 2006.4 5 Bohdanowicz, P., “European Hoteliers’ Environmental Attitudes,”Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 40,No. 2, 2005, pp. 188--204; Bohdanowicz, P., “EnvironmentalAwareness and Initiatives in the Swedish and Polish HotelIndustries – Survey Results,” Hospitality Management, Vol.25, No. 4, 2005, pp. 662--682.
97《澳門研究》第44期2008. 21. IntroductionIt is uncommon to find small states and territories thatdo not have some form of common examination, but in Macauthis is the case. If one looks to other small states and territories,one finds a range of different arrangements for state-wide andterritory-wide examinations, e.g. the Bahamas, Singapore, HongKong and Malta.2. Examination Systems in Small States andTerritories: Comparison by GDPThe development of small states’and territories’examinationsystems often relates to the level of their economic development.Smallness is defined in several ways, e.g. geographically,demographically, and economically. Economically, one can groupgross domestic product (GDP) into three levels – high, mediumand low – and see how they relate to the nature of theexamination system, comparing small states and territories withothers with similar GDP levels. The data below derive fromFinfacts1 and the CIA2 . A country’s educational developmentis often related to its economic development. Economics isan important context in which education and examination systemoperate.3High GDP states and territories often have their ownterritory-wide examination systems (e.g. Brunei, per capitaGDP US$25,315; Liechtenstein, US$25,000 and South Korea,US$23,926). The Bahamas (per capita GDP US$18,900) hasa public examination operated by the Bahamas generalCertificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE); Trinidad andTobago (per capita GDP US$19,700) has an examinationsystem that includes different levels of examination operatedby national, regional and international bodies. Nationalexaminations predominate in the lower levels of the educationsystem, while regional and metropolitan examinations are moreevident at the upper level, for example the Secondary EducationCertificate operated by the Caribbean Examinations Council(CXC), and candidates in the sixth form sit for the CambridgeOrdinary or Advanced Level examinations which are operatedby the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate(UCLES).4 Malta (per capita GDP US$18,200) has the SchoolExaminations Committee (SEC) and Matriculation Examinationoperated by the Matriculation and Secondary EducationCertificate (MASTSEC) Board.5In the middle GDP level, Guyana (per capita GDPUS$14,970) has a public examination system that comprisesthe Secondary Schools Proficiency Examination set by theMinistry of Education, the Secondary Education CertificateExamination set by the CXC, and the General Certificate ofEducation Ordinary (‘O’) and Advanced (‘A’) level examinationsset by the University of London. Guyana has a system ofexaminations which combines assessments set by local, regionaland metropolitan bodies. Guyana is a member of the CXCand benefits from the professionalism and economies of scaleof that organization.6At the lowest GDP level, Djibouti (per capita GDPUS$1000, ranked 210) has public examinations at primaryand secondary levels (Baccalaureat General and CertificateDoes Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?Keith Morrison, Heven Gu Wei Ping** Keith Morrison is a the Vice-rector for Educational Development at the Macau Inter-UniversityInstitute; Heven Gu Wei Ping is a master student at the School of Arts, Letters and Sciences,Macau Inter-University Institute.
Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?澳門研究98第44期d’Etudes Primaires), run by the National Ministry of Education.The public examination authority is a part of the Ministry ofEducation and directly responsible to the Ministry. Djibouti isnot a member of a regional examination group. The SolomonIsland’s (per capita GDP US$600, ranked 228) has publicexaminations that include the Secondary Entrance Exam, FormThree National Examination and Secondary Certificate, set bythe National Examination Board for the Ministry of Educationand Training. There is no public examination authority in thestate. The Solomon Islands is a member of the South PacificBoard for Educational Assessment.7It can be observed, from the examples provided, thatsmall states and territories, regardless of whether they havelow, medium or high GDP, all have a system of publicexaminations. In this respect Macau (per capita GDPUS$24,300) is unusual in not having a territory-wide examinationsystem.3. Examination Systems in Small States andTerritories: Comparison by PopulationComoros (GDP US$600, ranked 227, population769,095) has public examinations which are the responsibilityof the Ministry of Education, including primary and secondarylevel. In the Maldives (population 369,031, GDP US$3900,ranked 148) the higher levels of education have an internationalorientation and rely on external examination bodies, the reasonsbeing that students have to go abroad for further studies, therebeing no university in the Maldives, and they requirequalifications which are recognized by the institutions for whichthey seek entry. The Maldives have limited professional expertisein examination systems and the authorities are keen to retaininternational links and recognition at least for the major secondaryschool examinations. The public examinations include theUniversity of London Examination and Assessment Council(ULEAC) GCE (‘O’) level examination (for most schoolstudents), UCLEAC GCE (‘A’) level examinations, English-language examinations set by the UCLES, and other nationalexaminations (the Civil Service Proficiency, Secondary SchoolCertificate and Higher Secondary School Certificate).8The small states and territories whose GDPs are high(Malta, the Bahamas, Trinidad and Tobago), medium (Guyanaand the Maldives) and low (Djibouti and the Solomon Islands),and the small states and territories (Comoros and the Maldives)whose populations are broadly similar to Macau, all havetheir own territory-wide examination system which are operatedby national, regional or international bodies. The purpose ofexaminationsmay include:certificationofeducationalachievement,selection for the next level of education, evaluation of schoolperformance school or teacher performance, and feedback tothe teacher/school on the progress and needs of the students.Many small states and territories face limited resourcesand small economies. On the one hand they desire theexamination to be localized in order to be relevant to theirown culture and social realities; on the other hand, they seekinternational recognition by participating in regional andinternational bodies. The economic factor has a significantinfluence on the context of the examination system and italso determines the ability of government to participate in theregional or international bodies. Rich small states and territoriesare in a stronger position to afford examination systems thanpoorer ones. The greater the GDP of the small state andterritory, the more they tend to be members of consortia orother international assessment systems or examination boards.Macau has unique features, having a relatively high GDP(per capita GDP US$24,300, ranked 45), small population butvery high population density (the highest in the world), andvery small geographical size (525,500 people living in an areaof 28.6 square kilometres). Small states and territories thathave a similar population density and population size as thatof Macau have systems of public examination. Macau is unusualcompared with other small states and territories in currentlynot having a public examination system. There are no smallstates and territories which are simultaneously like Macau inpopulation, geographical and per capita GDP; this is whatgives Macau its uniqueness: extreme smallness, very highpopulation density, economic prosperity and no territory-wideexaminations.4. The Situation of MacauMacau has a history of devolved schooling. Most ofMacau’s school students are educated in private schools, themajority in Catholic schools, some in non-religious private
99《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2schools, with government schools providing for some 4.6%of the school population. Many schools in Macau have severalthousand students each; schools, by dint of their size, historyof autonomy and private governance, are powerful. There isa tradition of a ‘hands off’approach to private education bythe government. The private schools have very great freedomand autonomy to devise their own curricula, assessments,and to determine class size, teacher recruitment and conditionsof service. Principal power in Macau is very considerable.Macau’s very small size means that there is considerablecommon knowledge of people and schools, together with informal,word of mouth contacts. In Macau, personal connections arestrong, together with face giving and face saving. In a smallstate, consideration has to be given to the consequences forpublic reputations of a public, territory-wide examination system.Because Macau is a small, tightly networked society, andbecause information is hard to keep from the public aboutpersonal and professional matters, a public examination systemwould be a sensitive, high stakes exercise. Much can hangon public opinion, knowledge or perception. Reputations and‘face’are both important and fragile in Macau. What, in other,larger societies, might go unheeded in connection with aparticular school is the subject of public scrutiny andknowledge in Macau. Macau is a hothouse for magnifyinglocal matters.9Currently Macau has no territory-wide examinations.Schools set and mark their own examinations, and issue theirown certificates. The small size and closely networked natureof Macau render public examinations perhaps less significantfor internal purposes than in larger countries, there being commonknowledge and reputation of putative successful and lesssuccessful schools within Macau: one effect of a small state.Hard evidence for judging the quality of education in Macau,for which external examination results may be one source,is limited, though Macau has participated in the Programmefor International Student Assessment (PISA)10 and has its ownemergent school inspection system. Even though it is a smallterritory, Macau’s curricula are diverse in its decentralized schoolsystem, deriving, for example, from the Macau governmentitself, from Hong Kong, Taiwan, mainland China, Portugal, andthe UK.4.1 Arguments in Favour of a Public Examination Systemin Macau4.1.1 Reliability, validity and transparency may be greaterin public examinationsIn 2002 it was reported that in Macau some schoolsmanipulated internally-set and internally-marked examinationresults11 , and they provide evidence to suggest that currentlymany examinations in Macau lack credibility and such reliability.A territory-wide examination can provide greater reliability whenit has transparent and common criteria and external supervisionin each curriculum domain. In Macau, school-set examinationsmay, and do, lead to inconsistent and unreliable data on student’sperformance.12 Hence a territory-wide examination system may:be more fixed, uniformly applied and consistent than thosein diverse school-level examinations; have open criteria andexternal monitoring, hence be easier to control the domainof test content than in school-set examinations; overcomethe problems of lack of uniform, transparent criteria amongthe markers (which may generate considerable variance inmarking). When school-set examinations lack external supervision,fixed marking conventions and moderation processes, schoolsmay manipulate the content, grades or marks of examinationso as to compete with each other and to respond to thepressure of maintaining a good public reputation.13 A territory-wide examination system may be able to control and improvethis situation, for example marking differences can be addressedby agreement trials, and marking conventions can be establishedwith clear, transparent, and fixed criteria.Currently in Macau no external criteria are present tojudge the extent to which the examinations demonstrate facevalidity. Further there is no external supervision to evaluatehow much the examinations cover contents in sufficient depthand breadth (content validity). Whilst a territory-wide examinationsystem may not meet all validity criteria, it may demonstrategreater validity than current practice. Clearly one could arguethat a school-set examination may possess greater validitythan a territory-wide examination, being closer to the studentsand the curricula in question; whilst this may or may notbe true, the lack of external reference risks unexamined,unsurfaced threats to validity in the curricula and the relatedexamination of students, and a public, territory-wide examination
Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?澳門研究100第44期system seeks to address this.4.1.2 There is less variability in criteria for awardingstandards and grades in public examinationsA territory-wide examination system has more transparencyand fixed criteria than found in a range of individually setschool examinations. The issue concerns the potential tensionbetween uniformity and diversity: on one hand the attractionof uniformity is that parents and teachers have relatively reliableinformation on the comparative performance of their children.On the other hand a territory-wide examination may threatenthe putative diversity of schooling and curricula in Macau,narrowing down curricula to a common curriculum led by thebackwash of a common examination. Whilst this is, in part,an empirical question, it is also a logical matter, and thelogic of the situation suggests that a common examination doesnot necessarily entail a common curriculum or the loss ofdiversity, i.e. it is possible to have a standardized examinationwhilst still respecting differences in curricula, pedagogy andschooling. The question of the extent to which the currentcurricula and marking in Macau are varied is an empiricalone, and, to date, few public domain data do not exist onthis matter.4.1.3 The public has a right to objective, transparent,unambiguous, public domain data on which to make informed,evidence-based choices and know about school and studentperformanceMacau has a history of very limited government interventionin education. Tang and Morrison argued that Macau’s educationpossessed several negative features: unresponsiveness toconsumers, a dearth of information to parents, and few qualityassurance and quality control systems.14 A territory-wideexamination system may provide transparent information forthe public and be an important tool to monitor and improveeducation quality, evaluating on the basis of evidence ratherthan hearsay. Though schools provide report cards, marksand grades, the difficulty here is that these have no externalreferents, so they are disembodied and the parents have noway of knowing if they indicate high or low quality performance– they simply give a grade, the meaning of which, whencompared to external systems, is unclear. Having a commonexternal reference will give meaning to such grades.4.1.4 A territory-wide assessment system can provideinformation and competition to drive up standards, by comparingschoolsIn Macau, the school that has a good reputation attractsmore able students and finds it easier to compete with otherschools. The school-set examinations are various and lacka common standard for comparison. An external examinationsystem would have resource implications, as examinations wouldneed to be set, marked and moderated by parties outsidethe school.There is the issue of sensitivity in Macau.15 As Macauis tiny, reputations can be very fragile, and ‘face is a fragilecommodity,’16 what, in other, larger, societies, might go unheededin connection with an individual school’s actions17 are thesubject of public scrutiny and knowledge in Macau. It isunsurprising, then, that the Chinese culture of face saving,face giving, sustaining and retaining face,18 themselves closelylinked to self-protective and self-defensive behaviour, areexperienced sharply in Macau.19 Public perception, opinionand knowledge are highly influential, so it is little wonderthat self-protecting behaviour features strongly here – in societyand in schools.20 Face saving and self-protection are not peculiarto Chinese cultures21 , but they are acutely significant andsensitive in Chinese society and small states and territories.The ‘hothouse effect’in small states, wherein small issuescan be amplified into huge matters, leads to self-protectingbehaviours in Macau. It is small wonder that many of Macau’sschools operate as closed systems22 ; they may have toomuch to lose if they ‘open up’to public knowledge throughpublic examinations.23 Macau may be a microcosm of suchproblems experienced in many small states and territories,heightened here by its very smallness.4.1.5 A territory-wide examination system is useful forcomparing schools and studentsIt is difficult to compare schools and students based onMacau’s current internally and externally diverse examinationsystem without a unifying standard. However, the questionis raised of the extent to which schools and students arecomparable, given that they draw on different populations, havedifferent curricula, different identities and are organized accordingto different systems and structures (e.g. from Taiwan, Hong
101《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2Kong, mainland China, Portugal). Indeed one can questionthe extent to which such diversity in Macau’s diverse schoolingforbids the fair use of a territory-wide examination, even ifit is undertaken: does it not betray the very principle of diversity?Clearly this is a valuative matter to some extent, though adiverse schooling system does not preclude a commonexamination. For example, functional literacy and functionnumeracy may have a generic core, as has been recognizedin international measures of student achievement across nationswith widely divergent systems and schools. To dismiss aterritory-wide examination system on the grounds of the diversityof schooling is specious.4.1.6 There is a need for public domain evidence onschool and student performanceIn an education system, the evaluation of schools’andstudents’performance should be evidence-based. Informationabout school-set examinations may be neither transparent norstandardized. That said, several schools in Macau subscribeto different public examination systems in part. For example,some students study for awards from the City and Guildsof the London Institute, others take international GCSEs, ‘A’levels, and others enter their students for university entranceexaminations in the mainland, Taiwan, Hong Kong and, indeed,Macau. However, the issue here is that, whilst there maybe such examinations, they are not territory-wide, school-population-wide, not even school-wide, and the data from themare not public.4.1.7 There is a need for educational development (schoolprogress, improvement and effectiveness)With evidence-based examination data the government canmonitor, in part, the school’s performance and provide supportfor development. Of course, the extent to which public, territory-wide measures of performance are indices of school effectivenessis perhaps a matter of conjecture, as there is more to aneffective school than a measure of student performance onexaminations. However, arguments concerning baseline assess-ment and the value-added measurement of schools argues forthe benefits of territory-wide examination at different points ina student’s school career.4.1.8 There is a need for certification and a commonstandard in educational selectionTerritory-wide examinations could provide students withsuch formal certification and provide a uniform system ofeducation selection. As Macau internationalizes itself, the needfor externally-recognized credential increases, and one of thefunctions of a territory-wide assessment system is forselection.24 There is a need for qualifications to have externalcurrency, portability into other education systems, and externalcredibility/legitimacy, which lie behind the decision of manysmall states and territories to become part of consortia andpublic examination systems that are not confided to their ownterritories (e.g. UCLES, CXC), rather than awarding their ownqualifications, the external standard reference for which is absent.On the other hand, the idea of a ‘common’ standard maybe elusive, as standards change, they are culture-bound, theyare not necessarily measured by standardized tests and,anyway, standardized tests have significant weaknesses.254.1.9 There is a need for recognition of territory’s educationstandard. A territory-wide examination could provide studentsnot only with formal certification but also present a pictureof the territory’s overall education level and provide the evidenceof education quality that can be recognized by other states.Whilst Macau has fared moderately well in recent PISAtests,26 the data were from samples rather than populations.There is a need for a more complete data set. Of course,there is the question of whether student examination data providemeasures of a territory’s education standard, i.e. are they validdata on which to base judgements of school performance andsystems. One cannot infer the effectiveness of a school simplyfrom one set of measures – student performance – but theycan be of some assistance here.4.1.10 There is a need for greater accountability in theMacau schooling systemIn order to meet the demands of accountability, theexamination system and data (amongst other matters in schools,e.g. curricula, reporting, parental involvement) needs to betransparent, shared, consistent, with understood criteria andstandards, and communicated in a consistent form, so thateveryone understands them in same way.27 Macau’s currentdiverse school examination cannot easily meet the requirementsof accountability. The schools have responsibility to, and areaccountable to, the stakeholders, and a territory-wide examination
Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?澳門研究102第44期is one important tool in accountability systems. In Macau thereis strong evidence of ‘producer capture’in many schools: schoolsdeciding and serving their own agendas rather than respondingto consumer and stakeholder requirements, and a territory-wideexamination system can attenuate this.284.1.11 A territory-wide examination system may bringa desirable degree of harmony, uniformity and standardizationwithin diverse educational provisionA territory-wide examination system may bring a commoneducation goal and provision for schools in Macau. The issuehere rehearses an earlier argument, i.e. that having a territory-wide examination system does not preclude diversity in theschooling system (as evidenced in international measures ofstudent performance). In this respect the term ‘harmony’aboverespects difference in the schooling systems in Macau, anda territory-wide examination system need not threaten this.On the other hand the evidence of the backwash effect ofexamination suggests that territory-wide examination may bringa certain amount of uniformity and standardization to schoolsin Macau. It is an empirical question of the extent to whichthis already exists in Macau, even in diversified provision,and the public data on this do not currently exist. To thequestion of the possible negative effects of standardizedexamination, the work of Sacks and Kohn cited earlier drawsattention to the dangers of this.4.2 Arguments Against a Territory-Wide ExaminationSystem in Macau4.2.1 Territory-wide examinations may risk the loss ofwhatever diversity exists in the Macau schooling system,through the backwash effect on curriculumExaminations may exert a negative backwash effect oncurricula, teaching and learning, and the current diversity onthe schooling system may be lost to a uniform schoolingsystem. The negative backwash effect of testing on curriculaand pedagogy, is already well rehearsed.294.2.2 A territory- wide examination, as a standardizedexamination, brings its own problem of reliability and validityA standardized examination may drive teachers to drillstudents for examination. The evidence from Sacks charts notonly of the extent of this (and breaches of reliability), butits deleterious effects (consequent validity) are also welldocumented.30 The issue here will be to ensure that any externalexamination demonstrates greater reliability and validity – inall their hues – than a non-territory-wide examination system.Simply because a system is territory-wide does not necessarilyguarantee that it is any more or less reliable and valid, butit would be hard to imagine that it would not be more reliableand valid, provided that common procedures for item analysis,domain referencing, test construction, validation, standardization,marking and moderation are observed.4.2.3 Why should Macau risk abandoning the autonomyof schools in having education meet the demands of a potentiallycentralized or single system?Macau’s schools offer various forms of schooling andschools have autonomy in meeting their different goals. A uniformand centralized educational system may not be necessary inMacau. Clearly this does not preclude the use of a commonterritory-wide examination system; the two are not incompatible.However, the issue runs deeper, for it challenges the traditionalright of schools in Macau to do very largely as they thinkfit, which includes not choosing to be involved in territory-wide examination.4.2.4 There may be a mismatch between curricula anda territory-wide examination in Macau, given that its schoolsfollow curricula from different countriesAs Macau uses different curricula from several countries,territory-wide examination may not match the current diversecurricula. This raises the issue of the validity of the examination:to be fair it must examine those items that are covered bythe curricula in question. However, when one looks atinternational measures of student achievement (e.g. PISA) whichcover a diversity of curricula and countries, it is possibleto have a generic core of common items on an achievementtest. This could be done in a territory-wide examination systemin Macau also. The question is also raised of the areas tobe covered in such examinations, and it may mean that theseare restricted to a limited set of curriculum areas, e.g.Mathematics, English, Chinese, Science, IT. In the interestsof validity and fairness, these examinations should be fairto Macau’s curricula. This raises the issue of the commonalityof Macau’s curricula; though the government provides guidelinesand minimum time allowances for subjects, schools have great
103《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2freedom to determine their curricula. It is an empirical questionof what is currently covered in them, and research wouldneed to be undertaken to ensure fair coverage for all schools,and in more than one language (given that the schools inMacau use Cantonese, English and Portuguese).4.2.5 Territory-wide examinations are expensive tooperateDoes Macau and its schools have the financial resourcesnecessary and, even if they do, is this money being spentmost wisely or could it be spent more wisely on other educationprojects? Spending a large amount of money on an ongoingbasis to establish and sustain a territory-wide examination systemmay not guarantee improvement in education quality any morethan other education projects do. The benefit may not be worththe cost. Macau’s GDP is high, and this could support aterritory-wide examination. Whether it is money wisely spent,this concerns questions of the use to which examination datawould be put, and expert opinion would be necessary here.4.2.6 What would a territory-wide examination bring thatis necessary for local use, where Macau’s smallness mayrender such information unnecessary?Macau’s very small size means that there is considerable‘common knowledge’of people (and schools) and informal,word of mouth contacts.31 What information would examinationdata provide that are useful and add to existing information?The issue is whether examination data would tell the publicany more than they know already. The answer to this isaffirmative, given the situation reported earlier, viz. that veryfew and incomplete public data on schooling and studentperformance exist in Macau. Indeed, it was suggested thatthe data are largely hearsay rather than being empiricallyaccurate. Robust data are needed in Macau; this is also adelicate matter, given the small-state sensitivities outlined earlier.4.2.7 The danger of over-emphasis on a marks-orientededucationA familiar range of concerns is raised here, e.g. over-emphasis on examination scores may lead to rote learning,teaching to examinations, drill and practice, put students andteachers under severe pressure and de-motivate students’inlearning.32 Marks may rise without learning taking place.334.2.8 The limitation of technical expertise in local personnelMany small states and territories lack local technicalexpertise in examinations, and Macau may be no exceptionhere.34 This being the case, it may be useful either to trainlocal experts or be part of a consortium, i.e. an externalexamination system.4.2.9 The challenge to the quality and credibility of thecredentialsEven if there were a territory-wide examination, if itwere only a local examination with no external referents, thenit may have little credibility, legitimacy or recognition outside.Many small states buy into external systems, as they haveexternal legitimacy, credibility and currency.4.2.10 Standardization can also bring negative effectsThere are several risks to standardized tests, for example:standardizing student’s minds35 and neglecting individualdifferences; standardized examinations may measure socio-economic status rather than educational achievement; teachersand students are driven to drill the examination skill ratherthan deep thinking; authentic learning are undermined bystandardization.36 Of course, this is not to say that school-set examinations do not have exactly the same effects, soit is perhaps unfair to level the criticism solely at a territory-wide examination.4.2.11 Increased an unnecessary pressure on schools,teachers and studentsIt is commonplace to read of the negative effects oftesting across the world.37 That over-reliance on testing canexert a negative effect on curricula, student motivation,self-esteem, creativity, higher order thinking and flexibility iswell known. In Japan the nightmare of the cramming schoolswhich destroy childhood is infamous38 , and Bray’s studiesof the extent of private lessons bear witness to the intensityof the pressure to pass examinations.39 Over a decade agoLewin and Lu reported that widespread testing in China ledto low-level recall, discouraged creativity and originality,narrowed the content and framing of curricula, elevated contentover skills, furthered the credentialist spiral, and encouragedrote learning.40 Indeed, even populist coverage of the issueis current.414.2.12 How would a territory-wide system be any betterthan present practice, in which diverse public examinations
Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?澳門研究104第44期operate?Currently in Macau, some public examinations are takenby some students (e.g. City and Guilds, RSA, GCSE, ‘A’levels, university entrance examinations) but not by everystudent or every school. On the one hand this may not bea problem, as different examinations examine different things,but, on the other hand, the lack of parity of public examinations,coupled with the fact that not all Macau students and schoolsfollow them, means that complete, reliable, valid and comparabledata on student performance are currently absent in Macau.Whilst may not wish to rule out diversity, this does not precludethe setting of a common territory-wide examination; the twoare not mutually exclusive.4.2.13 What would be the language of the assessmentsand examinations (CMI/EMI/Portuguese)?This raises the issue of whether a territory-wide examinationshould be in the mother tongue or a common language, whichmay not be the students’first language, and which, therefore,might yield unreliable dataThe above discussion of advantages and disadvantagesmay be summarized by suggesting that a set of tensionsexists in considering whether to install a territory-wideexamination system, i.e. there will be costs and benefits, andso not only would a balance need to be struck where thiswas possible, but, where a balance might not be possible,decisions would have to be taken between alternatives. Howto balance the tensions is the key factor in deciding whetherMacau really needs a territory-wide examination. There areseveral tensions here, which, for conceptual clarity, can bepresented as dichotomies or poles on a continuum (Table 1).If Macau were to introduce a territory-wide examination,it not only has to face the difficulties and issues that othersmall states have to face but also Macau’s unique features,e.g. its tiny geographical size; its relative enormous populationand very high population density; the small number of schools;the extensive private school system; the strong autonomy ofschools; the diversity of school curricula; the unfamiliarity ofmany schools with external examinations; the limitations ofresident examination expertise; the cost of operating a territory-wide system; external recognition, credibility and status of thequalification; and the potential tension between centralization,decentralization and diversity. These issues were explored inan interview-based piece of research below.5. An Empirical Study of MacauThe empirical research addressed three main researchquestions:What are the advantages for/arguments in favour of,and disadvantages of/arguments against Macau having a territory-wide assessment/ examination system at secondary schoollevel?What are the issues to be faced in establishing aTable 1 Tensions in a Territory-Wide ExaminationSystem in MacauO n O n e H a n d O n t h e O t h e r H a n dUniformity/standardization Diversity and differencePrivate knowl edge Public knowl edgePrivate ownership of schools Public ownership of schoolsAutonomy ControlCentralization DecentralizationFinancial cost Financial benefitCost (non-financial) Benefit (non-financial)Independence Dependence on others (or other systems)Independence (own system of exams)Credibility/recognition/currency of asmall territory’s examinationExamination for territory-wide use only Examinations for use outside the territoryStandard (ized) examinationsBespoke (school-specific or system-specific) examinationsRestrictive EmpoweringThreat BenefitConcentration on borderline students onlyConcentration on all students,(in order to raise possible grades and VES USnot only the ones on the borderlinesoverall student averages)Comparison of students and schoolsUniqueness/idiography/spec ific identityand features of each schoolMarks (summative) Development (formative)Added value (value of additionalCostinformation acquired from results)Certification DevelopmentBackwash (narrowing the curriculum, Development (of curriculum,teaching and assessment) teaching and assessment)Accountability Professional autonomyDecision making by outsiders (to schools) Decision making by insiders (to schools)Reliability and validity at school level Reliability and validity at state/territory levelCompliance and conformity to a given system Development of unique systemCatching different (sometimes incompatible)Respecting different curricula andcurricula from different systems andcountries from which they stemcountries from which they stem(i.e. a matter of validity and fairness ofthe examinations – equity)
105《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2territory-wide assessment system in Macau?How Macau can learn from other small states whendeveloping its own territory-wide assessment system?Empirical data were gathered through in-depth interviewsand written communication with 20 senior educationists whohad intimate knowledge of Macau and its education system.Fourteen major questions were asked, with follow up questionsof ‘why’. The researchers endeavoured to ensure neutralityin the choice of questions, the conduct of the interviews andthe reporting of the data, as the research was neither seekingto promote nor to proscribe a public examination system.Interview questions included, for example:Do you think that Macau should or should not havea territory-wide assessment/examination system? Why? Whynot?If Macau were to have a territory-wide assessment/examination system, should it be part of an examinationsyndicate/consortium or have its own ‘home-grown’territory-wide assessment’? Why? What are the advantages anddisadvantages of a ‘home-grown’system and a ‘bought-in’external examination board system?What do you think would be the advantages of/benefitsfrom having a territory-wide assessment/examination systemin Macau? Why? What are the major and minor advantages/benefits?What do you think would be the disadvantages of,and dangers/risks in, having a territory-wide assessment/examination system in Macau? Why? What are the majorand minor disadvantages?On balance, do you see the disadvantages outweighingthe advantages or the advantages outweighing the disadvantages?Which advantages outweigh which disadvantages? Why? Whichdisadvantages outweigh the advantages? Why?What do you see as the main difficulties in bringingin a territory-wide assessment/examination system in Macau?Why are there these difficulties? How can these be addressedin Macau, and by whom?Where do you think the greatest resistance might comefrom to a territory-wide assessment/examination system inMacau? Why?Where do you think the greatest support might comefrom for a territory-wide assessment/examination system inMacau? Why?What needs to be done in Macau in order to bringabout a territory-wide assessment/examination system in Macau?Who needs to take action here, and what action should theytake?What needs to change in Macau in order to bringabout a territory-wide assessment/examination system in Macau?Who needs to change, and what does each party need tochange?If there were to be a territory-wide assessment/examination system in Macau, what should be assessed, howshould the assessment be done, and when should studentsbe assessed? Why?If there were to be a territory-wide assessment/examination system in Macau, should teachers’assessmentbe included, or should the system be completely external?Why? Why not?What uses should be made of the assessment results?Why? Why not?Should the results be made public, and if so, to whom?Why? Why not?Table 2 reports interview data on the question of whetherrespondents felt that Macau should have a territory-wideassessment/examination system. (The numbers in the left handcolumn of the following tables indicate the number of peopleexpressing that view).Table 2 Should Macau have a Territory-wideAssessment/Examination System?Q1: Do you think that Macau should or should not have a territory-wide assessment/examinat ion system? Why? Why not?Nine Ye s● I t would enhance the effect iveness of teaching and learning● It would provide objective standards to assess schools and students● It would provide tertiary institut ions with a unified benchmark forse lect ion and students would take fewer univers ity ent ranceexamina t ions● There is a need for a reliable and valid ity assessment system● There is a need to ascertain school value-added● The publ ic has a r igh t to know what is going on in schoolsand student performance, based on a hard evidence● There is a need for a public examination to be universally appliedfor the whole school populat ion (which current various publicexaminations do not)
Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?澳門研究106第44期● It has more potential (e.g. Higher-order thinking which has a positiveeffect on the curriculum) than pass/fail, selection and credentialism.● It does not necessarily mean that teaching and curricula are unifiedand the same● There is a need for quality and equality of human capital developmentin Macau● No territory-wide assessment system is perfect, but it is betterthan no system at al lOn e It depends● The advantages and disadvantages brought by the system● The purpose, funct ions and eff iciency of the system● Considerat ions of economic cost, d iverse curriculum and theschooling systemThree Yes and Nothe reasons for ‘Yes’● If the aims of the system is to help to learn and develop studentsab i l i t y● The sys tem may move Macau’s educa t ion towards sor t o fstandardizat ion or uniformity● I f the system is ef fect ively administered, it may provide datafor government on education management and school improvement.● People from other places may say yes as they are not familiarwith Macau’s educat ion system.the reasons for ‘No’● I f purpose of assessment is to rank schools and fail students● The system is not worth the expense for such a small populat ion● Existing public examinations suit Macau’s diverse education system● Hong Kong is a bad sample of territory-wide assessment (HKCEEand HKALE)● Most Macau people who are famil iar with Macau situation wouldsay no to the systemSeven No● I t wou ld force studen ts to study a lo t of sub jects which areunconnected with their future studies● I t would impose great pressure on schools and stakeholders● Macau is too small to afford a territory-wide assessment system● It is unsuitable for Macau’s diverse curriculum and schooling system● Hong Kong is not a good sample of territory-wide assessment● Other countr ies are trying to find other assessments to replacepublic assessment (e.g. Taiwan), and Macau does not need it .● Macau does not need it for select ion purpose● It would bringing negative side-effects such as ranking and labellingscho o ls● School-set assessment is current ly well recognized● I t may destroy the exist ing educat ion system● Macau has jo ined PISA and has an inspect ion system● Schools already have their set standards● This would not solve the problem of diverse educat ion levelsas these are caused by other factors (e.g. teacher’s qualifications,student’s motivat ion and school ethos etc.)● Summative assessment cannot help student learning● Existing public examinations provide students with various choicesand these can replace terr itory-wide assessment system● I t can lead to an examinat ion-oriented educationThe answers indicate a very wide range of views withinand between the categories of ‘yes’, ‘depends’, ‘yes and no’and ‘no’. The majority of people (45%) said ‘yes’, thougha significant minority (35%) indicated ‘no’, with 20% of responsesindicating ‘it depends’or both ‘yes and no’. One can observethat there was a greater number of reasons given againsta territory-wide assessment system than in favour of sucha system. Further, one can see that several respondents hadmixed feelings, one indicating that ‘it all depends’on certainconditions being met. This is an important finding: the resultsare not unequivocal, and those responses in favour of aterritory-wide examination system were conditional. It wasargued that whether a territory-wide assessment was workableor not depended depends on its functions, purposes, and acompromise between its relative disadvantages and advantages.Table 3 Advantages of, and Benefits from, having aTerritory-wide Assessment/Examination System in MacauQ3: What do you think would be the advantages of/benef its from having aterritory-wide assessment/examinat ion system in Macau? Why? What are themajor and minor advantages/benef its?Six t ee n The advantages/benef its● Curriculum design, school planning, teaching and learning wouldbene f it f rom the feedback o f assessment as st reng ths andweaknesses would be identif ied.● Being fair to evaluate students’ achievements based on the sameand recognized standard.● Good for students to further their study abroad as the examinationresult are internat ionally recognized (if it is part of examinationsyndicate/consortium).● Students take fewer examinat ions.● Teachers have more time to focus on teaching as they have somestandards to follow.● Parents can have more choices to switch from one schoo l toanother with similar curr icula.● Tert iary inst itut ions have an easier and fairer admission as allstudents have standard grading.● Curricula are at least based on a common standard rather thanvarious standards, and this standardizes the education standardsof schools.● The system that will ra ises competition may trigger students towork hard.● School become more accountable as they have to earn theirreputat ions based on real data.● Providing public data to indicate the level at tained by schoolsand students.● Providing government with real data to monitor, evaluate and improveschoo ls .● Providing real data to compare Macau’s students with other students
107《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2at regional and internat ional levels, indicat ing the strengths andweaknesses so as to improve student learning.● Assess student’s various abili t ies.● Providing a direction for Macau’s education development and goingforward based on set targets.● Bringing revolut ionary significance in Macau’s education reformwhich is far more important than the system itself because: (a)the system brings a uniform curriculum which provide all schoolswith an opportunity to communicate and cooperate; (b) it establishesthe system that shows that Macau has a powerful governmentwhich can lead all parties forward in a set direct ion and target.Four No advantages/benef its● The feasibil i ty, quality, suitabil i ty and reliabil i ty of the systemare doubtful● Different schools have education methodologies and students havedifferent orientations, and there is no need to enforce a standardfor al l without considering whether it is suitable or not.● Macau students are used to exist ing examinat ions and Macaudoes not need to be like Hong Kong, impose great pressure onstudents● Opposition to establishing a territory-wide assessment system inMacauTable 3 reports the interview data on respondents’viewsof the advantages of, and benefits from, having a territory-wide assessment/examination system in Macau. It is strikingthat there was more than four times the number of advantagesgiven than no advantages (17 as opposed to 4). Again, therewas a great diversity of responses and reasons within andbetween categories of response. The majority was in favourof a territory wide system: 80% of respondents indicatedadvantages/benefits from having a territory-wide assessmentand 20% respondents thought that there were no advantages/benefits from having this assessment system. The advantages/benefits included those brought to the curriculum, teachers,students, tertiary institutions and government. On the other handdoubts were raised about benefits and advantages, citing issuesof feasibility, quality, suitability and reliability of such a system,and also against the principle itself of having a territory-wideassessment in Macau.Table 4 reports the interview data on respondents’viewsof the disadvantages, dangers and risks in having a territory-wide assessment/examination system in Macau.Table 4 Disadvantages, Dangers and Risks in having aTerritory-wide Assessment/Examination System in MacauQ4: What do you think would be the disadvantages of, and danger/r isks inhaving a territory-wide assessment/examination system in Macau? Why? Whatare the major and minor disadvantages?Ele ven ● It may cause examination-oriented education as: too much storewil l placed on the examinat ion result ; the examination resultmight be used as a st ick to beat teachers and schools ratherthan for development purposes; it would support the existingexamination culture; the student’s potent ia l may not be fullydeveloped. However, if an external assessment system is beingused that is not l inked to a specif ic syllabus (e.g. PISA), thenthis could be overcome.Ele ven ● I t might add more examinat ions and impose more pressure onstudents, teachers and parents. However, it would need to separatedaily tests in schools from a public assessment system, the formerneeds to be reduced and the latter can be increased as the limited,intermittent and occasional public assessment system would yielddifferent kinds of data (e.g. value added)Seven ● It may restrict student develop in other areas because: it doesnot comprehensively assess students and not reflect student’svarious abilities; the examination score become all-important andother important aspects of education are might be neglected; theh igh s ta ke exam in a t ion m ay no t re prese n t s tu den t’s re a lcompetences; it unfair to force all students to f it one singleassessment system as students should have choice to learn whatrelate to their further studyFour ● I t may bring side-effects such as arousing competit ion amongschools, cou ld cause closure and labell ing of schools● It would destroy diversity in the education system and limit student’sch o iceOn e ● The system cannot be compared with exist ing reg iona l andinternat ional examinations which are readily available in Macau.The system will face the problem of human resource and qualityassurance.On e ● A formal terr itory-wide assessment system will make Macau’seducation unnatural as Macau is a free-market guided by naturalru lesOn e ● I t may simplify the curriculumIt is noticeable that several respondents identified the sameissues in responding to this question, and that there wereseveral main areas of disadvantage and risk identified byrespondents. More than half of the respondents thought thata territory-wide assessment system might lead to examination-oriented education and impose great pressure on students,teachers and parents. If the examination results become all-important, the system would promote an examination cultureand bring negative side-effects, though one suggestion wasreceived to avoid this in that the public assessment system
Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?澳門研究108第44期need not be linked to a specific syllabus, thereby solvingthe problem of existing diverse curriculum, i.e. a publicexamination system did not require a unification of diversecurricula, teaching and learning. It was argued that a publicexamination system might restrict students’development in otherareas and some important aspects of education might be neglectedif they were not be assessed, i.e. the negative effects ofthe backwash of a territory-wide examination system. Whilstsuch a system could unify and simplify the curriculum, itcould reduce the diversity of education in Macau, and limitstudent’s choices, and diversity in education was reported tobe a hallmark of Macau’s education. Further, the risk broughtby such examinations could be to close schools, label schoolsand promote unnecessary competition between them. On apragmatic level, it was noted that regional and internationalexaminations were already available in Macau and these couldbring quality assurance, and that, if Macau were to haveits own territory-wide system of assessment and examinations,it would have low status in comparison to these.Table 5 reports interview data on respondents’viewsof whether, on balance, the disadvantages outweigh advantagesor advantages outweigh disadvantages in a territory-wideassessment/examination system. It is noticeable that not onlyis the number of disadvantages higher than the number ofadvantages reported, but the number of people reportingdisadvantages is higher than the number of people reportingadvantages. When one places this alongside the data fromTable 2, in which more people were in favour of a territory-wide assessment/examination system than against it, thissuggests that, even though a majority was in favour of aterritory-wide assessment/examination system, they were notblind to its dangers and problems. Indeed 25% of responsesvoted for a conditional ‘it all depends’, and the number ofconditions stated (5) was not small.As in previous tables, responses were both mixed andwide-ranging. Nearly half of the respondents indicateddisadvantages outweighing advantages and did not seeadvantages, whilst 20% of respondents saw advantagesoutweighing disadvantages. The respondents considered advan-tages outweighing disadvantages in two main aspects: thesystem would bring a positive influence on education suchas promoting a common Macau education standard, enhancingthe effectiveness of teaching and learning, and making schoolsmore accountable; the system would yield real data thatwould enable the government to evaluate and monitor schools,and enable the public to know what was happening in theschools and what level students were attaining.On the other hand, the main points of disadvantagesoutweighing advantages comprised three main aspects:Macau’s lack of mature conditions to set up quality examinationsystem, e.g. schools’resistance to the system, shortage ofhuman resource, expertise, experiences etc.; the examinationsystem could bring negative effects such as pressure on students,teachers and schools, changing the whole education systemand loss of diversity; in fact the government would notbe able use the examinations for monitoring as the systemwould not be accredited and may not have credibility.Table 5 Do Disadvantages Outweigh Advantages orDo Advantages Outweigh Disadvantages in a Territory-wideAssessment/ExaminationSystem?Q5: On balance, do you see the disadvantages outweighing the advantagesor the advantages outweighing the disadvantages? Which advantages outweighwhich disadvantages? Why? Which disadvantages outweigh the advantages?Wh y?Four Advantages outweighing disadvantages● Enhance the effectiveness of teaching and learning.● Promote an overall Macau educat ion standard.● Improve students’ per fo rmance and dr ive schoo ls to makeimprovement.● Provide government with object ive data to monitor and evaluateschoo ls .● Enable the public to know what schools are doing on and students’achievements.On e Advantages and disadvantages taken together● There is no perfect examination system, but it is better to haveit rather than not. Macau’s students need GCSEs or TOFEL tostudy abroad and tert iary inst itut ions do not have any averageor common questions/requirements for enrollment.F i v e It a ll depends● I f the assessment can fully ref lect student’s abil i t ies● How to implement the system● It is good if the system can focus on developing students’ learninginstead of leading to an examinat ion-orientated educat ion● I f the system suits Macau situat ion● Both advantages and disadvantages need to be carefully consideredSeven The disadvantages outweighing advantages● Natural response to the reform will be resistance● The negat ive perspect ives may mask the posit ive benef its
109《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2● The system will change Macau’s whole educat ion system andit may cause macau to lose much (e.g. diverse choices, autonomy,creativity and motivat ion).● The so-called advantages are really insignificant, the system wastespublic money and lacks human resources, expertise and experienceto se t up a qua lit y examina t ion system.● It would impose pressure on schools, students, and it is an unnaturalsystem for Macau’s educat ion system.● Not every one cares about the examination system, governmentcannot use the examination as a standard and monitoring diverse.● Simplif ies the curriculum● Eliminates schools’ diversity in Macau and students’ diverse choicesand development.T w o ● Do not see advantagesTable 6 reports respondents’views of what they consideredto be the main difficulties in bringing in a territory-wideassessment system, why, how to address them, and whoshould address them.Table 6 The Main Difficulties in Bringing in aTerritory-wide Assessment System, Why, How toAddress Them, and by WhomQ6: What do you see as the main diff iculties in bringing in a territory-wideassessment/examination system in Macau? Why are there these difficulties?How can these be addressed in Macau, and by whom?Eighteen Main dif f iculty● Resistance from schools, principals, teachers; it is hard to gainagreement from the schools and stakeholders.Th is is because● Schools have a long history of high autonomy and freedom,they want keep the autonomy and will not accept the reform.● Schools want to keep their own characterist ics.● They may worry i f the examinat ion has suf f ic ient exte rnalrecognit ion, if the examinat ion can comprehensively assessstudents.● They do not fu lly understand the assessment system.● Some schools are afraid of being labelled by examination results.Ways to address the dif f icult ies● DSEJ should change’s people’s perception of the assessmentsystem by introducing and promoting the system (e.g. explainingits purposes, advantages and disadvantages)● Government must convince schools that the system is worthwhileand should replace many teacher-assessments.● Government must have the will , determinat ion and powerfulgovernance and apply legislat ion to overcome resistance andto address dif f icult ies and include the system as part of theeducat ion system.● Government must conduct research before addressing the difficulty.● Conceptualization, planning, implementat ion, and evaluation indifferent phases of policy act ion.S i x Main dif f iculty● diverse curriculum, schooling systemTh is is because● history of a diverse educat ion system.● polit ical and historical factors.Ways to address the dif f iculty● devise an appropriate syllabus for all schools.● find a suitable system from international systems and consortia.F i v e Main dif f iculty● The cost, human resource, expertise, administrat ion teams andexperiences to introduce and maintain the quality assessmentsystem.Th is is because● Macau’s lack of human resource and experiences.Ways to address the dif f icult ies● There are no simple solutions, therefore it is necessary to addressthe issue by conceptualizat ion, planning, implementat ion andevaluat ion in dif ferent phases of policy action.● Macau has money can cover the cost and i t is worthwhile.Three Diff icult ies and reasons for them● It is hard to change the education system to suit the assessmentsystem as it dominated by the historical, social and polit icalfactors (e.g. nepotism is common in a small territory like Macau,history leave a diverse educat ion system)Ways to address the dif f icult ies● One must wa it for the assessment to be popular in Macauand wait unti l china respects freedom of choice and becomesa developed country.● I t is d if f icult to so lve the problem.On e Dif f icult ies● malpract ice: cheat ing in various form and corrupt practices inconduct ing the assessment system.On e Dif f icult ies● credibil i ty, objectivity, recognit ion of the assessment system● concerns whether the assessment data can improve the educationleve l .Ways to address the dif f icult ies● DSEJ should establish an independent authoritative institute whichincludes exper t ise from other count r ies, loca l pro fessionaleducat ionists and teachers.● research is required, to find out the most suitable assessmentsystem for Macau and the system that also relate the curriculumdevelopment and education plans.A very high number of respondents (90%) identified thesame single difficulty: resistance from schools, principals,teachers, and that it was ‘hard to gain agreement from theschools and stakeholders’, with several reasons given for this,e.g. Macau’s diverse curricula and schooling (30% ofrespondents) and the cost, human resources, expertise,experiences, administrative skills to introduce and maintain a
Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?澳門研究110第44期quality assessment system (25% of respondents).The examination system might be regarded as a threatto schools’autonomy, and schools might not be sure of theassessment and be afraid of being labeled by the examinationresults. Respondents thought that the government could addressthese difficulties by change people’s perception of the examinationsystem by careful introduction and promotion. Further, thegovernment would need political will and powerful governanceto overcome resistance, e.g. bringing in the system by legislation.Devising an appropriate syllabus for all schools and findingan appropriate system from reviewing international systemsand consortia was seen to be a possible way to addressthis.A third difficulty concerned quality assurance and qualitycontrol of the assessment system, e.g.: the credibility,objectivity, and external recognition of the assessment system;the cost and expertise; overcoming malpractice (cheatingand corrupt practices). Respondents indicated that there wereno simple solutions to these difficulties and that independentauthoritative research was necessary to address these matters.It was seen as important to address conceptualization,planning, implementation, and evaluation in different phases ofpolicy action.Opinion was divided on whether the results should bemade public, with 45% in favour or the results being publicand 45 per cent being against it. It is notable, perhaps, thatthe numbers voting ‘for’and ‘against’publicizing results werehigh, indicating strong feelings here. Concern was expressedabout the possible negative impact of making the results public,and this led to the expressed need to avoid publishing student-level data.6. Summary of ResultsOverall the results showed a very mixed set of responses.1. There was an overall majority in favour of a territory-wide assessment/examination system, but with severalconditions attached. There would have to be sufficient localexpertise and human resources to run such a system.It would have to be affordable and sustainable year on year.It would have to provide hard data for government. Itwould have to demonstrate value for money and provide usefuldata that could not be gained in any other way. It wouldhave to lead to improvement to schools, teaching, learning,and not simply be a stick to beat teachers and students.If would have to avoid threatening local traditions and contexts.It would not have to be used simply to compare and rankschools and teachers. It would not have to not narrowchoice, (diverse) curricula, nor standardize, narrow or unifycurricula, nor destroy the diversity within Macau’s educationprovision. There would have to be significant governmentdissemination and persuasion. It would have to be trialedand researched before decisions were taken about widespreadadoption. It would need to overcome parental pressure formaintaining high levels of testing.2. A territory-wide assessment/examination system wasseen to possess: greater potential for reliability, validity andjudgments of school effectiveness than school-set assessments/examinations, hearsay or reputation; greater objectivity andless risk of malpractice than school-set assessments/examinations; the opportunity to provide hard data andinformation to government, parents and the public on schooland student performance; the power to address schoolaccountability; the opportunity for schools to be comparedfairly, all schools being part of a common system and setof standards; the opportunity for students to take fewerexaminations overall.3. There was a significant minority against a territory-wide assessment/examination system, giving several reasons.It would be used to rank and compare schools, teachersand students. Macau schools can already use externalexaminations if they wish. Macau is already part of thePISA system. It would increase pressure on students andteachers unnecessarily. It is unnecessary for selectionpurposes. It does not help students to learn. It is awaste of money. Few people care enough about examinationresults to warrant the vast expenditure of money on it.It would lead to negative labeling, too much competition, andschool closures. It would lead to an examination-orientededucation. Schools could lose their reputations. It wouldjeopardize Macau’s diverse curricula and schooling. The costwould be too great in terms of, human resources, expertise,experience, administrative skills to introduce and maintain a
111《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2quality assessment system. It would threaten school andprincipal power. It would be unable to match local contextsand circumstances. The Macau government may not wishto jeopardize good relationships with schools.4. There was a significant number of respondents whowere equivocal, indicating that the decision to introduce orreject a territory-wide assessment/examination system dependedon a range of factors, and that the matter was not ‘blackand white’. Though there was an overall majority in favourof a territory-wide assessment system, there was also asignificant minority against it. Those who were in favour alsoindicated that it would only be conditional on a range of factorsbeing assured, including: support and preparation; over-coming resistance from local sources; methodologicalreliability and validity; clarity on the comprehensiveness andselection of foci, contents and instruments; resolution ofthe balance of teacher-based assessment and externalexamination; decision on whether, and how far, to adopta locally or externally developed system; harmonization withthe traditional autonomy of schools in Macau; clarity onthe role of government; and agreement on the timing andstages at which the assessment/examinations would beundertaken.5. Even though more people were in favour of a territory-wide examination system than against it, more reasons weregiven against it than for it.6. The number of people reporting disadvantages washigher than the number of people reporting advantages. Thougha majority was in favour of a territory-wide assessment/examination system, they were not blind to its dangers andproblems.7. For an external system of assessment/examinationsto be accepted it would need to be able to meet the localconditions of school autonomy and freedom, principal power,diverse curricula and systems.8. 90% of respondents identified the same single factoras a major obstacle to a territory-wide assessment/examinationsystem: resistance from schools, principals, teachers.9. 50% of respondents indicated that, if a territory wide-system were to operate, it should be a ‘home-grown’system;25% indicated that Macau should have a ‘brought-in’externalassessment system; and 15% had mixed views.10. One attraction of a ‘home-grown’ territory-wideassessment/examination system was its ability to be tailoredto Macau and its flexibility in meeting meet local developments.11. There were many reasons given against having a‘home-grown’(i.e. Macau-devised) territory-wide assessment/examination system: external credibility, recognition and statuswould be low; there would be limited quality assurance;there was insufficient resident expertise to ensure its success;it would have little portability outside Macau, and wouldnot overcome the need for students to take other kinds ofexaminations (e.g. university entrance);12. An external, brought-in territory-wide assessment/examination system would have: international recognition;external credibility; and be built on experience and expertise.13. A ‘mixed’model might be operable, in which a home-grown system was prepared but monitored by an externalbody, avoiding the disadvantages of having two parallel systems.14. The Macau government was seen as having a crucialrole in supporting any moves to have a territory-wideassessment/examination system, though support from a widerange of parties in Macau was also seen as important.15. For such an innovation to occur would requirefundamental changes of mentality, practice, curricula, anduniversity admission procedures in many parties.16. Opinion was varied on the contents of any territory-wide assessment/ examination. Whilst there was widespreadagreement on the inclusion of a ‘core’, a significant numberof responses went wider in terms of curriculum areas andtypes of thinking.17. Opinion was varied on the methods to be used inany territory-wide assessment/examination, e.g. examinationsonly or other forms of assessment such as portfolio and teacherassessment. Opinion was mixed on whether teacher assessmentshould be part of any territory-wide assessment/examination,and many respondents gave conditional responses to theinclusion of teacher assessment, such as ensuring reliabilityand validity, procedural clarity and the avoidance of malpracticein teacher assessment.18. There was a wide range of responses concerningthe timing of assessment, in terms of: ages and stages
Does Macau Need a Territory-wide Public Examination System?澳門研究112第44期suggested; and the number of occasions on which studentsshould be assessed.19. There was a range of views concerning the usesto be made of assessment/examination results, from studentselection to establishing an evidence base of performance,improvements to teaching and learning, employability, value-added measures, and comparing schools.20. Opinion was divided sharply on the issue of whetherthe results of any territory-wide assessment/examination shouldbe made public, and feelings appeared to be strong on thisissue, with significant numbers both in favour and against.Concern was expressed about the negative aspects of publicizingthe results, e.g. pressure on students and schools.The responses are equivocal. Opinion was mixed anddivided, sometimes sharply, on a range of issues concerningthedesirability,purposes,practice,implementation,instrumentation,timing, usage and outcomes of a territory-wide assessment/examination system. Further, there was a very large numberof conditional responses received to issues and the rangeof factors embraced in such responses. There were no cut-and-dried answers here. Nor was there decisiveness on whethera territory-wide examination system should happen in Macau.Whilst significant benefits were identified by respondents,significant disadvantages and risks were also identified. A majorstumbling block would be external recognition, status andcredibility of any local examinations, and the argument wasraised powerfully that, if schools wished to use externalexamination, then that option was readily available for themalready. However, this was not at issue: at issue was acommon territory-wide examination system, and a territory-wideexamination system would be a radical novelty for, and in,Macau. Hence the range of responses, the range and divisionof opinion and the conditional tone of many of the responsesare perhaps unsurprising.Notes:1 Finfacts, Global Income Per Capita – Published 2006,http://www.finfacts.com/biz10/globalworldincomepercapita.htm.,14th April, 2007.2 Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook, http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html, 21st April,2007.3 Bray, M. and Steward, L. (Eds.), Examination Systems inSmall States: Comparative Perspectives on Policies, Modelsand Operation (London: The Commonwealth Secretariat, 1998),p. 246.4 Ibid., pp. 115--118.5 Sultana, R. G., “Malta,” In Bray, M. and Steward, L. (Eds.),Examination Systems in Small States: Comparative Perspectiveson Policies, Models and Operation (London: CommonwealthSecretariat, 1998), pp. 120--144.6 Bray, M. and Steward, L. (Eds.), Examination Systems inSmall States: Comparative Perspectives on Policies, Modelsand Operation (London: The Commonwealth Secretariat, 1998),pp. 108--112.7 World Bank, Timor-Leste Education: the Way Forward, http://si teresources.worldbank.org/ INTTIMORLESTE/Resources/The_way_forward.pdf., 11th April 2007.8 Bray, M. and Steward, L. (Eds.), Examination Systems inSmall States: Comparative Perspectives on Policies, Modelsand Operation (London: The Commonwealth Secretariat, 1998),pp. 82--86.9 Morrison, K. R. B., “Sensitive Educational Research in SmallStates and Territories: the Case of Macau,” Compare, Vol.36, Issue 2 (2006), pp. 249--264.10 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD), Learning for Tomorrow’s World (Paris: Organizationfor Economic Co-operation and Development, 2004).1 1 Morrison, K. R. B. and Tang, F. H., “Testing to Destruction:a Problem in a Small State,”Assessment in Education: Principles,Policy and Practice, Vol. 9, Issue 3 (2002), pp. 289--317.1 2 Ibid.1 3 Ibid.1 4 Tang, F. H. and Morrison, K. R. B., “When Marketizationdoes not Improve Schooling: the Case of Macau,” Compare,Vol. 28, Issue 3, 1998, pp. 245--262.1 5 Morrison, K. R. B., “Sensitive Educational Research in SmallStates and Territories: the Case of Macau,” Compare, Vol.36, Issue 2 (2006), pp. 249--264.1 6 Faure, G. O. and Ding, Y. F., “Chinese Culture and Negotiation:Strategies for Handling Stalemates,” in Alon, I. (Ed.), ChineseCulture, Culture, Organizational Behaviour and InternationalBusiness Management (Westport: Praeger, 2003), pp. 85--98.1 7 Austin, S. P., “Issues in Human Resource Management forSmall States: a Tonga Perspective,” in Baldaccchino, G. andFarrugia, C. J. (Eds.), Educational Planning and Managementin Small States: Concepts and Experiences (London:Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002), pp. 25--38.1 8 Bond, M. H. and Hwang, K. H., “The Social Psychologyof the Chinese People,” in Bond, M. H. (Ed.), The Psychologyof the Chinese People (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986),pp. 213-266; Bond, M. H., Beyond the Chinese Face: Insightsfrom Psychology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).1 9 Morrison, K. R. B., “Sensitive Educational Research in SmallStates and Territories: the Case of Macau,” Compare, Vol.36, Issue 2 (2006), pp. 249--264.2 0 Morrison, K. R. B., “The Open Society and Education inMacau,” Public sapientia lecture presented at the Macau Inter-University Institute, October, 2001; Morrison, K. R. B., “Educationfor the Open, Democratic Society in Macau,” Paper presentedto the Catholic Teachers’ Association, Macau, April 2002;
113《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2Morrison, K. R. B. and Tang, F. H., “Testing to Destruction:a Problem in a Small State,”Assessment in Education: Principles,Policy and Practice, Vol. 9, Issue 3 (2002), pp. 289--317.2 1 Goffman, E., The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959); Goffman, E., Stigma: Noteson the Management of Spoiled Identity, (Harmondsworth:Penguin, 1963).2 2 Morrison, K. R. B., “The Open Society and Education inMacau,” Public sapientia lecture presented at the Macau Inter-University Institute, October, 2001; Morrison, K. R. B., “Educationfor the Open, Democratic Society in Macau,” Paper presentedto the Catholic Teachers’ Association, Macau, April 2002;Morrison, K. R. B., “Towards an Educational Agenda for Macauat the Start of the New Millennium,” Perspectives Chinoises,Vol. 73 (2002), pp. 83--90; also printed in China Perspectives,Vol. 44 (2002), pp. 76--83.2 3 Morrison, K. R. B. and Tang, F. H., “Testing to Destruction:a Problem in a Small State,”Assessment in Education: Principles,Policy and Practice, Vol. 9, Issue 3 (2002), pp. 289--317.2 4 Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K., A Guide to TeachingPractice (5th Edition) (London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2004).2 5 Sacks, P., Standardized Minds (Cambridge: Perseus Books,1999); Kohn A., The Case Against Standardized Testing(Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2000).2 6 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD), Learning for Tomorrow’s World (Paris: Organizationfor Economic Co-operation and Development, 2004).2 7 Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K., A Guide to TeachingPractice (5th Edition) (London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2004), p. 325.2 8 Adam Smith Institute, Education Policy (the Omega report)(London: Adam Smith, 1984).2 9 Black, P. and Wiliam, D., Inside the Black Box: RaisingStandards through Classroom Assessment (London: KingsCollege, University of London, 2001); Wedeen, P., Winter, J.and Broadfoot, P., Assessment: What’s in it for Schools?(London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2002); Smith, E. and Gorard, S.,“‘They don’t Give Us Our Marks’: the Role of FormativeFeedback in Student Progress,” Assessment in Education, Vol.12, Issue 1 (2005), pp. 21--38.3 0 Broadfoot, P., Murphy, R. and Torrance, H. (Eds.), ChangingEducational Assessment (London: Routledge, 1990).3 1 Bray, M. and Hui, P., “Curriculum Development in Macau,”i n M a r s h , C . a n d M o r r i s , P . ( E d s . ) , C u r r i c u l u mDevelopments in East Asia (London: Falmer, 1991), pp.181-201; Aust in, S. P. , “Issues in Human ResourceManagement for Smal l States: a Tonga Perspective,” inBaldaccchino, G. and Farrugia, C. J. (Eds.), EducationalPlanning and Management in Small States: Concepts andExperiences (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002),pp. 25--38; Morr ison, K. R. B. , “Sensi t ive Educat ionalResearch in Smal l States and Terri tor ies: the Case ofMacau,” Compare , Vol . 36, Issue 2 (2006) , pp. 249--264.3 2 Watkins, D. A. and Biggs, J. B. (Eds.), The Chinese Learner:Cultural, Psychological and Contextual Influences (Hong Kong:Comparative Education Research Centre; Melbourne: theAustralian Council for Educational Research Ltd., 1996); Sacks,P., Standardized Minds (Cambridge: Perseus Books, 1999);Kohn A., The Case Against Standardized Testing (Portsmouth:Heinemann, 2000); Watkins, D. A. and Biggs, J. B. (Eds.),Teaching the Chinese Learner: Psychological and PedagogicalPerspectives (Hong Kong: Comparative Education ResearchCentre; Melbourne: the Australian Council for EducationalResearch Ltd., 2001).3 3 Black, P. and Wiliam, D., Inside the Black Box: RaisingStandards through Classroom Assessment (London: KingsCollege, University of London, 2001); Wedeen, P., Winter, J.and Broadfoot, P., Assessment: What’s in it for Schools?(London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2002).3 4 Morrison, K. R. B., “School Inspection in Small States andTerritories: an Overview and Case Study of Macau,” Papersubmitted for publication, 2007.3 5 Sacks, P., Standardized Minds (Cambridge: Perseus Books,1999); Kohn A., The Case Against Standardized Testing(Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2000).3 6 Kohn A., The Case Against Standardized Testing (Portsmouth:Heinemann, 2000).3 7 Broadfoot, P., Murphy, R. and Torrance, H. (Eds.), ChangingEducational Assessment (London: Routledge, 1990); Harnisch,D. L. and Mabry, L., “Issues in the Development and Evaluationof Alternative Assessments,” Journal of Curriculum Studies,Vol. 25, Issue 2 (1993), pp. 179--187; Gipps, C., BeyondTesting (London: Falmer, 1994); Cohen, L., Manion, L. andMorrison, K., A Guide to Teaching Practice (5th Edition) (London:RoutledgeFalmer, 2004); Black, P., Testing: Friend or Foe?(London: Falmer, 1998); Sacks, P., Standardized Minds(Cambridge: Perseus Books, 1999).3 8 Dore, R. P. and Sako, M., How the Japanese Learn to Work(London: Routledge, 1989).3 9 Bray, M., The Shadow Education System: Private Tutoringand Its Implications for Planners (Paris: UNESCO, 1999); Bray.M., “Private Supplementary Tutoring: Comparative Perspectiveson Patterns and Implications,” Compare, Vol. 36, Issue 4 (2006),pp. 515--530.4 0 Lewin, K. and Lu, W., “University Entrance Examinations inChina: a Quiet Revolution,” in Broadfoot, P., Murphy, R. andTorrance, H. (Eds.), Changing Educational Assessment (London:Routledge, 1990), pp. 153--176.4 1 Fitzpatrick, L., “Asia’s Over-Scheduled Kids,” Time (27th March2006), pp. 48--55.References:1. Bray, M. and Koo, R., Education and Society in HongKong and Macau: Comparative Perspectives onContinuity and Change (Hong Kong: ComparativeEducation Research Centre, The University of HongKong, 1999).2. Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. R. B., ResearchMethods in Education (6th Edition) (London: Routledge,2007).
Nursing Safety: An Increasingly Global Issue and the Challenges for Macau’s Nursing Education澳門研究114第44期An International Nursing Conference “Quality and Safetyof Nursing Practice”organized by Macau Polytechnic Institutewas held in Macau during 8-9th June 2007. Over 500 delegatescoming from 11 countries/regions, such as the United States,the United Kingdom, Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, Israel,Turkey, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Mainland China and Macau, werepresent. Following the opening ceremony, the delegates weredivided into five groups, having lively discussions. As aparticipant of amphitryon, I had plenty opportunities to observeand synthesize the issues raised during the conference, realizingsome implications and challenges for Macau’s nursing education.1. A Global ConcernIt has been widely recognized that among differentvacations, healthcare provider is one with high risks integratingwith physical, chemical, biological, psychological and humanfactors. According to statistics, nursing staff are most likelyto be subject to occupational abuse amongst all healthcareprofessions1 .Promoting safety in hospitals and other settings, therefore,is not only necessary, but also a challenge that must becarried out urgently. Globally, emphasizing the importance ofbarrier nursing, strengthening the education of occupational health,establishing appropriate management systems, finalizingregulations, being pro-active in carrying out effective preventivemeasures, increasing employees awareness so as to set updaily routine tasks, have become significant strategies to ensurepeople’s health and safety.Nursing staffing has thus become one of the essentialissues. The theme of 2006 Nurse Day held by InternationalCouncil of Nurses was “save staffing, save lives”. The conceptof reasonable nurse staffing is not only refer to the numberand quality of clinical nurses, but also emphasizes that nursesshould possess both adept nursing skills and occupational moral.Nurses should meet different patients’needs based on theirdistinct cultural backgrounds.Surely, rapid and dynamic changes in health care deliveryand policy environments have put the issue of nursing safetyat the center of health care and the nursing profession. Macau’ssituation has certainly been constituted into this global trend.The scope and content of nursing are expanded alongwith the rapid development of health science and technology.This phenomenon results in requiring substantive numbers ofnurses in the medical profession. For instance, in most specialistunits, nursing shortage is obvious since the widely used ofnew technology and advanced facilities, which is also thecase in Macau’s daily practice.Concerning the world-wide occurrence, the importance ofreasonable nurse staffing should be addressed in these threeaspects: reasonable nursing staff is the foundation of ensuringhealth care safety, which is one of the major factors to ensurenursing quality, therefore reasonable nurse staffing will protectthe health status of nurses.Currently, solving nurse staffing problem is an urgentissue. Nurses should endeavor to tackle this problem in thesefour aspects: Appeal to set up the relevant policy andNursing Safety: An Increasingly Global Issue and theChallenges for Macau’s Nursing EducationLin Wei** Associate Professor, School of Language and Translation, Macau Polytechnic Institute
115《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2regulation; Conduct further research related to nurse staffing;Effectively and efficiently utilize nurses in current situation;and Improve the quality of nurses and ensure patients’safety.2Confronting the pressing demand of nursing, Macau HealthBureau has laid the fundamental principle for medicalprofessionals as “providing excellent medical services withprioritized prevention”. Consequently, the inter-professionaleducation was emphasized.In this regard, there are ample examples of practicefor references, such as the center for advancement of Inter-professional Education in the United Kingdom, brings togethereducators from across health care disciplines to work on reformin curricula. Similar efforts in the United States, Australia,Japan, Sweden and other counties3 , which all can be analyzed,compared and selectively integrated into Macau’s currentpractice.Meanwhile, health care organizations worldwide areresponding to growing pressures to improve quality and safetyby redesigning how care is delivered, monitored, and improved.The enhanced attention to quality and safety is accompaniedby the need for nurses to have the knowledge and skillsfor new roles in transforming practice settings. However, totruly transform the system to advance quality and safety, nursingeducation should also be reformed accordingly, so that newnurses begin practice with the knowledge, skills and attitudesappropriate to quality and safety competencies.4Among these responses, the most prominent one hasbeen the “QSEN” (Quality and Safety Education for Nurses),which aims to reshape professional identity formation in nursingso that it includes commitment to the development andassessment of the core competencies of all medical professionals.2. The Core CompetencesThe prerequisite of comprehending the core competencesof nursing safety, is to be truly clear about the nature ofnursing, which is classified as an “individualized care”. Whatis so called individualized care or “tailored” care is animportant feature in delivery of nursing care according to eachindividual patient’s needs, experiences, behaviors, feelings andperception.5An individualized care involves the nurses withacknowledgement of the patients, understanding of their situation,recognition of family members and community, a willingnessto listen and response to concerns of the patients.6 Individualizedcare also include patient’s life situation such as culture andbeliefs, habits, activities, preferences and family involvementwhich influences patient-care during hospitalization.7Based on this background, quality and safety educationfor nurses (QSEN) has been developed, in which “six corecompetencies”have been identified for health professionals thatdefine safety and quality, namely “patient centered care”,“evidence based practice”, “interdisciplinary teams andcollaboration”, “quality improvement”, “safety awareness”and“informatics”. Each of these competencies can also be furtherdefined by particular knowledge, skills and attitudes.2.1 Patient-centered CareIt has recognized that the patient or designee as thesource of control and full partner in providing compassionateand coordinated care based on respect for patient’s preferences,values, and needs. A nurse should have the knowledge ofexamining common barriers to active involvement of patientsin their own health care process, as well as describing strategiesto empower patients or families in all aspects of the healthcare procedures.A nurse shall also have the skills of removing barriersto presence of families and other designated surrogates basedon patient preferences, engaging patients or designatedsurrogates in active partnerships that promote health, safetyand well-being, and self-care management with the attitudesof respecting patient preferences for degree of activeengagement in care process, as well as respecting patient’sright to access to personal health records.2.2 Evidence-based PracticeA nurse should be able to integrate best current evidencewith clinical expertise and patient/family preferences and valuesfor delivery of optimal health care. And the relevant organizationsought to regularly assess how well the actual care patientsreceived matches the quality standard of care and best-knownpractice, in which the quality improvement processes areinitiated to close any gaps.Quality improvement and evidence-based practice as the
Nursing Safety: An Increasingly Global Issue and the Challenges for Macau’s Nursing Education澳門研究116第44期basis for the standards of care by which quality is measured.During the process, the safe, high quality health care requiresknowledge workers who ask questions about practice andconstantly search for new evidence. Nursing students needto see examples of evidence-based practice in the unit andlearn how patient preferences are accommodated within thestandards of best practice. Meanwhile, students and facultiescan help search for new sources of evidence related to practiceissues in the unit.Nurses who have received the training should have theknowledge of basic scientific methods and processes, and beable to describe EBP to include research evidence, clinicalexpertise and patient/family values, differentiate clinical opinionsfrom research and evidence summaries, read original researchand evidence reports related to area of practice, as well asconsult with clinical experts before deciding to deviate fromevidence-based protocols with the attitude of appreciatingstrengths and weaknesses of scientific bases for practice, valuingthe need for continuous improvement in clinical practice basedon new knowledge.2.3 Teamwork and CollaborationA professional nurse should function effectively withinnursing and inter-professional teams, fostering opencommunication, mutual respect, and shared decision-makingto achieve quality-patient care.He or she ought to possess the knowledge of describingexamples of the impact of team functioning on safety andquality of care, explaining how authority gradients influenceteamwork and patients’safety, identifying system barriers andfacilitators of effective team functioning, and the skills offollowing communication practices that minimize risksassociated with handoffs among providers and acrosstransitions in care, asserting own perspective (using teamcommunication models), as well as participating in designingsystems that support effective teamwork with the attitudesof appreciating the risks associated with handoffs amongproviders and across transitions in care, valuing the influenceof system solutions in achieving effective team functioning.2.4 Quality ImprovementA qualified nurse should be able to use data to monitorthe outcomes of care processes and use improvement methodsto design and test changes to continuously improve the qualityand safety of health care systems.He or she ought to have the knowledge of describingstrategies for learning about the outcomes of care in thesetting in which one is engaged in practice, explaining theimportance of variation and measurement in assessing qualityof care, seeking information about outcomes of care forpopulations served in care setting, as well as using tools(such as control charts and run charts) that are helpful forunderstanding variation with the attitudes of appreciatingthat continuous improvement is an essential part of the dailywork of all health professionals, how unwanted variationaffects care, as well as valuing local change (in individualor team practice on a unit) and its role in creating joy inwork.Meanwhile, nursing students may take an elective,capstone, or special “honor”experience in quality improvementprojects, since educational experience should inspire studentsand new graduates to work from a “spirit of inquiry” whereactions are constantly questioned and examined in light ofnew evidence.2.5 Safety AwarenessIn practice, a nurse should minimize risk of harm topatients and providers through both system effectivenessand individual performance, and be able to discuss effectivestrategies for reducing reliance on memory, describe processesused in understanding causes of error and allocation ofresponsibility (such as root cause analysis), use appropriatestrategies for reducing reliance on memory (such as, forcingfunctions and checklists), as well as engage in root causeanalysis rather than blaming when errors or near misses occur.As safety science is being re-framed as more thanperforming interventions, such as the “5 rights”of medicationadministration, assessing risks for falls, and other environmentalmonitoring activities, a nurse should also possess the relevantcompetences, such as having the knowledge about workingin teams, using information and information technology and qualitymeasurement as well as communicating with patients aboutoutcomes of their care.2.6 InformaticsA competent nurse should be capable of using information
117《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2and technology to communicate, manage knowledge, mitigateerrors and support decision-making, continuing to experiencea generation gap in informatics competencies, explaining whyinformation and technology skills are essential to patient-care,contrasting benefits and limitations of different communicationtechnologies and their impact on safety and quality, seekingeducation about how information is managed in care-settingsbefore providing care, as well as navigating the electronichealth record (EHR) with the attitudes of appreciating thenecessity for all health professionals to seek lifelong, continuouslearning of information technology skills.As simulation laboratories are critical for teachinginformatics skills, informatic competencies have beenrecognized as being enable nurses to search for and evaluateinformation sources, navigate computer-order entry systems thatprovide decision support and help flag errors, use electronicrecord systems, evaluate technologies for their potential tocause or mitigate error, as well as help design and evaluaterelevant products.It should be pointed out that the above six competenciesto transform systems are not separate, linear concepts butare broad and overlapping, each competency is broad andcontains elements of the others. Health professionals, especiallynurses ought to have the motivation and ability to improvesystems if they have the education and training necessaryand work in organizations where quality improvement is integratedas part of their daily work.3. Implications and Challenges for Macau’sNursing EducationConfronting the issues in general and the corecompetencies for nurses concerning safety in particular, theimplications and challenges for Macau’s nursing education areobvious and compelling.First of all, we have to assume that nursing studentsof Macau and their faculties are all committed to quality andsafety in what they practice. However, the evidences availablesuggest that current nursing trainings in Macau aiming atknowledge and skills acquisition seem to be insufficient forthe development of their competencies as far as safety isconcerned.8Regarding their daily nursing education, therefore, thefollowing important questions require answers: Did the careadhere to safety science? How effective was the care? Wasthe care patient centered? Was care delivered with timeliness?Was the care delivered with efficiency? Was the servicesprovided with equity?Inevitably, the more specified safety strategies have tobe checked out:confusing drug names that sound / look alikeconfirming patient identificationperforming correct procedure, correct sitecontrol of concentrated drug solutionsassuring medication accuracy during transitionsavoid catheter and tubing mis-connectionssingle use injection devicesimproved hand hygienecommunication during patient hand-overs.In fact, each of these factors can be controlled by nurses,including nurses and nursing students in Macau.9On the positive side, however, we are pleased to witnessthat certain significant progress has been made in this regard,which is typified by the practice of Kiang Wu Nursing Collegeof Macau.As the director of Kiang Wu Nursing College ofMacau points out that nursing college should disseminatethe most updated professional information concerning safety,also equip and empower the nurses with nursing safetycompetencies, in which fostering morals and competenciesis emphasized, and integration of theory and practice is paidhigh regards.10“Nursing safety” slogan can only be an alert when ithas been integrated into the practice of nurse students, andnursing college is responsible for fostering nursing students’attitudes and ability of maintaining nursing safety.First, the college has assessed and created a safe learningenvironment that exerts a subtle influence on both teachingstaff and the students.Then, four roles in fostering nursing students’attitudesand ability of nursing safety maintenance have been developed:Standard deliver – students’ role and professionalresponsibilities of students are clearly defined in the student
Nursing Safety: An Increasingly Global Issue and the Challenges for Macau’s Nursing Education澳門研究118第44期handbook and clinical guidelines.Learning facilitator – the role an institution has shiftedfrom procedural-based learning to principle-based learning. Inthe meantime, structural laboratory learning activities, whichare the basis of fostering students’nursing skills, are alsobeing developed to supervise the practice of students.Consequently, the structural clinical assessment is the bottomline of students’performance.Practice supervisor – highly qualified academics andexperienced nurses are appointed to supervise students in theclinic practice as clinic instructors. In doing so, safety isset to be the passing line of the clinical study assessment.Professional educator – concerning safety-related eventshappening in the process of clinical studies, a tertiary instituteshould analyze students’performance in light of ethical andlegal standard as well as provide them with necessarycounseling. Meanwhile, students are assisted to make theirown reports in a way that the reporting system can be respectedand group support atmosphere formed. 11Essentially, higher education fosters students’ safetyconsciousness by providing them with a safety environmentwhere students’nursing skills and professional accountabilitycan be obtained.Nursing students of Macau ought to understand thatentering tertiary education is only an initial stage of their nursingcareer, the ability of safety maintenance need to be substantiallyfollowed up and its application and internalization could onlybe realized after getting into real workforce. Also, nursing safetyshould not be seen as the competence of individuals, butthe quality, ethos and collective efforts of the nursing teamas a whole.12As a result, Kiang Wu hospital has formed a Healthand Safety Committee which employed a Consultant Companyto develop an occupational health and safety system with thehope of enhancing quality of healthcare service and promotingrisk management so as to provide patients and healthcarestaff with safe and comfortable environment.13Nevertheless, certain significant issues still remain: Howcan faculties accomplish curriculum change substantially? Whatare effective pedagogical strategies to achieve the changes?How universal is the proposed solution–to change professionalidentity formation to include quality and safety competencies?To what countries or regions can we turn for models ofinterdisciplinary teamwork, quality improvement and safety?Moreover, what are partnerships that will facilitate the changes?As far as partnerships between nursing schools andhospitals are concerned, strategies to achieve changes shouldbe established, by which practitioners and academic leadersmust together determine ways to evaluate and redesign clinicallearning in prelicense programs to bridge the gap betweencarefully monitored student learning experiences and exposureto quality and safety issues that arise in practice.Furthermore, research and evaluation model should beadopted to test ideas on how to create more effective newgraduate transition programs to help retention. Meanwhile,faculties ought to be invited to attend courses, conferences,grand rounds, and in-services on quality improvement and patientsafety to help faculties remain abreast of new terms, practicedevelopments, and key strategies in clinical settings. In away, they can together share quality outcome data from caresettings with faculties and students, and students may viewthat quality improvement work is part of daily nursing, soas to build opportunities for students to actively participatein process improvements, create opportunities for students touse information and communication technologies as part of theirclinical training.Overall, we can conclude that by focusing on safetyand quality, the nursing education of Macau must be re-designed,nursing care further monitored and improved, so that graduatescan have adequate preparation to work in Macau’s medicalfield as a safety focused setting.Notes:1 Ha, Lo Siu, “Promotion of Occupational Safety in HealthcareSector,” in Proceedings of International Nursing Conference“Quality and Safety of Nursing Practice” (Macao, 2007).2 Liu, Hua Ping, “Nurse Staffing and Patient Safety,” in Proceedingsof International Nursing Conference “Quality and Safety ofNursing Practice” (Macao, 2007).3 Sherwood, Gwen, “Educational and Clinical Partnerships forQuality and Safety,” in Proceedings of International NursingConference “Quality and Safety of Nursing Practice” (Macao,2007).4 Ibid.
119《澳門研究》第44期2008. 25 Suhonen, R., Valimaki, M., Leino-Kilpi, H. and Katajisto, J.,“Testing the Individualized Care Model,” Scandinavian Journalof Caring Sciences, Vol. 8, Issue 1 (2004), pp. 27--36.6 Van Servellen, G. and McCloskey, J. C., “Nurses’ Perceptionsof Individualized Care in Nursing Practice,” Western Journalof Nursing Research, Vol. 10 (1988), pp. 291--306.7 Radwin, L. E. and Alster, K., “Individualized Nursing Care:an Empirically Generated Definition,” International NursingReview, Vol. 49 (2005), pp. 54--63.8 Leong, Sin U Cindy, “Demand for High Quality Health-CareServices vs. Supply of Low Number of Nursing Staff,” inProceedings of International Nursing Conference “Quality andSafety of Nursing Practice” (Macao, 2007).9 World Health Organization, World Health Day 2005: Make EveryMother and Child Count (Geneva: WHO Press, 2005).10 Van, Florence Y. I., “The Role and Practice of Higher EducationInstitute in Fostering Nursing Safety for Nursing Students,” inProceedings of International Nursing Conference “Quality andSafety of Nursing Practice” (Macao, 2007).11 Ibid.12 Ibid.13 Ha, Lo Siu, “Promotion of Occupational Safety in HealthcareSector,” in Proceedings of International Nursing Conference“Quality and Safety of Nursing Practice” (Macao, 2007).
賈梅士與澳門澳門研究13 4第44期一、賈梅士的東方失意之旅16世紀中期,澳門已經成為一個蜚聲海內外的著名港口,它不僅促進了廣東貿易市場繁榮,還推動了東西方的文化交流,不少中外文人墨客慕名訪遊這個神奇的地方。其中最早到來的兩個名人,一個是葡國的賈梅士(Lui s de C amões),於1556--1558年到達該地,留下石洞遺跡;另一個是我國的湯顯祖,他於1591年暢遊澳門。兩人都是在人生失意時來到這個地方,又都是大文豪。賈梅士在此處寫了史詩《葡國魂》,即《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌(Os Lus iadas)》,被奉為歐洲文藝復興時期的名著之一;湯顯祖則以其《臨川四夢》(《玉茗堂四夢》),被後人譽為同莎士比亞齊名的偉大戲劇家。日本著名戲劇家青木正兒說過,湯顯祖與莎士比亞,這兩個“東西曲壇偉人,同出其時,亦奇也”。圖1 賈梅士像(15 24-1580)1553- 1557年間,葡萄牙人賄賂廣東海道副使汪柏,獲准進入澳門貿易和暫時停留晾曬貨物,其後葡人賴 不走,強行建屋長期居留,成為交租納稅的“僦居者”。葡人居留澳門初期的情況如何?葡國大詩人賈梅士其時恰好就在澳門,並且曾經寫了一首短詩,譯出來的大意是這樣的:這是人間罕見的孤獨地方,歡樂景象了無蹤跡,且不說了無人煙的光景,就連野獸也不涉足此處,但只見黑漆漆、陰森森一片榛莽,慘澹、孤寂的氣氛把叢林籠罩,沒有小溪淙淙,沒有草地芬芳,有的只是我苦命人歸宿的地方。在這裏,山岩洞穴把生命禁鎖,我遊蕩在怪石嶙峋間哀歎,哀歎我生不如死的命運,哀歎我訴不盡的災難,流不盡的淚。只有哀思稍楫,強作歡顏的日子,在一片煙霧迷蒙中,我才怡然排遣那難得的時光。 1賈梅士是甚麼人?他是怎樣來到印度的?後來又是怎樣從印度來到中國的?賈梅士又譯卡蒙斯(1524--15 80年),是葡萄牙近代文學的奠基者,被譽為歐洲文藝復興時代的天才作家之一。他出身於里斯本一個衰微的貴族家庭,在那裏度過了他的童年。小時候由於家境貧寒,曾在叔父本托(Bento)資助下到科英布拉讀書。賈梅士與澳門黃鴻釗 ** 南京大學歷史系教授
13 5《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2在所有課程中,他最喜歡讀葡萄牙歷史。而其叔父本托又是一位牧師和學者,他常常指導賈梅士注意學習方法。若昂三世時期,賈梅士經常出入王宮,參加上流社會舉行的節日盛會和晚會。他的才華博得了一位美麗姑娘的垂青,賈梅士陷入熱戀,寫了許多愛的詩篇獻給這位貴族少女。不幸的是,這個門戶不當的戀愛遭到國王的干涉。詩人一貧如洗,而姑娘出身於豪富之家。當時貧民是不能與貴族通婚的。國王對違規的賈梅士暴跳如雷,下令把將他流放到遠離里斯本的里巴特如去。在那裏,詩人受盡了王宮的清規戒律所帶來的痛苦。後來他申請入伍服役獲准,被派往休達軍隊。休達是北非摩洛哥的海港城市,被葡萄牙人 1415 入侵佔領。賈梅士在休達駐防,與企圖奪回休達的阿拉伯人進行多次戰鬥,曾經受傷,失去一隻眼睛。當兵2年後,賈梅士又回到里斯本。但他放蕩不羈的個性使之再次闖禍。有一天晚上,他與王宮的僕役因事發生糾紛,由於不能忍受對方言辭侮辱,拔劍相鬥,刺傷了對方。為此被捕入獄,一年後獲釋。出獄後於 1553年參軍,被派到印度果阿服役。一路上詩人考察了達伽馬所經過的地區和海洋,廣泛收集題材,為創作長篇史詩《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》準備資料。他穿過大西洋,繞過好望角和跨越印度洋到達果阿。沿 葡萄牙人最先開闢的航線前進,所到之處,使詩人深深體驗到偉大航海家們堅忍不拔、勇於犧牲的戰鬥精神。他們克服了無數艱難險阻,終於成功地開闢了通往東方的新航路。賈梅士在印度得到了一官半職,但生活仍是多災多難。由於他個性耿直,經常開罪權貴,便遭到他們的報復,受到處罰或監禁。在此期間,賈梅士將自己的全部精力貫注於構思其史詩《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》。三年後他被葡屬果阿總督 Fr anci sc o Bar reto派往中國,擔任死者及失蹤者事務專員。對於詩人來說,這意味 發配到更遙遠的東方去,使之無法參與國內的政治活動。他於1556年到達浪白。次年,葡人居留澳門。賈梅士也隨之轉到澳門繼續擔任同一職務。澳門海濱有一個岩洞,賈梅士經常在那裏徘徊駐足,眺望茫茫大海,思念自己可愛而遙遠的祖國。也就是在這個岩洞裏,他面朝東方,背靠大石,把紙鋪放在膝蓋上,一句句地抒寫頌揚達伽馬和其他航海家們的豐功偉績,完成了《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》的創作。據巴羅士著:《葡國詩人賈梅士葡國魂釋義》一書說,賈梅士在澳門獲得了一個名叫讓‧安東尼奧的僕人,當時居澳門的葡人往往蓄養奴僕,每個家庭的奴僕多為黑奴,或亞裔人。巴羅士書中沒有說明讓‧安東尼奧的來歷,只說此人溫和敦厚,賈梅士寫作的時候,這個忠實的僕人默默地伴隨左右,其後並隨同返回葡萄牙,侍侯詩人走完人生的歷程。賈梅士在澳門服役期間,寫了一些充滿諷刺和挖苦意味的詩文,得罪了果阿的某些頭面人物。例如《荒謬的印度》這首諷刺詩,針對一位司法官員,指責其在危難時背叛朋友。於是被賈梅士激怒了的F ranci sc o Bar reto總督下令逮捕他。賈梅士奉調回印度,從澳門至果阿途中,輪船遭遇海難,沉沒於柬埔寨海岸的湄公河口,大部分行李、貨物和旅客葬身魚腹。賈梅士喪失了一切行李,甚至隨身攜帶的《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》詩稿也掉落大海中,詩人望見自己尊貴的手稿在浪濤裏漂浮,便奮不顧身地跳入大海撈回來。他搏擊風浪,耗盡全力,幸而最後爬上一塊大岩石,隨後被一隻小船搭救。賈梅士曾在自已的詩中提及這一令人悲傷的往事。他寫道:無情的風浪與暗礁,摧毀了飽經憂患的航船,而那浸濕的詩篇卻倖免遇難。賈梅士1558年回到果阿,立即被他的仇敵誣陷迫害,而投入監獄。好在他的朋友科蒂紐‧德‧布拉瓦薩出任果阿總督,下令立即釋放被非法監禁的詩人。賈梅士又在果阿住了幾年,並參加了征討土耳其人和阿拉伯人的戰爭。他作戰十分勇敢,顯示出不但是一個才華出眾的詩人,而且還是善於巧妙打擊敵人的戰士。正如他自己所說:“一手高舉利劍,一手緊握筆桿”,去為祖國戰鬥。1567年,賈梅士從朋友那裏借到一些錢,離開印度到達葡屬殖民地莫桑比克,在那裏又逗留到 1570年,終於回到里斯本。然而當時葡國首都瘟疫蔓延,一片淒涼景象:萬戶蕭條,商店關閉,街上空曠無人……。詩人卻在如此艱苦的環境中,潛心努力修改和排印詩稿。 1572年,長篇史詩《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》印刷完畢,賈梅士將它呈送國王塞巴斯蒂昂(Sebast i ao),並在王宮裏進行朗誦。國王賜贈
賈梅士與澳門澳門研究13 6第44期了他一筆酬金,以示獎勵。1580年,賈梅士在貧困中逝世,終年56歲。二、賈梅士在澳門的遺跡賈梅士政治失意,個人的抱負和才華得不到發揮,因此他的詩中充分流露出一個飄零海外的愛國者的無限傷感。他的詩寫於葡人居留澳門初期,當時澳門港正在興起,但令人奇怪的是賈梅士卻視而不見,竟沒有提到澳門貿易活動;可能當時貿易還不十分繁榮,或者此時因賈梅士置身行伍,戌守於山岩石洞之間,又因心情憂鬱,毫無商人做生意賺錢那種快樂感受,所以沒有反映出來。於是有人質疑賈梅士是否確實到過澳門?回答是肯定的。詩人確實來過澳門,因此總是留下許許多多蛛絲馬跡,來為此提供佐證。首先,賈梅士的友人曼奴厄爾‧科雷阿(ManuelCor rei a),曾經應賈梅士邀請,協助詩人註釋長詩《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》。1613年科雷阿出版了這部詩集。他在註釋詩集第10章第128節時,曾經提及賈梅士在澳門逗留的事。原詩是這樣的:這片靜謐而安詳的大地啊,將把浸濕詩章揣進懷抱,詩人遭受不幸的悲慘海難,僥倖從淺灘的颶風中逃命,忍饑挨餓度過巨大的危險,發生這一切不幸皆是因為,他被不公正的命運所註定,榮獲美好詩名,遭受一切不幸。 2科雷阿在註釋中寫道:“通過這幾句詩,詩人描述了他踏上柬埔寨土地的艱辛。他從中國出發,並且曾在那兒停留一段時間,整裝待發,因為在前往中國的旅行使他歷盡各種風浪和危險,雖然僥倖生存下來,但在大海上航行,各種災難接踵而至,也因此使他未能按計劃到達某些目的地。他到達印度後,總督巴爾利托(F ranc is c o Barr eto)下令將他囚禁,由於他在中國(馬交)擔任死者及失蹤者事務專員的職務,而被某些朋友誹謗,說他從中牟利。詩人才華橫溢,卻運氣不濟,雖然他如此偉大,但在世的時候,卻沒有得到應有的關注和熱愛”。科雷阿生活在賈梅士同一時代,並且是賈梅士的朋友,他說賈梅士到過澳門,自然不會是空穴來風,而應該具有可信性。其次,人們發現,聖保祿學院在一份 17世紀30年代房地產交易文獻中,提到“賈梅士岩洞”一詞。該文獻的全文如下:“聖保祿學院不動產的所有權。聖保祿學院有幾間房屋位於沙梨頭的 Ma rt i Lopez 碼頭旁邊,這是Maluc o將它們作為遺產贈給這所學院的,租金收入為160 par daos。學院還有兩間茶室,月租收入共 4pardaos,這是Br az Montei ro 留給學院的,包括另外幾間房子,租金收入60 pardaos,用於學院購買做彌撒的紅酒。在Antoni o Cardim神父擔任這所學院的院長時,他將一些房子以 800 par daos 的價格賣給了Gas par Borg es da Fonsec a,又以280 pardaos 的價格將從沙梨頭到賈梅士岩洞之間的一塊土地出售。兩次交易共得到1080 pardaos,由於這筆錢是出售不動產(房子和土地)的收入,院長們不能將它花費掉,所以,一直以來,又有 10%的入息”。3Antonio C ardi m 神父於1632年8月31日至1636年5月23日擔任聖保祿學院院長。在此期間,他出售了位於賈梅士岩洞附近的教會房地產,這足以證明,17世紀初,人們就知道詩人賈梅士曾在澳門居住,並留下了岩洞遺跡。其三,1578年出版的C ris tóv ão Borges詩集,其中第一部分有一首韻詩,題為《賈梅士迷失在中國》。這是與賈梅士同時代的詩人寫的,它至少說明賈梅士去過中國,並在那裏經歷了一場海難。 4以上的三條史料,是著名澳門史學家文德泉神父2005年發表名為《賈梅士來過澳門》的文章中披露出來的。5它令人信服地證明,賈梅士確實曾經到過澳門。賈梅士史詩性名著:《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》的主要部分就是在澳門寫的,詩中生動翔實地敘述了 15世紀末,葡國大航海家達伽馬發現東方新航路的故事。正如許多偉大人物一樣,賈梅士生前歷盡坎坷。但在死後,他流寓澳門所寫的這部史詩卻得到了葡國人民的普遍尊敬,享有不朽的盛名。與此同時,詩人住過的石洞也聲名遠揚,成為一個充滿浪漫的勝地。其後,有人在該處樹立了一座賈梅士大理石半身塑像。澳門人早就在白鴿巢為賈梅士立了一尊雕像。據高美士《昔日澳門傳奇》一書說,澳門人之所以稱這個地方為白鴿巢,是因為“在很久以
13 7《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2前這裏生活 一個叫賈梅士的詩人,因為他很窮,只有一間茅房,在那裏餵養了許多鴿子作為食物”。1771年,英國東印度公司在澳門設立分部。其辦事機構先是租住南灣的一所房子。後來搬到白鴿巢公園一棟大廈,原址即現在的東方基金會。 1785年,澳葡將白鴿巢公園租給東印度公司。該公司的負責人威廉‧費茲休(Wi ll iam Fi tzhugh)就住在這座賈梅士石洞公園之內。1794年,英國特使馬嘎爾尼勳爵( Lord Mac artney)出訪中國,歸程中他的龐大使團曾在澳門英國東印度公司商館中住了一段時間。據使團的副使斯當東在談到賈梅士山洞時這樣寫道:“在本市最高的山包上,一塊塊巨石形成了所謂賈梅士山洞。據傳說,詩人賈梅士就在這個山洞裏寫出了著名的詩篇──《葡國魂》。顯然,賈梅士在澳門居住過很長時間。以他的名字命名的這個有趣的山洞位於一個宅院的花園之中,和他的兩個隨行人員在本島逗留期間就住在這個宅院裏”。 6斯當東的《出使中國紀實》( J ournal of a n Embas s y toC hin a)一書,也提到澳門有個賈梅士雕像,並說“賈梅士雕像製作粗糙,放置在一個如同食物罩的鐵欄內”。許多遊客紛紛向賈梅士獻上美麗的詩句。最早的頌詩是一個古羅馬護民官後裔寫的:啊,賈梅士,這濤濤聲浪中,你詩興勃發,不絕吟唱。阿波羅火炬耀你天賦,謳歌盧濟塔尼亞英雄。從特茹河到金色的骨灰盒,遠離故土,從貝婁娜處他膺獲不朽榮譽。不幸的流亡者,荷馬的同路人,貧困換來了天才。他已入魔,苦痛詩句令人陶醉,愛情烈焰,文藝九女神吟唱。葡中共懷念,光陰摧朽,英名萬古。7英國人德庇時,是外交官和漢學家,曾任東印度公司駐華商務監督、香港總督等要職。他也寫了一首膾灸人口的賈梅士石洞詩:這一片小叢林清幽寂靜,令人陶醉,燦爛的驕陽光芒四射,穿透樹葉的濃陰。曾有一位葡萄牙詩人迸發出靈感,天賦才華寫就了優美的古典詩篇。昔日的半身大理石像點綴 岩縫石隙,命運多桀的詩人,如此備受熱愛和磨難。傳聞賈梅士從這個石洞的柔和光線中,尋得安寧來寫下他的不朽史詩。然而,邪惡得手啊,褻瀆了這塊聖地,把石像弄得殘舊破碎,摔在地上。深沉無言的哀傷啊,無法從心中排遣,森林之神的哀傷,籠罩 那幾塊巨石。詩人的英名卻依然存留,閃耀 光芒,那廣泛流傳的詩篇,自有永恆的價值。無須靠豎立這容易損壞的紀念碑,來記下詩人命運的輝煌與坎坷。在天才的魅力逐漸消失之前,時光的扼死之手將無從舉措。雖然紀念像能被粉碎,化為塵埃,天才的靈火一旦點燃,便會永放光芒。 8後來 184 0 年,有一個名叫馬葵士(L our enc oMar ques)的紳士,他是葡萄牙的皇室貴族貴胄和富翁,在此建造了一所有典型南歐風格豪華行宮。馬葵士也和賈梅士一樣嗜愛鴿子,最多時曾有數百雙之多,成群的白鴿漫天飛舞,上下翱翔,成為澳門一時的一大景觀。馬葵士出於對賈梅士的熱愛和崇敬,用一座石膏像取代那座被毀壞的雕像。1866年,又特意在里斯本為這位詩人鑄造了半身銅像,換下了破舊的石像,並在銅像底座上刻 《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》的6節詩文。而在塑像周圍,豎了多塊花崗岩石碑,上面刻有詩文。其中,最靠近洞穴的石碑上刻 阿爾梅達‧加雷特(Al mei da G ar ret t)《賈梅士》一詩的優美詩句:啊,賈梅士洞,孤寂怡人,多少悲傷的溫馨時光逝去,思鄉無日不悠悠!溫馨的賈梅士洞,請傾聽我的哀歎,請耳聞我的愛怨,啊,怡人的清新,啊,快慰的桃園。在此我躲避痛苦悲傷,愛情、祖國給我靈感,
賈梅士與澳門澳門研究14 0第44期堅硬的鑽石,瑰麗的瑪瑙,此地的寶藏便堆積如山,你的願望在此就能實現。17達伽馬船隊在遙遠的航程中,遭遇 許多狂風巨浪和險灘暗礁嚴重的考驗。但是,除了時刻要同這些險惡的自然條件搏鬥之外,還要面對反抗葡萄牙人侵略和掠奪的當地人和阿拉伯人。而這是更加厲害的敵人。其實葡萄牙的探險船隊本身就是海盜商船隊,他們所到之處,在做生意的同時,每每肆行劫掠,甚至進行征服。自然到處引起衝突和對抗。賈梅士的詩是有片面性的,他對葡萄牙人向東方擴張的活動,用美麗動人的詩句加以粉飾包裝,謳歌為偉大英雄奮鬥的史詩般的進程。而對於葡萄牙人的惡行,卻總是粉飾掩蓋。與賈梅士同時代的費爾南‧門德斯‧平托(F ernão M endes Pinto)則不是這樣。他也寫了一部享譽世界的名著:《遠遊記(Peregri nação)》,書中十分坦率地敘述了歐洲人掠奪黃金的貪婪欲望,以及殺人越貨的海盜行徑,他們用腥風血雨的冒險生活和血淋淋的事實,揭露了西方國家向東方擴張的本質。平托一生活動充滿傳奇性, 1538年 11 月投靠法里亞(Pedr o de F ari a)集團,成為一名海盜商人。法里亞是葡萄牙貴族,高級軍官。1526--1528年曾任果阿要塞司令。1528--1529年及1539-- 1542年兩次出任滿剌加要塞司令。此人是一個官、商、匪合一的、窮兇極惡的海盜,經常率領一支武裝商船隊,遊弋於遠東海域。此後4年間,平托隨同這個海盜集團活動于印度、印尼群島、馬來群島、印度支那半島、菲律賓群島、日本列島、以及中國東南沿海地區。這些人亦商亦匪,在做生意的同時,每每肆行劫掠。而且殘忍狠毒,殺人如麻。最後1542年8月5日,法里亞在中國海一場風暴中葬身魚腹。平托跟隨法里亞幹了許多壞事,但後來在中國被捕,關押多年,也吃盡苦頭。 晚年寫作《遠遊記》,對自己的海盜生涯表示懺悔。賈梅士的史詩敘述達伽馬船隊途經莫桑比克島、吉羅亞島和蒙巴薩等地方時,先後遭到摩爾人的暗算。可是他們臨危不亂,英勇戰鬥,粉碎了敵人的種種陰謀。與此同時,又趁機大肆燒殺擄掠,使當地人民深受其害:葡萄牙人的小艇上的大炮,就這樣兇猛地噴吐出怒火,猛烈的炮火在叢林中開花,鉛彈劃過天空,發出呼嘯,摩爾人全被嚇得魂飛膽裂,他們驚恐萬狀,血液冰涼,埋伏在暗處的人慌忙逃命,冒險露頭的人早已被炸死。葡萄牙人並不以此而滿足,乘勝摧毀村莊,屠殺百姓,既無城牆也無設防的村鎮,可憐被炮火炸成一片灰燼。…… 18可是並非所有摩爾人都同他們作對。後來他們來到東部非洲的國家麥林德,卻受到國王熱情的接待。詩中寫道:尊貴的勇士越過萬里海路,國王派人為他們送來問候,還派人送來了真誠的禮物,裏面不含任何惡毒的用意。他派人抬來了肥美的綿羊,鮮嫩的母雞和時鮮的果品,尤其送來了一片赤誠美意,遠比這些禮物更令人感動。 19這個被賈梅士稱為“仁慈的摩爾國王”20親切接見達伽馬,聽達伽馬講述葡萄牙的歷史和航海探險的故事。接 ,國王為船隊補給糧食和生活用品,並挑選了著名航海家梅林德(又譯馬德內德)為達伽馬領航。於是,達伽馬船隊告別國王,從麥林德啟航,奔向浩瀚的印度洋,在新的征程上,梅林德充分發揮了其出色的領航技術,指引達伽馬船隊戰勝驚濤駭浪,有驚無險地跨越印度洋,抵達遙遠東方的印度海港卡利卡特。此時他們興奮心情難以形容。嫵媚的晨光已照耀 群山,恒河在群山間蜿蜒而低吟,這時候桅樓上的水手望見,船頭的前方出現大片陸地。風暴已平息,海浪又平靜,剛才的恐懼化成一場虛驚,梅林德領航員興奮地說道:沒錯,那裏就是卡利卡特。肯定是你們要尋找的陸地,
15 3《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2由法國梅耶人類進步基金會(F ondat ion C har lesLéopol d May er pour le progrès de l ’Hom me)等組織共同主辦的第二屆中歐論壇(T he 2 n d C hi na -Eu ro peF orum)於2007年10月上旬在歐洲舉行。論壇分前後兩個階段,第一階段的討論按不同主題分成 46個小組在歐洲9個國家的不同城市同時進行,第二階段的大會在歐盟總部所在地的布魯塞爾(Br us s els)舉行。此次論壇匯集了來自中歐雙方的 800多名各行各業的參加者,論壇就中歐雙方共同關心的社會、經濟、文化、環境、政治等領域的重要議題進行了對話、交流與討論。其中,“中歐對話的挑戰和最佳條件”主題作為論壇第一階段的分組討論被安排於葡萄牙首都里斯本(Li s bon)舉行,有來自中國(包括澳門)與歐洲不同國家的專家學者以及商人、藝術家等20餘人參加了里斯本小組的討論。與會者暢所欲言、各抒己見,不同觀點與建議可謂雜然紛陳。此次討論由澳門歐洲研究學會(IEEM)主席Dr .J os é Luis de Sales Mar ques(麥健智)、澳門基金會行政委員吳志良博士共同主持,楊秀玲、臧小華擔任現場翻譯。一、中歐之間的交往:歷史誤解與現實憂慮回顧中歐之間的交流與對話關係, R i ca r d oSt akaz zin i(T ren to Uni v ers i ty , Mi lan)認為,大致可分為3個歷史階段:17世紀,中國的文化典籍被譯介紹到西方; 19世紀,是中華帝國沒落與現代化的過程;21世紀,中國崛起從而使中歐關係處於真正的對等地位。實際上,中歐之間的交流並不是從 16世紀歐洲傳教士來到東方從事傳教活動開始的,而應更早地向前推到 13世紀,那時候就有歐洲的留學生來到中國。至於當代中歐之間的交流,金雁(中國政法大學,北京)認為,是1950年代開始的,受到當時意識形態的局限,中國人首先看到的是同屬社會主義陣營的東歐。自從1960年代中蘇交惡後,中國開始封閉。而從 1980年代起,中歐之間進行了多層面交流,交流已不再局限於東歐,而是整個歐洲。儘管經過了幾個世紀的交流,中歐之間要想建立平等的對話關係並不容易。吳志良(澳門基金會,澳門)認為,是鴉片戰爭割斷了中歐之間的平等對話。現在,中國開始崛起,也即走上發展的正軌,中歐之間平等對話的關係正在出現,然而,歐洲卻產生了憂慮。他從一個名為《倒轉的鏡子:1 500--1800年亞洲人眼中的歐洲人形象》展覽說起,在中西交往初期,中國人認為歐洲人是野蠻人,因為中國人以自己較高的文明來觀察東來的歐洲人。現在情況可能剛好倒過來了,歐洲人看中國是不是也在犯中國人曾經犯過的同樣歷史錯誤呢?如果說中歐初識時雙方存在 許多的誤解,那麼,令人憂慮的是,隨 當今中國的發展,歐洲人對中國的誤解非但未能消除,反而日益加深,其集中表現就是“中國威脅論”的傳播。郝雨凡(澳門大學,澳門)指出,中國威脅論的思想根源在於新保守主義。新保守主義不看中國發展的動機與願望,知識、信任與溝通──第二屆中歐論壇記實婁勝華 ** 澳門理工學院副教授
知識、信任與溝通澳門研究15 4第44期只注重中國經濟實力的增長。這樣,難免產生疑慮與誤解。其實,從歷史角度看,中國的崛起只是如何追趕西方還談不上超越西方。中國經濟發展仍然處於原始與初步階段。眾所周知,從1840年起,中國開始遭到西方強國的入侵,中國經濟落後了,現在只是追趕,談不上威脅。從比較的角度看,中國增長與過去比是很了不起的,但是這種比較也只是具有自身的含義,與發達的歐洲國家是沒法比的。再說,中國的經濟增長,雖然數字令人印象深刻,而社會代價同樣沉重,比如說,在環境方面的慘重代價。因此,在看待中國發展上,如何進行正確的比較非常重要,否則,始終存在誤解。然而,Hu ds on Ala n(Kel lo gg C ol l ege, O x for d U ni v ers i ty ,Ox ford)承認,中國的發展是對整個世界的貢獻。過去世界的中心在倫敦,後來轉移到紐約,現在是上海。可是,這並不能令歐洲人消除憂慮。歐洲人的憂慮不在於中國的發展,而在於中國用專制制度來實現市場經濟的管制。這是令人擔憂的。從 191 9年“五‧四運動”開始,中國就強調科學與民主。中國的發展是現代性不斷增加的過程,希望中國的發展不要犯西方國家曾經犯過的錯誤。在談到中歐現實交往面臨的問題時,除了中國威脅論話題引起熱烈討論外,中歐交流與對話的對等與平衡問題同樣受到了關注。梅畢娜( T r e n t oUni v ers ity , Mi lan)認為,中-歐對話本身就顯得奇怪,中國是統一的國家,有統一的國旗、統一的語言等,而歐洲不是,歐盟有二、三十個國家,每個國家有不同的制度與語言,怎麼可以進行對等的對話呢?所以,她主張應該具體地討論中國與某個歐洲國家的關係。郝雨凡(澳門大學,澳門)比較了中歐關係與中美關係,他認為,中國在處理與歐盟關係方面,主要有三個目的:一是要打開歐盟市場;二是要歐盟解除對華高技術武器的禁售;三是要求歐盟改變用人權施壓中國的做法。可見,中國對歐盟關係中更多的是技術與經濟方面的,而不是政治方面的。其實,就重要性而言,中國把對歐盟的關係擺在次於中美關係的地位,中美關係更重要,中國與歐盟關係被中美關係掩蓋了。對此,費成康(上海社會科學院,上海)表示贊同,他說中國太重視美國,而有些忽略歐洲。即使是留學取向,到歐洲留學的人是二流的,一流的都湧到美國去了。楊麗華(上海世紀出版集團《文景》雜誌執行主編,上海)肯定了中歐出版業的合作與聯繫,同時也指出了中歐文化出版界在傳播對方文化上存在的不平衡現象。她說,現在歐洲的書籍在中國翻譯出版可以達到與歐洲市場同步的水平,如當土耳其作家奧罕‧帕慕克被授予 2006 年度諾貝爾文學獎的消息公佈後,其著作立刻在中國得到出版。現在,中國引進出版包括兒童、旅遊等多種多樣的歐洲書籍。不少報刊(包括她本人主編的《文景》雜誌)十分關注並熱衷於介紹歐洲的文化。然而,應該注意到,中歐雙方文化交流的不對等,中國引介歐洲文化多過歐洲引介中國文化,即使有關注中國文化的歐洲媒介,它們關注的往往是中國傳統文化(如風水等),而不是當下的中國文化。當然,中國媒介在對歐盟內部各國的介紹中也一定程度上存在 不平等,比如對德國與法國的介紹多過對葡萄牙的介紹。就此,郝雨凡(澳門大學,澳門)認為,書籍的出版需要市場的支撐。雖說中歐之間的市場開放是相互需要的,可相對來說,中國市場則更開放,而歐洲市場的開放度顯得不夠。N i g h t i n g a l e P e t e r (E U - C h i n a B u s i n e s sAss oci ati on)注意到了歐洲人在認識中國時存在的多元性與差異性,比較起來,在對中國的瞭解方面,英國人沒有其他歐洲國家熱心,一個例證就是英國沒有出現中文熱。實際上,即使是英國人,他們對中國的觀感與認識也是各不相同的,甚至完全相反,因為中國的內部差異十分大的。在英國,與中國有生意往來的人認為,在中國做生意不容易,中國政府的透明度不高。不一定是官員貪污問題,而是某些官員對規章不甚了了。不少生意人反映,他們對中國的盜版問題印象深刻。至於與中國沒有直接生意往來的人,他們對中國的恐懼感來自於害怕中國的廉價勞工與廉價商品,擔心影響他們的就業。在負面意義上,存在 三種不同認識:第一種是某些人對中國的認識仍然停留在19世紀的中國,令他們傾心的是不同於歐洲的中國室內裝飾等;第二種是20世紀的中國,在他們看來,那是一個被外強欺壓與內部獨裁的國家,是一個封閉的國家。第三種是21世紀的中國,是實行一黨專政的國家,共產黨利用自身強大的力量來推進經濟體制的改變。但是,它的經濟發展是以人權為代價的,以犧牲環境
15 5《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2為代價的發展。Peter認為,國有經濟向市場經濟轉換過程中的社會代價問題確實值得注意。二、誤解產生的原因:利益背景與交往媒介對於中歐交往與對話中產生分歧、誤解乃至憂慮的原因,中歐雙方與會者進行了多層次的分析探討。湯開建(暨南大學,廣州)以其研究史料的親身經歷說明,在整理明代澳門資料史時,曾比較中文資料與葡文資料,發現中葡相互之間在認識上存在很大的差異。對於16世紀時來到中國的葡萄牙人,中國人有認為好的,也有人認為不好的。同樣,東來中國的葡萄牙人中,有說中國人好話的,也有說中國人壞話的。可以說,相互之間充滿 誤會,而且這種誤解一直在延續。仔細分析,雙方產生誤會的基本點就在於各自的經濟利益與政治利益。歐洲對中國的發展感到威脅同樣也有利益的考量。郝雨凡(澳門大學,澳門)認為,在過去150年裏,是歐洲優勢論,世界是由歐洲主導或歐美主導的,中國的發展可能意味 對西方優勢的一種挑戰,於是,歐洲人才會感到憂慮,擔心失去優勢。金雁(中國政法大學,北京)認為,中國的崛起在很多方面正在改變 世界規則,那麼,中國在世界上扮演何種角色非常重要。在歐洲人的眼中,現在有很多不確定因素,中國的改革是經濟改革,政治沒有改。為甚麼中國與東歐同樣是改革,而歐洲人對東歐的態度就與中國不一樣?因為東歐進行的是政治改革,雖然他們的經濟發展不快,但是,政治改革帶來西方國家的認同性較高。但是,中國的改革相反,來自西方的認同性不高。從這個意義上講,歐洲人對中國發展的潛在憂慮是有一定道理的。除了基本的利益因素外,中歐雙方相互理解的不確定性往往因為交流管道而得到放大。李公明(廣州美術學院,廣州)認為,通過當代政治流亡者(如從大陸流亡到歐洲國家)所傳達的歐洲資訊,以及由他們向歐洲輸送的中國資訊,其中存在 不確定因素。可見,雙方對話的多層次渠道並不如想像的那樣通暢。 L ou r ido Ru i D’ Á vi la(C i ty Cou nc il l ofL is boa, Lis bon)則指出,不應當忽視媒體在雙方溝通中所製造的差異與誤解。一個人說過的話,媒體報導出來,往往與其原意並不一致。OrdoÑze de Pablos( The U niv ers i ty of O vi edo, O vi edo)提出歐洲對中國知識傳播的不全面可能與大學開設的有關中國課程內容不平衡有關。她以其所在大學為例,雖然開設了一些中國課程,但是屬於經濟方面的,如,工商管理碩士課程,並沒有文化方面的課程。因此,真正全面地瞭解中國,應該加強一些文化與藝術方面內容的課程。對此,梅畢娜(T r e nto U ni v e r s i ty ,Mi lan)有同感。她說,在意大利,年輕人選擇大學開設的有關中國課程時,往往會重視與做生意有關的商業方面課程,對他們來說,中國或許意味 商機,中國等於一份工作,學習中國的財政金融,主要是為了與中國人做生意。而他們對中國語言、歷史、文學、地理方面的課程興趣不大。三、增進中歐之間的共識:多元並進與澳門作用對話中歐交往,回顧交流成果,直面問題及其誤解,追溯誤解的根源,其本身就是增進共識的方式,同時,也是相互認識的契機。對於中歐關係的未來,與會者給予了充分的關注,並提出了相當具體的建議。無論是在交往的內容與形式上,還是在交往的主體與對象上,推動中歐交流,增加相互共識,都不應該是單一的,完全可以多元並進。郝雨凡(澳門大學,澳門)建議,改變目前中歐之間零星的、不對稱的、不規律的交往狀況,應由上層與下層來共同推動雙方的溝通,促使雙方對話的制度化。在上層,要使歐盟領導層充分認識並支援類似的中國對話活動;而從鞏固與擴大雙邊交流來看,民間途徑是主流,尤其是公民社會的作用應該得到重視。凡有助於促進雙方交流的各種層次的網絡和聯繫都應該得到鼓勵與加強,例如,知識共用、放鬆簽證限制、青年培養等。建立多層次多維度的民間溝通渠道受到了與會者的密切關注。移民社群是中歐雙方最直接與最有效的認識與溝通橋樑。麥健智(澳門歐洲研究學會)認為,消除中歐交往中的誤解,應該充分發揮中國在歐洲的移民社群的作用與貢獻。梅畢娜( T r en toUni vers ity , M ilan)十分強調促進中歐對話與相互瞭解的具體化與細節化,認為籠統地談中歐關係是不夠
知識、信任與溝通澳門研究15 6第44期的,因為歐洲的每個國家,甚至每一個城市都是各不相同的。在意大利,當地人對中國的認識更多地是通過居住在意大利的中國移民進行的,這些移民的日常行為如何,往往就是意大利當地人對中國人的形象與概念。在歐洲有很多中國移民,她說,自己所在的城市──米蘭就有很多中國人,僅次於巴黎。米蘭有三家規模較大的中國公司:聯想、海爾與華為。我們的學生可以到華為公司實習,學生們願意在那裏接觸中國人,公司裏的中國人也樂意接觸意大利人。更加饒有趣味的現象是,在米蘭的華人,他們不說是自己是中國人,而說自己是溫州人或寧波人。因此,我們應該更加具體地推進基層社會之間的相互認識。另外,移民工作還需要注意“代”際的差別,第一代移民與第二代移民是完全不同的。Lou r id o Rui D’Á vi la(City Counc il l of L is boa,Lis bon)也注意到生活在巴黎的中國移民在語言傾向上的差別,他說, 1980 年代的移民會主動地講法語,而現在的移民則不講法語,只講中文。郝雨凡(澳門大學,澳門)從有利於促進中歐之間相互瞭解的角度提出,應該鼓勵中國僑民在歐洲落地生根,而不是過去落葉歸根的思維。青年是中歐關係面向未來的參與主體,也是未來增加中歐共識的工作重點,因此,如何增強中歐雙方青年群體的交往與認識成為與會者熱烈討論的話題。Nightingale Peter(EU-China Busi ness Associat ion)認為,改善彼此間的瞭解可以需要通過教育,吸引中國留學生來歐洲學習,使更多的中國青年有機會走出中國。英國在吸引中國留學生方面做了很多工作。中國的國力正在發展之中,不再貧窮的中國無論從政府還是非政府的層次,同樣應該為吸引更多的歐洲人到中國去而創造條件。Ricar do St akazz in i(T rento U niv ers ity , M il an)比較歐洲與美國在吸引中國留學生方面的做法,並指出,歐洲國家往往視教育為一門生意,而美國卻向學生提供獎學金。現在,歐洲人口的出生率日益下降,歐洲應該歡迎中國學生赴歐留學。就留學生問題,趙秩峰(東北師範大學,長春)注意到一個現象:為甚麼中國人一批批地來到歐洲留學,並取得博士學位,而歐洲人卻很少到中國留學,取得博士學位的則更少?對此,多數與會的歐洲學者認為,影響歐洲人留學中國的主要障礙在於語言。因此,梅畢娜(T r e nt oUni v ers it y, Mi la n)讚賞15年來中國政府教育部門在歐洲建立孔子學院,從事漢語教育和文化推廣活動,使孔子學院成為語言文化交流的重要媒介。她甚至建議孔子學院可以進一步展開與歐洲國家的政府機構和經濟機構合作。相對而言,歐洲國家在語言文化推廣方面的工作進展很慢。郝雨凡(澳門大學,澳門)則認為,中國留學生以美國為其留學的第一選擇,來歐洲留學的人就少得多,主要原因在於留學的目的是為了就業。赴美留學較之於赴歐留學,學成後更容易找到好工作。李公明(廣州美術學院,廣州)認為,中國學生現在同樣對歐洲的文學、藝術、美術等方面具有濃厚興趣。他提議歐洲各國政府提供優厚的條件來吸引中國學生赴歐留學。費成康(上海社會科學院,上海)同樣建議,由中歐雙方互派交換留學生與學者來促進交流與相互理解。徐堅(中山大學,廣州)認同與會各位提出的中歐青年交流計劃,但是,他提出中歐青年交流計劃與一般情況下組織的中國與世界其他地區青年交流計劃有何區別的問題,“歐洲計劃”有何特別的吸引力?易曼輝(葡中工商協會,里斯本)介紹了該會設立的與中國相關的課程,起初申請的人只有 25個,現在增加到6000人。修讀課程的學生不但可以從事專業及當地語言的學習,可以學習如何面對在當地的生存、工作與交往的問題,連帶的效應是學生的家長也會去中國旅行,會接觸與瞭解當地文化。問題在於,雖然學生們希望走出自己的國家,可中文學習確實很困難,只有從小開始,才能使中文成為一種有使用價值的語言。同時,他們在葡萄牙也設有同類課程,給其他國家修讀商業管理的學生學習、參觀的機會,該課程完全可以拓展到中國去。R ic ar do St akaz z ini( T rento U ni ver s ity , M il an)提議可以設立更多的同類交流項目,擴大交流的對象與範圍,讓更多的一般公民參與進來,使這種交流從學校擴展到民間,這樣成本更低。中國人到歐洲來並不想局限在大學,還要瞭解大學之外的歐洲。同時,也不只是由政府來選擇享有這些機會的人群,應該去滿足民間交往的要求。梅畢娜(T rentoUniv ers ity, Mi lan)介紹,中國有許多中學,包括小城市的中學,其中有些是旅遊學校,它們對意大利語非常興趣,要求我們選送學生去教意大利語。這種雙方的民間計劃,沒有政府的正式安排,相信規模
15 7《澳門研究》第44期2008. 2會越來越大。這樣做,有利於激發中國學生對意大利的興趣,並願意到意大利學習。相應地,意大利的年輕人也想通過自學謀出路,向中國發展,至於動力嘛,來自於經濟不景氣。 Nightingale Peter(EU -C hina Bus i ness As s oci at ion)認為,歐洲方面應該努力使年輕人更多地學習中文,到中國去學習。“中國學”和中文是比較專業的學科,在英國並不普遍。現在,有許多中國人在歐洲學習,而英國學生前往中國則更加困難。中國應該使外國青年在中國的學習和工作條件更方便。從地域看,除了北京、上海等大城市外,其他地方很難吸引外國商人,因為外國人在那裏沒有多少機會。在推進雙方交流與認識方式方面,與會者從不同角度提出了各自的建議。張小勁(中國人民大學,北京)以其承擔歐盟研究項目的實踐來說明,設立綜合性合作研究項目,吸引雙方年輕學者參加,對於促進中歐雙方互識的意義尤其不可小視。不過,在研究項目上還有一些值得改善的方面,比如,一些項目研究經費較多,但是結項的時間要求太緊;一些項目可以長期地固定下來;項目投資合作方式可以超越政府機構等。趙軼峰(東北師範大學,長春)則進一步建議設立“中歐人文社科學資料資料中心”,實行資源分享,為中歐雙方的研究者提供資料上的便利。同時,雙方建立出版支持體系,改變中國當代學術書籍較少向歐洲譯介的狀況。總之,雙方之間應該有一個共同的機構具體負責推動中歐雙方的學術交流。李公明(廣州美術學院,廣州)認為,除了書籍出版外,還應該製作一些視聽資料。為了消除其中的誤解,這些視聽資料(如電視節目)不能僅有中國人來製作,應由歐洲人製作。費成康(上海社會科學院,上海)甚至提出,歐洲人當年在中國留下的租界建築同樣可以構成中國人瞭解歐洲的一個特殊的視角。現在中國有許多租界建築,一方面,應該承認租界建築屬於殖民產物,然而,這些殖民建築的文化意味卻長期被忽視。他還以其切身體會說明,歐洲應該為中國人赴歐提供更多的便利。現在,中國人在歐洲旅行不方便,對於中國人赴歐旅遊,歐洲應該更加開放。有一本名為《老夫婦遊歐洲》的書,引起不少中國人的好奇。受惠於中國經濟的繁榮,許多賺了錢的中國人希望到歐洲旅遊。而現在辦理赴歐選擇不多,或有正式邀請,或有親戚關係,或是參加旅遊團,但是,旅行團的行程並不吸引人,更多的是商業運作。如果歐洲開放中國人自由旅遊,人們可以自由地安排行程,那麼,他們可以更容易地享受和感受歐洲,這對雙方都有好處。至於歐洲擔心的中國難民問題,可以通過一些限制或規定來解決。對於中國人赴歐旅遊,張小勁(中國人民大學,北京)提出,去年有 1000萬中國人出國旅遊,其中 1/3來到歐洲。而不容忽視的一個問題是,中國旅遊者應該注意他們的形象,否則,會影響歐洲人對中國人的印象。L our ido Rui D’Á vi la(Ci ty Cou nci l l o f L is boa , Lis bon )建議不妨嘗試新的溝通方式,他提到的設想是有關方面曾經有一個關於絲綢之路的研究計劃:一艘船載 來自中歐雙方的各方面學者與沿途的40多個城市的當地學者進行討論。如何推動中歐交流與認識從民間層次提高到雙方決策層也引起了與會者的討論。郝雨凡(澳門大學,澳門)認為,學術界很認真地瞭解對方,比以前確有很大的進步。但是,僅有學術界的清醒認識還是不夠的。學術界的認識可否對決策層發生影響,例如,將歐洲在發展過程中經歷的問題介紹到中國決策層,提醒中國在發展過程中避免類似歐洲問題的出現,畢竟決策者決定了未來發展的政策與方向。無論我們對於決策層的建議是否可以達及,但是我們現在做的都有其自身價值。梅畢娜(TrentoUni vers ity , M ilan)贊同地說,歐洲決策層應該聽聽中國專家的建議,因為決策者往往存在於政黨體系中,他們無法真正聽到學者的聲音,他們的政策取決於關係網,而不是那些能力和知識的擁有者。L our ido Ru i D’Á vila(Ci ty Counc il l o f L is boa, Li s bon)表示,在歐洲,與決策者的關係是學者行動成功與否的標誌。他本人會在歐盟委員會舉行之前的里斯本會議上轉達各位的看法和建議。作為中歐接觸與交流的重要視窗,澳門在促進雙方共識方面的作用受到了與會者的重視。 林廣志(中國社會科學院,北京)認為,從歷史上看,中歐之間建立的商業模式是從澳門開始的,澳門為中歐交流建立了模式,為後來的交流奠定了基礎,澳門是中歐交往對話的平台。如今,澳門如何繼續為促進中歐交流的發展而發揮作用呢?事實說明,只有在商業交往的前提下,澳門的平台作用才能得到發