III 目 錄 專題採訪:“依法施政與‘以民為本’” . 澳門研究中心整理 1 學術論壇 “博彩競爭與社會整體利益” 澳門研究中心整理 18 淺論權利 ....................................簡萬甯 30 以輔助手段實施的電腦犯罪行為 ................廖志聰 44 建立澳門電子政府的政策分析 ....謝靜儀、石霆茵、譚婉瑩、 歐陽凱明、蕭琼、周文慧、鄭燕華 56 The Modern Concept of Development and the System for Guaranteeing Development ...IEONG Wan Chong, TANG On Kei,IONG Hoi Sun 82 “泛珠三角”經濟區的構建 與澳門的角色.......黃漢強 124 博彩經濟理論綜合分析 ........................馮家超 144 論博彩複注倍數 ..............................王五一 166 論澳門中小企業創新 .......................... 郭永中 186 Social Market Economy and Its Implications for Macau .............................SHENG Li 192 CEPA對澳門會計業的影響 ......................尚慧然 199 . .....
V CONTENTS Monographic Interview: "Administration in Accordance with the Law and Teople' as the Central Focus of Administration" ………………………………………Centre for Macau Studies l Forum on Gaming Competitiveness and the Overall Social Benefits …………………………………………Centre for Macau Studies 18 A Tentative Discussion on Rights…………………KAN Man Neng 30 A Discussion on the Supporting Type of Computer Crimes ……………………………………………………LIOChiChong 44 A Policy Analysis on the Establishment of Macau Electronic Governmen ………CHE Chen I, SEAK Teng lan, TAM Yun Yeng, AO IEONG Hoi Meng, SIO Keng, CHOW Man Wai, CHEANG In Wa 56 The Modern Concept of Development and the System for Guaranteeing Development……………………IEONG Wan Chong, TANG On Kei, IONG Hoi Sun 82 The Establishment of the "Pan Pearl River Delta" Economic Region and the Role of Macau………………WONG Hon Keong 124 A Synthetical Analysis on Gambling Economic Theory ……………………………………………………FONG Ka Chio 144 The Multiplier of Repeated Bets in Macau's Gaming Industry ………………………………………………………WANGWuyi 166 A Discussion on the Innovations of Macau's Small and Médium Enterprises……………………………GUO Yongzhong 186
VISocial Market Economy and Its Implications for Macau…SHENG Li 192 The Influence of CEPA on Macau's Accounting Industry …………………………………………………SANG Hui Ran 199 "Z+Z Intelligent Education Platform"———A Breakthrough in Educational and Technological Development IONG Hoi Sun, CHAOPekKei 209 A Causal Study between Macau's Cross Cultural Environment and the Local Marketing Strategy……………CHONG Sou San 225 An Investigation on the Hong Kong Tourists' Characteristics …………………………………………………ZENGZhonglu 253 A Study on Cross Border Consumption Behavior of Hong Kong and Macau Residents and the 24-hours Opening of Customs …………………………………………………… LUI Kwok Man 269 The Changing Generation of Macau's NGOs Elites……LOU Shenghua 279 A Study on Physical Bullying in Macau Secondary Schools ………………………………CHENG Tsz Kit, LEUNG Kai Yin 307 The Challenges and Opportunities of an Aging Society.... TIN Kit Peng 319 Present and Prospective of Macau's Recurrent Education ………………………………………………… YUEN Pong Kau 328 Robert Hart and the Sino-Portuguese Treaty in 1887 ……………………………………………… HUANG Hongchao 345 The Establishment of the Catholic Church School in Macau in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties…………… XIA Quan 358 An Investigation on the Sino-Portuguese Battle in Zoumaxi …………………………………………………………SHICunlong 368 Reference: The Development of Macau's Library in Recent 20 Years……………………………WONG Kwok Keong 378
30 淺論權利 簡萬寜* “權利”乃日常生活中談和使用頻度較高的一個法律名詞;然而,對於有些聽聞者、談論者,還是使用者來說,對此詞的涵義顯然存有偏頗之見,無法對之作出全面、正確地闡述和理解。鑒此,筆者試圖對此問題進行一次初步的探討。 一、“權利”概述 (一)定義 《法律辭典》給“權利”解釋為:“法律賦予人實現其利益的一種力量”。 從通常的角度理解,“權利是法利賦予權利主體作為和不作為之許可或認可”。1史常寬教授認為,“權利云者,依法律之擔保,得貫徹其利益之可能性也。或謂之法律賦予人格者(自然人、法人)之力”。2 Carlos Alberto da Mota Pinto 定義:“權利是指自由請求或期望他人作出或不作出作某種行為或僅以自由意思行為或自由意思行為連同公共當局的行為產生另一人(對方)不可抗拒的特定法律效果的法律權力”。3張文顯對這權利的理解是:“為規定或隱含法律現範中、實現於法律關係中的、主體以相對自由的作為和不作為的方式獲得利益的一種手段”。4彭萬林、覃有土、李開國等給“民事權利”下定義為:“是法律為保障民事主體實現某種利益的意思而許其行為的界限”。5馬俊駒、余延滿把“民事權利”詮釋 *華僑大學經濟法碩士
82 The Modern Concept of Development and the System for Guaranteeing Development Ieong Wan Chong, Tang On Kei & long Hoi Sun* Protected by an institutionalised system, the economic and cultural development of the Macau Special Administrative Region (MSAR) is expected to take off in the years after the handover. "Development is the absolute principle" is a thesis that Deng Xiaoping ad-vanced more than ten years ago. It is practical not only in mainland China, but also in other developed, developing or under-developed countries and regions; it applies not only to supereconomic systems, medium economic systems, but also to small economic systems, even to the mini-economic systems. The mission of the Basic Law, which is the basis for the governance of the MSAR, is to outline and institutionalise the system that will be implemented in the Region and to ensure that the government of the MSAR enforces the principles embodied by the Basic Law. The Basic Law not only states clearly the form that the relationship between the Central People's Government and the MSAR should take, but also stipulates clearly the fundamental rights of Macau residents. Furthermore, the Basic Law provides a rational design for the political structure, a design that reflects the principles of "one country, two systems," "Macau people ruling Macau," and a high degree of autonomy. Finally, the economy, culture and social affairs of the MSAR are discussed clearly in specific chapters of the Basic Law. This will help ensure that the economic and social development of the Re- * leong Wan Chong is the Senior Advisor to Rector, Acting Director of the Centre for Macau Studies and Research Coordinator. Tang On Kei and long Hoi Sun are the candidates for Master of Public Administration in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Macau.
83 gion advances in an orderly and effective manner, and constitutes an enormous advance in constitutional history. 1. A Complete and Systematic Guarantee for the Economy Chapter 5 ("Economy") of the Basic Law comprises eighteen articles in all; together with the "general principles" and the relevant articles promulgated in other chapters, it outlines a complete and systematic guarantee for the economy. The fundamental standardisation of law is a symbol of the effective implementation of administrative authority within the scope of a high degree of autonomy. Economic affairs, in this sense, include the right to own private property, the right to maintain independent finances, the authority to issue Macau currency, the right to maintain the status of a free port and policies of free trade, the right to maintain a separate customs territory, the right to freely operate industrial and commercial enterprises, the right of navigation, the right of civil aviation management, and the right to operate special enterprises. 1.1 The Protection of Private Property Article 6 of the Basic Law states, "The right of private ownership of property shall be protected by law in the MSAR." As we have already seen, Article 5 of Chapter 1 ("General Principles") establishes the principle that the existing capitalist system and way of life in Macau shall remain unchanged for fifty years. Meanwhile, Article 103 of the Basic Law states, "The MSAR shall, in accordance with law, protect the right of individuals and legal persons to the acquisition, use, disposal and inheritance of property and their right to compensation for lawful deprivation of their property. Such compensation shall correspond to the real value of the property concerned at the time and shall be freely convertible and paid without undue delay." Article 103 is the embodiment of Article 6 of Chapter 1 ("General Principles"). Its main objective is to stipulate the conditions for the acquisition, use, disposal and inheritance of property under the guidance of the principle of protecting the capitalist economy. This makes the protection of the right of ownership of property, guaranteed in the Basic Law, more concrete and definite. As everyone knows, in capitalist countries, the most important function of the law is to protect the right to own property privately. As the original capitalist system of the MSAR will remain unchanged, protecting this right is also an
84important function of the MSAR Government. The judiciary shall adopt various measures to protect this right when it is threatened; the legislature shall institute a well-equipped legal system that can ensure a fair and equitable society, so as to prevent any encroachments on this right. This article protects all rights that private individuals have over their property, broadly defined. Here, the term "individuals" includes both natural persons and legal persons. Legal persons are social organisations with their own organisational structure and independent finances that have been set up in accordance with the proper procedures, for example, companies or factories of various kinds. Generally, they are called "commercial legal persons." In addition, various groups that are registered as non-profit organisations, such as religious organisations, sports organisations, professional organisations, or social service groups, can also be legal persons. It is thus clear that, in the eyes of the law, the property rights of legal persons are the same as those of individuals. Both fall within the scope of the private ownership of property. Therefore, the property rights of legal persons should also be protected by law. The protection of the right to own private property shall be carried out with the provisions of law and shall not extend beyond the law. If it becomes necessary for the public interest, the government can requisition by use the private property of both individuals and legal persons; this is generally the case in most modern nation-states. However, the government can do so only if it meets the following two conditions. First, the requisition must be carried out in accordance with law—not only under the conditions specified by the law, but also in accordance with legal procedures. Second, individuals and legal persons must be compensated for the lawful deprivation of their property. This compensation is subject to three conditions. First, such compensation shall correspond to the real value of the property concerned at the time; this means that the amount of compensation shall be equal to the real price of the property at the time it is requisitioned. Second, the amount of compensation shall be freely convertible and freely remissible overseas. Third, the amount of compensation shall be paid without undue delay. These are the general principles governing the requisition of property in all countries. Article 103 of the Basic Law states, "The ownership of enterprises and the investments from outside the Region shall be protected by law." The owners of, or investors in, enterprises in Macau have the inalienable right to own and run these enterprises. In the free market economies of capitalist societies, it is necessary to protect the ownership of enterprises in the interests of economic development. In addition, this article also stipulates the protection of investments from outside the Region. Macau is small and has few
85resources, so its economy is largely depen- dent on foreign investment. The important question of how to attract and protect these foreign investments have direct bearing on the prosperity of Macau. Since the establishment of the MSAR, the government has implemented various policies to improve the legal system and protect investments from outside the Region, so as to strengthen investors' confidence and encourage them to invest in Macau. 1.2 Policies on Finance, Taxation, and Monetary and Financial Systems Article 104 of the Basic Law states, "The MSAR shall have independent finances. All the financial revenues of the MSAR shall be managed and controlled by the Region itself and shall not be handed over to the Central People's Government. The Central People's Government shall not levy taxes in the MSAR." Finances and taxation are the main measures a government employs to control the economy of a country. In order to embody the principle of a high degree of autonomy, the government of the PRC has determined that all public revenues and expenditures of the MSAR shall be managed and controlled by the Region itself. In other words, the MSAR enjoys financial autonomy. The Central People's Government shall not stipulate or issue any order or instruction regarding the financial system in the MSAR. The MSAR Government shall, on its own initiative, formulate the relevant financial regulations and policies, and its financial operation shall be separate from that of the Central People's Government. In accordance with the law, the budgets shall first be introduced to the Legislative Council by the Chief Executive, examined and approved by the Legislative Council, and then signed and promulgated by the Chief Executive. Finally, the Chief Executive shall report the budgets and final accounts to the Central People's Government for the record. Under this system of independent finances, the MSAR Government is able to determine on its own how best to utilise and distribute its resources and money. This facilitates the economic and social development of the MSAR. All the public revenues of the MSAR shall be managed and controlled by the Region itself and shall not be handed over to the Central People's Government. This degree of financial autonomy is enjoyed neither by other provinces or regions in mainland China, nor by the autonomous regions of other countries. Its uniqueness reflects the level of concern that the Central People's Government has for the MSAR. Article 104 of the Basic Law stipulates that the Central People's Government shall not levy taxes in the MSAR. The Central People's Government may neither request the MSAR to hand over its financial revenues, nor levy taxes on the residents of the MSAR. This policy means that
86Macau can maintain its characteristic system of low taxes, and that Macau residents can continue to live and work comfortably in the Region. In general, this article expresses the relationship that should exist between the Central People's Government and the MSAR in financial matters, and is an embodiment of the principle of a high degree of autonomy in financial affairs. Article 105 of the Basic Law states, "The MSAR shall follow the principle of keeping expenditure within the limits of revenues in drawing up its budget, and strive to achieve a fiscal balance, avoid deficits and keep the budget commensurate with the growth rate of its gross domestic product." Since the MSAR has financial independence, it also has the autonomy to formulate its own fiscal policies. The Basic Law further states that the MSAR shall follow the principle of keeping expenditures within the limits of revenues in drawing up its budget, and strive to achieve a fiscal balance, avoid deficits and keep the budget commensurate with the growth rate of its gross domestic product (GDP). This is the guiding principle of fiscal management and the basic requirement for implementing fiscal policies in the MSAR. Article 105 makes three main points. First is that the Government should "follow the principle of keeping expenditure within the limits of revenues in drawing up its budget." This means that the total amount of public expenditures shall be determined by the total amount of public revenue, and that expenditures cannot be increased blindly without regard for revenue. The nature of such revenues must be considered carefully; "real revenue" shall be defined as the actual revenue generated in a given year. Second, the Government should strive to achieve "fiscal balance, [and] avoid deficits." If the Government incurs a fiscal imbalance and deficits, it may need to issue bonds, which could easily lead to financial crisis. Here, the word "strive" is emphasised, for it expresses the spirit of "seeking truth from facts." This means that, under normal circumstances, every effort should be made to meet this goal; however, under certain conditions, exceptions may be made, and policies stimulating recovery and development may be implemented, after conscientious proof of their necessity has been provided. Third, the Government's budget shall be commensurate with the growth rate of its GDP. This is because only if the Government's revenues and expenditures are in line with the growth rate of the GDP can a set of stable financial regulations be constructed and an increase in reserve funds be achieved. The Government shall draw up and implement its budget in accordance with the above three conditions, and the Legislative Council shall also abide by them when exam-ining the Government's report. Article 106 of the Basic Law states, "The MSAR shall practice anindepen-
87dent taxation system. The MSAR shall, taking the low tax policy previously pursued in Macau as reference, enact laws, on its own, concerning types of taxes, tax rates, tax reductions, allowances and expenditures, and other matters of taxation. The taxation system for franchised businesses shall be otherwise prescribed by law." Taxation is an economic measure that a government may undertake in order to acquire financial revenue through legal means, compulsorily and freely. An independent taxation system is consistent with a system of independent finances. Here, "independent" means that a different taxation system is in force in the main body of a state than in its other regions. Taxation is the main source of government revenue. The public revenues of the MSAR can only be reliable if the needs of Macau society are taken into careful consideration. For this reason, an independent financial system can be said to be an important practice. The taxation system includes the types and rates of various taxes as well as the regulations that govern them. All this shall be determined by the MSAR Government on its own; the Central People's Government shall not interfere in this process. Therefore, Article 106 states that, " The MSAR shall, taking the low tax policy previously pursued in Macau as reference, enact laws, on its own, concerning types of taxes, tax rates, tax reductions, allowances and expenditures, and other matters of taxation." At present, seventeen kinds of tax are collected in Macau, on income, assets, services and consumption; these are classified as direct or indirect taxes. Direct taxes are levied directly on taxpayers' incomes and assets, and include business tax, income tax, business revenue tax, property tax, property-transfer tax, donation tax, inheritance tax and so on. Among the direct taxes, the gam-ing tax occupies the most important position. Indirect taxes are levied on the consumption of services and goods, and include, for example, consumption tax, tourism tax, and stamp tax. In addition, charges are collected for issuing certificates, conducting legal and administrative affairs, and making inspections. The taxation system in Macau follows the principle of decentralising the tax base. Every tax item is levied separately and one item cannot be taxed twice. For the business tax, different tax rates are levied according to the category and structure of the business concerned. The taxable items, tax rates and other regulations are stipulated by law. For example, according to the Law No. 2/78/M, the rates for the complementary tax (also called the profits tax) range from 2%-15%, which is lower than that in Hong Kong and other Asian Pacific countries. This rather low tax rate is an essential way of attracting foreign investment and increasing the economic com-
88petitiveness of the MSAR. Furthermore, as the advantageous low tax rate is main- tained after the handover, the economy will be stimulated and residents' standard of living will rise. Article 106 of the Basic Law mentions that "the taxation system for fran-chised businesses shall be otherwise prescribed by law." The taxation system for franchised businesses is called the franchise tax. The franchise tax, taking the form of contract, is a special tax collected by the Macau Government on companies or institutions which, with special permission, operate a particular type of business. At present, ten such franchise taxes—which comprise a high proportion of public revenue—are levied in Macau, on the various gaming operators and on providers of public utilities such as water, electricity, telecommunications and public transportation. The regulations governing these different businesses shall be prescribed separately by law. This reflects the principle of economic management in accordance with the law, and facilitates the transparency of these special businesses and the formulation of regulations by the Legislative Council that take into account the overall interests of the MSAR. For example, on 30th August 2001, the Legislative Council passed a new gaming law, increasing the gaming tax rate from 31.8% to 35%. The fact that more than twenty-one financial groups, including locals, joint ventures, and foreign firms, applied for the right to operate gaming establishments in the MSAR under this new tax rate, demonstrates that this adjustment was appropriate. It guarantees both the continuation of a stable source of financial revenue for the government, and the economic rights and interests of the companies in question. According to Article 107 of the Basic Law, "The monetary and financial systems of the MSAR shall be prescribed by law. The Government of the MSAR shall, on its own, formulate monetary and financial policies, safeguard the free operation of financial markets and all kinds of financial institutions, and regulate and supervise them in accordance with law." On one hand, the first paragraph of this article emphasises the principle of the rule of law by stating that the monetary and financial systems of the MSAR shall be prescribed by law. Furthermore, the fact that the monetary and financial systems shall be formulated by the Legislative Council and stipulated by the MSAR on its own, without interference from the Central People's Government, reflects an emphasis on the rule of law and on the principle of a high degree of autonomy in the MSAR. On the other hand, the second paragraph embodies the principle of autonomy of operation by stating that the MSAR Government shall, on its own initiative, formulate monetary and financial policies, safeguard the free operation of financial markets and all
89kinds of financial institutions, and regulate and supervise them in accordance with the law. In modera societies, finance is one of the major tertiary industries; its status and function are very significant. Only a modern, developed, and freely operating finance industry can maintain and promote the prosperity of Macau. The government shall not restrict or interfere in its operation. Finally, the government shall regulate and supervise all manner of financial institutions in accordance with law. Article 108 of the Basic Law states, "The Macau Pataca, as the legal tender in the MSAR, shall continue to circulate. The authority to issue Macau currency shall be vested in the Government of the MSAR. The issue of Macau currency must be backed by a 100% reserve fund. The system regarding the issue of Macau currency and the reserve fund system shall be prescribed by law. The Government of the MSAR may authorise designated banks to perform or continue to perform the function of its agents in the issuance of Macau currency." Though Macau is not a large city, it functions relatively autonomously, thanks to its special historical circumstances. An important manifestation of its autonomy is that Macau has its own currency. The Macau Pataca has been in circulation for more than ninety years, and it has had a positive function in the economic life of Macau. Internationally, the Macau Pataca is acknowledged within a limited scope. Therefore, Article 108 stipulates, "The Macau Pataca, as the legal tender in the MSAR, shall continue to circulate." In other words, the Macau Pataca will continue to be the legal tender in the MSAR after the handover, and it will not be replaced by any other currency. This will allow for the stable development of the Macau economy. The MSAR government has the right to issue currency; this is another indication of its high degree of autonomy. However, the issuance of currency in Macau must be backed by a 100% reserve fund, and the law prescribes both the system for issuing currency and the reserve fund system. The reserve fund is mainly comprised of foreign exchange reserves and gold. The "100% reserve fund" means that the government will hold, in foreign exchange reserves or in gold, the total value of the currency it issues, as a guarantee of the value of the Macau Pataca. Prior to the handover, the law in Macau required also that the Macau Pataca be backed by a 100% reserve fund. In the Basic Law, this original reserve fund system remains unchanged; so as to better accommodate the practical situation. This is beneficial to the stability of the Macau Pataca and the economic development of Macau. In this way, the MSAR can strengthen its own monetary and financial systems. At the same time, the Basic Law states that "the Government of the
90MSAR may authorise designated banks to perform or continue to perform the function of its agents in the issuance of Macau currency." In most modern countries, the cen- tral bank issues the local currency. In Macau, the Monetary Authority of Macau (AMCM) is the governmental organ that supervises the banks. Coins are issued by the AMCM, while paper notes are issued by the Banco Nacional Ultramarino and the Bank of China, both of which have branches in Macau. The MSAR Government, when necessary, can authorise these originally designated banks, or a newly designated bank, to issue currency. This is prescribed by laws formulated by the Legislative Council. 13 Policies on Free Port Status, Free Trade and Free Industrial Development Article 110 of the Basic Law states, "The MSAR shall maintain the status of a free port and shall not impose any tariff unless otherwise prescribed by law." A free port refers to a port or region that does not levy tariffs on any (or on most) of its imports and exports, and does not require visas (or requires only very simple visa procedures) of citizens of any nation who hold valid travel documents. Historically and today, Macau has been a bridge for commerce between the East and the West, and it has been an international free port for half a century already. At present, the citizens or residents of more than thirty countries or regions of the world can enter Macau visa-free, while others can usually obtain a visa quickly and easily at their point of entry into Macau. Every product imported into Macau, except for cigarettes, wine and automobiles, is exempt from tariffs; on taxable goods, the rate is very low. Moreover, the Hong Kong dollar and other foreign currencies can be freely used or converted in Macau, which makes Macau's position as a free port all the more advantageous. For these reasons, both before and after the establishment of the MSAR, the maintenance of Macau's status as a free port is significant to the prolonged development and continued prosperity of its economy. The maintenance of this particular status also implies that Macau has continued its policy of remaining open to global flows of people and goods even after the establishment of the MSAR. Article 109 of the Basic Law states, "No foreign exchange control policies shall be applied in the MSAR. The Macau Pataca shall be freely convertible. The foreign exchange reserve of the MSAR shall be managed and controlled by the Government of the MSAR according to law. The Government of the MSAR shall safeguard the free flow of capital within, into and out of the Region." "Foreign exchange control" refers to limitations on the legal tender and
91other foreign currencies within a country or region, on the mutual convertibility and exchange of different foreign currencies, or on the flows of foreign currencies into or out of the country or region. As a free port, Macau has no controls on its foreign exchange. The Macau Pataca is freely convertible to the Hong Kong dollar or other currencies, and foreign currencies can pass in and out freely. This policy is beneficial to Macau's growing prosperity. The "foreign exchange reserve" is a way for the government to protect the stability of its legal tender, and to guarantee its the ability to make external payments. Over a long period of time, the Macau Government has accumulated a certain amount of foreign exchange reserves, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the law. On one hand, since 1977, a law has stipulated that 50% of the foreign currency local exporters earn on exports must be exchanged with the government for patacas, at the official exchange rate. On the other hand, a significant portion of the gaming tax and tourist tax must be paid in Hong Kong dollars. In recent years, the amount of the foreign exchange reserve backing up the Macau Pataca has been higher than value of the actual currency issued. This makes the Macau Pataca stronger in relation to other currencies. Regardless, however, of the existing foreign exchange reserves transferred to the MSAR Government by the previous government of Macau, and of the foreign exchange reserves accumulated by the MSAR Government, these reserves are to be managed and controlled by the MSAR Government; the Central People's Government shall not interfere in matters concerning these reserves. The absence of foreign exchange control policies can help attract more foreign capital. Since the establishment of the MSAR, the circulation of capital in and out of the Region has remained still relatively free. The continuous implementation of this policy is the embodiment of the "free port" policy, and it ensures the stability and prosperity of the Region. Article 111 of the Basic Law states, "The MSAR shall pursue the policy of free trade and safeguard the free movement of goods, intangible assets and capital." A free port can be traced to the same origin as free trade; indeed, these two concepts are inseparable. The free trade policy means that all enterprises can freely conduct foreign trade, freely import goods from other countries, freely export goods to other countries, and freely transfer in or out, at any time, both tangible assets (such as capital and profits) and intangible assets (such as intellectual property, including patents, trademarks, and new technologies). Imported goods shall be restricted only in accordance with other laws, for example, the quarantine of animals and plants, the hygienic examination of food, and the prohibition on or examination of dangerous goods. These restrictions derive from legal regulations that are not related to the question of
92Macau's status as a free port or its policy of free trade. At present, Macau maintains a normal trade relationship with more than 120 countries and regions. Among them, the US and the European Union (EU) account for around three-fourths of Macau's exports. Maintaining the MSAR's policy of free trade and ensuring the right to free trade is not only beneficial to developing commercial ties with most of the countries and regions in the world, but also reflects the policy of a high degree of autonomy. Both of these considerations can work to promote the international image of Macau. Article 112 of the Basic Law states, "The MSAR shall be a separate customs territory. The MSAR may, using the name 'Macau, China', participate in relevant international organisations and international trade agreements (including preferential trade arrangements), such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and arrangements regarding international trade in textiles. Export quotas, tariff preferences and other similar arrangements, which are obtained or made by the MSAR or which were obtained or made but remain valid, shall be enjoyed exclusively by the Region." Generally, every sovereign state is a separate customs territory, except when two states combine into a single customs unit. For a state to be separated into several customs territories, its Constitution or other laws must permit it. The MSAR is an administrative region of the PRC that enjoys a high degree of autonomy. Its establishment as a separate customs territory must be stipulated by the Basic Law of the MSAR, and this is its legal status not only in terms of domestic law, but also in terms of international law. In terms of domestic law, Macau has permission to establish, on its own, a customs .service in accordance with its customs system. Imports and exports between the MSAR and other countries or regions, and between the MSAR and other regions of the nation, shall be handled by the MSAR in accordance with the law. In terms of international law, the MSAR can participate, as a separate customs territory, in international economic organisations and trade agreements. Nowadays, all international economic organisations and trade agreements welcome the participation of regions that are not sovereign states, as long as these regions are separate customs territories in the eyes of domestic law. Paragraph 2 of Article 112 states, "The MSAR may, using the name 'Macau, China', participate in relevant international organisations and international trade agreements (including preferential trade arrangements), such as the GATT and arrangements regarding international trade in textiles." On 1st January 1995, the GATT was renamed the World Trade Organisation (WTO). And as of 1991, Macau was already a participant in the WTO through its relationship with Portugal. For this reason, after the handover, the MSAR was permitted to continue its participation as a contracting party in the WTO, but
93under the official name of "Macau, China. " In November 2001, the Fourth Ministerial Conference of the WTO took place in Doha, Qatar, where China's accession to the WTO was finally approved. Later, Taiwan was also invited to join the WTO as the separate customs territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu. In this way, the two sides of the Taiwan Straits occupy four contracting parties in the WTO. This is sure to speed up the economic development of mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan in the new century. The "generalised system of preferences," formulated by the United Nations Con-ference on Trade and Development in 1968, is a system by which developed countries can make preferential trade arrangements with certain developing countries or regions. Countries that provide preferential treatment to Macau include the countries of the EU, the US, Canada, Japan, Switzerland, Norway, Australia, and New Zealand, among others. After the establishment of the MSAR, Macau has continued to enjoy preferential treatment under the name "Macau, China." At present, a system of import quotas still governs international trade. According to the GATT's Uruguay Round agreements, by 31st December 2004, this quota system will be gradually phased out in three steps. In the remaining years before the end of the quota system, Macau can still take advantage of the protection provided by the quotas of foreign countries. Today, more than ten countries (including the UK, the US, and Canada) still have quotas in place for imports of cotton, wool, and man-made fibres from Macau. Paragraph 3 of Article 112 of the Basic Law states, "Export quotas, tariff preferences and other similar arrangements, which are obtained or made by the MSAR or which were obtained or made but remain valid, shall be enjoyed exclusively by the Region." The Central People's Government shall not transfer the quotas enjoyed by the MSAR to other regions. After 2004, the end of the quota system may have a negative impact on Macau's economy. However, since Macau's economy is small but highly adaptable, if the proper steps are taken to prepare for this adjustment, the negative impact can be kept to a minimum. Article 113 of the Basic Law states, "The MSAR may issue its own certificates of origin for products in accordance with prevailing rules of origin." The certificate of origin for products is a system of limitations applied to imports and exports that regulates international trade. When one country has allotted a certain quota of imports to another country or region, that country is required to show a certificate of origin for the products it exports, in order to prove that these products were indeed produced by the country in question and fall within the allotted quota. In addition, importing countries that have entered into preferential trade agreements with exporting countries or regions may
94also require these latter to produce certificates of origin for the products it exports. The specific regula- tions governing certificates of origin (for example, how to determine the country or region of origin of a given product, what format the certificate should take, and which organ may issue the certificate) are usually formulated in the laws and agreements of the importing countries. The US, Canada and the EU have all established regulations concerning the issuance of certificates of origin in accordance with their domestic laws, and they have signed bilateral agreements with Macau. For this reason, Macau is obliged to issue certificates of origin for locally produced products exported to these countries, in accordance with their specific requirements. The details on certificates of origin are explained clearly in Decree No.50/80/M (Foreign Trade Law) promulgated on 30th December 1980; in Decree No.66/65/M (Standardisation of Foreign Trade Activities) promulgated in 1995; and in Decree No.28/96/M, promulgated in 1996. After the MSAR was established, because it is still a separate customs territory, it still enjoys the right to conduct foreign trade independently, and therefore the right to issue, on its own, certificates of origin for products made in Macau. Article 114 of the Basic Law stipulates, "The MSAR shall, in accordance with law, protect the free operation of industrial and commercial enterprises and make its own policies on the development of industry and commerce. The Government of the MSAR shall improve the economic environment and provide legal guarantees for promoting the development of industry and commerce and for encouraging investments, technological progress and development of new industries and new markets." In this Article, the phrase "industry and commerce" can be extended to include the finance, aviation, tourism and gaming industries. In Macau, the development of industry and commerce has a long history. As long ago as the 1960s, the emergence of modern industrial technologies accelerated the rapid development of industry and commerce, which have come to play a vital role in Macau's economic structure. In the mid-1980s, the export-led manufacturing industry became the leading industry in Macau's economy; its production value was as high as 36% of the GDP. By 1990, the manufacturing industry was facing some major obstacles, however, it still maintained an export value of nearly US$20 billion, and on the whole was the largest employer in Macau. After the abolition of the quota system for textile products in 2005, the labour-intensive manufacturing industry will be forced to undergo some major adjustments; for this reason, it is necessary to begin developing some new high-tech and internationally competitive products. Because of its status as an international free port, Macau must ensure the efficiency and dynamism of its markets by creating an environment that fosters competition and by providing
95equitable opportunities to enter the market. In addition, it is essential to strengthen the legal system, so that the law can effectively protect the freedom of operation of industrial and commercial enterprises. This is the reasoning behind the Basic Law's stipulation that Macau has the freedom to make its own polices regarding the development of industry and commerce. In the interests of revitalising the economy and encouraging the new trend of industrial transformation, in recent years the MSAR Government has formulated a number of policies to assist small and medium enterprises. The term "small and medium enterprises" refers to enterprises that are run by natural or legal persons and that meet the following criteria: they have been registered with the Financial Department for taxation purposes, the number of employees does not exceeded 100, and the employees work within the territory of the MSAR.1 This is in fact a very strategic policy, for a number of reasons. First, because most of the industrial and commercial enterprises in Macau are small or medium in scale; second, because successful small and medium enterprises can form the foundation for larger enterprises; and third, because Macau relies heavily on the contribution of these small and medium enterprises to enhance its overall international competitiveness. Given proper ideas for development and better management techniques, more and more small and medium enterprises are bound to succeed in Macau. In respect to "encouraging investments, technological progress and development of new industries and new markets," it is clear that the emergence of new industries, the appearance of new products, and advances in science and technology have led to fierce economic competition. In today's world, every country must try to keep up with the pace of development; to accomplish this, it is crucial to attract more foreign investors by creating a favourable environment of legal protection, to improve the quality of the labour force through technological training, to increase production, and create new products. Given the existing domestic conditions, it is necessary to nourish high-tech industries, so that we can introduce into the international market more products that are unique and thus competitive. It is only in this way that the spectrum for economic development can be broadened. 1.4 Special Economic Measures Article 115 of the Basic Law stipulates, "The MSAR, in light of its economic development, shall make labour policy and improve labour law on its own. The MSAR shall establish consultative co-ordination organisations composed of representatives from the government, the employers' organisations and the employees' organisations." In today's society, the
96question of labour—because it affects a large number of people and is very broad in scope—has a direct impact on issues of social welfare and the rationalisation of the social structure. Unlike the Basic Law of Hong Kong, which discusses the question of labour under the rubric of "Education, Science, Culture, Sports, Religion, Labour and Social Services" in Chapter 6, the Basic Law of Macau discusses this question under the topic of "Economy" in Chapter 5. This is because the questions of labour and of employer-employee relationships are primarily economic ones, closely tied up with economic development. In addition, as an integral part of society, the rights of the labour force must be considered an important subcategory of the rights of Macau citizens in general; for this reason, there are two additional articles discussing the labour rights in Chapter 3 of the Basic Law. These are Article 39, which reads "The welfare benefits and retirement security of the labour force shall be protected by law, " and Article 40, which states that "international labour conventions as applied to Macau shall remain in force and shall be implemented through the laws of the MSAR." Prior to the handover, there already existed some laws and regulations regarding labour in Macau. These include the Labour Law of 1989, the Labour Insurance Law of 1985, and the Social Security Law of 1989. In the light of its recent economic development, the MSAR needs to make new labour policies and improve the body of labour law, so that the Region's social security system will be more comprehensive. One "consultative co-ordination organisation" such as those mentioned in Paragraph 2 of Article 115 has existed in Macau since 1987. Its major function is to co-ordinate employer-employee relations, to provide consultation in legal matters, and so on. Although it does not have much authority, it can help in the policy-making process, and is generally beneficial to social stability and economic development. Article 116 of the Basic Law states, "The MSAR shall maintain and improve Macau's previous systems of shipping management and shipping regulation, and make shipping policy on its own. The MSAR shall be authorised by the Central People's Government to maintain a shipping register and issue related certificates under its legislation, using the name 'Macau, China'. With the exception of foreign warships, access for which requires the special permission of the Central People's Government, ships shall enjoy access to the ports of the MSAR in accordance with the laws of the Region. Private shipping businesses and shipping-related businesses and terminals in the MSAR may continue to operate freely." The shipping business is very important to Macau as a free port. At
97present, the bulk of Macau's shipping industry is limited to transport between Macau, Hong Kong and mainland China (especially the nearby cities of Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Jiangmen, etc). In recent years, the construction of the Ká-Hó deep-water port in Coloane has helped solve the problems faced by the shipping industry in Macau. It is thus important to maintain and improve Macau's previous systems of shipping management and regulation, and for Macau to have the authority to make shipping policy on its own. Article 116 indicates that the MSAR is "authorised by the Central People's Government to maintain a shipping register and issue the related certificates under its legislation, using the name 'Macau, China'." The registration of ships is usually part of the authority of a sovereign state; here, the MSAR may assume responsibility for the registration of its ships as authorised by the Central People's Government. Also in line with this authorisation, the MSAR may formulate shipping policy on its own and may issue the necessary certificates, using the name "Macau, China" to differentiate these certificates from those issued by the Central Government. According to the policy address of 2002, a recent proposal to build an international shipping registration centre in Macau has been approved by the Central Government, and it is hoped that this will strengthen Macau's role as an international free port. With the exception of foreign warships, which must obtain the permission from the Central Government, other ships may access the ports of the MSAR in accordance with the laws of the Region. Management of Macau's ports is part of the internal affairs of the MSAR; the Central Government will not interfere in port administration. However, foreign warships entering Macau shall be under the jurisdiction of the Central Government, because foreign warships are considered to be an extension of a state's territory, which is a matter of state sovereignty. Since the Central Government is responsible for national defence, foreign warships wishing to access Macau must first obtain permission from the Central Government. This article further stipulates that private shipping businesses and shipping-related businesses and terminals in the MSAR may continue to operate freely. This clause is designed to help protect the freedom of commerce in a free market, which is crucial to maintaining Macau's prosperity. Articles 117 states, "The Government of the MSAR may, with the authorisation of the Central People's Government, formulate, on its own, various systems for civil aviation management." As we know, civil aviation administration (including the delimitation of aviation information districts, the opening of new airlines, and the
98establishment of civil aviation agreements with other countries) necessitates a wide variety of policies or measures that may involve relations between China and other countries or between regions within China, which the MSAR is not able to formulate on its own. Because of these special characteristics of civil aviation administration, when planning systems of civil aviation management, the MSAR must first obtain authorisation from the Central Government. What is worth noting is that this authorisation differs from that stipulated in Paragraph 3 of Article 13 or in Paragraph 2 of Article 116, both of which authorise the MSAR to conduct the affairs relevant to those articles. Article 117 stipulates that the MSAR must obtain authorisation from the Central Government when dealing with civil aviation policies. The Macau International Airport opened for business in December 1995, and since then its success has strengthened Macau's role as a regional transportation hub. At the time, after a series of negotiations in the Sino-Portuguese Liaison Group and authorisation by the Central Government, an immediate agreement was reached regarding civil aviation management. Laws and regulations governing the airport, aviation enterprises, and aviation services were passed. The airport is now operating smoothly, and is negotiating aviation agreements with more than 38 countries; 32 such agreements have already been signed. In 2001, the number of destinations in mainland China accessible by direct flights from Macau increased from sixteen to thirty-one, and the number of passengers entering Macau from Taiwan reached 38,800 persons per week. The number of air passengers passing through the Macau International Airport in 2001 totalled 3,805,306 persons.2 Article 118 stipulates, "The MSAR shall, on its own, make policies on tourism and recreation in the light of its overall interests." The gaming and tourism industry in Macau developed under a set of unique historical and social circumstances, but it has become the leading industry in Macau since 1990, and at present is the main pillar of Macau's economy. In 2000, a total of 9.16 million tourists entered Macau; in 2001, the number increased to over 10 million (more precisely, 10,278,973). The tourism industry includes services provided by travel agents, hotels, and restaurants, as well as transportation and shopping. The gaming industry includes casino gambling, horse racing, dog racing, and lotteries of other types. Casino gambling takes the leading role in the gaming sector, with 95% of gamblers coming from outside the Region. Prior to 2002, a single company managed all the gaming enterprises in Macau, using a modernised and above-board system of management. Because Macau has been a centre of cultural exchange for more than 400 years, it boasts a number of heritage sites that demonstrate the
99special features that resulted from a blending of Eastern and Western cultures. These sites are advantageous for the development of tourism. The gaming industry has a long history in Macau, and still occupies a vital economic position. In order to realise the principle of "keeping the current capitalist system and way of life unchanged for fifty years," it is important to maintain the normal operation of the gaming industry in accordance with law. This is beneficial both to the development of the industry itself and to sustain the economic development of the city as a whole. It should be noted that, when the MSAR formulates polices on tourism and recreation, a range of social factors and the overall public interest must be taken into consideration. Policies should be formulated with an eye toward maintaining social stability and enhancing economic development. On 30th August 2001, the MSAR Government promulgated the new "Gaming Law." Article 7 of this law authorises "the issuance of three casino-operating licenses" in Macau. On 8th February 2002, the MSAR Government finally announced which three firms would be granted gaming licenses: the Sociedade de Jogos de Macau, Wynn Resorts (Macau) Limited, and Galaxy Casino Company Limited. This has put an end to the monopoly of the gambling industry, replacing it with a mechanism to encourage openness and competition, which will inject into the market new investment capital from Macau, Hong Kong and the US. It is hoped that the reform of the gambling industry will revitalise the Macau economy. Article 119 stipulates, "The MSAR shall carry out the protection of the environment in accordance with law." The environment is an issue of great concern in most countries these days. Since 1990, leaders of many nations, managers of many enterprises, as well as common citizens have gradually realised the possibilities of sustainable economic development brought about by the effective policies for environmental protection. Macau did not have a thorough system of policies and laws regarding environmental protection until 1991, when the government promulgated the "Environmental Policy and Law," and established a series of standard technologies for the protection of the environment. Although Macau is a small place, it is crucial to control the pollution created by industry and the waste we create in our daily lives. In order to achieve the sustainable, stable development of our economy, we should protect the Region's ecology as well as the coastal environment, and create a comfortable, clean and unpolluted environment for the next generation.
1002. Developing Multi-Culturalism in Macau Macau is a city of cultural exchange between Orient and Occident. For hundreds of years, the integration of Chinese and Portuguese cultures has been a central feature of Macau's cultural identity. This identity is characterised by openness and toleration, and its unique value should be highly emphasised. In Chapter 6 of the Basic Law, there are fourteen articles related to the development of Macau's cultural and social affairs, in the fields of education, science, culture, sports, religion, professions, labour and social services, as well as policies and measures regulating community organisations and the external affairs of religious organisations. These stipulations affect different aspects of the social life of Macau residents, which is important for the stable development of the society. Cultural and social affairs are purely the internal administrative affairs of the MSAR. The stipulations in Chapter 6 reflect the autonomy that the MSAR enjoys in formulating cultural and social policies; highlight the need to maintain and improve the cultural policies existing in Macau before the handover, while emphasising that the cultural system should remain basically unchanged; and strengthen, by legal means, the existing system for managing cultural affairs and social services. 2.1 Developing and Diversifying Education Article 121 of the Basic Law stipulates, "The Government of the MSAR shall, on its own, formulate policies on education, including policies regarding the educational system and its administration, the language of instruction, the allocation of funds, the examination system, the recognition of educational qualifications and the system of academic awards so as to promote educational development." The MSAR Government has the autonomy to formulate policies on education, including policies regarding the educational system and its administration, the language of instruction, the allocation of funds, the examination system, and the recognition of educational qualifications and degrees. At present, the "Education System Law" and the "Higher Education Law," both promulgated in 1991, have established a relatively thorough legal basis for Macau's educational system. These laws and decrees have been extended for use after the handover in accordance with the principle of "no change for 50 years," and they have become the foundation on which the MSAR Government has continued to formulate educational policies. Education is crucial for the development of human resources, and therefore it must adapt to the trends of development and progress in economics,
101science and technology, in order to raise the overall educational level of Macau residents and to nurture young talents who will contribute to the future of the society. Compulsory education is an effective educational policy. Some countries mandate six years of primary education; others mandate nine years of compulsory education, up to the middle-school level. Some make the entire course of primary and secondary education compulsory, up to the level of senior high school. Some developed countries are even considering making some amount of tertiary education compulsory; this depends as much on the economic feasibility of this proposal for the country in question as on the level of concern with education demonstrated by the state. Starting from the 1995-1996 academic year, the Macau Government mandated nine years of free education in non-profit privately run schools that had joined a network of publicly subsidised schools. In the 1997-1998 academic year, the government extended this to ten years of free education. Free education differs from compulsory education: in a system of free education, the government provides a subsidy to each student enrolled in participating schools, while compulsory education not only implies free education, but also highlights the rights of children under a certain age to receive an education. It places the responsibility for safeguarding these rights on the shoulders of the government and the parents of every child. However, sufficient fiscal reserves are necessary for a system of compulsory education to be established; therefore, it should be done systemically in accordance with the law, and the government should not push for instant success in this regard. Paragraph 3 of Article 121 expresses Macau's autonomy in regards to the establishment of educational institutions based on its original educational system. It states, "Community organisation and individuals may, in accordance with law, run educational undertakings of various kinds." Macau's educational institutions can be divided into two categories. The first are those run by the government, and the second is those run by individuals or private organisations, including government-funded and non-government-funded private schools. In Macau, the number of private schools and the number of students in private schools greatly exceed the number of public schools and public school students. Both private and public schools have the right to formulate policies regarding their educational system, curricula, program content, and so on. In other words, they have the autonomous right to run their own educational undertakings, but this right shall contravene neither the educational objectives and principles prescribed by the law, nor the system of educational qualifications and academic awards specified by the pertinent government organs.
102 Article 122 states, "The existing educational institutions of all kinds in Macau may continue to operate. All educational institutions in the MSAR shall enjoy their autonomy and teaching and academic freedom in accordance with law. Educa-tional institutions of all kinds may continue to recruit staff and use teaching mate-rials from outside the MSAR. Students shall enjoy freedom of choice of educa-tional institutions and freedom to purse their education outside the MSAR." Paragraph 1 of Article 122 stipulates that "the existing educational institu-tions of all kinds in Macau may continue to operate... [and to] enjoy their au-tonomy and teaching and academic freedom in accordance with law." According to the annual statistics for the academic year 2001-2002, Macau had 129 schools or institutions providing regular education (including pre-primary, primary, secondary, and vocational-technical secondary education), and eleven institutions recognised by the MSAR Government providing higher education of various kinds. Among the institutions providing regular education, 23 were government schools and 106 were private schools. The total number of teachers in these schools was 4, 050 and the total student population numbered 99,990.3 In addition to these, there are also institutions providing special education and adult education. Among the eleven institutions of higher education, four are government-funded (the Univer-sity of Macau, the Macau Polytechnic, the Institute of Tourism, and the Police Academy), while the others are privately run. Among the 12,749 students enrolled in these eleven institutions of higher education, sixteen students obtained doctoral degrees, 5,603 students obtained master's degrees, 884 students obtained postgradu-ate diplomas, 3,414 obtained bachelor's degrees, and 2,832 obtained associate's degrees or diplomas.4 The Basic Law ensures that existing educational institutions of all kinds may continue to operate. All educational institutions in the MSAR shall enjoy their autonomy and academic freedom in accordance with law. This is a way of motivating various sectors of society to take an active role in developing a diversified educational system in Macau. Paragraph 2 of Article 122 states that educational institutions of all kinds may continue to recruit staff and use teaching materials from outside the MSAR. Students shall enjoy freedom to choose which educational institution they wish to attend, as well as the freedom to pursue their education outside the MSAR, which is essential for boosting the development of Macau's human resources. Article 129 stipulates, "The Government of the MSAR shall, on its own, es-tablish a system concerning the professions and, based on impartiality and rationality, formulate provisions for assessing professional qualifications or quali-fications for practice in the various professions and issuing corresponding certificates. Persons with professional qualifications or qualifications for professional practice obtained prior to the establishment of the MSAR may retain their previous qualifications in accordance with the relevant regulations
103of the MSAR. The Government of the MSAR shall, in accordance with the relevant regulations, recognise the professions and the professional organisations recognised prior to the establishment of the Region and may, as required by social development and in consultation with the parties concerned, recognise new professions and professional organisations." In today's Macau, professionals have assumed a high status and play an important role. In addition, constant advances in science and technology, the increasing specialisation of labour, and an atmosphere of fierce competition have led to an increasing reliance on the expert knowledge and abilities of the professional class. We must make good use of their rational understanding of objective norms and their alertness to new opportunities. It is absolutely necessary for members of the professions to obtain recognised qualifications, in order to move Macau society along towards the next stage of development. Some professionals, such as lawyers, doctors, accountants, architects, teachers, and so on, must pass a rigorous and systematic program of training and examinations in order to obtain professional qualifications from a recognised university. After that, they must undergo a period of practical internship, after which they will obtain the qualifications, recognised by the relevant institutions, that are necessary to practice their profession. The "system concerning the professions" mentioned in this article refers to the assessment of professional qualifications in the various professions, and the issuance of corresponding certificates. The Basic Law reflects the autonomy of the MSAR in regard to the professions practised in the MSAR. It stipulates that the MSAR Government shall, on its own initiative, establish "a system concerning the professions based on impartiality and rationality, and...formulate provisions for assessing professional qualifications or qualifications for practice in the various professions and issuing corresponding certificates." Paragraph 2 continues, "Persons with professional qualifications or qualifications for professional practice obtained prior to the establishment of the MSAR may retain their previous qualifications in accordance with the relevant regulations of the MSAR." Persons with professional qualifications or qualifications for professional practice can, "in accordance with the relevant regulations," retain their previous qualifications. The "relevant regulations" refer to the regulations governing the professions and other relevant codes applicable in the MSAR. Professionals and professional organisations are requested to follow these regulations insofar is they do not contradict the principle of impartial competition and participation. Article 129 further stipulates that the MSAR Government "shall, in accordance with the relevant regulations, recognise the professions and the professional organisations recognised prior to the establishment of the Region
104and may, as required by social development and in consultation with the parties concerned, recognise new professions and professional organisations." Since the establishment of the MSAR, as the Region has been developing socially, economically and scientifically, the number of professions and professional organisations has been on the rise. The MSAR Government is obliged to recognise these new professions and professional organisations insofar as they are necessary or beneficial to the needs of society. From this we can observe that the provisions regarding systems of professionalization contained in the Basic Law emphasise continuity with the original system and the principle of impartiality and rationality, which can meet the needs of development. 2.2 Boosting Growth in Science and Technology Article 124 of the Basic Law stipulates, "The Government of the MSAR shall, on its own, formulate policies on science and technology and protect by law achievements in scientific and technological research, patents, discoveries and inventions. The Government of the MSAR shall, on its own, decide on the scientific and technological standards and specifications applicable in Macau." Science and technology play an invaluable role in promoting the prosperity and development of any nation or region. In today's world, the development of science and technology is closely associated with social and economic development. Due to the small scale of social and economic activities in Macau, and to the lack of natural and human resources, the development of science and technology remains in a rather fragile position. Article 124 stresses that the MSAR Government has the right and responsibility to formulate policies governing science and technology in the Region and to protect by law achievements in scientific and technological research, patents, discoveries and inventions. That is, it emphasises the leading role of science and technology in modern society and in creating the conditions necessary for enhancing the development of advanced technology and high-tech industries, improving product competitiveness, and opening up new product lines, new industries, and new markets. Because scientific and technological endeavours demand rigorous accuracy, the standards and specifications governing scientific achievement and the quality of scientific products must comply with international standards while still taking into consideration the local situation. Paragraph 2 of this article states, "the Government of the MSAR can on its own decide on the scientific and technological standards and specifications applicable in Macau."
105The "scientific and technological standards" mentioned here include standards for both the natural and social sciences. This can help strengthen Macau's existing advantages, and accelerate economic and social development so as to better meet the needs of Macau society. Article 123 of the Basic Law stipulates, "The Government of the MSAR shall, on its own, formulate policies to improve medical and health services and to develop Western and traditional Chinese medicine. Community organisations and individual may provide various medical and health services in accordance with law." Article 123 thus includes three main features. First, it stipulates that the MSAR Government can formulate policies governing medical and health care services. A whole article is devoted to the issue of medicine and health care because it has a direct impact upon the health of the entire Macau community, and therefore upon the economic development and prosperity of the Region. Second, it emphasises the synchronous development of both Western and Chinese medicine. Chinese medicine is a system for diagnosing and treating illness that has been developed over the course of many centuries of practice in China. It is necessary to advocate for the co-ordinated development of both Western and traditional Chinese medicine, in order to enhance the Region's medical and health care services. Third, this Article stipulates that community organisations and individuals may provide various medical and health services in accordance with law. This has important implications for the full utilisation of all available resources, and can help motivate investors and all sectors of society to participate in improving the standards of Macau's health and hygiene systems. 2.3 Encouraging Culture and the Arts Article 125 of the Basic Law stipulates, "The Government of the MSAR shall on its own, formulate policies on culture, including literature, art, broadcasting, film and television programs. The Government of the MSAR shall protect by law the achievements and the lawful rights and interests of authors in their literary, artistic and other creation. The Government of the MSAR shall protect by law scenic spots, historical sites and other historical relics as well the lawful rights and interests of the owners of antiques." This article protects and respects the autonomy of the Region in handling cultural affairs, which can facilitate the maintenance of the unique features of Macau's cultural tradition as well as enhancing Macau's role as a bridge linking East and West. Article 37 of the Basic Law indicates that "Macau residents shall have freedom to engage in education, academic research, literary and artistic creation, and other cultural activities." On top of
106this, Paragraph 2 of Article 125 further protects artists' achievements and their lawful rights to and interests in their literary and artistic productions. In addition, it provides a series of guarantees and protections that will facilitate the development of literature, the arts, broadcasting, film, and television. A range of distinctive historical sites and other cultural treasures have long characterised Macau as a city of cultural exchange between the East and the West. These historical sites comprise the heritage of Macau's unique cultural tradition; they are important resources for developing tourism and enhancing Sino-Western cultural exchange. A very good example of heritage protection is evidenced in the MSAR's 2001 application to the United Nations for inclusion on UNESCO's "World Heritage List." Article 125 of the Basic Law further stresses the lawful rights and interests of the owners of historical sites or treasures, which reflects an emphasis on rationality and equity in the management of the culture industry. Article 126 of the Basic Law stipulates, "The Government of the MSAR shall, on its own, formulate policies on press and publication." In all nations or regions that advocate political democracy, the mass media operate in an important supervisory capacity. There is a long history of publishing in Macau; at present, there exist approximately twenty Chinese and Portuguese newspapers and magazines, about ten professional or non-professional publishing houses, several broadcasting companies, two official television stations (one Chinese-language, one Portuguese-language), a number of satellite and cable TV channels, the major media organs of the Central Government of the PRC, and several foreign media organisations stationed in Macau. They constitute the entire mass media network in Macau. The majority of publishing houses in Macau are run privately; in 1989, the Macau government promulgated the "Audio and Broadcasting Law," and in 1990 the "Publications Law," in order to strengthen its management of the mass media. Chapter 6 of the Basic Law distinctly stipulates the policies governing the press and publishing industry, which reflects concern with the supervisory function of the mass media. Article 126 further stipulates that the MSAR retains a high degree of autonomy in the areas of the press and publishing: the government can, on its own, formulate polices governing the press and publishing industry that are in line with the practical situation of the Macau society; on top of this, Macau residents' right to freedom of the press and freedom of publication are protected by law, which will help promote the development of press and publishing industry in Macau. Article 127 of the Basic Law stipulates, "The Government of the MSAR shall, on its own, formulate policies on sports. Non-governmental sports organisations may continue to exist and develop in accordance with law."
107Sports activities contribute to the overall health of the citizens, as well as to the international image of a nation or region on the whole. Macau is a small city, but due to the high degree of autonomy it enjoys, it can maintain and develop relations with organisations in foreign countries or regions and with the pertinent international organisations, using the name "Macau, China" to do so. Therefore, the stipulation that the MSAR can formulate its own sports policies reflects the Region's autonomy in managing sporting activities. At the same time, non-governmental organisations have played an active role in enhancing the development of sports; therefore, the Basic Law protects the rights of such organisations to exist and to develop in accordance with law. This reflects the degree of support the Basic Law provides for these non-governmental organisations. 2.4 Protecting the Freedom of Religion Article 128 stipulates, "The Government of the MSAR, consistent with the principle of religious freedom, shall not interfere in the internal affairs of religious organisations or in the efforts of religious organisations and believers in Macau to maintain and develop relations with their counterparts outside Macau, or restrict religious activities which do not contravene the laws of the Region. Religious organisation may, in accordance with law, run seminaries and other schools, hospitals and welfare institutions and to provide other social services. Schools run by religious organisations may continue to provide religious education, including courses in religion. Religious organisations shall, in accordance with law, enjoy the rights to acquire, dispose of and inherit property and the right to receive donations. Their previous property rights and interests shall be protected by law." The Basic Law guarantees Macau residents' freedom of religion and related rights, such as the right to preach, to conduct, and to participate in religious activities. Article 128 further specifies and clarifies the meaning of Articles 34 and 40, which state that "the Government of the MSAR, consistent with the principle of religious freedom, shall not interfere in the internal affairs of religious organisations or in the efforts of religious organisations and believers in Macau to maintain and develop relations with their counterparts outside Macau, or restrict religious activities which do not contravene the laws of the Region." These two policies of "non-interference" reflect the degree of respect awarded to the freedom of religion. The policy of "non-restriction" is based on Article 40, which stipulates that "the provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and international labour conventions as applied to Macau shall remain in force and shall be implemented through the
108laws of the MSAR. The rights and freedoms enjoyed by Macau residents shall not be restricted unless as prescribed by law. Such restrictions shall not contravene the provisions of the first paragraph of this Article." Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights stipulates that everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, and that the freedom to express one's religion or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others. Any act of treason and subversion against the nation under the guise of religion should be outlawed. The Basic Law protects the rights of religious organisations to provide a range of social services. These institutions may run seminaries and other schools, hospitals, and welfare institutions, and provide other social services. Schools run by religious organisations may continue to provide religious education, including courses in religion. This is beneficial to the diversified development of social service institutions, and helps satisfy the increasing demand for such services among the people, by sharing the government's burden in remedying the relative insufficiency of social services. For example, the Catholic Church is one of the most influential religious organisations in Macau. It has established many social service institutions, including medical centres and old-age homes, and also runs a number of religious schools, which relieves the constantly mounting pressures created by the growing student population. Religious organisations have the right to acquire, use, dispose of and inherit property, and to receive donations. Most of the religious organisations in Macau possess their own properties; their right to own this property is protected under the Basic Law, just as the rights of individual private property ownership are. The Basic Law emphasises this protection of property rights, which reflects the respect granted to the religious institutions of the Region, and signifies that these organisations' property rights will be maintained under the Basic Law. 2.5 Improving the Social Welfare System Article 130 stipulates, "On the basis of the previous social welfare system, the Government of the MSAR shall, on its own, formulate policies on the develop- ment and improvement of the social welfare system in the light of the economic conditions and social needs." A well-established social welfare system is an important indicator of the degree of development of any country or region. Article 130 stipulates that the
109MSAR may formulate social welfare policies on the basis of the previous social welfare system. This is an extension of Article 39, which states that "Macau residents shall have the right to social welfare in accordance with law." There are three major features embedded in this article. First, the MSAR has the right to formulate social welfare policies on its own, free of interference from the equivalent policies in force in mainland China. Second, the MSAR should formulate new social welfare policies on the basis of the previously existing social welfare system. Beginning in 1980, the Portuguese government in Macau formulated a set of policies establishing the minimum codes governing employer-employee relations, occupational hazards, compensation for job-related illness or injury, and a system for funding social security. With the passage of these laws, residents who meet the requirements could obtain certain subsidies, such as old-age pensions, unemployment compensation, financial assistance for the disabled or invalids, as well as other financial assistance for marriage, birth, funerary services, and the treatment of lung disease. Employees who lost their jobs because of layoffs or the bankruptcy of their employers were granted the right to obtain unemployment compensation; the government promised free medical care for pregnant women, children, civil servants, persons in financial difficulties, and so on; and the government's Education Department initiated tuition subsidies for qualified students. Because these basic forms of welfare take into full consideration the actually existing situation in Macau, it is the responsibility of the MSAR Government to safeguard the welfare services enjoyed by the citizens of Macau as provided for in the previous legal system. Third, the MSAR may formulate policies to develop and improve the social welfare system in light of changing economic conditions and social needs. Therefore, the MSAR should not merely maintain the original social welfare system, it should also improve upon this system, so that all Macau residents may share in the prosperity and progress of the economy and society. Article 131 of the Basic Law stipulates, "Local organisations providing social services in the MSAR may, on their own, decide their forms of service, provided that the law is not contravened." A comprehensive social service system should fully utilise the resources and enthusiasm of both governmental and non-governmental social service organisations. The role of non-governmental organisations in this regard should not be neglected. At present, many non-governmental organisations provide a great deal of charitable assistance and funding, and these organisations, such as the Ki-ang Wu Charitable Society, Caritas, and so on, are a vital part of Macau's social service system. Since their continued
110existence is guaranteed by the Basic Law, we can be sure that the system of welfare benefits available to Macau residents will not be trimmed; rather, it will continue to improve, in keeping with the city's economic and social development. Article 132 stipulates, "The Government of the MSAR shall, when necessary and possible, gradually improve the policy previously practised in Macau in respect of subventions for non-governmental organisations in fields such as education, science, technology, culture, sports, recreation, medicine and health, social welfare and social work." Non-governmental organisations include non-profit organisations in the fields of education, science, technology, culture, news media, publishing, sports, recreation, medicine and health, social work, etc. Their status as "legal persons" differs from that of private enterprises; they normally do not engage in commercial activities, and their operating budget comes primarily from membership fees. In order to carry out public or charitable activities, sometimes they have to raise funds from the public. Some government departments allocate special budgets to assist these non-governmental organisations and their activities, which serve as a means to redistribute social resources. What bears emphasis is that the government will only provide assistance to non-governmental organisations in accordance with the necessity of the services and the availability of funds. That is to say, on one hand, the government must consider how necessary these activities are to the social welfare, while on the other hand, it can grant financial assistance only insofar as it is fiscally able to do so. In addition, it is further stipulated that the govern-ment should gradually increase the amount financial assistance it provides as the economy continues to develop. Taken together, all these stipulations indicate that the government has adopted an enthusiastic but pragmatic approach to providing financial assistance to non-government organisations. 2.6 Non-Governmental and Religious Organisations Artile 133 stipulates, "The relationship between non-governmental organisations in fields such as education, science, technology, culture, news media, publication, sports, recreation, the professions, medicine and health, labour, women, youth, returned overseas nationals, social welfare and social work as well as religions organisations in the MSAR and their counterparts in other parts of the coun- try shall be based on the principles of non-subordination, non-interference and mutual respect." This article has three major features, which can be summarised as mutual non-subordination, mutual non-interference and mutual respect. It
111stipulates that non-governmental and religious organisations in the MSAR and their counterparts in other parts of the country shall be treated equally, based on the principle of non-subordination. Non-governmental and religious organisations in mainland China may not take their counterparts in the MSAR as local branches or subsidiaries. The autonomous status of the non-governmental and religious organisations in the MSAR corresponds to the Region's high degree of autonomy. Article 5 of Annex I of the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration initially profiled the proper relationship among these religious organisations: "The relationship between religious organisations in the MSAR and those in other parts of the PRC shall be based on the principles of non-subordination, non-interference and mutual respect." While this article was being drafted, its scope was enlarged to include not only religious organisations, but also non-governmental organisations in the fields of education, science, technology, culture, news media, publishing, sports, recreation, the professions, medicine and health, labour, women, youth, returned overseas nationals, social welfare and social work. This corresponds to the spirit of the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration, and is beneficial for sustaining and developing the relationship between non-governmental organisations and religious organisations in the MSAR and those in the PRC. Apart from this, Article 134 indicates, "Non-governmental organisations in fields such as education, science, technology, culture, news media, publication, sports, recreation, the professions, medicine and health, labour, women, youth, returned overseas nationals, social welfare and social work as well as religious organisations in the MSAR may maintain and develop relations with their counterparts in foreign countries and regions and with relevant international organisations. They may, as required, use the name 'Macau, China' in the relevant activities." Article 134 differs from Article 133 in that it deals with external affairs while Article 133 deals with domestic affairs. Article 134 requires organisations to use the name "Macau, China," while Article 133 allows these organisations to use the name of the MSAR directly. Article 134 also differs from Article 136, which stipulates that "the MSAR may, on its own, using the name 'Macau, China', maintain and develop relations and conclude and implement agreements with foreign states and regions and relevant international organisations in the appropriate fields, including the economic, trade, financial and monetary, shipping, communications, tourism, cultural, science and technology, and sports fields." Article 134 targets the activities of non-governmental and religious organisations; although both 134 and 136 require that the name "Macau, China" be used, they require its use in different situations.
112 3. Directions, Goals and Bases for the Development of the MSAR 3.1 The Major Objectives "In recent years, under the common impact of internal and external factors, Macau's economic structure has experienced a dramatic adjustment. That our ser-vice industry has developed rapidly is clear. In the coming year, after a competi-tion mechanism has been formally introduced to the gambling industry, we can expect to see benefits to the tourism and related industries. On the other hand, fundamental changes to the global garment industry's quota system in 2005 will inevitably influence the development of Macau's manufacturing industry. After careful observation and analysis of these changes in Macau's environment, as well as serious consideration of our region's many advantages and attributes, it is clear that an industrial structure is taking shape in Macau with the gambling sector as its 'head', and the service industry as its 'body', driving the overall development of other industries."5 This is a pragmatic and objective conclusion. With this spirit of refusing to evade the social realities of Macau's situation, and with strong and active leadership, we may have high expectations of the next few years of development in Macau, especially if the city's foreign competitiveness can be maintained and enhanced. Therefore, as Chief Executive Edmund Ho says, "We must focus especially on our leading industries while still promoting the balanced development of all sectors. On the one hand, our policies and programmes must facilitate the development of service industries, while taking comprehensive consideration of other areas, in-cluding infrastructure, education, training, science and technology, and environ-mental protection. If we are to successfully develop our core industries, each of these social facets must co-operate rather than each one working separately. On the other hand, we must also streamline and support both old and new industries by maintaining a reasonably diversified and balanced industrial structure. Only in this way can we improve our industries' adaptability to external changes and resis-tance to risks." 6 As early as December 2000, a research report entitled Macau 2020—The Long Term Objectives and Development Strategies in 20 Years (compiled by the Joint Research Group of the Macau Development Strategy Research Centre and the Macau Association of Economic Sciences) indicated that the goal of Macau's next stage of development should be "to establish the Region as a medium-sized international metropolis, operating under the principle of 'one
113country, two systems,' that is fully open to China and the Asia/Pacific region."7 According to this report, by the year 2020, Macau should have achieved the following milestones: ① Its major economic and development indices should be approximate or equal to the average of developed cities or countries in the world; ② It should play a positive leading role in the co-operation with Guangdong Province and Hong Kong; ③ It should be leading city with an extensive international network that is highly regarded in the Asia/Pacific region and the world; ④ It should have unique and competitive systems for tourism, integrated services, communication, offshore finance, higher education and culture. After some adjustments, it should also feature an internationally competitive manufacturing sector based on innovative, high value-added products; ⑤ It should have achieved an appropriate fiscal reserve, a better social welfare system, a greater capacity to handle natural disasters and other crises as well as an increased aptitude for autonomous development; ⑥It should have in place a democratic political system based on a stable foundation and the active political participation of the middle class.8 3.2 Development: Correlating Concepts and Results Chief Executive Edmund Ho has proclaimed, "Successful economic restructuring will enable Macau to capitalise on its advantages and improve its competitiveness, enabling sustainable growth as we integrate with the global economy. Nevertheless, we have to clearly realise that economic restructuring is by no means an easy task. During this process, conflicts between old and new ideas, limitations in human resources and resulting employment pressures will bring many new challenges." 9 Based on the experience of China and other countries, there is a solid proof that we should, from time to time, adjust and revise our concepts to achieve a better result. This is because: Firstly, adjusting and revising our concepts is a process of optimisation through continuous learning, and a process of the rationalization of decision-making. This should be a focal point for the MSAR Government as well as the entire community. Secondly, "positive" and "negative," "open-minded" and "narrow-minded," "innovative" and "old-fashioned," are pairs of opposites that differ not only in meaning but also in principle. People often talk about being "positive, open-minded and innovative," but may not be actually or whole-heartedly so. On the other hand, no one will admit to being negative,
114narrow-minded, or old fashioned, even if he or she is. Hence in any organisation, corporation or institution, there will always be a mixture of people who are superficially positive, open-minded and innovative and people who are actually negative, narrow-minded and old-fashioned. Thirdly, successful development is very often the result of a combination of various related factors. However, under the same conditions or constraints, some people may succeed while others may fail. This is true not only at the peak but also at the bottom of an economic cycle. Hence we should focus on improving the internal and subjective factors affecting our development. Fourthly, "We must point out here that new initiatives and innovation are not confined to new industries. Traditional industries, government departments and even individuals must also develop innovative thinking in order to realise the full benefits of this new paradigm."10 There are four types of strategies we may consider for Macau's future development: Stabilizing (S), Transforming (T), Expanding (E), and Innovative (I). From a conservative point of view, the order of preference should be S>T>E>I. However, when considering real efficacy, the order should be I>E>T>S. In point of fact, it is impossible to say that a stabilizing strategy is completely wrong or that an innovative strategy is entirely correct. It depends on the timing of implementation. A stabilizing strategy may be necessary at a certain period, while an innovative strategy may be critical for certain issues. Hence the crux lies in the flexible implementation of all four strategies. In summary, we believe that Macau should primarily adopt an expansive and innovative strategy, complemented by a stabilizing and transformative strategy. In the beginning, Macau should follow a stable and transforming strategy, but in the long run, it should better adopt an expanding and innovative strategy. " 33 Gaining the Upper Hand: Exploiting Strengths, Overcoming Weaknesses The economy of Macau has relative weaknesses and strengths. Macau has reached quite a high level of economic development; however, it has also experienced inconsistent development in many respects. As a mini-economy with a unique industrial structure, on the whole, Macau is experiencing the trend of liberalisation in its economy; it is encountering economic integration and regional co-operation; and its industrial structure is faced with knowledge intensification. Its economic base is increasingly coming to rely on the service sector, its tourism industry is increasingly relying on casino gambling, its manufacturing industry on high-end products, and its financial sector on diversified tools. Macau is moving towards an information economy, and the
115competitiveness of its human resources is becoming increasingly important. Therefore, it is crucial for the Region to have a strong sense of self-direction. Macau's economy has a number of strengths and advantages: ① Our society is quite stable, and experienced a smooth transfer of sovereignty. Our citizens have welcomed the transfer of sovereignty back to the PRC and have a strong sense of belonging, which is an important asset for our development; ② The principle of "one country, two systems" and the protection of the Basic Law shall continue to be effective. The MSAR will continue to receive the support and recognition of the Central Government of China; ③ Macau has already achieved an outstanding level of development. Since 1995, Macau has been included by international organisations on the list of high-income countries and areas and is ranked near the top of the ten most successful mini-economic systems in the world; ④ Macau's ability to innovate and to adapt to changes in the international market should not be underestimated. Our younger generation of entrepreneurs is bold in developing new business ideas, and our young civil servants and citizens are hardworking and industrious, always striving for better results; ⑤ We have a long history of absorbing different religions, languages and peoples in a harmonious manner. We have a highly developed capacity for tolerating differences, and can learn from the strengths of others to improve ourselves; ⑥ We have an extensive network of overseas connections. There are thousands of overseas Chinese who have strong ties with Macau, and many Macanese (Portuguese born in Macau) who are now spread around the world. These overseas connections will continue to be a useful resource for Macau; ⑦ Macau's status as an international free port and its low tax rates are still a valuable asset that can be further utilised; ⑧ We can continue to contribute in bridging the relationship between mainland China and Taiwan. This is an important function that will create significant opportunities for Macau, not only in the short term but for a long time to come; ⑨ Macau is situated at an excellent geographical location that is rapidly growing in relation to the world economy. It can learn from the experiences of the four "little dragons" (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore) and the countries of Southeast Asia. It can also rely on the full support of China, with its rich resources just across the border; ⑩ Macau's historical connection with the countries of the European Union is also an advantage. After the handover, Macau can continue to play
116an active and important role in promoting co-operation between China and the European Union. ⑾ In the long run, there is a tremendous potential to develop a relationship with Portuguese-speaking countries. In the 21st century, Brazil will likely become a leader in the economy of Latin America. Meanwhile, in Africa, Mozambique and Angola will certainly rise to occupy a more important position. We should cherish the opportunity to develop closer relationships with these countries. However, Macau's economy also has a variety of weaknesses and constraints that should not be overlooked: ①Macau has been suffering from an economic slowdown for the seven years since 1993, and from negative growth for the four years since 1996. This continuous negative growth has thrown a shadow over our confidence in our economic potential, and has an adverse psychological effect on investors and consumers; ②Due to its limited land area, small population and insufficient resources-problems that are difficult if not impossible to rectify—Macau cannot take advantage of economies of scale; ③Due to its lack of a large deep-water port, Macau is unable to develop itsocean-going cargo transport industry, which is a handicap to its performance as a free port; ④A modernized, integrated transportation network has yet to be completed. This hinders Macau's ability to develop into a modern logistics and distribution centre; ⑤The overall education level of Macau people remains low. The government's Employment Survey, conducted in 2002, indicated that 69.5% of the total 213,999 workers in Macau have received education only up to the junior secondary level.12 This will become a major constraint to our economic growth in the age of the new information economy; ⑥Traditional models of operating in society have their pros and cons; in fact, traditional and modern models of operation are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Hence it is appropriate to preserve and promote local traditions while at the same time accelerating the modernisation process. It is not fair to equate tradition and conservatism, since not every traditional organisation is conservative while some non-traditional organisations may be so. There will always be people who are obsessed by money and power and who will pursue these ends by all means. However, the community will ultimately reject them. There is no one in Macau who can claim to be the representative of a purely modern and advanced mode of productivity. Due to
117the unique background and environment of Macau, we all are all conservative to differing degrees. Some may be conservative in one aspect while others may be so in another area. Some may be more conservative and some may be less. All in all, however, it is critical for us to overcome the constraints of conservatism. 3.4 Short-Term Objectives 3.4.1A highly efficient, clean and accountable MSAR Government that has ateam of civil servants who work in accordance with law and within the limits oftheir authority, and have a strong sense of service to their fellow citizens. 3.4.2A positive image that is recognised around the world and especially inthe surrounding countries and regions. Macau should be known as a place with a comprehensive judicial system, where rights and interests are protected by law, and whose citizens and government units have a strongly ingrained consciousness of the law. 3.4.3A united, open-minded and hardworking community, in which residentswill not only consider their own interests but also the interests of others: a commu nity in which people will not only innovate, but also co-operate; in which people will not only strive together to overcome difficulties, but will also share their suc cess with others. 3.4.4A team of modern entrepreneurs who have the courage and modern busi ness philosophy to surf the rising tide of the new economy. 3.4.5A well-thought-out, practical conceptualization and direction for development, based on the shared understanding among Macau people that it isnecessary to explore the appropriate development pattern. The formulation of de velopment strategies should not be the privilege of a chosen few. 4. The Standpoints for Modern Development to Be Established In the history of the world, it has been always been the clear that all countries and nations in any historical period should always persist in pursuing opportunities for development, always moving from the present point of origin towards a new developmental objective or level. "Development" implies expansion of scale and enhancement of quality; it is "the process of change from small to big, from simple to complex, from lower to higher level,
118and from old to new." 13 If a society neglects developmental norms, paths and strategies, the whole society and its constituent parts (the government, commercial enterprises, and the common citizens) will not be able to fully utilise the factors of production. As a result, they will not be able to fully develop their potential or to maintain an active role in a competitive market. Such a society would not be able to advance on the crest of victory. A modern developmental perspective emphasises: the coherent and rational co-ordination of the factors of production; the constancy and stability of development; the synchronisation of economic and social development; the coordinated development of natural and social ecosystems; the priority of human resource development; and respect for the value of high-calibre professionals. It requires maintaining a win-win attitude, and enhancing international competitiveness. This modern developmental perspective is a multifaceted concept that includes the following characteristics. 4.1A Rational Orientation All countries—developed, developing or underdeveloped—and all economies—large-scale, small-scale, or "mini"—must have the appropriate orientation towards development. Macau is a model of a mini-economy; in the mid-1990s, it was placed on the World Bank's list of the cities with the highest per capita personal income in the world. Thus we should not be shaken by temporary setbacks or instabilities; we should not become helpless when facing unfavourable conditions, because success hinges on human effort. 4.2Proper Utilisation of Resources To develop, we need resources: natural resources, social resources, internal resources, and external resources. We must treasure those resources that are scarce, and protect those that are still abundant. We must exploit our resources more effectively, and prevent their inappropriate distribution. 4.3The Cultivation of Strengths Strengths and weakness are relative concepts that develop historically. No strength is eternal. Therefore, one should have a strong sense of self-direction, and, through appropriate research and development, one should exploit one's strengths and overcome one's weaknesses. In addition, it is crucially important to realise the timeliness and relevance of each of our strengths. 4.4Complementarity and Benefit Sharing
119Every country and economic system has different features, and each will try to remove all the obstacles that impede its development. Because of this, mutual complementarities and benefits are vital principles for regional co-operation. For small-scale and mini-economies, limitations on resources and other restrictions mean that they must establish an extensive network of communication and cooperation, drawing support from external resources and markets to complement the deficiencies in their own domestic economies. This also holds true for large and developed economic systems, as they all need to encourage exchange and cooperation with other countries. 4.5 Prioritise Quality In the early period of development, it is necessary to stress quantitative indexes. However, after achieving a certain scale and level of development, the priority should be shifted to qualitative indexes. This usually involves a shift from an emphasis on always expanding outward to a focus on upgrading the quality of what has already been achieved; a shift from quantitative to qualitative development; from a lower to a higher-level division of labour, that is, towards the production of more high-quality, value-added products. In fact, the qualitative index not only requires enhancements in the quality, performance, and branding of a commodity; it equally requires enhancements in the quality of the entire production line, indeed of all the members of society. At present, most developed countries have popularised higher education; the contributions of individuals, and the importance of the human factor, are gradually gaining greater respect. Macau should learn from this experience: we should, on the one hand, work hard to develop our human resources, and on the other hand, have a clearer understanding how best to distribute the skilled workforce, in order to prevent the misallocation or waste of our precious human resources. 4.6Virtuous Competition Every industry, every unit of production and consumption, and every member of society is a resource that supports, complements and supplements the others. The principle of mutual benefit suits the reality of the complex division of labour in the modern world; it is the basic condition for societies to remain stable and harmonious. Systems and economic models that are very different from each other still must share certain similarities, and it is these commonalities that are key. Commonalities in developmental models, in
120resources, in development opportunities, in the need for trade, or in goals for environmental protection, have led systems that were originally quite different along similar developmental paths, and have even made them close companions on this journey. With less selfishness and more co-operation, less conservatism and more innovation, fewer constraints and more benefit sharing, everyone would profit from the increased resources and opportunities. If Macau—this mini-economy—can take the initial step and maintain its enthusiasm, it will certainly not be isolated, discarded or marginalised. 4.7 Confronting Setbacks No one can claim that he or she has never faced adversity. Naturally, the impact that adversity has will be different for different people; some will experi-ence a heavier blow than others. Sometimes, the setbacks in our life are due to unexpected factors or to our own blindness to risk. However, adversity can strengthen our resolve and test our wisdom. Adversity may even precede success. Therefore, it is necessary to keep up our spirit of innovation and to face challenges with a sober mind. Nurturing a positive psychological outlook in the face of pos-sible adversity is a key component in enhancing economic competitiveness. 5. Some Issues in Need of Resolution 5.1 Co-ordinate Economic and Social Development As Macau's economy has established a solid foundation, our human develop-ment index (HDI) has remained at a steady, decent level—it was 0.864 in 1998, 0. 868 in 1999, and 0.882 in 2000. However, in terms of education, income, social security, health care, culture, and ethics, our society has yet to catch up with this economic index. In addition, some members of our society are not yet thoroughly modern in their attitudes and outlook. These problems require our immediate attention. 5.2Focused Development vs. Diversified Development The recession of recent years has weakened many people's confidence in Macau's future. The gaming industry has been one of the major economic contributors, and will continue to improve and grow. However, in the long run, it is not wise to focus on one single industry alone. We should diversify our economy. Although there are difficulties and risks involved in developing other businesses, the advantages still outweigh the drawbacks, making
121diversification an important ingredient for Macau's future. 5.3Strengthening the Shaky Foundation Macau has multiple strengths but also many weaknesses. The critical issue at present is the weak manufacturing base and the lack of a qualified workforce. However, we can make use of our advantages to attract corporations and research institutes from mainland China to apply their inventions and technologies to the manufacturing sector in Macau. 5.4The Relationship between Internal and External Environments To accelerate development, we must fully utilise all possible internal and external resources. It is reasonable to assume that the external environment will continuously improve. However, the government and people of Macau should primarily focus on how best to utilise our internal resources. 5.5The Relationship between Economic and Non-Economic Measures Economic development relies primarily upon the correct understanding and application of basic economic principles, as well as the implementation of legal and economic safeguards. However, it has been proven that some non-economic measures are also very useful and should not be overlooked. These include boosting the cultural and moral calibre of the citizens and strengthening their confidence in the future. 5.6Physical vs. Intellectual Power As we head into a new age of a knowledge-based economy, a change is occurring in the relative value of physical strength vs. intellectual power. We need to create a suitable environment in which to rapidly train a cadre of local experts. We also need to give a green light to attracting more talented persons to come work in Macau. Yet, while recognising the importance of intellectual power, we should not, consciously or unconsciously, underrate the importance of manual labour. Insofar as possible, we must also provide opportunities for young labourers to upgrade their skills. 5.7State-Society Relations Chief Executive Edmund Ho has written, "So the critical issue for our success tomorrow relies on the ability of individuals to seize opportunities, stick to goals, have foresight and keep pace with community trends and directions. These abilities are the foundation of our confidence, the target of our efforts and the crux of the long-term well being of all Macau people."14
122During the economic recession, every sector of Macau society suffered. It is thus understandable that the community should have high expectations for the autonomous MSAR Government. However, real improvements in the economy will require a joint effort: the combination of government guidance and community support. 5.8Traditional Beliefs vs. New Economic Concepts In the unique environment of Macau, every sector and every household inherits traditional beliefs at the same time that they face the impact of new economic concepts. Traditional values such as industriousness, honesty, and co-operation will never become obsolete. However, we should also pay attention to the directions, principles and special features of new economic concepts. We must pro-actively adapt ourselves to the new environment, or we will be eliminated from the competitive market. 5.9Unlimited Development and Bounded Knowledge The development of any country or economic entity is not restricted by an absolute limit or "saturation point." The only limit on development is our knowledge and understanding. We should therefore strive to overcome this limitation and cultivate a consciousness of adapting to the endless upward spiral of development. After the handover, Macau opened up its gaming sector and has taken measures to constantly improve the investment environment. As a result, the economy has developed rapidly in recent years. The GDP growth rates were 4.6% in 2000 and 2.2% in 2001; in 2002, the rate was even higher, reaching 9.5%. At the beginning of the year, Moody's Investors Service upgraded Macau's overall credit rating from Baal to A3, with a positive economic outlook. In addition, the "Blue Book of City Competitiveness" ranked Macau fifth among all the cities in China, reflecting the widespread positive view of Macau's investment environment.15 Notes: 1 Regulation No. 19/2003. "Credit Assurance for the Small and Medium Enterprises," in the Gazette of the MSAR Government, Vol. 28, Series 1, No. 14, July 2003, pp. 759-
123760. 2 Macau Daily News, 8th January 2002, p. B2. 3 Statistics and Census Service of the MSAR Government, Education Survey 2001/2002. p. 3. 4 Tertiary Education Office of the MSAR Government, Information on Higher Education, p. 4. 5 Ho, H. W. Edmund, Policy Address for the Fiscal Year 2002, the Government of the MSAR, p. 18. 6 Ibid., p. 19 7 leong, W. C., Macau 2020—The Long Term Objectives and Development Strategies in 20 Years, Macau Development Strategy Research Centre and the Macau Association of Economic Sciences, 2000, p. 5. 8 Ibid., pp. 5-6. 9 Ho, H. W. -Edmund, Policy Address for the Fiscal Year 2002, the Government of the MSAR, p. 18. 10 Ibid., p. 19. 1 leong, W. C., Macau 2020—The Long Term Objectives and Development Strategies in 20 Years, Macau Development Strategy Research Centre and the Macau Association of Economic Sciences, 2000, pp. 7-8. 12 Statistics and Census Service of the MSAR Government, Employment Survey 2002 (4th Quarter), p. 11. 13 Ci Ha (Word Ocean), the Shanghai Dictionary Press, 1999, p. 519. 14 Ho, H. W. Edmund, Policy Address for the Fiscal Year 2002, the Government of the MSAR, pp. 34 -35. 15 Macau Trade and Investment Promotion Institute, Macau Image, No. 38, June 2003, pp. 74-75.
136觀念亦十分淡薄,即使澳門與珠海為鄰,提出了兩地優勢互補、平等互利、共同發展的合作原則,實際上亦由於地方利益關係缺乏合作意願,兩地處於非常競爭狀態。 直到 90 年代,廣東省規劃構建珠江三角洲經濟區,亦沒有加進港澳兩地,主要原因是舊觀念使然,認為既然國家對港澳實行“一國兩制”的方針政策,井水不犯河水,避諱將港澳經濟融入珠三角,更遑論衝破制度的封鎖建立合作機制邁入一體化道路了。 時至今日,儘管區域經濟合作大潮滾滾而來,形勢比人強,人們對區域經濟合作的意念亦有所覺醒,深圳等幾個中心城市從民間到政府不少有識之士,提出打破地方主義“諸侯經濟”,整合區域經濟提升競爭力和推動經濟的發展。因此出現了前面提到過去一向獨來獨往的深圳代表,去年初在廣東“兩會”上提交一份加強珠三角區域合作的提案。雖然如此,做起來仍然是困難重重,阻滯多多,山頭主義、地方主義、保護主義揮之難去。 眾所周知,即使籌劃多年的一橋連三地的港珠澳大橋,好不容易才達成共識,以“單 Y 方案”為優先考慮,大家都以為塵埃落定,只待中央審批。但是經過逾半年的期待,今天又橫生枝節,深圳提出應以“雙 Y 方案”為首選,因為大橋連接上深圳,接通珠三角東岸,多一個出口,多通一片地方,擴大大橋的效能,當然比“單 Y”好。深圳的情意相信不問自明。可是依此道理,番禺也可提出將大橋伸延到南沙。如此伸下去,不知大橋何日可以動土施工?想當年,澳門學者上書中央,建議將只連接珠港兩地的伶仃洋大橋方案修改為一橋連三地的港澳珠大橋,即今天的“單 Y”走向。理據有二,一是加強港澳兩個特區的聯繫和相互支持,有利於“和平統一、一國兩制”的實踐。這條大橋首先是“一國兩制”的政治大橋,在政治上有極大意義;二是加強港澳同滯後發展的珠三角西部地區的聯繫和合作,有利於港澳參與珠西地區開發,促其發展,同時進一步伸延參與開發中國大西南。因此,今天港澳兩地都支持“單 Y 方案”,希望盡早提速興建。當然,大家並不反對大橋伸延到深圳,但考慮到當前無此急迫的需要,因為深圳通香港已有新的深港西部通道,深圳通珠西地區也有虎門大橋,因此建議在“單 Y”橋中預留通向深圳的接駁位置,待深圳有其迫切需要時,將大橋引伸到彼岸。當務之急是優先實施“單 Y 方案”,越快越好。港澳珠大橋今天如此反覆,可見大珠三角的經濟整合的艱辛,如果不
159 十、市場飽和效應 對於一些在經濟上非常依賴博彩業的地方來説,市場飽和將會造成較大的衝擊。市場飽和可導致便利博彩(Convenience Gambling)及賭場結業(如賭城拉斯維加斯及大西洋城均出現賭場結業情況)。基本上,賭徒人口會隨着博彩機會的多寡及賭場的易及性而波動,便利博彩的出現使得賭徒(更重要的是病態賭徒)人口增加,而本地非博彩人口因而變成博彩人口的機會大大增加,容易產生上述之消費替代及行業吞噬效應。雖然不排除這事情發生的機會(而且還需要時常警惕),但由於社會團體阻撓、地方公眾態度、市場自我預測能力等都會令市場飽和出現之機會率減至最低。另一方面,雖然市場飽和令賭場結業的機會增加,但經濟學上,賭場開業及結業是市場機制不可分割的部分,事實上它們是市場機制健康的標誌,而賭場結業只代表財富分配(Equity Distribution)的問題多於市場總體效率(Aggregate Efficiency)的問題。61 註釋: 1 Goodman, Robert, "Legalized Gambling: Public Policy and Economic Development Issues", Economic Development Review, Fall, 1995, pp. 55—57. 2 Rose, I. Nelson, "Gambling and the Law: Endless Fields of Dreams", Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 11, Issue 1, Spring, 1995, pp. 15—33. 3 Rose, Adam, The Regional Economic Impacts of Casino Gambling: Assessment of the Literature and Establishment of a Research Agenda, A Report to the National Gambling Impact Study Commission, Washington, USA, 1998; Wynne, Harold J. & Howard J, Shaffer. "The Socioeconomic Impact of Gambling: The Whistler Symposium", Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer, 2003, pp. 111—121. 4 Single, Eric, "Estimating the Costs of Substance Abuse: Implications to the Estimation of the Costs and Benefits of Gambling", Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2,
160Summer, 2003, pp. 215—233; Walker, Douglas Michael, "Methodological Issues in the Social Cost of Gambling Studies", Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer, 2003, pp. 149—184. 5 Eadington, William R, "Economic Development and the Introduction of Casinos: Myths and Realities", Economic Development Review, Fall, 1995, pp. 51—54; Eadington, William R, "Measuring Costs from Permitted Gaming: Concepts and Categories in Evaluating Gambling's Consequences", Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer, 2003, pp. 185—213; Single, Eric, "Estimating the Costs of Substance Abuse: Implications to the Estimation of the Costs and Benefits of Gambling", Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer, 2003, pp. 215— 233. 6 Friedman, Milton and L. J. Savage, "The Utility Analysis of Choices Involving Risks", Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 56, No. 4, 1948, pp. 279—302. 7 值得注意的是作者原來是用個人收入效用(Utility of Income)作爲分析對象,但 Markowitz(1952)認爲財富用(Utility of Wealth)更爲合適,原因是收入會受到利率因素而有所折算,本人採納了 Markowitz 的意見。 8 Friedman, Milton & L. J. Savage, "The Utility Analysis of Choices Involving Risks",Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 56, No. 4, 1948, p. 295. 9 Brunk, Gregory G, "A Test of the Friedman-Savage Gambling Model", Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 96, No. 2, 1981, pp. 341—348; Pryor, Frederic L, "The Friedman-Savage Utility Function in Cross-Cultural Perspective", Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 84, No. 4, Part 1, 1976, pp. 821—834. 10 Markowitz, Harry, "The Utility of Wealth", Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 60, No. 2, 1952, pp. 151—158. 11 von Neumann, John and Oskar Morgenstem, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, 2nd Edition, USA: Princeton University Press, 1947. 12 Ibid., pp. 28 & 632. 13 Harsanyi, John C, "Normative Validity and Meaning of von Neumann-Morgenstern Utilities" in Binmore, Ken, Alan, Kirman & Piero, Tani (eds), Frontiers of Game Theory, London: The MIT Press, 1993, pp. 307—320. 14 Le Menestrel, Marc, "A Process Approach to the Utility for Gambling", Theory and Decision, Vol. 50, 2001 pp. 249—262; Gu, Zheng, "Utility Analysis of Gaming
161Motivation", in International Gaming Institute (University of Nevada, Las Vegas), The Gaming Industry: Introduction and Perspectives, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996, pp. 235—248; Pope, Robin, "Towards a More Precise Decision Framework: A Separation of the Negative Utility of Chance from Diminishing Marginal Utility and the Preference for Safety", Theory and Decision, Vol. 35, 1995, pp. 241—265; Sen, Amartya, "Maximization and the Act of Choice", Econométrica, Vol. 65, No. 4,1997, pp. 745—779. 15 Lê Menestrel, Marc, "A Process Approach To The Utility For Gambling", Theory and Decision, Vol. 50, 2001, pp. 249—262. 16 Grinols, Earl L, "Gambling as Economic Policy: Enumerating Why Losses Exceed Gains", Illinois Business Review, Spring, 1995, pp. 6—12; Grinols, Earl L. & J. D. Omorov, "Who Loses When Casinos Win?", Illinois Business Review, Spring, 1996, pp. 7—11; Gross, Meir, "Legal Gambling as a Strategy for Economic Development", Economic Development Quarterly, Vol.12, No. 3, 1998, pp. 203—212. 17 Brunk, Gregory G, "A Test of the Friedman-Savage Gambling Model", Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 96, No. 2, 1981, pp. 341—348; Rosecrance, John D, Gambling Without Guilt: The Legitimation of an American Pastime, Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., 1988; Walker, Douglas Michael, Sin and Growth: The Effects of Legalized Gambling on State Economic Development, Auburn, AL: Auburn University Ph.D. Dissertation, University Microfilms International (UMI No. 9823173), 1998. 18 Choi, Hak, "Gambling in Hong Kong", Journal of Travel Research, Fall, 1997, pp. 23—28. 19 Eadington, William R, "The Economics of Casino Gambling", Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 13, No. 3, Summer, 1999, pp. 173—192; Eadington, William R. "Measuring Costs from Permitted Gaming: Concepts and Categories in Evaluating Gambling's Consequences", Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer, 2003, pp. 185—213. 20 Eadington, William R, "The Economics of Casino Gambling", Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 13, No. 3, Summer, 1999, pp. 173—192. 21 Australia Productivity Commission (APC), Australia's Gambling Industries, Report No. 10, Ausinfo, Canberra, 1999; Eadington, William R, "Measuring Costs from Permitted Gaming: Concepts and Categories in Evaluating Gambling's Consequences",Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer, 2003, pp.
162185—213; Walker,Douglas Michael & Barnett, A. H., "The Social Costs of Gambling: An EconomicPerspective", Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 15, No. 3, 1999, pp. 181—212. 22 Mishan, Edward J, Cost-Benefit Analysis: An Introduction, New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971. 23 由於問題比較複雜且不是本論本主要研究對象,所以簡略。Austrlaia Productivity Commission (APC), Australia's Gambling Industries, Report No. 10, Ausinfo, Canberra, 1999. 24 Eadington, William R, "The Economics of Casino Gambling", Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 13, No. 3, Summer, 1999, pp. 173—192. 25 Eadington, William R, "Measuring Costs from Permitted Gaming: Concepts and Categories in Evaluating Gambling's Consequences", Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer, 2003, pp. 185—213; Gazel, Ricardo, "The Economic Impacts of Casino Gambling at the State and Local Levels", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 556, 1998, pp. 66—84. 26 Regional Economics Applications Laboratory (REAL), Economic Impact of the CasinoGaming Industry on the State of Illinois and Local Communities, University of Illinois,2003. 27 Rose, Adam, The Regional Economic Impacts of Casino Gambling: Assessment of The Literature and Establishment of a Research Agenda, A Report to the National Gambling Impact Study Commission, Washington, USA, 1998. 28 Leven, Charles & Don Phares, The Economic Impact of Gaming in Missouri, Report to Civic Progress, St. Louis, MO, 1998. 29 Thompson, William, Ricardo Gazel & Dan Rickman, The Economic Impact of Native American Gaming in Wisconsin, Milwaukee: The Wisconsin Policy Research Institute,Inc., 1995. 30 Hewings, Geoffrey, Graham Schindler & Nafziger B, The Impact ofRiverboat Casino Gambling on the Illinois Economy, 1991—7995, Report to the Illinois Gaming Board, Chicago: Regional Economics Applications Laboratory, 1996. 31 Ryan, Timothy P. & Janet F. Speyrer, Gambling in Louisiana: A Benefit/Cost Analysis, A Report to The Louisiana Gaming Control Board, 1999. 32 Eadington, William R, "Contributions of Casino-Style Gambling to Local Economies",Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.
163556, 1998,pp. 53—65. 33 Leven, Charles & Don Phares, The Economic Impact of Gaming in Missouri, Reportto Civic Progress, St. Louis, MO, 1998; Roehl, W. S., "Competition, Casino Spending,and Use of Casino Amenities", Journal of Travel Research, Winter, 1996, pp. 57—62. 34 Leven, Charles and Don Phares, The Economic Impact of Gaming in Missouri, Reportto Civic Progress, St. Louis, MO., 1998. 35 Gazel, Ricardo, Dan Rickman & William Thompson, Casino Gambling as an Economic Development Tool: Export Activity-Import Substitution or Business Cannibalization and Perverse Income Redistribution? The Evidence from Wisconsin, Paper presented at the 35th Annual Meeting of the Western Regional Science Association, 1996. 36 Andersen, Arthur LLP & The Jacob France Center, Economic Impact on the State of Maryland: Impact of Casino Gaming on Incremental Tax Revenues, Net Creation, Tourism and the Existing Economy in Maryland, Robert G. Merrick School of Business, University of Baltimore, 1995. 37 Goodman, Robert & Eward Feser, Understanding the Economic Impact of Casinos in Missouri — A Review of the Leven-Phares Study, A Report to the United States Gambling Research Institute, 1998. 38 Goodman, Robert, Legalized Gambling as a Strategy for Economic Development, Amherst: Center for Economic Development, United States Gambling Study, 1994. 39 Gazel, Ricardo & William N. Thompson, Casino Gamblers in Illinois: Who Are they?, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 1996. 40 Ryan, Timothy P. & Janet F. Speyrer, Gambling in Louisiana: A Benefit/Cost Analysis, A Report to The Louisiana Gaming Control Board, 1999. 41 von Herrman, Denise, Robert Ingram & William C. Smith, Gaming in The Mississippi Economy: A Marketing, Tourism, and Economic Perspective, The University of Southern Mississppi, 2000. 42 Leven, Charles & Don Phares, The Economic Impact of Gaming in Missouri, Report to Civic Progress, St. Louis, MO, 1998. 43 Thompson, William, Ricardo Gazel & Dan Rickman, The Economic Impact of Native American Gaming in Wisconsin, Milwaukee: The Wisconsin Policy Research Institute, Inc., 1995.
16444 Andersen, Arthur LLP & The Jacob France Center, Economic Impact on the State of Maryland: Impact of Casino Gaming on Incremental Tax Revenues, Net Creation, Tourism and the Existing Economy in Maryland, Robert G. Merrick School of Business,University of Baltimore, 1995. 45 Australia Productivity Commission (APC), Australia's Gambling Industries, Report No. 10, Ausinfo, Canberra, 1999. 46 Rose, Adam, The Regional Economic Impacts of Casino Gambling: Assessment of The Literature and Establishment o f a Research Agenda, A Report to the National Gambling Impact Study Commission, Washington, USA, 1998. 47 Goodman, Robert, Legalized Gambling as a Strategy for Economic Development, Amherst: Center for Economic Development, United States Gambling Study, 1994; Goodman, Robert, Grand Illusions, The Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 19, Issue 4, 1995, pp. 24—33. 48如美國政府爲了保護當地土著(約有 562 個部落-Tribes),在全國劃出超過 500 個印第安保護區(Indian Reservation),區內設有印第安人管治的小政府。由於印第安政府一向被認為管理不善,很難吸引大企業在區內投資,因此區內經濟一向低迷,甚至有印第安保護區內只有一個印第安人。於1988年,美國國會通過了印第安博彩管理法-Indian Gaming RegulatoryAct(IGRA)。IGRA 容許印第安保護區內可自行決定是否容許博彩業合法化並為管理區內之博彩業建立了一個法律架構,因此不少印第安保護區便藉此開發當地之經濟。直至 2002 年底,在全美 28 個州的207 個部落內共建有 330 個博彩場,整個博彩業收益達 145 億美元,創造約 40 萬個就業職位,其中約聘用了 10 萬個印第安人;National Inadian Gaming Commission (NIGC),Annual Report 2003. 51 Grinols, Earl L, Research on the National Impact of Casino Gambling, CongressionalTestimony, Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fourth Congress, Hearing on "National Gambling Impact and Policy Commission Act" HR 497, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995, Serial 104; Grinols, Earl L. & J. D. Omorov, "Development of Dreamfield Delusions? Assessing Casino Gambling's Costs and Benefits", Journal of Law and Commerce Vol. 49, No 16, 1996, pp. 49—87. 52 Eadington, William R, "Economic Development and the Introduction of Casinos: Myths and Realities", Economic Development Review, Fall, 1995, pp. 51—54;
165Eadington, William R, "The Legalization of Casinos: Policy Objectives, Regulatory Alternatives, and Cost-Benefit Consideration", Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 34, No. 3, Winter, 1996, pp. 3—8. 53 Rose, I. Nelson, Gambling and the Law: Endless Fields of Dreams, Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 11, Issue 1, Spring, 1995, pp. 15—33. 54 Allmendinger, Scott, "Can't Compete With Free", Restaurant Business, Issue 8, November 20, 1992. 55 Grinols, Earl L. & J. D. Omorov, "Development of Dreamfield Delusions? Assessing Casino Gambling's Costs and Benefits", Journal of Law and Commerce, Vol. 49, No. 16, 1996, pp. 49—87. 56 Grinols, Earl L. & David B. Mustard, "Business Profitability Versus Social Profitability: Evaluating Industries with Externalities, the Case of Casinos", Managerial and Decision Economics, Vol. 22, 2001, pp. 143—162. 57 Leven, Charles & Don Phares, The Economic Impact of Gaming in Missouri, Report to Civic Progress, St. Louis, MO, 1998; Rose, Adam, The Regional Economic Impacts of Casino Gambling: Assessment of the Literature and Establishment of a Research Agenda, A Report to the National Gambling Impact Study Commission, Washington, USA, 1998. 58 Walker, Douglas Michael, Sin and Growth: The Effects of Legalized Gambling on State Economic Development, Auburn, AL: Auburn University Ph.D. Dissertation, University Microfilms International (UMI No. 9823173), 1998. 59 Ibid., p. 127. 60 Hoover, Edgar M. & Frank Giarratani, An Introduction to Regional Economics, 3rd Edition, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984. 61 Rose, Adam, The Regional Economic Impacts of Casino Gambling: Assessment of the Literature and Establishment of a Research Agenda, A Report to the National Gambling Impact Study Commission, Washington, USA, 1998.
191 參考書目: 1.熊彼特:《經濟發展理論》,北京:商務出版社,1990 年。 2.熊彼特:《資本主義、社會主義和明知民主》,北京:商務出版社,1979 年。 3.楊潔:《企業創新新論》,北京:經濟管理出版社,1999 年。 4.陸道生、王慧敏:《中小企業的創新與發展》,上海:上海人民出版社,2002 年。 5.王健等:《企業創新的理論與實務》,北京:新華出版社,2000 年。 6.[德]舒馬赫:《小的是美好的》,商務印書館,1984 年。 7.[美]勒斯:《小型企業管理》,中國商業出版社,1986 年。 8.Cyrik Levicki, Small Business: Theory and Policy, London: Croom Helm LTD,1984. 9.Z. J. Acs, B. Carlsson & R. Thric, Small Business in the Mordem Economy, edited by P. H. Admiraal, Blackwell Publishers, 1996. 10.Anderson T., Profit in Small Firms, Avebury, UK: Aldershot, 1987. 11.Hollander, E. D. et. al., The Future of Small Business, 1967. 12.Mario Rutten, Small Business and Europe, 1997.
192Social Market Economy and Its Implications for Macau Sheng Li* 1. Introduction After the handover, the Macau economy has been developing remarkably, with double digit growth in GDP last year. Free market economy, which characterizes the Macau economic system, is important for creativity to flourish, which in turn is vital for future economic growth. However, it is still needed to pay attention to the Macau's social framework, because if this part is not taken care of, the free and unchecked market economy may severely undermine the development process. According to the concept of Social Market Economy which led to economic miracle in the post-war Germany, several lessons can be drawn for sustainable development of the Macau economy. 2. Concept of Social Market Economy The concept of social market economy was developed in the immediate post-war period. The term itself was coined by Prof. Alfred Miiller-Armack (University of Müinster), however, in the general public, social market economy is more associated with Ludwig Erhard, who implemented major reforms and who, as Economics Minister, guided Germany's hugely successful economic reconstruction. According to Miiller-Armack, social market economy tries to achieve a new synthesis between a free and unchecked market economy and a socialist-type centrally planned economy. The term "social" here encompasses several shades of meaning. Firstly, market imperfections such as oligopolies, monopolies,inverse elasticity of supply in the labor market, etc. need to be * Ph.D.candidate,Institute of Finance and monetary Ecomomy,University of Freiburg Germany
193corrected by a workable competitive order. Secondly, society may wish to change the distribution of income as an outcome of market processes from the point of view of social justice. Thirdly, the market economy has to be stabilized by introducing mechanisms of social balance and security. Finally, there is a need for an encompassing "societal policy", because the market economy is understood to put severe strains on the substance of historical legations; therefore, societal integration has to be assisted by promoting joint attitudes and ways of thinking and by developing a "humane economy", which views man not only as a producer or consumer, but beyond supply and demand, in his personal importance and relevance as a human being. ' Müller-Armack emphatically argued to learn the adequate lessons from two phases in German economic history: The first phase was the introduction of liberal economic principles during the 19th century which led to an unprecedented growth and catching-up the UK, the leading power of its time. Still, the free market became unsustainable when hardships for the population at large became ever more pronounced. In order to preempt on the political forces demanding a radical revolution of the whole system, already Bismarck found it necessary to introduce a basic social security system in order to appease the workers. The second phase to be noted were the crisis-ridden 1920s with frantic interventions in the market economy called the "era of economic policy experiments". This showed that the state lacked the expertise to intervene at will in a complex economy. Learning these lessons implied, as Müller-Armack stressed, to rely on the market as a basis organizing principle for the economy, but not to forget the social dimension of political economy.2 Today, it is well accepted that there are limits to the achievements of free markets, for instance, if market imperfections are involved. The real issue nowadays is which kind of "socially motivated" activities are permissible and to what extent they should be implemented. social market economy offers as the guiding criterion that measures should be "compatible"with the market in principle such as "subsidiarity".3 Muller-Armack himself acknowledges that this criterion may be indeterminate sometimes. He argued that as for practical matters the qualitative criterion was still operational enough to help improve the policy process.4 At a more fundamental level, one should not misinterpret Social Market Economy, however, as a "mechanistic" socio-technology. Rather, Müller-Armack understood social market economy dynamically as a guiding principle for reform, with reform measures recurrently necessary in response to endogenous or exogenous changes. This he characterized as a progressive idea for a socioeconomic "style" in need of continuous interpretative elaboration. Applying the spirit of social market economy does not make a discursive political decision-making process superfluous—rather the opposite. What it does achieve, is to give it focus and direction.5 With respect to the question of how strictly the criterion of market compat-
194ibility should be applied, there are somewhat diverse opinions. Müller-Armack himself, who became a "political bureaucrat" in the 1950s, took a rather permissive stance. For him, it was only critical that the basic structuring concept remained the market economy. Within these limits, other principles could be "tolerated" in some policy arenas for political stability or to develop a convincing societal policy.6 Müiller-Armack never discussed East Asia, but he did discuss the applic-ability of social market economy in emerging economies, for instance, with re-spect to Latin America. Whereas he was very cautious to recommend a specific concept like social market economy, he did stress the importance of a "clear-cut policy of economic order, rule of law and nurturing a spiritual infrastructure". Still, he would accept engaging in some infant industry protection, something quite unacceptable to "market purists" in the 1960s and beyond.7 The relationship between social market economy and cultural values or tradi-tions is worth taking note of. There are two sides to this coin. Müller-Armack seem to be more interested in the idea of a market economy helping to achieve humanistic ideals, i.e. freedom, openness of choices and the capability of man to follow his individual goals, whatever they may be in given circumstances. The market economy achieves this through the indirectness of the order it sets, i.e. by not making specific prescriptions about how to act, but by setting only boundaries. From this point of view, a social market economy may be understood as compatible with many different cultures, as it does not decree specific objectives to be adhered to. As the scholars proposing the concept were raised in a Christian environment, it is natural that they thought of the Christian religion in this context. However, ideas of humanism and overcoming restrictive self-interest are by no means limited to Christianity, but are typical of all leading world religions like Buddhism, Islam, etc.8 The "other side of the coin" is related to which kind of cultural prerequisites are needed for a market economy. Alexander Rüstow stress that "pure markets" may destabilize society, because they foster ways of behavior, which are morally and socially dangerous, such as cheating, aggressive ambition, ostentation, envy. To counteract this, a "social sub-system" has to be promoted, which not only es-tablishes a political frame like ideological and political pluralism, federalism and checks-and-balances in economic policy-making, all of which are helpful for a market economy, but which also supports a "spiritual-moral climate" counteracting simplistic materialism. As the market is unable to deliver this climate, this task has to be entrusted to legitimized social institutions, like family, school or church.9 3. Implications for Macau
195The problem dealt with in social market economy is actually a universal issue: to strike a compromise between economic efficiency and progress on the one, and social stability on the other. Thus, conceptual issues raised and experiences made elsewhere are clearly meaningful for Macau. Someone could raise the argument that due to Macau's different socio-cultural background social market economy may not relate to Macau's situation, because social market economy is concerned with bringing about a "humane liberalism" and makes use of the existing "spiritual-moral climate". However, when talking about a "humane liberalism" in the context of social market economy, one has in mind the opening of choices as a necessary precondition for man to lead a meaningful life. This is relevant for all cultures, social market economy's concern is not to promote "individualism" in the sense of selfish egocentrism. The successful implementation of social market economy in Germany and the successful reconstruction of the economy following it are related to peculiar conditions in historical time and space. It would therefore not be meaningful to argue in favor of any simplistic "duplication" or "introduction" of social market economy in Macau. What can only be hoped for are some rather general points which should be taken into due consideration when Macau searches for its own balance between economic performance and social stability. Macau has already reached a level which the ideological fathers of social market economy had in mind with respect to the "first stage": a market economy is developed, although quite a few impurities remain, and a basic social security system has been installed. What is left to do is the "second stage": elaborating on societal issues, and, doing so, keeping the basic principle of a market economy with a competitive order intact and, if possible, even improving upon past shortcomings. As for social policy, some improvements are certainly desirable, particularly as concerns poverty alleviation, where fiscally almost neutral insurance schemes will not help very much. However, the fiscal strain can be curtailed in many ways.One can think of incentive schemes to motivate people to help each other. One idea might be to introduce a "time bank" system: Hours worked in voluntary social service activities are registered as "savings", which later on would constitute a right for the same number of hours. Another interesting mechanism has already been somewhat implemented: students are expected to do some social work, which is to be registered in their comprehensive school
196record. One may also be inclined to rely more on welfare activities pursued by business groups have already set up private foundations, although their combined donations are considered to be very limited.10 With respect to distribution, several measures have already been taken to rec-tify the past accumulation of illicit wealth such as changes in Macau taxation system, although these measures can hardly be said to be a "perfect solution". As history teaches, people will normally accept some degree of past injustice as long as they may expect to have a fair chance in the future to improve their lot. What seems to be particularly infuriating for many people nowadays is, it is still not easy to purchase a decent living or to rent it under reasonable conditions. There are many options open to rectify this situation, including improved housing estate development, loan system for financing a purchase, etc. On labor issues, although the fears of the employers are understandable, it is hard to believe that they can really oppose the tide of a pluralizing society by not acknowledging independent labor representation. However, the ensuing problems may not be as big as they seem. The historical precedent of countries, like Germany, shows that organized labor loses its attractiveness when the economy advances beyond a certain limit. Once the labor movement is allowed more freedom and is accepted as a legitimate dialogue partner, the population and the workers in particular will soon find out the limits of the union movement: its difficulties to adequately treat the peculiarities of individual enterprises, the selfishness also of union leaders and of the movement as a going concern, the neglect of those not organized well etc. It is better to liberalize labor organization now and bargain it for a reform of individual labor regulation than to have this liberalization forced upon society at some later stage with nothing in return. 4. Conclusion Despite of various challenges, sensible courses of action can well be found. What is important is to make these changes acceptable to society and thereby gain enough momentum to overcome adverse vested interests. Because in different policy arenas, the benefits and costs of reform are unevenly distributed, it is important to promote overarching reform "package deals" which in their sum are considered fair and reasonable. This was exactly Müller-Armack's idea
197with respect to "second-stage" of social market economy. Although much can be said in favor of a gradual approach, an encompassing reform move has greater chances of overcoming entrenched interests. Macau, reaching advanced status as a latecomer, has a good chance of learn-ing from social market economy experience and use the dynamism of its high-growth economy to transform itself into a thriving and open-minded market economy supported by a stable society with sustainable mechanisms of safeguarding equity, fairness and justice. Notes: 1 Müller-Armack, Alfred, "Stil und Ordnung der Sozialen Marktwirtschaft", in J. Messner (eds.), Wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und Soziale Ordung, Wien, 1956, p. 234f. 2 Hardach, Karl, Wirtschaftsgeschichte Deutschlands im 20. Jahrhundert, Gõttigen, 1979, p. 167. 3 The subsidiarity principle is intended to ensure that decisions are taken as closely as possible to the citizen and that constant checks are made as to whether action at community level is justified in the light of the possibilities available at national, regional or local level. Specifically, it is the principle whereby the state does not take action unless it is more effective than action taken at regional or local level; Zohlnhoefer, Werner,"Sozialpolitik- Achillesferse der Sozialen Marktwirtschaft?" in Bundeszentrale fuer politische Bildung (ed), Wirtschaftspolitik, Bonn, 1990, p. 30f. 4 Müller-Armack, Alfred, "Stil und Ordnung der Sozialen Marktwirtschaft", in J. Messner (eds.), Wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und Soziale Ordung, Wien, 1956, p. 246. 5 Lampert, Heinz, "Die Soziale Marktwirtschaft in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.Ursprung, Konzeption, Entwicklung und Probleme", in Bundeszentrale fuer politische Bildung (ed.), Wirtschaftspolitik, Bonn, 1990, p. 36. 6 Müller-Armack, Alfred, "Die Soziale Marktwirtschaft nach einem Jahrzehnt ihrer Erprobung", in Heft 2/3, Wiirtschaftspolitische Chronik, Kõln, 1959, p.258.
198 References: 1. Hardach, Karl, Wirtschaftsgeschichte Deutschlands im 20. Jahrhundert, Gõttigen,1979. 2. Klump, Rainer, "Wirtschaftsordnung und Wirtschaftspolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland(1949-1990)" in Schneider, Jürgen, Wirtschaftsordnung und Wirtschaftspolitik in Deutschland (1933-1993), Stuttgart, 1996, pp. 397— 414. 3. Lampert, Heinz, "Die Soziale Marktwirtschaft in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.Ursprung, Konzeption, Entwicklung und Probleme", in Bundeszentrale fuer politische Bildung (ed.), Wirtschaftspolitik, Bonn, 1990, pp. 31—49. 4. Muller-Armack, Alfred, "Stil und Ordnung der Spzialen Marktwirtschaft", in J. Messner (eds.), Wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und Soziale Ordung, Wien, 1956, pp. 231— 242. 5. Muller-Armack, Alfred, "Die Soziale Marktwirtschaft nach einem Jahrzehnt ihrer Erprobung", in Heft 2/3, Wirtschaftspolitische Chronik, Kõln, 1959, pp. 252— 265. 6. Müller-Armack, Alfred, "Finanz-und handelspolitische Fragen der Beziehungen Europas zu Lateinamerika", in, Heft 1, Wirtschaftspolitische Chronik, Kõln, 1963. 7. Zohlnhoefer, Werner, "Sozialpolitik- Achillesferse der Sozialen Marktwirtschaft?" in Bundeszentrale fuer politische Bildung (ed), Wirtschaftspolitik, Bonn, 1990, pp. 305—329. 7 Miiller-Armack, Alfred, "Finanz-und handelspolitische Fragen der Beziehungen Europas zu Lateinamerika", in, Heft l, Wirtschaftspolitische Chronik, Kõln, 1963, p.258. 8 Lampert, Heinz, "Die Soziale Marktwirtschaft in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.Ursprung, Konzeption, Entwicklung und Probleme", in Bundeszentrale fuer politischeBildung (ed.), Wirtschaftspolitik, Bonn, 1990, p. 34f. 9 Ibid., p. 35. 10 Of course, one should not expect such philanthropy to be a perfect substitute for publicspending. The enterprises will primarily engage in such activities for PR reasons inorder to improve their image, and this will influence the distribution of the funds in away which is not necessarily fully compatible with perceived social needs.
209"Z+Z Intelligent Education Platform" —A Breakthrough in Educational and Technological Development* long Hoi Sun & Chao Pek Kei** 1. Introduction Information technology (IT) is in full bloom all over the world and it has been dominating our everyday lives since the early 90's. IT brings us the advancement of knowledge in the 21st century and it also enriches the scope of our minds. In addition, the Internet's popularity boosts the growth of activities and services related to electronic technology such as e-commerce and e-government services. There is an influence on education resulted from the rapid growth in the development of adopting IT in multimedia teaching. As scientific research is introduced to the integral reform of education, IT is guiding the change in educational thinking, teaching theory, teaching mode, and teaching technique. Despite the fact that many software for teaching and developing curriculum can be obtained in China and other countries, most of them are meant for teaching Mathematics at university level.1 Moreover, only a limited number of them are suitable for secondary schools amongst the various supplies.2 It is known that secondary school teachers in China are now using two platforms; the "Sketchpad for Geometry" and "Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform" (abbr. "Z+Z").3 The former was American-developed and distributed by "The People's Education Press" and the latter was co-developed and distributed by Prof. J. Z. Zhang (The Academician) and Macau Eastern Technology Group Co., Ltd. * This is the English translation of the same article published in Chinese ** long Hoi Sun is the candidate for Master of Public Administration, University of Macau, and Chao Pek Kei is the candidate for Master of Software Engineering, University of Macau
210"Z+Z" is brand new multimedia software to make the tedious geometry be-come an interesting subject. It is considered the only educational software pro-gram available in the world that can perform deduction through artificial intelli-gence and apply it to proving and problem solving. The software can demonstrate the conventional teaching materials in a new manner by utilizing colors and audio-visual aids. Hence, students can easily learn the geometric reasoning when the "Z+Z" program visualizes the abstract concepts.4 In consideration of the society in showing a tendency to focus on scientific technology, IT and globalization, there is no doubt that only highly qualified pro-fessionals can take the absolute advantage to win in international competitions. The development of "Z+Z" is a neoteric task to the reform of Chinese core curriculum. Obviously, the software refines upon Chinese culture and it is valu-able to the future development of education. "Z+Z" is recognized as a crucial achievement and it was recommended to elementary education within most Chi-nese provinces. Furthermore, the software was well received in many overseas countries. Ever since Japan, Russia and the Middle East had very much been at-tracted to "Z+Z", they were proposing to adopt the software in their own countries. Macau Special Administrative Region (MSAR) realizes "Z+Z" as the new insight in the development of the scientific technology industry. This important product enables Macau's enterprises to gain access to the Chinese market and to create an opportunity to explore the overseas markets. This paper is thus written and it concentrates on the mission, the description, the extent, and the characteris-tics of "Z+Z", accompanying a preliminary discussion and an attempted analysis for its significance on education, the development of scientific technology, and the revelation of educational development in MSAR. 2. What is "Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform"? 2.1 Background and Mission Generally speaking, Mathematics is encountered as a branch of philosophy or it is the science of relationships between numbers and between spatial configurations in existence.5 Anyhow, Mathematics is now widely applied to other branches of science. All too often the con-
211servative comprehension is restricted to the logical or systematical analysis of Mathematics, but the true interpretation of the learning process of Mathematics does not come into view. As a matter of fact, teachers and students always neglect the true practice of Mathematics; they commonly perceive Mathematics is merely to produce proofs supporting theorems and calculations. Probing in depth is necessary for an explicit understanding of how Mathematics can affect the psychological development of students. While students are resolving the mathematical problems, they learn about the cooperation and sharing between them. In a manner of speaking, the insight would help them realize the application of Mathematics in real life. The latest development in informative education causes some intensive consequences to the purpose, the value and the content of Mathematics education. Besides, the design of curriculum and the progression in Mathematics are well aware of the prominent role of information technology.6 The renowned mathematician, Prof. J. Z. Zhang (the Academician), deter-mined to develop an educational software to ignite students' creativity and thinking aptitude regarding the reform of teaching materials for geometry. The success of "Z+Z" becomes the remarkable invention in the new era; it promotes the prosperity in the market of Chinese branded educational software. "Z+Z" encourages the reform in Mathematics curriculum, which accommodates to quality education for primary and secondary schools.7 Macau Eastern Technology Group Co., Ltd collaborated with Prof. Zhang and his team of scientists to develop multimedia educational software, the software is named "Z+Z" on account of the initial letter of two Chinese Pinyin words: Zhishi (knowledge) and Zhineng (intelligence).8 "Z+Z" is compatible with the current software use as Chinese teaching material and it supports the development of teaching in Mathematics. 2.2 Characteristics of "Z+Z" Software "Z+Z" provides a new educational platform to science subjects for secondary schools offering ten different varieties. Amongst these subjects are Plane Geometry, Analytic Geometry, Solid Geometry, Trigonometric Function, Elementary Algebra, Advanced Algebra, Elementary Physics, Advanced Physics, Elementary Chemistry, and Advanced Chemistry. As mentioned earlier, "Z+Z" can perform deduction reasoning through artificial intelligence to proof and problem solving. "Z+Z" provides readily designed templates and use-designed worksheets; teachers can also use the software to create course materials that integrate with the approved Mathematics teaching matierials in experimental zones.9
212Table 1 Features and Functions of Plane Geometry and Analytic Geometry in "Z+Z" Source: "Comprising Z+Z Intelligent Education Software as Teaching Materials in the Mainland," in Hong Kong: Wen Wei Pao, 4lh November, 2003, p. A15. In referring to major characteristics of "Z+Z" software, they are classified as follows: 1."Z+Z" is a common platform with comprehensive scientific knowledge. The readily available platforms are Plane Geometry, Analytic Geometry, Solid Geometry, Trigonometric Function, and Elementary Algebra. Each platform is suit able for teaching purpose and they are intended for teachers and students from different backgrounds. 2."Z+Z' platform is a device with the functions of data banks and toolbox. The software is available with built-in spreadsheets and mathematical resources. By using the command programming for immediate conversation of the three-di mensional (3D) sketches and capable for various curves. Hence, 3D constructions can be displayed in rotation, dilation, reduction, and separation. In addition, the toolbox can perform functions such as animated presentation, text mode, statisti cal graphs, programming freehand writing and drawing. 3."Z+Z" is an intelligent platform. It is simple to prepare and arrange com plicated course materials with this creative software. A skillful teacher can pre pare the electronic spreadsheets within an hour in advance and a question can also be created simply in fewer than 3 minutes during the lesson. "Z+Z" works well as an intelligent blackboard with overhead projector and computer in the classroom, so the prepared multimedia teaching materials can be displayed systemically along with any probable adjustment. 4."Z+Z" supports OLE and links. Likewise, the software can freely take
213upFlash animation and other multimedia outsourcing. The built-in sketches and trans-ferable to WMF format and they can be pasted onto the MS Word or WPS files.10 "Z+Z" overcomes the problem of software compatibility; its users can design the coursework display according to their personal preference. As a result, "Z+Z" ensures quality education, minimizes the teaching resources, and raises the interest in learning. 2.3 The Experimental Scheme of "Z+Z" Software Successful software is feasible to combine teaching materials, teachers and students would indeed maximize its effectiveness. The prime aim of experimental research in "Z+Z as Reform in National Mathematics Curriculum" is to promote the use of scientific technology in Mathematics teaching for quality education in primary and secondary schools." Following the assessment for "Z+Z for 7th to 9th grade Mathematics" by "The Committee of Experimental Teaching Materials for National Core Curriculum Standard" of Beijing Normal University in June 2003, this New Century Edition had also obtained the approval by "Curriculum Development Centre in Basic Education" of Ministry of Education. The experiment was carried out in 26 emphasized secondary schools in Hainan, Anhui, Hebei, Liaoning, Shangdong, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Guizhou, Hubei province, Guangxi and Chongxi. Simultaneously, the participants were bound to take "Voluntary Curriculum Standard: 7th Grade Mathematics, Volume 1" as their experimental text books.12 The "Z+Z for 7th to 12th Grade" was permitted for issue and promotion in the trial zone subject to the approval by the "Committee of Experts on Core Curriculum Resources" of Beijing Normal University in September 2003.13 There are five main objectives of the experimental research:14 1.To study the design of teaching material with IT application. 2.To set up case study to verify whether the mentioned teaching materials are suitable for teachers and students. 3.To collect effective examples using "Z+Z" software in teaching Mathematics and learning activities. 4.To investigate whether students are educated in Mathematics learning activities with applied technology. 5.To train Mathematics teachers using IT efficiently in their teachings. In the end, the participating teachers are required to submit reports to demon-strate the proficiency of the scheme. It is expected further understanding on the scheme can be derived from the answers to questions such as: Is the scheme benefit to Mathematics education? Can the scheme initiate students' learning interest? How does the scheme affect the structure of curriculum?
214 3. The Significance of "Z+Z" to Education The R&D of "Z+Z" is devoted to education. It is an interactive platform with multifarious development that benefits to both teachers and students. The software enables teachers to prepare their teaching materials conveniently. On the other hand, students can make use of "Z+Z" to approach a new horizon of thinking and creativity. After a trial period of one year, the finding of the influence of "Z+Z" to education and its effectiveness are summarized as below: 3.1 To Shorten the Training Cycle The growth of thinking and creativity, civilization and advancement of soci-ety and human resources development are all said t be ruled by Mathematics. "Mathematics is an important science to the psychological and physiological enlightenment of human. Geometry is the only subject that consolidates the figures and logic, however, not any other subjects can be reasoned with graphs. Geometry can benefit us lifelong since it involves sensibility and rational..."citied by Prof. Zhang.15 There is a belief that the best education determines whether a country can take the leading role in the world. The training of human resources should keep pace with all the developments in IT. The progress of "Z+Z" is contributory to shorten the training cycle. "Z+Z" is the stepping stone for future reform in education and is particularly significant to teaching and learning. 3.2 As a Good Partner to the Reform of Education Students customarily learn from their teachers. In fact, teachers or students would be tedious with the teaching mode, teaching philosophy, curriculum design or learning atmosphere. As IT becomes more common, teachers and students should take their initiatives in participation, interaction, and sharing to accomplish the 3D objectives of the educational reform. The 3D objectives can be achievable during the experiment of applying "Z+Z" in educational reform. These objectives are described as the following generalization: Pursuing knowledge and skill, practicing the affective behavior and learning the sense of value. The teaching method and learning attitude must integrate with teachers, students, teaching materials, and learning atmosphere. Having learned the experience from an experimental site in Mengjin, the commentary indicated that "Z+z" uniquely met students' needs for their intellectual developments.16
2153.3 To Promote Quality Teaching and Learning Teachers can prepare lessons more efficiently with "Z+Z" to create their course materials with the toolbox in the software. In other words, teachers can possibly spare more time on curriculum design. At the same time, the animated presenta-tion of "Z+Z" helps students improve their comprehending ability. For instance, they can acquire a sound understanding of plane transformations via using the multimedia functions. Subsequently, teaching and learning are beneficial by using "Z+Z". 3.4 To Inspire Students' Thinking and Intelligence Teaching by telling is the traditional approach but it is an ineffective instruc-tion mode for most students. Therefore, an educational reform is necessary. It is suggested that the emphasis should be on problem-solving skill and exploration. "Z+Z" is specially designed to engage students in active learning. Teachers are encouraged to instruct their students using the software by themselves. According to the finding of an experimental site in Hubei, students were flexible to the new learning mode. Evidences were presented that students had developed critical thinking and judgment abilities, so they could have opportunities to question, analyze, and explore. Hence, the students' intellectual level was automatically elevated.17 4. The Difficulties for "Z+Z" to Overcome The application of "Z+Z" is a new teaching method and surely is one of the best resources to reforming school's core curriculum. Nevertheless, its develop-ment is in the beginning stage and it is understandable that more practices and enhancements are required to popularize the using of "Z+Z" software to teaching. At this point, we should pay our attention to the following problems found during the application and promotion of the software. As long as the economic growth in China in speedy with constant improvement in the general education, it is implied that conceptual change would lead to better civic understanding. Eventually, such partial and technical problems will be solved gradually in the near future. 1. The application of "Z+Z' is now on trial in 12 zones in China. The compa-rable facility and hardware are needed before "Z+Z" can be introduced to all schools. Students will not benefit from "Z+Z" unless they have opportunities to use the software on their own. However, it has financial difficulty to equip every school with essential facilities. The popularization of "Z+Z" will heavily depend on suf-
216ficient government funding to the schools. 2.Although IT has been consistently applying in electronic education, the computer proficiency of some teachers is relatively inadequate. Due to the varia tion in proficiency, it is impossible that all teachers may improve their teaching efficiency even though they have engaged in the interactive education. At any cost,schools should provide appropriate training to their teachers on the operation ofsoftware. 3."Z+Z" software was intentionally developed for Mathematics to be taught in China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. There are more than 10 assortmentsavailable in simplified Chinese, traditional Chinese, and English. At present, "PlaneGeometry Intelligent Educational Platform" and "Analytic Geometry IntelligentPlatform" are already approved by the "Committee for Evaluation of TeachingMaterials for Primary and Secondary Schools" of Chinese Ministry of Education.They are eligible for circulation and promotion as the teaching materials in the trial zones. The software is not yet congruous with Mathematics curriculum in all regions because syllabuses are different between the mainland, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. Except that "Z+Z" can overcome the educational discrepancy geographically, it will obstruct the popularization of the software in these regions. 4."Z+Z" is educational software with diversified functions, only skillful us ers can operate the software meticulously. From Mathematics teachers' viewpoint,they would presume an increase in their workload as to become artificers in "Z+Z".It will be helpful to teachers if the interface is simplified and supplied with a step-by-step instruction. When users are following the instruction to complete theirdesign, they become accustomed to the operation. Once the technical hindrance iseliminated, users will be delighted to operate the "Z+Z" software easily. 5. "Z+Z" and MSAR "Z+Z" is the fruit of the collaboration between Prof. Zhang and Macau East-ern Technology Group Co., Ltd. The software complies with national standard in China and also becomes an internationally known product. There are questions to be raised to investigate into the effect of "Z+Z" to MSAR. How does "Z+Z" affect MSAR in respect of enterprise, scientific technology and education? What are MSAR's strategies towards the swift development of scientific technology?
2175.1 A Pride to Macau Enterprises "Z+Z" software was developed by Macau Eastern Technology Group Co., Ltd., the group is a union of investors from the US, Hong Kong and Macau with a number of famous scientists and academicians from the "Chinese Academy of Science". The manufacturing facilities are set up in Macau's first technology park, which is located in Concórdia Industrial Park, for the production of hi-tech soft-ware and integrate circuits. The group is the only enterprise focus on R&D and development of hi-tech software in MSAR. "Z+Z" is highly remarked by both Chinese and international educational organizations. The "Z+Z" software has promoted the fame of Macau enterprises in China and other countries, it made a dynamic drive to the R&D of scientific technology in MSAR. 5.2 To Promote in China and Overseas Markets "Z+Z" Mathematics software is recruited as the national standard curriculum for primary and secondary schools. Furthermore, "Z+Z" Physics and Chemistry software, which came into operation under the research of experimental reform, were approved by "Materials for Curriculum Development Centre in Basic Education" of Ministry of Education in September 2003.18 Per statistical record in 2002, the number of existing primary schools and secondary schools in China are 456, 900 and 65,600 respectively.19 However, only 26 of them are participating in the experimental scheme. Thus, Macau's software development enterprises will get an immense market if the "Z+Z" software is widespread in China. Macau Eastern Technology Group Co., Ltd. is working with an American organization for appropriate educational platforms to the US market. For marketing "Z+Z" to the global markets, the group has assigned "World Intellectual Property Trading International Company Limited (WIPTICL)" to be responsible for research strategy and image promotion. WIPTICL has written to the "United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)" elaborating the significance of "Z+Z". It is believed that international organizations will assist the promotion as soon as the software complies with their requirements. Thus, the benefits of "Z+Z" will be recommended to educational departments in different countries and regions.20 For now, the gambling and tourism industry are taking the largest shares in Macau's economy. Any future success in "Z+Z" will definitely strengthen the manufacturing industry of scientific technology and change the economic structure of Macau.
2185.3 To Motivate the Development of Education in Macau As times goes by, many of the educational institutions in Macau have revolu-tions in their teaching philosophies and education visions. Correspondingly, the MSAR government has reviewed and modified the education system to motivate the development of e-education and to optimize computerized teaching facilities.21 Since the reform is still at the early stage, the government may consider adopting "Z+Z" software to the curriculum. The software can be initially equipped and monitored in selected schools and the government will decide whether "Z+Z" is efficacious for further promotion after the trial period. The intellectual level and civilian life for Macau's students will be improved with quality education and updated teaching mode in due course. 5.4 To Promote the Development of Manufacturing Industry of Scientific Technology in Macau The "Office for the Development of Telecommunications and Information Technology(GDTTI)" was set up upon the establishment of MSAR government in 2000. Complying with the article for Scientific Technology under the Basic Law, GDTTI is appointed to promoting and supporting the development of scientific technology in Macau. GDTT should work closely with the "Committee of Scientific Technology" in coordination between local entrepreneurs and distinguished scholars. In the long term, the office is responsible for identifying the potential and introducing policies for the development of scientific technology in Macau. The impressive development of "Z+Z" has proven that Macau's scientific technology has attained the international standard. The commitment of "Z+Z" has injected expectation into the development of the industry. Either the small and medium enterprises or the evolved enterprises need innovation to increase their productivity for value-added products. Make hay while the sun shines: Macau should take advantage of the great capabilities of scientific technology to become competent in the international market. 6. Conclusion "Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform" is an edification of scientific tech-nology in the 21st century, it is the only educational software program available in the world that can perform deduction through artificial intelligence and apply it to proof and problem solving. "Z+Z" has already gained the international
219regard in sight of its importance to education and human resources. "Z+Z" is the mechanism to educational reforms and its application makes definite advantages to teaching and learning. In the future, "Z+Z" will encounter many difficulties and challenges and it requires appropriate improvements and reinforcements. In the meantime, the new product development schedule is fixed for subsequent R&D and manufacturing new software base upon the existing "Z+Z". The proposed items include software for primary and university levels, questions banks for all levels, software for arts subjects, and school management software.22 Macau entrepreneurs are proud to be involved in the development of "Z+Z", they look for the opportunity to develop high quality software for education and other fields. Macau will be contributive to the modernized industries and will keep promoting the Chinese culture. Appendix: Printed Screens of "Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform" Illustration 1 Content of "Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform" The following example shows how "Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform" works. It demonstrates its versatility and diversity in solving mathematical equations. Students can comprehend the relationships between different values in the question and they will be able to understand the theory and the method leading to the solution.
220 Example 1: Question: How old are you? (Using a linear equation in one unknown to get the solution) In this example, teachers can first design the question and conceal the answers. Students will click "Answer" to confirm the solution after they have completed their calculations. (Please see illustration 2 to 6 for demonstrations) Illustration 2 Click "Answer" to View the Solution Illustration 3 The Solution of the Equation can be Shown or Concealed
221 Through this example, the unknown can be worked out using the "Z+Z" program. Since the dots on the axis represent different values in the equation, teachers can move the position of the dot to change the assumed value in the equation for a different solution. Illustration 4 The Assumed Value in the Equation is Adjustable
222 Illustration 5 A New Solution with the Change in Assumed Value Notes: 1 J. Z. Zhang, "Why Do We Develop Z+Z?" in Report on Experiment in Mathematical Teaching Materials, New Century Edition, The Committee of Experiment Teaching Materials for National Core Curriculum Standard of Beijing Normal University, Issue 6, 2003, p.8. 2 "Comprising Z+Z Intelligent Educational Software as a Teaching Material in Mainland China", in Hong Kong: Wen Wei Pao, 4th November 2003, p. A15. 3 Shi Zheng, "How Far are we from Networked Education?", downloaded on 30th January 2004 fromhttp://www.zplusz.org/News/ReadNews.aspx?NewsID=661F5457-F6D8-4402-A009-8C0242C07A85) 4 See related news from "The Great Mathematician, J.Z. Zhang, Created the Revolutionary Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform", in Hong Kong Daily News, 20* May 2003, p. Cl l. 5 Modern Chinese-English Dictionary, Foreign Language and Research Press, 2002 Edition,p.1,791. 6 This is one of the six fundamental ideas from revised Mathematics curriculum standard Part 1.Also refer to Y. L. Li, "A Brief Discussion on the Application of Z+Z Intelligent Education Platform in Revised Curriculum Standard", downloaded on 30th January 2004 from
223http://www.zPlusz.org/News/ReadNews.aspx?NewsID=4D5E8AB 1 -5172-45C8-AEA4-O02F36964AEF 7 Curriculum Development Centre in Basic Education of Ministry of Education/'National Software for Basic Educational Resources: Research in the Experiment of Applying Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform in National Mathematics Curriculum Reform". (Photocopy) 8 Y. L. Li, "A Brief Discussion on the Application of Z+Z Intelligent Education Platform in Revised Curriculum Standard", downloaded on 30th January 2004 from http://www.zplusz.org/News/ReadNews.aspx?NewsID=4D5E8AB 1 -5172-45C8-AEA4-002F36964AEF 9 "Appointing Intelligent Software as National Teaching Materials", in Hong Kong: Wei Wen Pao,1st October 2003, p. C4. 10 The characteristics of "Z+Z"were extracted from J. Z. Zhang, "Why Do We Develop Z+Z?" in Report on Experiment in Mathematical Teaching Materials, New Century Edition, The Committee of Experiment Teaching Materials for National Core Curriculum Standard of Beijing Normal University, Issue 6,2003, p.8, and Cheng Kai, "To Exploit Z+Z Intelligent Platform, to Improve Efficiency in Curriculum Reform", downloaded on 2nd February 2004 from http://www.zplusz.org/News/ReadNews.aspx?NewsID=F1551799-F73F-4619-BE09-21EFE7873F46 1 Curriculum Development Centre in Basis Education of Ministry of Education, "Research in the Experiment of Applying Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform in National Mathematics Curriculum Reform and the Implementation in Selected Schools". (Photocopy) 12 Letter from "The Committee of Experimental Teaching Material for National Core Curriculum Standard" of Beijing Normal University to "Research Centre of Core Curriculum" of Ministry of Education. (Photocopy) 13 Letter from "The Committee of Experimental Teaching Materials for National Core Curriculum Standard" of Beijing Normal University, "Notice of the Review and Comments on the Development of Software as Curriculum Resources". (Photocopy) 14 Letter from "The Committee of Experimental Teaching Materials for National Core Curriculum Standard" of Beijing Normal University, "Research in the Experiment of Applying Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform in National Mathematics Curriculum Reform". (Photocopy) 15 "The Great Mathematician and His Educational Platform", in Shengzhen SAR Post, 17th October 2001, p. Bl. 16 D. Z. Guo, X. Y. Zhu, J. Y. Fan, "Research in Education with Open Classroom and Quality Education in Mengji", in Report on Experiment in Mathematical Teaching Materials, New Century Edition, The Committee of Experimental Teaching Materials for National Core Curriculum Standard of Beijing Normal University, Issue 6,2003, pp. 7—8. 17 J. H. Zhu, "A Brief Discussion on the Application of Z+Z Intelligent Educational Software in Teaching Elementary Mathematics", downloaded on 29th January 2004 from http://www.zplusz. org/News/ReadNews.aspx?NewsID=4D5E8ABl-5172-45C8-AEA4-002F36964AEF 18Curriculum Development Centre in Basic Education of Ministry of Education,"National Software for
224Basic Educational Resources: Research in the Experiment of Applying Z+Z Intelligent Educational Platform in National Physics and Chemistry Curriculum Reform". (Photocopy) 19 Letter from "The Committee of Experimental Teaching Materials for National Core Curriculum Standard" of Beijing Normal University, "The Declaration of the Statistics of Development in National Education in 2002 by Ministry of Education." (Photocopy) 20"M. S. Ng Took the Mission on the Development of Chinese Educational Software, InvestingHeavily", in Hong Kong: Wen Wei Pao, 2nd February 2004, p. C3. 21Policy Address for the Financial Year 2004, MSAR Government Printing Bureau, 2004, pp. 26—27. 22 Ibid., p. 19.
243資料來源:Lancaster and Massingham,Marketing Management,1998. 其實針對澳門的市場情況,因應其市場的細小,分銷渠道結構應該比較簡單。習慣上,大多數的企業是首先把產品介紹到香港,之後透過香港的批發商尋找澳門的批發商、零售商進而向消費者推廣。 因應本地的消費習慣、生活節奏及居住地點與商店之接近,較為重視便、捷(接受自動售貨機的服務形式),除非價格差異太大,一般會挑選離家最近的超級市場、便利店進行購買。 而且,因應消費習慣,比較接受一些能見、能觸摸的物品,加上對澳門人而言,到大型百貨商店閒逛,不僅純為購物,對未婚、已婚的來説,已成為生活的一部分、消磨時間、節日與子女共渡天倫之樂的場所。加以信息安全、詐騙常有發生,在欠缺有關規條保障下,澳門人對於網上購物、郵購直銷的接受程度仍然有所保留。而另一方面,產品的性質亦對其普及發展有所影響,一些需要試穿的產品,由於需要看穿或用上該產品後的觀感,這類產品倘若使用網絡或直銷形式作推廣,可能需處理更繁複的問題。 4.促銷策略 廣吿策略:制定廣告決策是企業在消費者心目中樹立良好的形象,提高企業的知名度,進而擴大產品市場佔有率的方法及途徑。其決策過程包括廣告目標確定、廣告預算決策、廣吿信息決策、廣告媒體決策和評價廣告效果等五個程序。由於針對澳門交叉文化因素背景,因此,只針對有關範疇作出申述。 ① 廣告信息決策 其核心問題在於制定有效的廣告信息,即該信息能引起人們注意、提起人們興趣、喚起人們的欲望並導致人們採取購買行動。好的廣告創意必須要有好的廣吿設計把它表現出來,包括主題、標題、語言風格、圖案與色彩以及版面佈局等各方面之設計。 ② 主題設計 廣告活動中,企業必須瞭解對消費者、用戶或社會公眾説些甚麼才能產生預期的認識、情感和行為反應,這就涉及廣吿主題,而這個主題的設計應突出廣告的文化訴求,尋求一種價值的依托,向消費者傳遞產品利益同時亦傳遞產品形象等廣告中突出的文化價值。
286榮譽,如曹有獲葡萄牙國王“禦賜聖母金星”爵銜、何連旺獲葡王賞賜“基唎斯督寶星(Cavalleiro da ordem militar de Nosso Senhor Jesus Christo)”、盧九兩次獲授葡萄牙國王勳章、盧廉若 1913 年和 1925 年分別獲葡國三等嘉禾勳章與葡國政府基督一等勳章。澳門早期華人社團領袖在與澳葡官方交好的同時,也與國內各種政治勢力保持聯繫。他們中的有些人曾有國內職銜或功名,如盧廉若獲清廷誥授資政大夫、花翎一品頂戴、浙江補用通稟貢生。北洋政府黎元洪總統書贈盧廉若“樂善好施”匾額。盧廉若支援孫中山革命,曾購飛機贈給孫中山。盧九在澳開設被稱為“官紳俱樂部”的宜安公司,維新派人士涉足其間。何連旺接受康梁維新思想,投資創辦《知新報》,並親任保皇會澳門分會會長。澳門早期社團領袖的多重角色與身份説明,在社會政治勢力極其複雜的澳門,只有得到多種政治勢力認可的人物,才能出任並維持社團的長久存在與發展。與此同時,社團領袖被賦予溝通中葡及澳門社會內部華葡社區的媒介功能。如盧廉若在 1921 年中葡衝突與 1922 年澳門“5·29”工潮中充當調停人;⑤社團領袖的交叉任職,出現一人同時擔任兩個或兩個以上社團領導職務的現象。何連旺作為澳門同善堂與嘉善堂的創建人,也是鏡湖醫院的值理,還是澳門保皇會、澳門不纏足會、澳門戒鴉片煙會的發起人或領導人。18澳門同善堂創建者盧九,曾任澳門鏡湖醫院值理會總理。盧廉若更是一身多任,他多次出任澳門鏡湖醫院總理,也是同善堂重建的發起人,還是澳門商會的首屆 7 位值理之一,以及澳門孔教會的領導者。一身二任甚至多任的現象可謂比比皆是、屢見不鮮。由此,凸顯了澳門小社會或小世界的空間特徵。 總之,澳門華人社團在其初創與初步發展時期是由商人主導的,其間雖然也曾出現類似何連旺、盧廉若、蕭瀛洲那樣的社團精英,他們身上所體現出來的某些群體性特徵在其後華人社團領袖身上得以延續與變化,但是,從個人聲望、地位乃至影響力方面觀察,其時尚未形成超凡魅力型社團領袖,究其因,除個性化人格因素外,在一定意義上,是與社團自身發展及社會條件尚未成熟相關。
317工互不信任的惡性循環中。 此外,學校社工要面對另一個在學校的問題是:現時澳門的學校社會工作共有三套不同的模式,其分別是: ① 由學校自行聘請社工; ② 由非政府機構(NGO)派出社工人員作駐校服務(通常是一週 2-3天); ③ 由教青局派出社工到學校負責社工服務。 後兩者由於不是學校的僱員,跟學校的關係較疏離,甚至被學校猜疑,因此在開展工作時,可能處處受制,或被學校視為次等僱員,只把一些沒有老師願意承擔的工作,交付給學校社工處理,使學校社工可發揮功能大減。至於由學校聘請的社工,表面上因其身份是學校僱員,因此應和學校有好的合作關係,但此類社工的主管(supervisor)往往是學校的訓導主任或校長,由於他們沒有社工專業訓練的背景,因此在專業的發展角度,他們根本不能為自己的學校社工,提供專業的社會工作督導(SocialWork Supervision),使他們在專業上沒有成長,也影響了社會工作服務的質素。 從長遠來説,教青局有必要檢討現時學校社工出現的“一地三制”問題,同時增加教育工作者對社會工作專業的認識,使兩項專業可充分合作。教青局可嘗試組織學校與社會服務合作的協調委員會,並以此作為一合作平台,讓教育及社會服務兩項專業的人士,透過此委員會互相認識及共議合作計劃。 2.社區支援及協作模式 現時,大部分學校均只有一名社工,既要處理學生個案,也要負責一些小組工作及大型活動,此外再加上日常的行政工作,因此,一個學校社工的力量是十分有限的,而且現時的青少年問題也日益複雜,單憑學校社工之力,根本難以應付;因此,我們必須要把思維跨越出學校社工的舊範疇,而是構思一套包括:家庭、學校、社區的聯合協助模式,因為大部分青少年均從屬於家庭及學校兩大系統內,要妥善處理青少年問題也應從兩大系統入手,而社區則作為兩者的支援服務。其中包括:輔導老師和學校社工的合作、協助推行家長教育、家校合作、在社區內的青年服務機構為其派出的駐校社工提供支援服務等等。
318 家庭、學校、社區協作模式,是一套較全面兼顧青少年成長的工作模式,當中除了教師、社工外,家長、社區組織甚至警方也應參與其中,為青少年提供一套整合的服務。 註釋: 1 Smith, P.K. & Sharp, S., "The Problem of School Bullying" in P.K. Smith & S. Sharp(eds.), School Bullying, London: Routledge, 1994, pp. 1-19. 2 dd, G. W., Kochenderfer, B. J. & Coleman, C. C., "Classroom Peer Acceptance,Friendship, and Victimization: Distinct Relational Systems That Contribute Uniquelyto Children's School Adjustment" in Child Development, Vol. 68, 1997, pp.1,181-1,197. 3 黃成榮:《學童欺凌研究及對策》,香港:花千樹,2003 年。 4 同上註。 5 同註 3,第 21 頁。 6 同註 3。