澳門研究Journal of Macau Studies第26期Vol. 26澳門大學澳門研究中心 編輯澳門基金會 出版2005年2月
Vol. 262005. 2目 錄學者專訪“歷史文物開發與綠色澳門” .................................................................《澳門研究》編輯部. 121世紀的中國,21世紀的中國人 ......................................................................................................楊允中. 6澳門法律之發展與展望 .....................................................................................................................趙國強. 11基本法有關非中國籍居民權利和自由規定的立法由來及意義 .....................................................黃寶瑩. 17簡析“一國兩制”情境下的憲治與政治──談全國人大常委會釋法緣由 .................................龐嘉穎. 21CEPA:粵港澳經濟一體化的發展趨勢 .............................................................................................馮邦彥. 27澳門在大珠三角區域一體化中的地位分析 .....................................................................封小雲、楊道匡. 34澳門博彩業大發展中的幾個問題 .....................................................................................................王五一. 42如何利用情景分析法解讀澳門博彩業的未來 .................................................................................曾忠祿. 48A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and Its Gaming Industry ..................................................... Ricardo Chi Sen, SIU 54Drawing Lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in Macau ........................................................SHENG Li 62Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction .................................................................................................. Keith Morrison 69改進澳門經濟政策研究體系的一些構想 .........................................................................................陳守信. 86對2004/2005年度教育施政方針若干意見 ..........................................................................................劉羨冰. 89加強教育研究,為教改謀出路──對教育制度法律草案的商榷 . ................................................黎義明. 92澳門公共衛生醫療:總結經驗,締造健康生活 .............................................................................鄧達榮. 100澳門非營利組織研究 .........................................................................................................................鄧玉華. 111澳門青少年問題研究回顧 .................................................................................................................陳欣欣. 118蓮花寶地共生的語言景觀:策略、回顧與展望 .............................................................................楊秀玲. 130鄭觀應科技興國思想初探 .................................................................................................盛永華、孫關龍. 135500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析 ........................金國平、吳志良. 140澳門通洋貿易與廣州黃埔設港的關係 .............................................................................................韋慶遠. 152中國第一所教會學校:澳門聖保祿學院研究 ................................................................................... 夏 泉. 159委黎多《報效始末疏》──一份新發現的澳門早期歷史文獻 .....................................湯開建、趙殿紅. 169有關抗日戰爭勝利後收回澳門的問題 .............................................................................................黃鴻釗. 176解析《七子之歌》對澳門歷史的誤解 .............................................................................................費成康. 179特區成立五年來澳門史地研究之回顧與展望 .................................................................................金國平. 181澳門回歸以後中文出版業發展評述 .................................................................................王國強、鍾麗琴. 187
澳門研究BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESCONTENTSForum on “The Exploration of Historical Relics and Environmental Protection in Macau”................................................................. Editorial Department of Centre for Macau Studies. 1China and Chineses in the 21st Century ............................................................................................................ IEONG Wan Chong. 6The Development and Prospect of Macau Law........................................................................................................ZHOU Guoqiang. 11The Legislative Origin and Significance of the Basic Law in Regard to the Rights and Freedom of non-Chinese Nationality Residents................................................................................................. WONG Pou Ieng. 17Constitutional and Political Administration under “One Country, Two Systems” —Originated from the Legal Explanation of the Standing Committee of the NPC....................................................PANG Jiaying. 21CEPA: The Developmental Trend for the Economic Integration of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau ............................................................................................................................. FENG Bangyan 27An Analysis of Macau Status within the Integration of the Large Pearl River Delta Region .......................................................................................................FENG Xiaoyun, IEONG Tou Hong 34A Few Problems Regarding the Development of Gaming Industry in Macau ......................................................................... WANG Wuyi 42An Investigation of the Future Development of Macau’s Gaming Industry through the Use of Scenario Analysis ................................................................................................................................................ ZENG Zhonglu 48A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and Its Gaming Industry .............................................................................. Ricardo Chi Sen, SIU 54Drawing Lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in Macau...........................................................................SHENG Li. 62Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction .............................................................................................................................. Keith Morrison 69Some Suggestions on Improving the Research System of Macau’s Economic Policies ...................................................CHAN Sau San 86Some Comments on the Education Policies in 2004-2005 ................................................................................................... LAU Sin Peng 89Strengthening Education Research for Education Reform —a Discussion of the Regulation of Macau Education System .......................................................................................... LAI I Meng. 92Macau Public Health: Summarizing Experience for Healthier Life .....................................................................................TANG Tat Weng 100A Study of NGOs Development in Macau .............................................................................................................................TANG Yuk Wa 111A Review on the Research of Juvenile Problems in Macau .............................................................................................Penny YY CHAN 118Envisioning the Linguistic Landscape of the Lotus City: The Symbiotic Quintessence of Cultural Diversity and Coexistence ........................................................................IEONG Sao Leng 130Zheng Guanying and his Ideas on Prospering a Country through Science and Technology ................................................................................................................... SHENG Yonghua, SUN Guanlong 135A Glance at Zheng He’s Study 500 Years Before and the Analysis of the Reasons for the Interruption of the Voyage from Portugal Historical Record .............................................................................................................................JIN Guoping, WU Zhiliang 140The Relationship between Foreign Trade in Macau and the Establishment of Huangpu Port in Guangzhou ............................................................................................................... WEI Qingyuan 152The First Missionary School: The Study of Saint Paul College of Macau ...................................................................................XIA Quan 159A Newly Discovered Historical Document of Macau —“A Letter of a Vereador of the Senado on their Loyalty to China” ............................................................. TANG Kaijin, WU Qing 169The Problem of Macau’s Resumption after the Anti-Japanese War ..............................................................................HUANG Hongchao 176The Misunderstanding of “The Songs of Seven Sons” to the History of Macau ............................................................... FEI Chengkang 179A Review and Perspective on Historical and Geographical Studies in Macau ....................................................................... JIN Guoping 181The General Situation of the Development of Chinese Publishing Industry after Macau’s Reunion .............................................................................................. WONG Kwok Keung, CHUNG Lai Kam 187
學者專訪“歷史文物開發與綠色澳門”澳門研究2BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES居住該區,但是舊區的重建又牽涉到很多關於業權的問題。城市綠化方面,我認為澳門做得非常好。我們看到街道上已盡量種植樹木,在舊區,如新馬路,就算不能種植樹木也在燈柱掛些花籃,這不單單是把澳門綠化,而且也是美化,同時還把這綠化的信息推廣至學校,每一年澳門也舉辦植樹節、綠化 週,這方面民政總署的工作做得很好,在綠化週期間,給予學生、街坊一個教育的機會,如何綠化家居、綠化學校等。我記得以前曾做過一個調查,調查各條街道究竟有多少棵樹是老樹?有多少棵樹是死了?有多少是再種?又有多少還沒有種回?我們將這計劃呈了給政府,政府便跟 我們的計劃把那些缺失的樹木種回,再其次有些街道沒有種樹的,如北區一些新發展區域,我們便向政府提出種植些新的樹木。澳門的綠化最主要是集中在路環,因路環是澳門的休憩區。所以,相對來說,舊區重整的計劃拖得很慢,但城市綠化工作的進展卻很快。我認為澳門的文物開發空間很大,澳門每一條舊的街道都有文物,澳門是中西文化交匯的地方,所以澳門擁有中西方兩者的文物,最清楚的例子就是大三巴牌坊隔鄰就是哪吒廟,觀音堂隔鄰就是新西洋墳場,雖然它是墳場,但它的墳墓建築卻使它成為一個藝術的地方,也是文物之一,有百多二百年的歷史。因此,澳門的各條街道都是充滿文物,問題是我們如何重點去開發,現在澳門有3個博物館,但其實每個博物館都可以充實些。在世界上是沒有在這麼近的距離便有那麼不同類型的博物館和那麼多的文物堆積,例如新口岸文化中心時常展出一些中國的文物,而在新口岸的另一邊則有葡萄酒博物館、賽車博物館,所以我認為現在以“博彩旅遊”作為我們的龍頭口號應改為“旅遊博彩”,博彩後錢都輸光了何來有錢和心情旅遊呢?怎會看看澳門的文物呢?現在遊客來澳門就是為了博彩。我曾帶我的一班舊同學到澳門的博物館和文物參觀,他們對澳門擁有那麼大量的文物都感到十分驚奇,所以有好的導遊也是文物開發的一部分,單單是一條營地大街(以往叫做澳門街)現在仍有很多老舖存在,我曾介紹中央電視台到那裏採訪,他們也覺得很驚奇,仁慈堂、民政總署等是西式的文物,一走到前面就是關帝廟,中西文化產物距離之近是在全世界也找不到的。我們不應把集中力全放在賭博上面,因澳門的文物開發是大有空間的,只集中賭博便會忽略澳門的文物的存在。環境保護方面,可分為五大範疇:空氣、污水、綠化、噪音和垃圾(固體廢物)的處理。在處理固體廢物方面,澳門比香港做得更好,而在周邊地區來說也是處理得最好的。香港和其他地方都是用堆填法,即是把垃圾丟在低地然後填平,澳門以往也是用這方法,但我們的土地資源有限,而且垃圾堆填的地方我們是不能建屋的,因有炤氣,只能做公園或其他設施,如孫中山紀念公園便是一例子,因為考慮到這情況,我們改用焚化爐法(燃燒法),利用垃圾焚化爐來處理垃圾,澳門現有三個焚化爐,每個每天能處理300噸垃圾,即每天能處理900噸廢物,澳門現時垃圾量每天約為600噸,而垃圾焚化的整個過程都是以電腦控制,焚化爐燃燒發出的熱力能產生電力,賣給電力公司,把款項用作維修焚化爐的經費。但有一些垃圾是不能焚燒的,如磚頭、泥等,我們便必須堆填,但它們並不會發出炤氣,現時它們就是填在路 城的地方。可是,現時最大的缺點是沒有垃圾分類回收,如紙張、木材、鐵器等。噪音方面,澳門也做得很好,現時全世界只有兩個機場是在海上填海而建的,一是日本關西機場,另一個便是澳門國際機場,而在海上興建機場能使城市不會受到機場噪音的影響,這大大減低了噪音的一大來源,因飛機起降噪音可達20分貝。現時澳門的主要噪音有兩方面,一是生活噪音,二是交通噪音。生活噪音指的是打麻雀、唱卡啦OK等所發出的噪音,但這影響較為輕微,而交通噪音的來源則主要來自如田螺車的重型車輛,但它們在澳門的數量不太多,故影響也不太大。反之,在澳門最成問題的是空氣污染,一方面是外來的,珠三角很多發電廠是用燃煤發電的,發出大量二氧化硫和懸浮粒子,使整個區域空氣污染較為嚴重,尤其是在冬天時它們更不易吹散,夏天天氣炎熱的時候熱空氣上升情況還好一些,冬天冷空氣下沉,造成空氣質素很差。另一方面就是汽車排放的廢氣,根據公佈的資料,澳門現時有4萬輛車,其中6萬多輛為電單車,而其中多為2衝程的,
學者專訪“歷史文物開發與綠色澳門”澳門研究4BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES店,使人們到該地參觀購物而忽略了它本身的內涵。所以澳門應吸收這方面的經驗,前車可鑑。因此,如澳門的歷史建築群真的成為世界文化遺產,澳門政府應成立文物局,負責對其維修、保養、推廣等作全盤的管理,因若申請成功,澳門的文化遺產便不單單是屬於澳門,而是整個世界的文化遺產,若不對它們投放更大的資源,是難以把其世世代代保存 ,維修不只是上漆、掃灰等工作,而是對文物本身的一點一滴、由頭至尾、由內到外的細節結構都弄得一清二楚,同時需要建立一支專業的隊伍作維修保養。現時文化局有專門負責文物的文物廳,但十多人的人手絕對是難以應付的。另一方面,還應該成立專門的研究機構“澳門文化研究所”。每一個歷史文物都有大量相應的研究題材,所以,該研究所可以就有關領域成立數個小組,比如:歷史組、文物組、宗教組、風俗組等等。總的來說,行政方面可成立主管文物的部門,研究方面可考慮成立“澳門文化研究所”作專題探討分析,組織足夠的人力物力對澳門文化文物各領域進行妥善的保護和深入系統的長期研究。古為今用方面,則牽涉到利用,即旅遊觀光及文化交流方面,正如上述情況,當被評為世界文化遺產後,各地的遊客將蜂擁而至,從中帶來經濟的實益,但剛才也說過它所帶來的負面效應──物質主義、功利主義。舉例說鄭家大屋回復原貌後裏面開滿了小商店,那市民和遊客又怎知道它原來是鄭觀應先生──一位影響中國三位統治者的大人物的居所。因此,我們必須有節制地利用,不要濫用和破壞了文物本身的價值。同時,現在很多學者也反覆強調要繼續發揮文物所包含的文化意義,吸收歷史所蘊藏的內容。我們保存鄭家大屋不是把其視作商品來吸引遊客,例如可使鄭家大屋變成博物館、展覽館、文化社團活動室等,使我們將來到鄭家大屋參觀時,能明白為何澳門這彈丸之地能有這麼一位鼎鼎大名的人物?他為何會有這樣先進的思想而影響到中國幾代的統治者?通過歷史文物的參觀保存,我們可以 瞭解歷史事實; 吸取歷史教訓; 反思自身文化與不同文化的優劣; 自我在社會的定位。因此對於歷史文物,我們不應只重視它的旅遊價值,而應同時重它的歷史、人文、思想方面的價值,不能目光短淺,志在搞活旅遊而本末倒置。王志石:我是搞環境保護研究和教學的,自然對這方面更加關注一些。然而,我深知經濟發展才是第一要務。否則,澳門城巿小,經濟總量不如香港、廣州和深圳等珠江三角洲的大城巿。只有保持一定的高增長率才能立於不敗之地,參與到整個大珠江三角洲的經濟整合的競爭中去。而城巿建設和管理首先要服務於這個大局,然後才能談到城巿環保和污染治理等問題。然而,也正是在這個意義上講,澳門的環保治理就具有特殊意義,始終應該成為澳門城巿發展建設中的重要目標之一。作為國際旅遊城巿的澳門,城巿環保已不僅僅關係到巿民健康問題,而是直接關係到澳門旅遊城巿的商業信譽和品牌,從而直接影響到澳門的支柱產業博彩旅遊業的發展。澳門是一個典型的單一城巿複合生態系統。環境保護主要就是城巿污染控制和治理。其主要手段是不斷加強城巿基礎設施建設,如污水處理廠、垃圾焚化爐、空氣質量監測網等硬件設施。由於城巿土地資源缺乏一直是制約經濟發展的因素,也是城巿污染治理的制約瓶頸,必須走高技術、高投入的策略路線。垃圾焚化、污水二級生物和化學處理、工廠式處理廠(全封閉、自動化運轉、防止二次污染),今後只要土地資源缺乏的現狀不變,恐怕仍然需要按這條路走下去。高投入是採用高技術的必須,然而,仍有降低投入成本的空間,一個是加強政府對專營公司的監管的力度,完善相應的法規制度,以達到降低營運成本的目的;一個是提高專業技術管理人員的素質。比如,澳門發電廠尾氣排放污染控制,由於政府加強了監管力度,發電廠方面投入資金建設了選擇性催化還原技術脫氮,以及廢氣排放和空氣質量監測網。而進一步解決問題則需要提升技術管理人員素質,以真正的使新技術設備發揮最大效能(如垃圾焚化廠管理那樣)。自動化程度高並不能代替內行的技術專家的管理控制。另一個例子,城巿垃圾的綜合管理需要加強。由於部分垃圾熱值低,含水量高(餐館廚餘)加大了焚燒成本,若初級收集垃圾時將其分離出來另行處置,不
21世紀的中國,21世紀的中國人澳門研究10BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES“去中國化”為“再中國化”,變挑釁為克制,變對抗為合作。即使一時還欠缺最後作出決斷的勇氣和膽識,但至少要考慮懸崖勒馬,維持兩岸關係現狀不再繼續惡化。當然,少數台獨分子繼續不思悔改,孤注一擲,也必然要對其魯莽挑釁承擔歷史責任。作為澳門特別行政區的居民,我們堅持“一國兩制”是解決歷史遺留問題的最好選擇,我們也親身感受到“一國兩制”所帶給澳門的一系列根本性變化,並普遍成為“一國兩制”的直接受益者。我們身在澳門,清楚地意識到實踐“一國兩制”是個漫長的歷史過程,也是一個理念創新、思維優化的過程,澳門這塊蓮花寶地確確實實可以發揮其不可取代的獨特作用:驗證、導向、示範“一國兩制”的作用,平衡、協調、緩衝兩岸關係的作用,孵化催生新生事物的作用,加固支撐共和國大廈的作用。為實現國家和平統一大業獻計獻策、添磚加瓦,是我們世代相傳、義不容辭的歷史責任,也是我們向台灣同胞和海內外華人展示“一國兩制”無比優越性和巨大生命力的最佳努力方向。需要當仁不讓講清楚的一點是,展示“一國兩制”,我們最有發言權;成為“一國兩制”優越性的展示中心,是澳門特別行政區現已具備的基本功能,它必然更加充分、更加生動地向國人和世人展示這一不可取代的作用。五、結語21世紀展示給中國人民的前景是令人鼓舞、令人振奮的,21世紀向中國人民提出的挑戰也是不容掉以輕心的。在新時代發展經濟要有創新思路、創新意念;解決歷史遺留問題更要強調依靠理性思維,依靠最小代價最大成果的解決方案,依靠平等協商、共同受益的雙贏取向,依靠人民群眾集體智慧的發掘和政治人物的科學決斷。只要認同自己是中國人,是中華民族一份子,認同中國只有一個,台灣和大陸的任何部分一樣都是構成整個中國不可缺少的要素,認同中國內部問題只能由中國人自行解決,那麼通向和平統一的大道就是暢通的。實行和平統一之後的台灣,不但原有的特定地位、作用可以延續,而且更有條件憑藉祖國大陸雄厚的物質基礎和國家的政策支持,迅速發展成為遠東以至亞太地區綜合指標最高的地區之一。這是一個有百利而無一弊的選擇。中華民族是個值得自豪的民族;中華民族世代相襲的國土是個完整不可分割的概念;掌握自身命運、堅持理性化思維的當代中華民族具有無限的凝聚力,它是能夠化解分歧、防止分裂的;海峽兩岸的發展前景廣闊,實現和平統一之後中國前途更加不可限量。我們期盼,我們祝願,我們也要為這項事關民族偉大復興的事業獻計獻策、推波助瀾。註釋:1 何厚鏵:《2005年財政年度施政報告》,澳門特區政府 印務局,2004年11月16日,第6頁。2 同上,第10、22、18頁。3 同上,第18頁。4 胡錦濤:《在鄧小平同志誕辰100週年紀念大會上的講話》,載於《人民日報》(海外版),2004年8月23日,第3版。
澳門法律之發展與展望澳門研究12BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES“雙軌立法制”,即澳門總督和澳門立法會都是立法機關,澳門總督行使立法權制定的法律檔稱之為“法令”,澳門立法會行使立法權制定的法律檔稱之為“法律”,兩者具有同等的法律效力,同屬於狹義的法律範疇,唯立法權行使的範圍及程序由《澳門組織章程》予以規定。(四) 過渡法制階段1987年4月13日,中葡兩國通過和平談判,簽署了《中華人民共和國政府和葡萄牙共和國政府關於澳門問題的聯合聲明》(以下簡稱“中葡聯合聲明”);中葡聯合聲明的簽署,宣示了澳門將於1999年12月20日回歸祖國,中國政府將以“一國兩制”的方針政策,對澳門恢復行使主權,從而揭開了澳門過渡期的序幕。中國政府考慮到澳門法律的實際情況以及政權平穩過渡的需要,在法律領域承諾“澳門原有法律基本不變”,並在澳門過渡期提出了“法律本地化”1 的問題;而葡萄牙政府為了在澳門回歸後盡可能更多地保留葡萄牙法律的特色,在“法律本地化”方面也採取了相應的措施。“法律本地化”問題的提出,促使澳門本地立法機關加快了本地立法的步伐,並基本上停止了新的葡萄牙本土法律在澳門地區的延伸適用。尤其是1993年3月31日《中華人民共和國澳門特別行政區基本法》(以下簡稱“基本法”)的頒佈,使“法律本地化”問題更顯得緊迫,在中葡雙方共同努力下,於澳門回歸前,終於完成了將在澳門地區適用的葡萄牙五大法典及相關重要法典予以“過戶”2 的本地化任務,避免了在澳門回歸後出現“法律真空”的非正常現象。(五) 自治法制階段1999年12月20日,澳門順利回歸祖國,並依照基本法所確立的“一國兩制”的方針政策,實行高度自治。為了確保澳門回歸後保持正常的法律運作,全國人大常委會根據中葡聯合聲明確立的“澳門原有法律基本不變”的政策原則以及基本法第8條規定3,在對原澳門本地法律中澳門總督制定的法令和立法會制定的法律進行審查後,作出了《全國人大常委會關於處理澳門原有法律的決定》。4根據這個決定,原在澳門地區生效的葡萄牙本土法律在澳門回歸後將自動失效,而澳門原有的法律和法令除個別因與基本法抵觸而被廢止外,絕大部分則被採用為澳門特別行政區的法律。這些被保留下來的澳門原有的法律和法令不僅數量大,而且很多都屬於基本的必不可少的重要法律,如本地化後的民法、刑法、民事訴訟法、刑事訴訟法和商法五大法典,因而構成了今天澳門現行法律的主要組成部分。從狹義的法律5 角度來講,因按基本法規定,澳門特別行政區實行的是“單軌立法制”,只有澳門特別行政區立法會才享有立法權,故澳門現行法律體系除了包括被保留下來的原有的法律和法令外,尚包括澳門回歸後由澳門特別行政區立法會制定的法律。這些新制定的法律雖所佔比例不大,但為落實基本法以及澳門的政治穩定和經濟發展起到了保駕護航的作用。當然,基本法以及在澳門生效的十個全國性法律雖然由全國人大制定,但無疑也是澳門現行法律中不可缺少的組成部分,尤其是基本法作為澳門的憲制性法律,其效力要高於澳門本地立法機關制定的任何法律。二、 澳門法律現狀之客觀評析追尋著澳門法律發展的軌跡,如果我們再以理性的眼光來考察澳門現行法律,就不難從中可以發現澳門現行法律的一些外部特點及內在缺陷,認識這些特點及缺陷,對於發展與完善澳門法律是十分重要的。(一) 法律框架比較完整比較大陸法系與英美法系,理論界一致認為,前者的基本特徵是以成文法作為法律的主要淵源,而後者則以判例法作為法律的主要淵源。雖然隨社會的發展,兩大法系有日益接近、取長補短之勢,但這一基本特徵並沒有得到根本的改變。因此,在法律體系上,大陸法系比較側重於由立法機關制定各種大大小小的成文法,以此來形成較為嚴謹、完整的法律框架;而英美法系則比較注重於判例法,故成文法比較零亂,法律框架就顯得較為鬆散。由於葡萄牙為一典型的大陸法系國家,而澳門又長期受其管治,從殖民法制階段開始,葡萄牙法律就開始大量登陸澳門,儘管期間經歷了雙重法制階段,但葡萄牙法律對澳門的影響已在一百多年的澳門法制史上打下了深深的烙印;因此,在澳門原有法律不變的前提下,澳門現行法律無可避免地繼承了大陸法系的衣缽,故而其法律框架必然也具有
澳門法律之發展與展望澳門研究14BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES會發展的要求仍有較大的差距,而文明程度和社會價值觀又處於綜合生活素質的最高層次。這一精闢之語對於澳門法律的發展與完善同樣具有指導意義。質言之,澳門法律的發展與完善,必須以符合澳門社情的法律觀念價值觀為指導。如前所述,澳門現行法律基本上仍以葡式法律觀念為主導。當然,葡式法律觀念並非是一種無價值的法律觀念,其中不乏有反映大陸法系先進法律制度的法律觀念。現在的問題在於發展和完善澳門法律,是否必須要以葡式法律觀念為指導。本人認為,雖然葡式法律觀念對澳門法律的影響是一種客觀存在,但是,必須看到,法律本身從某種意義上說是沒有國界的,葡國法律本身只附屬於大陸法系,而大陸法系之精髓則見諸於更多的歐洲發達國家。因此,澳門回歸後,澳門法律的發展與完善應當從本地區社會實際情況出發,向世界靠攏,而並非與葡萄牙法律接軌。發展與完善澳門法律,在法律觀念上必須面向世界,開拓視野,結合澳門實際,學習和借鑑各國各地區先進的法律制度,而不能以葡式法律觀念作為立法之本。對於澳門現行法律中所體現的葡式法律觀念,需本 實事求是的態度,作客觀的分析。凡符合澳門實際情況的,應當保留;凡不符合澳門實際情況或不足以體現法律制度之先進性的,則應當作出修訂。比如,在刑事責任年齡問題上,其所反映的葡式法律觀念並不一定符合澳門的實際情況,也與世界大多數國家之規定相悖,這樣的葡式法律觀念是否保留就值得研究;又比如,關於刑法中輕微違反行為的規定,其所反映的葡式法律觀念已為絕大多數國家之刑法所淘汰,連葡萄牙刑法都不予採納,這樣的葡式法律觀念有必要保留嗎?總之,發展與完善澳門法律,在法律觀念上必須持開放的態度,擺脫葡式法律觀念的束縛,以澳門社會實際為基石,以世界先進法律制度為鏡子,唯此,才能真正建立起一個具有澳門特色的符合澳門實際情況的先進法律制度。法律之發展與完善是一個循序漸進的過程,澳門現行法律究竟是要大變還是中變抑或是小變,在指導思想上也要有一個規劃過程。所謂大變,無非是把澳門現行法律至少是主要法律全部推倒重新立法,這顯然是不必要的,也不利於澳門社會的穩定。根據基本法,澳門的回歸雖為新舊政權之交替,但屬一種平穩過渡,原有的資本主義制度及與之相磨合的法律制度並未發生本質的變化,故而不存在大變的社會基礎。所謂中變,是指將澳門現行法律全部鋪開審查,捨其糟粕,留其精華,強化法律之間的協調關係,這雖然具有現實意義,但只能作為中期目標,必須在理論及人才方面作好充足的準備方有條件進行。所謂小變,也就是有的放矢地對澳門現行法律進行修訂,換言之,也就是一方面對那些已經浮現出來的明顯不合理且影響社會發展的法律制度進行研究,儘快地適時地作出修改或重訂;另一方面則依據澳門社會發展的需要,適時制訂新的法律,及時解決問題。本人認為,對澳門來說,目前階段更應當注重的小變,而不是中變,更不是大變。這樣做既符合循序漸進的原則,也有利於為中變打下堅實的基礎。(二) 繁榮法學理論,培養本地人才要建立一種符合本地區的先進法律制度,離不開法學理論的支撐。長期以來,由於法律領域一直被視為葡萄牙人的專有領域,澳門本地法律人才的培養和起步太晚,故而導致了澳門法學理論的貧乏現狀,甚至形成了澳門“只有法律而無法學理論”的局面。法學理論的薄弱對於法律的發展與完善來說無疑是一個致命的弱點,它將直接影響澳門法律發展與完善。比如,人們都知道澳門現行法律存在不少問題,但問題究竟出在哪裏,對同類問題除葡式法律觀念外世界上究竟還有哪些法律觀念,根據澳門實際情況應採何種法律制度,如此等等問題,都需要通過一定時間的理論研究和探討,才可以有所頭緒,才可以為立法者修改和制訂法律提供充分的法理依據。因此,筆者認為,在現階段,澳門應當對法學理論的研究予以充分重視,要通過各種方式和途徑,加強理論研究,為理論研究創造相應的外部條件。理論研究的欠缺不僅表現在法律領域,而且在經濟、文化等領域也不同程度的存在。為此,依筆者之見,澳門作為一個具有相當特色的地區,實有必要成立一個“政策理論研究所”,一方面藉此專門的理論研究機構來推動理論研究的廣度和深度,為澳門政府施政提供科學的理論依據,另一方面也可以作為一個培養本地理論人才的基地。加強法學理論研究,同人才的培養是息息相關
簡析“一國兩制”情境下的憲治與政治──談全國人大常委會釋法緣由澳門研究22BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES區司法解釋權及其與中央相關法律解釋之間的許可權關係。那麼又如何理解它們與第一款的關係呢?首先,由於中國始終實行的是一種複合型法律解釋制度,根據全國人民代表大會常務委員會1981年6月10日通過的關於加強法律解釋工作的決議: “一、凡關於法律、法令條文本身需要進一步明確界限或作補充規定的,由全國人民代表大會常務委員會進行解釋或用法令加以規定。二、凡屬於法院審判工作中具體應用法律、法令的問題,由最高人民法院進行解釋……”中國的法律解釋制度可概括為以全國人大常委會的立法解釋為主導,具有最高性;同時賦予行政、司法機關解釋法律的職權,受人大立法解釋監督。因此,全國人大常委會當然享有在尚不涉及訴訟情況下的純粹立法解釋權。但問題的關鍵則在於全國人大常委會的這項立法解釋權是否適用於解釋《基本法》。換句話說,對此持否定觀點者將認為全國人大常委會對於《基本法》的解釋權只限定《基本法》第158條第三款所規定的香港特別行政區法院先行遇到有關《基本法》的司法解釋問題,且涉及中央人民政府管理的事務或中央和香港特別行政區關係的條款,並且在終審判決前,由香港特別行政區終審法院提請全國人大常委會對有關條款作出解釋此一種情況,除此以外全國人大常委會所享有的其他形式的解釋權並不適用於《基本法》。對此,建議可作如下理解:由於我國仍然屬單一制國家,地方的一切權力都是中央授予的。同時,根據《憲法》第67條第一項和第四項的規定,全國人民代表大會常務委員會行使“解釋憲法,監督憲法的實施”和“解釋法律”的職權。即解釋憲法和解釋全國人民代表大會及其常務委員會制定的法律是屬於全國人民代表大會常務委員會的專屬權力。而《香港特別行政區基本法》又是全國人民代表大會制定的全國性法律,因此全國人大常委會的全部法律解釋權原則上都適用於《基本法》。又因為“一國兩制”下的香港特別行政區實行高度自治,中央遂將部分法律解釋權授予特別行政區。因此,縱觀《基本法》第158條,其立法邏輯是,首先明確該法解釋權屬全國人大常委會,遂在第二、三款中列舉本應由人大常委會行使,但基於“一國兩制”及高度自治原則而授權給特別行政區代為行使的那部分法律解釋權以及由此衍生出的相關由全國人大常委會行使的釋法權之一種形式 (即第三款規定的由香港特別行政區終審法院提請全國人民代表大會常務委員會釋法之情況)。而除第二、三款規定以外適用於《基本法》的全國人大常委會之其他形式解釋權已在第一款中囊括。其次,由此說來,全國人大會常委會有權在未涉及訴訟的情況下對《基本法》進行立法解釋。那麼它是否存在程序上的限制呢?其一,在無訴訟情況下全國人大常委會是否有權主動啟動純粹立法解釋行為。對此,參看《基本法》第159條的規定或許是一種必要的借鑒。該條法律對《基本法》的修改提案權作了明確規定,即“修改提案權屬於全國人民代表大會常務委員會、國務院和香港特別行政區。”4 若以此類推,如果《基本法》解釋(除第158條第三款的規定以外)同樣存在提案權的特別規定,那麼立法者是沒有理由將其漏掉避而不談的。按照這樣的邏輯,只能推論除第三款規定以外的《基本法》解釋權無須其他機制,可由全國人大常委會主動啟動。但這樣一來的確存在如部分港人憂慮的問題,即中央的此種主動釋法方式將無法得到必要的限制。好在這一問題有可能在下面一個層次中得到一定程度的緩解。其二,第158條第四款規定了全國人大常委會在對該法進行解釋前,須徵詢其所屬的基本法委員會的意見。應該說,這一程序上的規定是共同適用於前面三款所涵蓋的所有全國人大常委會之釋法行為的。意即說全國人大常委會在主動釋法之前同樣須徵詢基本法委員會的意見。這就在一定意義上保障了釋法行為的民主性。(二)《解釋》涉及的法條具體內容問題全國人大常委會此次《解釋》主要針對《基本法》附件一《香港特別行政區行政長官的產生辦法》第7條 “2007年以後各任行政長官的產生辦法如需修改,須經立法會全體議員2/3多數通過,行政長官同意,並報全國人民代表大會常務委員會批准。”5 以及附件二《香港特別行政區立法會的產生辦法和表決程序》第3條 “2007年以後香港特別行政區立法會的產生辦法和法案、議案的表決程序,如需對本附件的規定進行修改,須經立法會全體議員2/3多數通過,行政長官同意,並報全國人民代表大會常務委員會備案。”6 但事實上,欲明確《基本法》關
簡析“一國兩制”情境下的憲治與政治──談全國人大常委會釋法緣由澳門研究24BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES法律須報全國人民代表大會常務委員會備案,備案不影響該法律的生效。全國人民代表大會常務委員會在徵詢《基本法》委員會後,如認為立法會制訂的任何法律不符合《基本法》關於中央管理的事務及中央和特區的關係的條款,可將有關法律發回,但不作修改。經人大常委會發回的法律立即失效。”9 可見,在該語境中“備案”是區別於“批准”的。因為“批准”是要人大常委會同意後,法律才會正式訂立和生效,而此“備案”則不影響法律的生效。 那麼又如何理解全國人大常委會《解釋》中“只有經過上述程序,包括最後全國人民代表大會常務委員會依法批准或者備案,該修改方可生效”之語句呢?或者全國人大常委會只意在強調“批准”及“備案”的重要性。尤其關於“備案”,因為經過備案而未被認可的法律終將被發回,發回的法律立即失效。這將在客觀上督促特區方面在制定相關法律時應持更理性態度。通過對有關《解釋》之具體問題的考量,可以較為清晰地看到內地與香港就釋法問題存在的諸多分歧。客觀分析又可發覺,分歧的背後根源於各自理念及初衷的錯位。這就如同兩個語言不通的異鄉人,縱使面對面講話,到頭來也不過只是各自的一廂情願,使對話無異於失語。這種理念及初衷的錯位至少反映在兩個層面上——憲政文化與政治訴求。三、內地與香港憲政及法律文化差異淺析考察內地與香港各自的憲政文化傳統,亦可在差異中尋得某種啟示。首先,在中國的憲政體制裏,全國人大的地位至高無上,它既是立法機關又是最高權力機關。國家的行政機關、檢察機關以至審判機關都由人大任命並對人大負責。而在普通法國家裏,三權分立,司法獨立,法院行使違憲審查權以監察立法機關。在中國,法院則是被人大監督的機關,法院也不享有違憲審查權。因此,就法院司法權的內容和法院與立法機關的權力關係而言,香港的普通法傳統與中國內地法制傳統截然不同。反映在“一國兩制”的貫徹上,就至少導致一方面香港普通法院強調其司法權的獨立,另一方面全國人大則堅信其地位的權威。其次,在法律解釋傳統上,內地與香港也大相徑庭。在中國內地及某些大陸法系國家,“法律解釋”概念區別於普通法傳統。其“法律解釋”是指對法律條文中含義不清楚的地方予以澄清,亦即對立法原意作出補充性說明。從這個角度看,法律解釋與案件審理之間不存在必然聯繫。“立法解釋”(由人大常委會進行解釋)、“司法解釋”以及“行政解釋”各行其事。至於爭議比較大的“立法解釋”,是指立法機關作出的新的立法行為,對它以前通過的立法內容作出解釋。然而在普通法國家,如果立法機關作出這樣的行為,這並不稱為立法解釋,是要被理解為法律修改的。相應的,普通法系的“法律修改”概念又較之於中國內地更為廣泛,既包括內地的“法律修改”,又包涵內地的“立法解釋”。以此次人大常委會釋法為例,之所以香港有關方面人士認為人大常委會的“釋法”實際是變相“修改法律”,而根據《基本法》的規定,修改法律與解釋法律須履行不同的法律程序,而前者明顯更有利於調動香港方面的民主因素,從而認為“釋法”侵犯“高度自治”,其法律上的淵源便在於此。此外,由於香港的“法律解釋”概念只意味“司法解釋”,便造成香港方面對中國內地的廣義“法律解釋”概念持不認同態度,從而質疑人大常委會的釋法許可權。根據上述粗淺分析可見內地與香港憲政及法律文化迥異之一斑。那麼,又將如何調和兩者之間的矛盾,並在實踐中使之協調發展呢?應該說其手段便是《基本法》。作為實踐“一國兩制”的憲制性文件《基本法》,既是內地與特區憲政及法律文化衝突的前沿,又是汲取兩種異質法律文化特質並使其兩者在摩擦中塑造出新的法律生命的載體。恪守《基本法》的各項原則及規定,是中央與特區需要共同履行的義務。有觀點認為,《基本法》字面上看起來很完備,但其能否在實踐中得到貫徹實施值得懷疑。另有觀點主張,《基本法》從字面上看遠非完備,真正起作用去改善它的正是那些不成文的實踐、理解和慣例。10 對於這其間的張力,或許下面的論述能夠予以某種程度的回應。
CEPA:粵港澳經濟一體化的發展趨勢澳門研究30BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES在內地設立零售企業的地域範圍擴大到地級市,在廣東則擴大到縣級市,並允許港澳永久居民中的中國公民在廣東設立個體工商戶,無須經過外資前置審批;在旅遊領域,率先開放廣東境內居民個人赴港澳旅遊,並在東莞、中山、江門等市先行;在法律服務領域,取消港澳律師事務所在深圳、廣州設立代表處所有代表最少居留時間要求。此外,CEPA關於通關便利化的規定,實際上主要針對香港、澳門與廣東的通關情況。CEPA的這個特點決定了它實際上將首先在廣東珠三角洲地區實施。其實,無論從天時、地利、人和來看,CEPA的實施都將首先強化港澳與廣東的經濟整合。從天時看,粵港澳經濟合作由來已久,三地經濟落差正逐漸縮小,無論從合作深度、廣度及經驗累積的程度來看,廣東都具有比內地其他地區無法替代的優勢。從地利看,廣東毗鄰港澳的區位優勢,相比內地其他地區而產生的合作效應將更大更直接。從人和看,港澳居民大多以粵籍為主,三地語言相通、生活習慣相近、文化相同,尤其是改革開放20多年來的經貿合作奠定了良好的基礎,各方在建立共同經濟利益基礎上的基本發展觀念和思路上逐漸接近,為經濟融合奠定了堅實基礎。目前,香港、澳門與內地簽署的CEPA,其意義等同於歐洲國家在1957年簽署的《羅馬條約》,標誌港澳與內地,特別是粵港澳經濟一體化的正式啟動。正如有評論所指出:就近期而言,CEPA的確立給港澳經濟“提供了一個更為廣闊的發展空間,更自由的發展環境”,“但CEPA的意義遠遠不止於此,從更廣闊的歷史跨度上考察,這標誌 中國開始從制度層面上擺脫歷史造成的國內經濟分割局面,走向經濟整合。”CEPA的簽署,是港澳與內地特別是與廣東的經貿關係,從經濟合作走向經濟一體化的轉捩點和里程碑。就其性質而言,CEPA相當於國際上通行的自由貿易區,但是,CEPA與自由貿易區也有重要區別。一般自由貿易區協定通常是一次定型,一經簽署就不能隨意更改,且往往是適用於國家與國家之間的協議;而CEPA則遵循“先易後難、逐步推進”的原則不斷擴充,逐步深化,並且將更能體現在WTO總體框架下港澳與內地之間一個國家內部幾個獨立關稅區之間的特殊關係和客觀現實。在“更緊密經貿關係”的安排下,香港、澳門與內地,主要是與廣東的經濟一體化進程無疑將會進一步加快,其最終目標,至少發展至“共同市場”的階段,達致區域內人流、物流、資金流和資訊流能暢通地雙向自由流動,實現區域內生產要素和社會資源的最優配置。三、CEPA框架下粵港澳經濟融合的發展趨勢在CEPA框架下,粵港澳經濟合作無疑將進入一個嶄新的發展時期,三方的合作正呈現出一系列的新特點,主要表現在:首先,三方的合作將從以比較優勢為基礎、由市場機制引導的功能性合作向以突破政策、制度障礙的制度性整合轉變。過去20年,香港、澳門與廣東珠江三角洲地區的經濟往來,實際上一直停留在民間層面,彼此之間存在 邊境和關稅障礙,絕大部分生產要素不能進行雙向自由流動。因此,三地之間並未展開真正意義上的經濟整合,它只是一種參與各方的以其比較優勢為基礎、由市場機制引導的功能性整合,其特點主要是以民間組織為主體進行相互之間的貿易、投資,雙方還存在 制度上屏障。在這種模式下,內地與港澳政府間的默契方式除了配置外向型生產基地方面尚有所作為外,一旦交易涉及到區域內外服務、貿易、基礎設施的協調規劃與投資時,便遭遇種種的限制,因為只有在政府間達成正式的制度性安排,才能為這些領域的准入或廣泛合作放行。而在過去的發展中,三地之間都只是從各自經濟領地範圍內“經濟人”的假定出發,經濟規劃也只在不跨越“制度界線”的現實條件下進行,這就使得區域不可能進行整體經濟優化整合。然而CEPA的簽訂,打破了原來的制度障礙,三地可以超越這種“功能性”的整合,進行以突破政策、制度障礙為主要內容的制度性整合。其次,三方的合作將從純粹的垂直性分工合作向垂直性分工和水平分工相結合,逐步建立商品、服務、特別是生產要素共同市場的方向轉變。過去20年,粵港澳之間的經濟合作最主要的內容和基礎就是形成“前店後廠”的分工合作模式,這是一種垂直的產業分工體系。實際上,這種合作模式早在1990年代中後期,其局限性已逐漸暴露,並開始削
CEPA:粵港澳經濟一體化的發展趨勢澳門研究32BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES分工合作態勢相對仍未明朗。目前,影響物流業務在香港、澳門與廣東之間流動的主要因素仍然是成本價格,現階段廣東珠江三角洲地區在這方面仍然佔有絕對優勢。近年來,香港的成本雖然在下降,珠三角成本在上升,但雙方的差距仍然很大。可以預料,在未來一段時期,深圳、廣州(南沙)、珠海等地的港口物流業將隨 其貨運碼頭處理能力的增加而不斷擴展,與香港形成此消彼長的競爭態勢。不過,香港也仍然有其優勢。香港作為全球第10大國際貿易體系之一,實際上已經是亞洲地區首屈一指的國際運輸及物流樞紐,擁有完善的國際經貿網路、優越的物流基建配套、良好的物流營商環境、經驗豐富的專業人才、以及先進的資訊科技。香港的物流業在未來相當一段時期仍然佔主導地位,特別是其貨物空運方面。需要指出的是,目前,香港的物流業正在進行轉型,主要透過加強供應鏈管理、提供更多的增值服務來增強其競爭力。最典型的例子就是香港利豐集團的全球供應鏈管理經驗。當然,香港面對的最大挑戰就是營運成本偏高。其他問題包括,香港與其貨物腹地之間的“內陸集散網”基礎仍有待改善,香港各物流業供應商之間存在電子隔膜,以致供應鏈未能全面結合,妨礙香港發展各個融合各個物流環節的服務方案。此外,整體而言,香港在第三方物流服務方面,仍落後於新加坡和西方國家。因此,香港的定位是:亞太區國際性物流中心; 時效性、高端物流服務中心; 跨國物流公司投資珠三角的地區總部所在地; 全球或區域性供應鏈管理中心。在深圳方面,90年代以來,深圳市政府加大對物流業發展的支持力度,使鹽田集裝箱貨運港和黃田機場迅速崛起,成為全球第四大集裝箱貨運港及全國四大航空貨運基地之一。深圳的優勢是:航運能力增長迅速,距離貨源近,與香港聯繫緊密;高新技術產業基地;物流費用和交易成本較香港低。不過,深圳物流業迅速發展的直接結果之一,就是截流了原來流向香港的物流項目。有人批評深圳港口的發展忽略了“香港因素”,引發了與香港的激烈競爭,甚至對香港的物流中心地位構成了威脅。因此,深圳如何定位,與香港如何分工、協作,對構建大珠江三角洲物流樞紐體系極為關鍵。因此,深圳的角色應該是: 連接香港和內地的最為關鍵環節,是香港物流功能在內地的延伸及分流; 華南地區主要的貨物集散中心,是連接海外市場和珠三角經濟腹地的重要環節。廣州處在珠江三角洲地區中心地帶,歷史上便是商貿重鎮。作為廣東省的省會,目前是華南地區的經貿、金融中心和交通樞紐,本地物流需求旺盛,是全國最發達的貨物供需地之一,對地區經濟發展具有較高的政策影響力。從物流業的發展看,廣州已建成了立體式交通運輸網路,以廣州為中心,半天車程可以到達珠三角各製造業基地。與香港、深圳比較,廣州最大的優勢在於本地市場、與內地的聯繫和大珠三角現代裝備工業的地位,物流費用和交易成本也較香港低。廣州龐大的市場需求以及與內地緊密的聯繫保證了它對整個珠三角和內地的輻射能力。配合廣州產業結構向現代裝備工業、重工業和石化工業調整,廣州物流業從簡單的公路運輸、倉儲到一體化的供應鏈管理服務及海陸空多式聯運方式都具有極大的發展空間。因此,廣州的定位是: 華南地區物流中心,配給香港港,輻射珠三角及泛珠三角地區,發展綜合性物流服務; 本地快速運輸、配送和倉儲業務,本地及內地企業第三方物流服務的提供者; 汽車、造船、鋼鐵、石化等現代製造工業和裝備工業的物流服務提供者。澳門是中國南大門與香港互成犄角的另一個自由港、獨立關稅區。與香港比較,澳門經濟腹地和聯繫的國際市場都有很大的不同,澳門背靠的是珠江三角洲西部,沿西江上溯是西江中下游廣闊的經濟腹地。這是澳門不容忽視的戰略優勢。不過,澳門缺乏深水港,其自由港的功能一直以來難以有效發揮其應有的作用。澳門必須與珠海合作,把雙方的優勢結合起來,聯合發展成為粵西乃至大西南地區的商貿服務平台和物流轉運站,將粵西等地的優質產品透過澳門轉口至歐盟、葡語系國家、東南亞等地。第三,在CEPA框架下,逐步建立粵港澳大珠三角旅遊區。20世紀90年代以來,旅遊業這一享有“永久朝陽產業”美譽的新興產業,在國際經濟中越來越展現出勃勃生機。旅遊業已成為包括香港、澳門在內的大珠江三角洲經濟區一個日益重要的產業,也是CEPA框架下粵港澳經濟合作的重要領域之
33CEPA:粵港澳經濟一體化的發展趨勢Vol. 262005. 2一。鑒於粵港澳三地在旅遊業合作的良好前景,早在1993年底,香港、澳門和廣東三地的政府旅遊機構就合組“珠江三角洲旅遊推廣機構”,推動粵港澳旅遊大三角的發展,並取得了初步成效。據香港旅遊協會的統計,1998年,在同一次行程中旅遊香港及珠江三角洲地區的海外旅客接近 265萬,比1991年增長超過三成。粵港澳三地的歷史背景相近,但各具不同特色的旅遊資源。香港作為亞太區的國際大都會,匯集了中西文化精粹,充滿現代化城市活力,近年積極推廣其“魅力之都、動感之都”形象,其最大賣點就是興建中的迪士尼主題公園。據專家估計,迪士尼樂園啟用首年參觀人數可達500萬人次,15年後達到飽和,屆時每年將有1,000萬人次前往參觀。澳則相容中國傳統及葡萄牙文化,彌漫 獨特的歐陸風情,是世界三大賭城之一,被譽為“東方蒙地卡羅”。2002年澳門特區政府打破博彩專營壟斷,引進競爭機制。澳門正逐步發展成博彩、觀光、文化、度假、保健、商務、會議、展覽互相輔助、融為一體的綜合性旅遊業城市,成為“亞洲拉斯維加斯”。歷史文化悠久的廣東是中國近代史發源地,也是中國現代經濟發展最迅速的地區。廣東地域遼闊,自然和人文資源豐富,以“近代史跡勝地”、“南粵風情”、“改革開放之窗”等而聞名海內外。目前,廣東共有7個國家級歷史名城、3個國家級和34個省級風景區和約2,000個旅遊景點。三地在旅遊業的合作,將可組成一個世界級的旅遊區域。因此,如何充分發揮粵港澳三地的旅遊特色,而又實現優勢互補的旅遊路線及旅遊產品體系,是推動旅遊合作的關鍵。第四,在CEPA框架下,粵港澳加強高新技術產業合作,建立“香港──珠江三角洲高科技灣區”。在零關稅制度下,廣東的機遇在於粵港澳聯手打造珠三角“世界工廠”,合作發展高附加值、高科技產業,建立“香港──珠江三角洲高科技灣區”。廣東出口加工業主要是在承接香港製造業轉移下帶動起來的,其基本的生產模式和技術結構是香港版本的複製和放大。雖然經過多年的努力有了改善和發展,作為世界性生產製造基地已經初具規模,但一直面臨 產業升級轉型的困難,並且開始顯現發展後勁不足。由於受制於國際產業轉移中的技術限制,加上香港製造業已經在技術上無力帶動廣東,以及國內長三角等地競爭的壓力,廣東憑一己之力建成真正的世界性製造基地,無疑十分困難。現在零關稅給了香港、澳門發展高新技術產業的良機,在國際資本的推動下,香港有可能在數位技術、納米技術、軟體業和生物制藥等領域有所發展,建立起以掌握核心技術的高技術產業和重振高附加值的傳統製造業。如果廣東能夠與香港及澳門聯手打造大珠三角製造基地,就可以充分利用零關稅制度的有利而化解不利,實現共同發展。需要強調的是,在CEPA框架和零關稅制度下,香港與廣東深圳、珠江三角洲地區的合作可考慮建立“跨境工業區”或“邊境工業區”,以吸引有意進入中國市場的國際跨國公司到區內投資設廠,發展高附加值及高新科技產業。香港與廣東可借鑑美國三藩市灣區的經驗,以香港為融資營運中心,將深圳發展成為風險投資中心或創業基金中心,以深圳、廣州、珠海等高新技術產業區為高技術產業孵化基地,以珠江三角洲包括東莞、惠州、中山、番禺等縣市為生產基地,並與北京、上海等城市建立策略性聯盟,形成“香港──珠江三角洲高科技灣區”。需要指出的是,目前珠澳“跨境工業區”的建設已經啟動,正為這方面的發展提供的示範和借鑑。參考書目:1. 《內地與香港關於建立更緊密經貿關係的安排》,2003年6月29日。2. 《內地與澳門關於建立更緊密經貿關係的安排》,2003年10月17日。3. 香港總商會:《內地與香港更緊密經貿關係安排──商 界評估報告》,2003年11月。4. 馮邦彥:《香港產業結構研究》,北京:經濟管理出版社,2002年。5. 馮邦彥:《澳門概論》,香港:三聯書店,1999年。6. CEPA: A Tentative Analysis of Its Impact on Hong Kong, HK Trade Development Council. 7. CEPA and Opportunities for Hong Kong, HK Trade Development Council. 8. Leveraging on CEPA Opportunities to Tap into PRC Logistics Market, HK Trade Development Council.
澳門在大珠三角區域一體化中的地位分析澳門研究34BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES了區域發散的狀況。我們可以從大珠三角1990-2002年的三地經濟增長的變化看到這一趨向。圖1 大珠三角GDP增長率走勢圖(1999-2002年)由圖1可見,三地的經濟增長在90年代的中期以前,與80年代的走勢相同,一直保持同步的勢頭,尤其是廣東與香港之間,其增長率的差距不大,均維持雙位數增長。三地更分別在中國經濟過熱的1992年出現了高速的經濟成長,充分體現了三地經濟成長動力的共同性。但是,即使是在中國經濟過熱增長的推動下,澳門首先產生了經濟走勢的分歧。從1993年起,澳門的經濟成長率開始逆勢逐年下降,與粵港兩地拉開差距,其中1993年與1998年的差幅達14-15%。並且在1996年出現了持續4年的負增長。直到2000年由於出現了新的增長動力,澳門才又重拾增長的勢頭。而香港則是由於亞洲金融風暴在1998年打斷了增長的態勢,並且出現了較長期的經濟不景。在1998年香港與廣東同樣拉開了澳門正處於CEPA框架下的一個大珠三角經濟互動與全面整合的趨勢之中。這個整合將最終決定澳門的經濟前景──澳門在大珠三角區域一體化中的地位與角色。一、CEPA重新啟動大珠三角新一輪的經濟互動以粵港澳三地組成的大珠三角區域的經濟互動的歷史開端是在上個世紀的80年代初期。產業轉移型的“前店後廠”的區域合作格局在大珠三角取得了令世人驚歎的經濟奇跡。由港澳的投資帶動生產技術合作及中間製品的貿易,從而形成三地間行業內、企業內的垂直分工關係,並且把這個關係納入了經濟的國際迴圈。以製造產業“擴散效應”為特徵的三地產業的聯動發展,其優點是轉移成本低、產業成長週期短、技術要求低與易於進入國際市場。由此造成的巨大經濟效益把大珠三角的三個地區緊密地聯繫在一起。但是,這個合作格局也具有其發展的限制:產業擴展空間的局限(產業鏈條很短)、適用技術的局限(主要為標準化的適用技術,技術要求低)與產業迴圈的局限(生產與流通的環節在區內無法連接,必須借助外部才使迴圈完整)。這些局限終於在90年代中後期全面凸顯,而最先出現與這個合作格局鬆動、脫落趨向的就是澳門。(一) 90年代大珠三角地區經濟成長的不同走勢1990年代的10年是大珠三角區域經濟合作趨勢逐步發生轉向的10年。10年間大珠三角的三地由經濟發展互為動力、互相促進的同步發展態勢,出現澳門在大珠三角區域一體化中的地位分析封小雲、楊道匡** 前者為暨南大學經濟學院教授,後者為澳門理工學院社會經濟研究所副所長25201510 5 0-5︵單位百分比︶ 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002年度註: 上圖用廣東數字代表珠三角。澳門數位採用1996年不變價,廣 東、香港則為現價。資料來源:《廣東統計年鑑》、《香港經濟年鑑》、《澳門統計年鑑》(1990-2002)
澳門博彩業大發展中的幾個問題澳門研究42BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES世紀之交的澳門處在一個歷史轉捩點,政治上,1999年底回歸祖國;經濟上,2001年底舊賭約到期。新的澳門政府及時地抓住了這個契機,利用回歸的大好形勢和舊賭約到期的有利時機,實行了旨在打破壟斷,促進發展的賭權開放改革;同時,又制訂了“以旅遊博彩為龍頭”的新產業政策,從而把澳門的社會經濟發展帶上了一條新的軌道,跨上了一個新的台階。一、賭權開放帶來的歷史性大發展回歸五年來,澳門博彩業經歷了一個前所未有的大發展。 2003年,澳門博彩業收入達 294.76億元,比回歸前1999年的139.47億元翻了一翻還多。澳門GDP的近一半、政府財政收入的近三成來自博彩業。估計2004年澳門的博彩業收入將達到400億澳門幣,佔GDP的比重會超過一半,博彩稅收佔財政收入的比重將會達到80%。澳門博彩業的大發展給整個經濟的發展帶來了動力和活力,另一方面,也為澳門經濟和社會提出了新的問題。2002年,回歸後的特區政府實行博彩業適度開放政策,利用政府與澳娛公司的舊賭約到期的有利時機,以招標競投的方法,將博彩業經營牌照判予澳門博彩有限公司(STDM的子公司)、永利渡假(澳門)股份有限公司和銀河娛樂股份有限公司。從此,澳門賭業傳統上的一王獨大的局面結束,澳門博彩業由一家企業變成了一個市場。後來,在“賭牌掛靠”的獨特制度安排下,在這三頂帽子下冒出了五個腦袋,形成了“三牌五家”的局面。這兩家新公司分別是,從銀河中獨立出來的美國威尼斯人公司和美國MGM公司。五強爭雄的局面,將給澳門博彩業的制度結構帶來深刻變化,也為澳門博彩業的大發展帶來了巨大推動力。2004年5月18日,美國威尼斯人公司投資18億澳門幣建成的澳門的金沙賭場開張,熱鬧一時,日進斗金。該賭場擁有300多張賭檯和600部老虎機,這差不多相當於整個澳門原有的博彩設施的3/4。金沙的開業是澳門賭業史上的一個里程碑,它標誌澳門博彩業延續了近百年的獨家專營局面的結束,“戰國時代”正式開始。6月24日,拉斯維加斯賭王Steven Wynn投資56億的“永利度假村賭場”舉行了動土儀式,與葡京賭場一街之隔,唱 對台戲。賭場將擁有600個酒店客房、200張賭檯、350部老虎機。7月4日,港資銀河公司在澳門的首家賭場“華都賭場”開張。內有100個酒店房間,30張賭檯,另有8張貴賓檯。還有,何鴻燊的澳博公司已經開始在葡京對面建造“新葡京”(Grand Lisboa),其中有800個酒店房間,3萬平方米的賭廳,3年內完工。澳博公司正在手將屬下的八佰伴商場改成賭場。銀河公司在“華都”開張後,立即開始動工“銀河星際酒店”的工程。該酒店位於永利度假村旁邊,與葡京相對,投資16億元,內有20萬平方尺的大型賭場,200張賭檯,300多部老虎機。2006年完工開張。威尼斯人公司很快就要開始在路 填海區的大澳門博彩業大發展中的幾個問題王五一** 澳門理工學院社會經濟研究所研究員
澳門博彩業大發展中的幾個問題澳門研究44BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES盟的四家外來博彩商都把中國大陸市場作為主要目標市場,用他們自己的話說,他們之所以敢於來澳門投資,主要就是看準了大陸這塊市場。大陸客源的迅速增長無疑與CEPA政策中的“自由行”的實施有關。相信這一自由行政策將會堅持下去,並進一步擴大範圍。其實,大陸政府在實行“人”的“自由行”的同時,也在逐漸實施一些“錢”的自由行政策,這包括個人出境攜帶貨幣限額的放寬、港澳銀行經營人民幣業務的放開、資本項目外匯管制的逐漸放鬆、大陸信用卡的日益發展,等等,所有這些都在為賭資的流出創造方便。所以從近期來看,澳門客源市場以大陸客為主的趨勢將會保持和加強。但這樣一來,可能會引發一個不利的因素:澳門賭商可能會忽視自己傳統的港客、泰客市場,專一地吃大陸飯,造成澳門博彩業市場結構的單一化。這種態勢如果形成,不但會給澳門博彩市場的穩定性和潛在能力產生不良影響,而且單靠大陸市場一家掏腰包來餵養澳門賭業,也會對大陸造成一定的金融壓力和損失,會引起中央政府的警惕。四、以旅遊博彩為龍頭的經濟發展定位從五至十年的中期趨勢來預測,澳門博彩業的發展應當是一個上升的趨勢。理由是,澳門政府已經確定了“以旅遊博彩為龍頭”的產業政策,在今後相當一段時間內,這個產業政策不會變。從客觀上來講,也沒有變的餘地。儘管多年來澳門政府、學者和商界一直在尋求“產業多元化”的出路,希望能為澳門在博彩業之外再另找一個產業“山頭”,改變博彩業一家獨大的狀況。然而,實踐中此一尋求並無大的突破。也就是說,目前的這一產業政策並不是人們的一個主觀選擇,而是對澳門的現實條件的一個客觀反映。既然如此,澳門政府和人民就一定會集中全力把博彩的事情辦好,把澳門博彩業的蛋糕做大,使之成為名符其實的東方賭城。有大陸市場為後盾,有香港比不上賭場的條件,有台灣日本在開賭問題上的猶豫不決,澳門賭業在中期之內還是會有一個相當的發展餘地的。然而,要預測澳門博彩業的長期發展趨勢,除了用水晶球,可能沒有甚麼別的好辦法。因為澳門博彩業的長期發展前景主要地取決於其周邊市場環境的變化。從現在的情況來看,除了大陸不開賭場這一點可以得到保證外,其他澳門周邊市場的現存條件沒有一個可以保證不變,包括香港開不開賭場的問題,十年以後恐怕也不敢說。如果香港由澳門的重要客源地一變而為澳門的競爭對手,情況就不好估計了。香港開了賭場,將會對澳門的經濟構成巨大威脅。到時,不但澳門現有的香港客源將會被截留在香港,而且現在到澳門來賭的大陸賭客、泰國賭客、台灣賭客的相當一個多數也會轉而去香港。如果出現這種情況,那澳門的經濟前景就不好說了。五、博彩業大發展挑戰勞動力市場博彩業大發展的態勢,給澳門的就業市場創造了一個美好的前景,產生了四個效果:第一,給澳門的失業勞動力帶來了就業機會;第二,給一些在其他行業從業的粗工勞力轉入博彩業帶來了機會;第三,對於博彩業的現有勞工改善工作條件和待遇,創造了機會;第四,創造了一個新部門──博彩就業培訓,使一些博彩業的老從業人員一變而為教學培訓人員。為因應未來博彩業發展的需求,澳門的博彩培訓業呈全面開花之勢。2003年以來,澳門的三所公立高等院校,澳門大學、澳門理工學院和澳門旅遊學院都相繼開設了不同層次的博彩培訓課程。澳博公司以及其他一些私立大學也建立起了培訓中心。正在密鑼緊鼓地準備開業的威尼斯人公司,也辦了自己的荷官培訓班。細數來,目前在澳門的各個層次的博彩從業人員培訓中心或培訓班有七、八家之多。2003年10月28日,澳門政府建立的澳門旅遊博彩技術培訓中心正式啟用,在啟用儀式上,該中心與三家博彩持牌公司分別簽訂了合作培訓協定,計劃在未來三年內培訓一萬名學員,為三家博彩公司提供合格的勞工。有鑒於這種情況,可以預計,在未來三五年內,澳門博彩業的勞動力供應不會有太大的問題。然而,從長期的趨勢來看,隱憂還是有的。在博彩業勞動力需求急劇擴大的同時,澳門政府的勞動管理部門打擊僱用非法外地勞工的風聲也緊了起來。這無非是在回應博彩企業們為了提高僱員素質而增加的引進外勞的籲求。這種情況其實反映了一
澳門博彩業大發展中的幾個問題澳門研究46BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES結論可能會好些。例如,對第一個問題,可以在保持澳門的本土傳統的基礎上,逐漸搞一些與國際接軌的動作,而不是一下子棄舊圖新;對第二個問礎上,增加一些旨在增加散客小客的促銷措施;對第三個問題,也可以走下里巴人與陽春白雪並行不悖的路子;對第四個問題,最終目標當然是要實現規範化、透明化與法制化,但也要循序漸進,一步步走,走急了,就可能出問題。例如,如果現在就一下子取消了澳門賭業中的灰色成份,澳門經濟可能會蒙受大的損失。八、完善澳門賭業的法制體系澳門特區政府幾年來在博彩法制建設方面是做了大量工作的。從立法方面來看,回歸後的特區政府先後制訂了《娛樂場幸運博彩經營法律制度》、《訂定從事娛樂場幸運博彩中介業務的資格及規則》、《博彩中介人傭金稅項之部分豁免》以及《博彩信貸法》等法律。除了回歸以後訂定的這些新法外,可用以監督和管理博彩業的相關法律還有《有組織犯罪法》、《清洗黑錢》以及《刑法》中有關非法賭博,借錢與人賭博等罪。這些立法,應當說是相對健全的。與美國等發達國家的有關立法體系相比,並無大的差距。而與新開賭的越南、緬甸、俄羅斯等國家的博彩立法和監管比,應當算是非常完善的一個體系。以反洗黑錢為例,自從美國政府80年代在修訂反洗黑錢法時將賭場列入了“金融機構”的概念以後,世界發達國家先後將反洗黑錢的監管擴大到了賭場。可以說,實行不實行反洗黑錢措施,是檢驗一個博彩業體系是否健康的重要標誌。而澳門賭場的反洗黑錢政策在整個東亞地區是很完善的。其主要法律是澳門金融管理局的《信用機構打擊清洗黑錢指引》和《打擊清洗黑錢大額現金交易指引》兩個文件;另外在《刑法》和《有組織犯罪法》中制訂了有關反洗黑錢的法例,將洗錢刑事化。根據這些法律,政府成立了博彩罪案調查處,並在賭場派駐司法警察,加強博彩場所秩序的維護,預防及打擊欺詐、洗錢等非法活動。2003年9月,“第六屆亞洲太平洋地區打擊清洗黑錢組織年會及第二屆技術研討會”在澳門召開,作為該組織新成員的中國澳門以非常積極的姿態參加和承辦了這次大會,這都表現了澳門作為一個賭城在反洗黑錢方面的積極性。澳門博彩法制建設的另一項重要成就就是最近頒佈的旨在規範化博彩中介人制度的兩個法律,《訂定從事娛樂場幸運博彩中介業務的資格及規則》、《博彩中介人傭金稅項之部分豁免》。這兩個法律規定了博彩中介人的資格審批、營業監管及依法納稅制度。這項立法措施消除了澳門傳統博彩業的一塊灰色地帶,為澳門博彩業向規範化、法制化方向的發展創造了一個良好開端。2004年7月1日,澳門的第一部《博彩信貸法》正式生效。這也是澳門博彩法制建設的一個重要事件。賭博借貸是隨 博彩業特別是賭場業的發展而發展起來的一個邊緣性金融市場,也是許多賭場的一種促銷措施。有了賭博借貸,一個人到賭場去,不但可能輸光了屁股,而且可能欠一屁股債回來。賭博的社會危害,相當大的一個因素就是賭博借貸。所謂的病態賭徒,其基本特徵,便是借債賭博。所以,這個問題爭議性很大。賭博借貸,在有的國家合法,如在美國的內華達州;有的國家非法,如歐洲的一些國家。而澳門原來的情況是,它理論上非法,實踐上被容忍。美國的賭博借貸是由賭場向其顧客提供貸款;澳門則是由賭廳承包人、中介人、疊馬仔甚至貴利集團(大耳窿)向賭客提借貸,澳門的賭場即博彩公司並不向賭客提供貸款。澳門的這種借貸長期存在,在商業實踐中發揮 重要作用,但卻得不到法律的承認和保護,形成澳門博彩業中的一塊灰色地帶。為了解決這個問題,澳門政府下了很大的功夫,包括多次派團到美國訪問,瞭解美國的具體情況。在此基礎上,組織法律專家,深入研究,制訂澳門的第一部賭博借款法《娛樂場博彩或投注信貸法律制度》,經向社會廣泛徵求意見後獲得通過於2004年7月1日生效。這部法律,是澳門博彩法制建設中的一大成功,歸納起來,它有這樣幾個特點:第一是包容性。法律將博彩經營持照人、轉批給人以及博彩中介人一併納入“信貸實體”的範疇。這反映了新法律的包容性,即將美國的新作法與澳門的傳統作法都包容進來,打破了人們在爭論階段“非此即彼”的擔心,最大限度地保證了澳門
如何利用情景分析法解讀澳門博彩業的未來澳門研究48BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES“凡事預則立,不預則廢。”──古訓一、前言澳門的博彩產業正進入前所未有的發展時期,從1999年澳門回歸以來,博彩產業的收入平均每年以12%的速度增長。2002年賭權開放,今年金沙、華都開業以來,澳門的博彩產業增長更加迅速。產業的競爭機制初步形成,產業規模迅速擴大,政府稅收增長良好。但是博彩產業的增長能否持續或能夠持續多久時間?這種增長對其他產業的發展會產生甚麼樣的影響?對澳門的資源需求會產生甚麼影響?澳門應在哪些方面做好準備?等等問都還沒有得到充分的研究。這些問題的答案對特區政府博彩政策的制定,企業的經營決策都有至關重要的影響。但要回答這些問題,有較大的難度,因為要回答這些問題,必須對未來的發展進行大致準確的預測。由於澳門面臨的形勢是嶄新的形勢,沒有歷史資料作趨勢推測,因此傳統的統計分析方法不能派上用場,這就需要研究新的預測方法。本文介紹的情景分析法也許是較好的一種選擇。二、情景分析法案例──殼牌公司成功應對石油危機在20世紀60年代末,《福布斯》雜誌還稱殼牌公司(Royal Dutch/Shell)為“醜陋的小妹妹”,因為其財務實力比較差,1973年在世界最大的7家石油公司(石油7姊妹)中的排名為第六位。但到80年代末,該公司的排名上升到第二位,僅次於埃克森公司。殼牌公司的成功來自它對幾次石油危機的預測。1971年中東產油國出現了一些動盪的跡象。當時所有的石油公司都沒有想到該跡象的含義。他們認為,中東的緊張關係會逐漸消逝,因為西方會保持中東的穩定。但殼牌公司規劃部的研究員Mr. Wack 和 Mr. Newland持不同看法。他們利用情景分析法分析了中東局勢,得出結論:阿拉伯世界的變化將使西方石油公司主宰了25年的石油體系失去穩定性,“石油價格可能從現在的2美元一桶上漲到10美元一桶”,能源危機可能不可避免。Wack和Newland提出了幾種應對方案,讓管理層不但認識到這種危機,而且能為之作好準備。殼牌公司有幾位有遠見的高層管理人員支援他們的看法,讓他們兩人組織人員宣講他們的研究結果。1972年到1973年初,他們將他們的分析預測傳達到了殼牌在全球的子公司。他們的努力使殼牌公司及時採取了一些應對措施。1973年6月爆發中東戰爭,10月油價從3美元/桶漲到 5.11美元/桶, 1974年 1月,油價上漲到 11.65美元/桶,到1975年漲到了13美元/桶。1979年伊朗發生革命,石油生產減少,石油價格更漲到37美元/桶,西方幾乎所有石油公司都遭到 重打擊,但殼牌公司是個例外。80年代初,石油產業進入了泡沫時期。但石油如何利用情景分析法解讀澳門博彩業的未來曾忠祿** 澳門理工學院科研暨出版處處長、教授
如何利用情景分析法解讀澳門博彩業的未來澳門研究52BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES圖4 拉斯維加斯賭客平均旅行賭博預算當然,我這裏只能是說美國博彩產業有進入成熟期的跡象,並不等於是說美國賭場已真正進入成熟期。是否真正進入成熟期還需要進一步觀察,此外還要考慮賭場是否通過創新使產品“重新煥發青春”等因素。比如1989年以永利的金殿賭場酒店為首的度假村式的賭場開張就使增長停滯的拉斯維加斯博彩產業重新得到增長機會。4. 影響這些因素的驅動力量有哪一些?影響遊客數量和消費能力的因素包括顧客來源地的宏觀經濟狀況:宏觀經濟好,遊客的數量就增加,每一顧客的消費也會增加,反之就是減少;消費的趨勢和觀念的變化:是否將更多的預算用於休閒娛樂消費?對博彩持甚麼看法?如果認為博彩只要有節制,就是健康的娛樂,他們對博彩服務的消費就會增加,如果認為博彩是一種社會惡習、是有害的消費,他們就會減少對博彩服務的消費。影響競爭性產品變化的主要因素包括周邊地區的政府的政策(是否允許賭場合法化)、社會觀念(對博彩業的看法)、休閒產業創新能力(創新能力越強,競爭性產品的增加就會越快)等因素。影響澳門博彩業的因素包括博彩企業自身的創新能力、政府的政策、各種資源的制約情況等。而影響產品生命周期的因素包括顧客消費觀念的變化、競爭性產品的發展和賭場自身的創新能力。5. 這些驅動力量哪些更重要,哪些相對沒有這麼重要?具體需要列出詳盡的因素再仔細研究,但有一些的差別是非常明顯的。比如說影響競爭產品產生的因素中,最重要的是政府政策。周邊地區的政府允許當地賭場合法化,立即可以產生同澳門直接競爭的賭場,因此在競爭性產品方面,周邊地區的政府政策變化應是情景分析的主要目標。6. 驅動力量可能的情景。我們先構想澳門博彩產業發展的3種情景及其驅動力量: 15-20年之後,賭場收入繼續以較高的速度增長,比如每年增長保持10%左右,這是最樂觀的情景。出現這種情況的條件是主要客源地的經濟繼續高速增長,賭客消費支出不斷增加,對賭博的偏好更加強; 賭場收入增長緩慢,比如每年增長5%左右。導致這種可能性出現的因素包括主要客源地經濟增長放緩、或競爭性產品太多、或遊客賭博的興趣下降、或遊客賭博的金額大幅下降。這是比較中性的情景; 賭場收入停止增長或萎縮。導致這種情況出現的因素包括主要客源地經濟增長緩慢、遊客因太多的選擇,或對賭博的偏好發生重大轉變。每一種可能性出現的概率有多高?需要通過分析計算一個百分比。7. 構想驅動力量可能的情景。出現第一種情況澳門會怎麼樣?出現第二種情況澳門會這麼樣?第三種?以上僅是非常簡單的演示,目的只是給我們一些啟示。實際分析要複雜得多。七、總結隨 澳門賭權開放和新賭場開始運作,澳門博彩產業進入良性競爭階段,澳門博彩產業正進入前所未有的發展時期。但澳門博彩產業長遠的發展仍面臨一些不確定因素。由於澳門對博彩產業有很高的依賴,因此預測分析澳門博彩未來的趨勢對特區政府和博彩企業的戰略決策都至關重要。由於澳門的博彩產業面臨的環境是全新的,並繼續迅速變化,因此傳統的預測方法不能湊效。本文介紹的情景分析法有助於解決這一難題。參考書目:1. Aaker, D. A., Developing Business Strategy (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998).2. Brian, K. Boyd, “Executive Scanning and Perceived Uncertainty: A Multidimensional Model”, Journal of Management, Vol. 22, No. 1 (1996), pp. I-21.3. Heijden, Kees Van der, “Scenarios and Forecasting: Two Perspectives”, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Vol. 65 (2000), pp. 31-36. 4. L. Kahaner, How to Gather, Analyse & Use Information to Move Your Business to the Top (Touchstone Books, 1996).5. Oster, S. M., Modern Competitive Analysis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).6. Sammon, W. L., et al., Competitor Intelligence: An Analytical Approach: Methods for Collecting, Organizing & Using
53如何利用情景分析法解讀澳門博彩業的未來Vol. 262005. 2 Information (New York: Ronald Press, 1984).7. Peter, Schwartz, The Art of the Long View (Currency Doubleday, 1991).8. F. Tessun, “Scenario Analysis and Early Warning System at Daimler-Banz Aerospace”, Competitive Intelligence Review, Vol. 8, No. 4 (1997).9. Sarah Breacher, Tools for Predicting Alternative Futures (Fletcher Mountain Group, 2001).10. Liu, Shuhua, “Business Environment Scanner for Senior Managers: Towards Active Executive Support with Intelligent Agents”, Expert Systems with Applications, Vol. 15 (1998), pp. 111-121.11. Xianzhong M. Xua et al., “UK executives’ Vision on Business Environment for Information Scanning”, Information & Management, Vol. 40 (2003), pp. 381-389. 12. 曾忠祿:《企業競爭情報管理──戰勝競爭對手的秘密 武器》,暨南大學出版社,2004年。
A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and its Gaming Industry澳門研究54BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESFollowing the establishment of the Macau Special Administrative Region (MSAR) on 20th December, 1999, and the MSAR government’s ultimate decision to end the monopolistic structure of its casino industry by issuing a total of three casino licenses on 8th February, 2002, the Macau economy, with the gaming industry being the largest sector ─ under the output approach, “gaming services” accounting for 26.9% and 32.2% of Macau’s GDPs in the years of 1999 and 2001 respectively2 ─ is apparently entering into a new epoch. Given these revolutionary changes, how would the positioning of the various sectors in the economy be affected? Would they be pooled together effectively? What would be the real profits to the market participants and what are the challenges that they would have to face? Who would be the likely winners and losers? Are the new forces generated in thepast few years strong enough to ensure sustainable growth and development of the economy? This study is aimed to answer all these questions by pulling down the veil of the economy and its various sectors. Analyzing from the perspectives of economic efficiency and economic development, and taking Macau’s special features into consideration, extensive comparisons and critical evaluation on notable changes would be made, in order toensure that this paper presents the most reliable information tothe industry, as well as to other interested parties such as academics.1. Macau’s Revival since its HandoverThe last quarter of the 1990s could be portrayed as a disorientation state to the Macau society since the second half of the 1960s ─ the society was seriously disordered and the economy slumped. Thanks to the failure of the Macau-Portuguese government in monitoring and controlling the organized crimes which were mostly linked to the huge fringe profits associated withthe casino business3, social disturbances proliferated in the last few years before Macau’s handover. The social chaos further stepped up economic downturn which had been set into the stage from the year of 1995, when the Chinese government introduced the macroeconomic regulation and control measures to cope with the over-heated economy in the Mainland. Consequently, Macau’s real economic growth hit its record low (-4.57% and -3.04% in 1998 and 1999 respectively ─ see the upper chart in Figure 1)since the end of the 1970s.4 As the economy slumped, social unrest was further deteriorated by the widespread unemployment issue (the unemployment rate doubled from 3.3% in the first quarter of 1998, i.e. 6.9%, in the third quarter of 1999 ─ see the lower chart in Figure 1). As a result, unlike the citizens in Hong Kong, people in Macau aspired for the handover and looked forward to having improvement on the social and economic condition. To smoothen the process of Macau’s handover, the Chinesegovernment re-asserted its position in Macau’s social and economic affairs following the principle of “one country, two sys-tems”. For example, the decision of the Chinese government to station its troops in Macau clearly showed her determination to suppress the various parties of the underworld society, no onethereafter ever attempted to challenge the controlling and supervisory power of the MSAR government in securing Macau’sA New Epoch in the Macau Economy and Its Gaming Industry1 Ricardo Chi Sen, Siu** Assistant professor, Coordinator of the Economics and International Finance program of the Faculty of Business Administration; Research Coordinator of the Institute for the Study of Commercial Gaming, at the University of Macau.
55A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and its Gaming IndustryVol. 262005. 2social stability. Together with a series of efforts undertaken by theMSAR government to remove the internal weaknesses of its po-lice force and the related departments, Macau’s social stability was evidently reinforced since its handover ─ foreign visitors evencommented that “Macau was a very safe place as compared towhat they heard from the mass media before Macau’s handover”.As a gaming and tourism based economy, with income heavilydependent on v is i tors ’ spending, a secured soc ia l environment was definitely a necessary condition to save the economy out from recessionary period. By carrying out a series of economic adjustment measures, the opening of casino industry served as the central mean to solidify the industrial foundation (i.e. on the supply side) of the Macau economy, Macau showed notable economic rebound in the years of 2000 and 2001 (the realeconomic growth was 4.6% and 2.2% respectively), while manyother countries and the neighboring economies were still struggling with stagnant economic performance. Following the official announcement of granting the new licenses to the three new casino operators in February 2002, Macau’s real growth even hit 9.5% in that year, and then a record high of 15.6% in the year of 2003 (as illustrated in the upper chart of Figure 1).Figure 1 Changing Macroeconomic Condition of the Macau EconomySource: Marked against data released in various annual issues of the Yearbook of Statistics; and quarterly issues of the Employment Survey, by Macau Statistics and Census Service.Generally speaking, following the formal and informal institutional changes under the regime of “one country, two systems”, and the changing market incentives from the opening ofcasino industry, the Macau economy entered into a new epoch. While the economy’s aggregate output rebounded significantly in the years of 2002 and 2003, not every sector shared the prosperity.An initial remark was revealed in the lower chart of Figure 1 ─ the local unemployed labor were not benefited from the recent recovery of the economy (detailed discussion on this issue would be shown in section 3). 2. The Augmenting Magnitude of the Casino IndustryCombing the effects of lacking natural resources, limitation in geographical area, and failure of the public sector to provide aproper institutional framework for promoting the development of its secondary sector (especially its manufacturing industry), a modernized industrial structure and the scale of Macau’s manufacturing industry had yet been developed. In general, Macau’s manufacturing industry could only be categorized as a traditional labor-intensive industry, which was heavily dependent on the exports of low-cost and low-value-added products (e.g. garments, toys and simple electronic products, etc.). In view of the lack of real competitiveness, the increase in labor cost since the end of the 1970s, and the expansion of trade blocs in the world market, business opportunity and capacity available for Macau’s manufacturing industry had been shrinking over time since the end of the 1970s. For example, the share of the output from the manufacturing industry in the economy’s production-based GDP dropped significantly from over 20% in the 1980s to only 9.3% in the year of 1998, and further fell to 8.5% in 2001.5 On the contrary, owing to the particular historical settings ofthe Macau society6, the casino industry assumed the leading position in sustaining Macau’s economic growth, especially sincethe middle of the 1980s. For instance, the share of “gaming services”, in which the contribution from the casino business accounting for over 95%, reached 30% of the economy’s production-based GDP in the middle of the 1990s. Although this share fell to around 29% and 27% respectively in the years of 1998 and 1999 when Macau’s social security was seriously threatened, there was a typical V-shape rebound subsequent to Macau’s handover (Figure 2).
A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and its Gaming Industry澳門研究56BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESFigure 2 The Share of Gaming Services in the Production-Based GDP at Current Price (1995 - 2002)Source: Measured with data released in various annual issues of the Yearbook of Statistics, by Macau Statistics and Census Ser-vice.With the opening of the casino industry in the beginning of the year 2002, the upward trend of the share of “gaming services” in Macau’s aggregate income became explicit. For example, it was estimated that in the year of 2003, the share of “gaming services” was approaching 35% of the economy’s GDP, while the share ofany other individual sectors (e.g. manufacturing, financial in-termediation, real estate activities, public administration, etc.)were only at single-digit levels. According to the scales of business as presented in the proposals of the three new casino licensees7, the amount of investment that had been made in the past two years, and the amount that would be injected in the coming few years, implied in one way or another, the vigor of the gaming industry in uplifting Macau’s economic income. In addition to the economy’s aggregate income, another essential economic position that the gaming industry is expected to expand in the foreseeable future is its increasing contribution tothe public sector revenue. As revealed in Figure 3, the share of gaming tax to the government’s direct tax revenue increased byalmost 7% in the year of 2002, as compared to that in 1999, which also represented 87.5% of the government’s total direct taxrevenue. In terms of the government’s recurrent revenue, the shareof gaming tax in the year of 2002 was 70.8%, which was almost 8% higher than the 63.0% in 1995; or 18% higher than the 52.5% in 1999.Figure 3 The Share of Gaming Tax in the Government’s Recurrent Revenue and Direct Taxes (1995 - 2002)Source: Measured with data released in various annual issues of the Yearbook of Statistics, Macau Statistics and Census Service.In principle, as Macau is under a currency board system,monetary policy becomes an infeasible macroeconomic policy adopted by the government to deal with macroeconomic performance. Over a long period of time, although the Macau-Por-tuguese government did ever implement any discretionary fiscal policy, the size of the government spending enlarged significantly (doubled from around 5% of Macau’s GDP in the year of 1982 toaround 10% in 2002), while the public sector spending did notillustrate any neutrality with the economy’s GDP growth. On average, it is found that public sector spending did raise the economy’s growth rate in the 1980s and the 1990s.8 To securethe stability of Macau’s monetary system, and to fulfill its socialand economic respons ib i l i t ies a f te r the handover, maintaining a sound fiscal position becomes an essential task to the MSAR government. In view of the relative contraction of the traditional secondary industry in the past two decades, and the limited opportunities available to such tertiary sectors as banking and finance (see the discussion as presented in the following section), the opening of the casino industry will help to solidify the public sector’s financial standing and hence, facilitate it to prop-erly carry out its economic functions in this new millennium.Other than the increasing absolute size of the casino industry,and its dominant position in Macau’s macroeconomic growth andpublic sector revenue, the new structure to be introduced by thecasino industry will also modify the existing structure of the job market (including the markets for labor and human capital) from the demand side. In principle, the termination of monopoly in the casino industry implies that there is also an extinction of
57A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and its Gaming IndustryVol. 262005. 2monopsony in the casino job market. This change will definitely shift the general equilibrium level of the economy’s job market. Besides, in view of the increasing job opportunities (in terms of thenumber of vacancy and the variety of positions to be opened bythe new casino operators), certain existing inertia in the job market will likely be removed in the coming years. For example, it is anticipated that the composition of the labor market will change in order to cope with the changing demand of the new casino operators ─ when Venetian’s Sands Casino in Macau launched its initial recruitment process for around one to two thousand vacancies in the year of 2003, more than 40,000 applicants tendered applications, which accounted for around 10% of Macau’s total population; similarly, when Galaxy Waldo started recruiting for around one thousand positions in the beginning of the year 2004, a total of around 23,000 application forms were received. On top of the existing unemployed population, a large proportion of the applicants were actually in attempt to switch their careers from sectors such as manufacturing, restaurant, inn and hotel, and even banking to the casino industry.Manifestly, the Macau economy has entered into a new phasesince its handover. And the opening of its casino industry accelerates the changes ─ the composition of the casino industry, as well as the industrial structure of other sectors in the economy have undergone changes and the trends are expected to continue. However, in order to secure the fine-tuning of the casino industry and the economy as a whole, certain puzzles have to be resolved watchfully. 3. Strategic Challenges to Face AheadThe first two sections have broadly outlined the new face of Macau economy and the increasingly notable position of its casino industry. While the local community is placing high expectation on the future progress of the casino industry, and hencetheir economic income, certain conundrums should never be disregarded.In principle, the successful development of an industry depends on whether the economic environment in which it lives in could provide the required supporting factors.9 On the other hand, the capacity of an economy to supply those factors is determined by the income that could be generated from the industry in the long run. In other words, sustainable growth is a necessary condition for the economy to provide an appropriate environment for the development of an industry. Looking at the existing marketstructure of Macau, however, the long-term interrelationship between the development of the various sectors in the economy and the gaming industry is yet to be completely established. Forexample, to improve the service quality and the content of commercial gaming, the casino industry will definitely demand for human resource of high quality. Nonetheless, the quality of the existing working population (including those currently employed and unemployed) in terms of their educational standards may notnecessarily meet the standard laid down by a modernized service-based gaming industry (Table 1 and Table 2 below). Table 1 Educational Levels of the Employed Population(%)Source: Measured with data released in various annual issues of the Employment Survey, by Macau Statistics and Census Service.Table 2 Educational Levels of the Unemployed Population(%)Source: Measured with data released in various annual issues of the Employment Survey, by Macau Statistics and Census Service.As an essential factor of production, the existing human resource may not be capable enough to effectively support theopening of the casino industry, and hence the sustainable growthof the Macau economy. On the other hand, the opening of the casino industry is also unlikely to generate sufficient force for the growth of the local economy. According to the basic macroeconomic reasoning, an increase in an economy’s incomeYear19981999200020012002No Schooling /Pre-Primary11.110.910.410.510.0Primary(Grade 1-6)27.026.427.227.826.2JuniorSecondary(Grade 7-9)35.535.333.132.432.6Senior Secondary(Grade 10-12)16.416.016.717.017.7Non-Degree HigherEducation(Diploma)2.52.83.12.53.1UniversityDegree7.58.69.59.810.4Year19981999200020012002No Schooling /Pre-Primary15.016.617.015.214.2Primary(Grade 1-6)36.138.336.834.734.8JuniorSecondary(Grade 7-9)28.427.928.629.431.2Senior Secondary(Grade 10-12)15.010.711.414.114.9Non-Degree HigherEducation(Diploma)1.70.80.80.70.6UniversityDegree3.85.75.45.94.3
A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and its Gaming Industry澳門研究58BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES will lead to firms’ decision to expand their investment plans, and hence, to absorb more saving from the economy. In an economy where the existing condition is S (saving) > I (investment), the gapwill be narrowed down. By referring to the case of Macau, an inter-esting phenomenon is found (by comparing Figure 4 below with Figure 1 as presented in the first section), which signifies that red light is on both the Macau economy, and its casino industry in thisnew epoch. Figure 4 Total Domestic Credit as a Proportion of Total Resident DepositSource: Measured with data as released in various issues of the Monthly Bulletin of Monetary Statistics, by Monetary Authority of Macau.By marking the changing macroeconomic growth as depictedin Figure 1 against the changing ratio of total domestic credit tototal resident deposit in the 1990s, it is apparent that their movements are positive correlated. Specifically, when the economyboomed in the year of 1992 following on Deng’s visit to the Guangdong province in the beginning of that year, the ratio raised sharply in 1993. With economic condition turned sour after the launch of the macroeconomic regulation and control policy by the Chinese government in 1995, and the recessionary period triggered by the social chaos in the last quarter of the 1990s, this ratio fell back down. However, after Macau’s handover and the opening of the casino industry, the common relationship between the changing macroeconomic growth and investment was violated.Though the economy rebounded obviously in the past four years,the ratio of total domestic credit to total resident deposit moved divergently, which kept on hitting the record low since the beginning of year 2001. By the end of 2003, this ratio was only 0.3113. In other words, out of the every $100 deposit made by theMacau residents, only $31.13 were lent to businesses located inMacau. Accordingly, it is apparent that the local sectors, especially the small and medium enterprises (SMEs) owned and run by Macau residents in Macau have not been performing consistently with the recent rebound of the domestic economy. Indeed, it is the net financial injections made by the public and the foreign sectors inthe domestic market which pull the overall performance of the Macau economy out from the recessionary period. To certain individual local sectors, however, they still haven’t been able to walk away from the recessionary phase, and hence restore their positive incentive to invest. For example, the total amount of credits granted by the banking sector to the manufacturing industry dropped from MOP 2.851 billion in the first quarter of year 2000 to Mop 2.724 billion in the last quarter of 2003; though the credits to the restaurants, hotels, and related activities increased slightly from MOP 1.708 billion to MOP 1.714 billion, the amount borrowed by the sector of wholesale and retailing businesses fell significantly from MOP 5.842 billion to MOP 3.123 billion during the same period of time.10All in all, it seems that the various individual sectors are yetto be pooled together effectively to face the challenges in this new epoch. Practically, joint efforts must be made by the public sector, the local sector and the casino industry, to generate forces required for sustaining growth of the economy.4. A Win-Win or a Zero-Sum Game with the Opening of the Casino Industry?The opening of the casino industry, the recognition of casino industry as the economy’s core sector by the MSAR government, as well as the Chinese government’s support to Macau’s social and economic affairs under the institutional framework of “one country, two systems”, would all bring about increasing flow of economic income in the foreseeable future. For example, while the industry’s hospitality capacity expands, the quality of the industry’s facilities improves, the Facilitated Individual Visit Scheme launched by the Chinese government on a province to province experimental base from the year of 2003 allows people in the Mainland to apply for visitor visa to freely visit Hong Kong and Macau on an individual base. With a population size of 79 million, and neighboring to Hong Kong and Macau, the Guangdong
59A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and its Gaming IndustryVol. 262005. 2province is selected as the first province to trial out this Scheme. It is reported that from 28th July, 2003 to 16th April, 2004, over 6 million applications have been submitted and 3.6 million individuals in 14 cities are granted by provincial government with the visas.11 Out of the 3.6 million approved visas, 1.67 million aregranted to individuals who declare Macau as their travel destination. On the aggregate level, it is reasonable to forecast that these changes would lead to a win-win game. For example, while the turnover of the overall casino industry increases, customers could enjoy higher quality of casino and non-casino recreational services; while the size of economic rent that could be enjoyed by the previous monopoly contracts after the introduction of competition, gross revenue would ultimately increase on account of the increase in market size and improvement in business efficiency; while higher transaction cost takes effect in the labor market, total life-time increment in employment income, and hence tax payment to the public sector, would be much higher.Nevertheless, as revealed and illustrated in the previous sections, the opening of the casino industry is not without loser. First, while the pie for the local workforce will be getting larger thanks to the opening of the casino industry and the changing social and economic environment after Macau’s handover, not everyone in the market possesses the required aptitude to grasp a proportionally larger pie! In a modernized service-based casino industry, it is quality (value-added) service, instead of “here-it-is-and-just-take-it” service that one is paying for. In view of the low occupational mobility of labor as indicated in Table 1 and Table 2(i.e. around 70% of the employed population and 80% of the unemployed population possess only junior secondary educationor even below), the anticipated increase in the demand for workforce by the casino industry is likely to result in a state of excessive demand for skillful labor. For example, as shown in Figure 1, the reported unemployment rate in the year of 2003 still maintained at a high level even the domestic economy rebounded significantly driven by the remarkable growth of the casino industry.In reality, though the projected increase in income earned by employees in the casino industry is not necessarily offset by a proportionally drop in other sectors (i.e. not necessarily a zero-sum game to the domestic labor market as a whole), this misconception is commonly seen in the community. From the social point of view, safeguarding employment opportunity for the local workforce is nevertheless an ethical issue. However, shouldn’t the costs imposed by the existing structural weakness in the labor market be borne largely by the casino industry at the cost of its real economic efficiency, and hence its competitiveness? It is an issue that should be coped with by the local community, the public sector and the industry together. Other than the group of labor with low occupational mobility, certain number of local small and medium enterprises (SMEs) mayalso have to face contraction in their income in the long run. Infact, certain local SMEs not only are not benefited from the opening and continuous expansion of the casino industry, they may even have to face reduction in their customer base over time.In the case of Macau, the average stay period of visitors is quite short ─ the average length of overnight guests is just slightly over one night. For example, in February 2004, while the total number of visitor arrivals was 1,110,569, 51.3% of them were “same-day” visitors.12 Of the 264,654 overnight guests, the average length of stay was 1.17 nights.13 This condition has long been mystifying such local SMEs as individual hotels, family-basedguest-houses and restaurants, as well as those associated service businesses like boutiques and souvenir stores in catchingthe visitors. According to the business proposal of the new casinooperators, comprehensive hotel, recreational and shopping facilities will be made available at the main sites of their resorts. Upon establishment of these facilities, say, after two to three years, it is likely that when a visitor arrives at Macau, s/he could just go straightly to check in the resorts for a more than one-day high-quality hospitality services, s/he may not spend even one penny outside the resorts, or just spend a very tiny amount of money to visit some of Macau’s scenery spots or historical sites (e.g. the Ruin of St Paul’s Church). Consequently, business opportunities available for certain traditional tourism-related local SMEs might gradually be deprived by modernization and success of the casino industry. To realize a win-win case for the various local sectors, a long-term and comprehensive public planning must be launched as early as possible, and an effective communication channel with the casino industry must also be established with no further delay.
A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and its Gaming Industry澳門研究60BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES5. A Concluding Remark ─ “Be the Casino Capital of Asia?”The return of Macau to China, and the opening of its casino industry have clearly carved out a new road for the Macau economy.Macau, with the longest history of legalized casino gaming in Asia, and with impressive turnover generated by the casino industry, ithas been a common belief in the community that Macau is assuming the position of the casino capital of Asia, and its status is even comparable to the world’s casino capital─ i.e. Las Vegas. Based on the reported amount of gaming revenue in the year of 2003, Macau is crowned as the third-largest gaming market in the world, just after Las Vegas and Atlantic City in the United States. Ifthe current growth of Macau’s casino business is to continue, Macau will have “nipping at the heels of Atlantic City as the world’s No. 2 gaming market by the end of this year”.14 In monetary term, the dominant position of Macau as the casino capital of Asia couldhardly be threatened by any existing or potential gaming jurisdiction in this region in the coming few years. On the otherhand, however, in view of the aforementioned structural weaknesses that are currently puzzling the casino industry and its weak interaction with the other part of the economy, the internal strength of the industry to sustain its economic efficiency and competitiveness as the casino capital of Asia is fragile. In the longrun, if the local community, the government, as well as the industry would like to solidify Macau’s position as the casino capital of Asia, valuable experiences from the development of Las Vegas must be intensively and extensively reviewed and borrowed if see fit. For example, in the September 1993 Western Legislative Conference (WLC) which was held in Las Vegas, Mr. Steve Wynn discussed the history of Las Vegas and advised the delegates that“it is important to understand what has made the city success if states are to use it as a model”. The following passage is extracted to further elucidate this argument.“Even back in the 50’s in the days of the ‘rat pack’ at the Sands and the Desert Inn, the wild and wooly 50’s in LV, the attraction was the mystique of the city itself,” stated Wynn. “Gaming is the economic engine of tourism in Nevada, but it is not the hook. It is the non-gaming attractions that are financed from gaming dollars that keep that state growing and the economy healthy.” 15Finally, a crucial implication is brought out from the above -the harmonious collaboration between the gaming industry andthe other non-gaming sectors is a necessary condition to safeguard a long-term win-win situation to the economy as a whole.By referring to the existing market conditions in Macau, a series ofefforts are still needed in order to ensure the changes that have been launched in the past few years could ultimately be translated into long-term success to the gaming industry, as well as to the Macau economy.Notes:1 The author would like to thank for a research fund granted by the University of Macau to complete this study and to allow the presentation of this paper possible. In addition, the support provided by the Institute for the Study of Commercial Gaming of the University of Macau is also appreciated. The draft of this paper was presented in the Asian Gaming Expo─ Insights and Opportunities, which was jointly organized by AGMMA and ABN AMRO (Australia) on 11th - 12th May, 2004, in the Fullerton Hotel in Singapore.2 Yearbook of Statistics 2002, (Macau Statistics and Census Service, July 2003), p. 371.3 Siu, Ricardo C. S., “Behind the Opening of Macau’s Gaming Industry: Social and Economic Reconsideration”, Manuscript presented at the 12th International Conference on Gambling and Risk-Taking, Vancouver, CA. (May 2003).4 The Macau-Portuguese government began to systematically release the economy’s nominal and real GDP figures from 1982.5 Gross Domestic Product 2000, (Macau Statistics and Census Service), p. 44; Yearbook of Statistics 2002 (Macau Statistics and Census Service, July 2003), p. 3716 Siu, Ricardo C. S., “Behind the Opening of Macau’s Gaming Industry: Social and Economic Reconsideration”, Manuscript presented at the 12th International Conference on Gambling and Risk-Taking, Vancouver, CA. (May 2003); Liu, P. L., Aomen Bocaiye Zongheng (An Overview of Macau’s Gaming Industry) (Hong Kong, PRC: Joint Publishing (H.K.) Co., Ltd., 2002).7 Macau Handbook [in Chinese] (Macau Daily News, August 2003).8 Siu, Ricardo C.S., “Public Expenditure and Macau’s Economic Growth” [in Chinese], Journal of Macau Studies, Vol. 14, Macau Foundation (September 2002).9 Porter, M. E., The Competitive Advantage of Nations: With a New Introduction (New York, USA: The Free Press, 1998).10 Monthly Bulletin of Monetary Statistics (various issues), Monetary Authority of Macau (AMCM).11 “Six million people in Guangdong are queuing up to visit Macau” in Macau Daily News, 21st April, 2004, p. A01.12 Tourism Indicators ─ Visitor Arrivals, Macau Statistics and Census Service (February 2004).13 Tourism Indicators ─ Package Tour and Hotel Occupancy Rate, Macau Statistics and Census Service, (February 2004).14 Healy, Tim, “Macau sets its sights on the high table”, Far Eastern Economic Review (March 2004), pp. 40 - 44.15 “Legalized Gaming: Winners and Losers”, in WLC Annual Meeting (December 1993), p. 6, from http://stars.csg.org/ csg-west/states/1993/dec/1293sw-all.pdf.
61A New Epoch in the Macau Economy and its Gaming IndustryVol. 262005. 2References:1. Cheng, H. I., & Siu, Ricardo C. S., “A Matter of Urgency: Providing a Level-playing Competitive Environment for Macau’s Casino Industry”, Manuscript presented at the Macau’s Comprehensive Competitiveness and Relationship with Its Neighborhood Conference, University of Macau, (October 2003). Revised version being published in the Journal of Macau Studies, Vol. 20, Macau Foundation (February 2004).2. Dornbusch, Rudiger and Fischer, Stanley and Startz, Richard, Macroeconomics (8th edition) (USA, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001).
Drawing lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in Macau澳門研究62BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESSmall and medium-sized enterprises (SME) in Macau, which account for more than 90% of Macau’s registered businesses, havewitnessed a strong growth momentum after Macau’s return to Chinain 1999. However, their development is still constrained by capital, technology, management etc. The Macau SAR government has taken various measures, in order to help them to overcome these difficulties, for example, funding scheme in the form of credit guarantees, tax reduction or exemption. Highly dynamic and successful SME is one of the characteristic features of the German economy. They have been, and continue to be, an economic growth engine and a major employer . Their strong performance has raised interest in othercountries, which are keen to strengthen their SME sector. Learning from the German experience appears as a promising exercise for promoting SME in Macau.When SME produce more complex products, they tend to be highly demanding in institutional environment at the municipal, regional and national levels. Public and private actors have, individually and jointly, created all kinds of support institutions. Germany has a highly differentiated system of organizations and institutions which support SME at different levels. Due to the increasing attention which was given to SME, hundreds of support programs were introduced and thousands of organizations work inthe field of support, mostly in a decentralized way. This may be one of the most important features of SME development policies in Germany.1. Labor Constraint on Price CompetitionWhat has not changed, though, is that the governance patterns (public or private) are often blurred. The way many German institutions operate can only be explained by the existence of a basic consensus between the private and public sector as well as between unions and employers associations, i.e. by their preference for a social market economy and a problem-solving oriented style of negotiations.Therefore it will be important to mention some factors whichshape the comparatively constructive relationship between the state, the employers and employees in Germany. There areespecially three components which on the one hand make coordination between the different actors necessary and on the other hand reduce the extent of wage-based competition. The latter,in contrast, is quite typical of newly industrialized countries with more flexible labor markets.One of the major features of the German political economy is the strength of regulatory constraints on employers, including SME, in the remuneration, use and dismissal of labor.1 This “labor constraint” includes binding industry-wide agreements over wages and working conditions, a high level of mandatory or state-provided social security benefits and substantial constraints on layoffs. The first major component is the extensive set of legally binding sectorial collective bargaining agreements between trade unions and employers’ associations. When employers accounting for at least 50% of the employees in an industry belong to an employers’ association, collective bargaining agreements between the union and this association may beDrawing lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in MacauSheng Li** Ph.D. candidate, Institute of Finance and Monetary Economy, University of Freiburg, Germany
63Drawing lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in MacauVol. 262005. 2declared legally binding by the Labor Ministry on all companies inthe sector.2One indicator of the strength of the labor constraint on employee compensation is the low level of wage differentiationin Germany, which reflects low variation in wage rates across firms in industries and moderate wage gaps between semi-skilledand skilled workers on the one hand and production and non-production workers on the other. Employees in the lowest earnings percentile received 65% of the earnings of the fifth percentile as compared to 61% for Japan, 59% for the UK and 40% for the US Wages in SME in Germany are almost the same as in large firms. This means that competition based on labor cost is restricted for SME, which, in turn, generates a “productivity whip” on companies, particularly export oriented SME. As a result, less productive firms are forced to modernize or go out of business.3A second component of the labor constraint is the great degree to which non-wage costs are determined by mandatory orpublicly provided “fringe benefits”. Unemployment benefits andstate pensions, which are financed through mandatory contributions, are generous in comparison. Social security contributions as a percentage of income in Germany are among the highest among major OECD countries. Minimum service levels are set and fees regulated for health insurance, which is also co-financed by employer and employee.Whereas the collective bargaining model is based on the supra-firm level, the third component of the consensus-en-couraging mechanism inside the firm is the strong legal rights granted to works councils that represent employees at the shop-floor level. These works councils have wide-ranging in-formation, consultation, and co-determination rights, includingrights in the areas of introduction of new technology and workplace organization, hiring and firing, and overtime and short-time work. In summary, the three mentioned components of labor regulation constrain the extent to which employers can pursue price competition strategies. This pressure is especially high on SME, which in other countries overcome some of their disadvantages in comparison to large firms with lower labor costs and greater flexibility in the use of labor. At the same time, these constraints encourage high-quality competition through modernization at the firm level. Moreover, they encouraged and forced the private actors to form collective bargaining and consensus-building structures. 42. Training and Research InstitutionsResearch and training institutions play a key role in Germany’s competitive advantage regarding the production of high-quality and internationally recognized manufactured goods. Training and research depend on a set of socio-economic institutions like banks, collective bargaining institutions, and others that encourage and support long-term commitments by labor and capital. Its high output of skilled and well-educated employees and engineers is widely recognized as the basis for Germany’s export success and innovation.2.1 The dual vocational training systemThe apprenticeship system is the major provider of vocational training in Germany. The German model of high quality production is highly dependent on it. It provides comprehensive theoretical and practical training through the “dual system” for about 70% of German adolescents, typically of an age between 15 and 20 years. Most of them enter the apprenticeship after nine or ten years of schooling, whereas around 15% have already passed 13 years of schooling which provide the university entrance certificate. The final certificate of apprenticeship is accepted as an important career step in Germany. The first degree usually takes three years of dual learning, i.e. theoretical instruction at public vocational schools and practical training within the enterprises. Afterwards, skilled workers who want to continue their career have two options: Either they take and pass a Meister(supervisor/instructor)or technician examination after at least two years of experience or they go to university for further studies. 5Meister exams have been developed for different industrial and craft areas. A great variety of other further education with similar reputation exists in other sectors. This kind of career is an important incentive for better qualified young people to enter the dual system as they can move into supervisory or middlemanagement positions without having to complete the time-consuming and demanding higher educational track. Under German law, the Meister certificate is even a prerequisite to manage a craft business. The latter is an important reason for the high quality reputation of the German craft sector and its products and services. About 20% of apprenticeship graduates subsequently
Drawing lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in Macau澳門研究64BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESpursue a Meister or a technician training. 6Table 1 Percentages of plants with apprentice training according to industry in West Germany 7 Industry Plants offering training in % (1995) Metal 33.6 Engineering 34.7 Textile 32.6 Traffic 10.3 Banks 18.8 Total 23.7The apprenticeship training system is supervised by the chambers. They are also responsible for the examinations. At the same time the chambers, trade unions and employer associations manage external training centers which offer training modules thatthe companies themselves cannot provide. The state also supports the establishment of these centers and thus makes up for a market failure or fills a gap in a company’s training capacity.The vocational system is based on cooperation between the different actors which secures a reasonable relationship between demand and supply at the market for apprenticeship posts.Accordingly, the supply of apprenticeship places has historically closely followed demand in recent history in West Germany. 8 Especially the elastic reaction of the system is often mentioned as a very positive feature, although the imbalance between demand and supply has increased in the 1990s. In the last decade the pressures have shifted from the demand-side to the supply-side. Statistical analysis shows that the vast majority of these changes can be explained by demographic changes and structural changes in the economy. 9 2.2 Universities, Polytechnics and CollegesSince the beginning of the 19th century the universities have been playing an important role both in the provision of qualified personnel and in scientific research. Whereas the traditional universities concentrate on pure research, the technical universities or polytechnics engage in a more application-oriented research. Since there is a need for more engineers and higher technical skills, a high number of colleges and has emerged since the beginning of the 1970s. The polytechnics were initially closely oriented towards the economic sectors of the respective regionand their need of engineers. They still focus on education and technical skills rather than on theory and research.At the end of the 1990s, around 1.9 million students were enrolled at 113 universities, 46 universities of arts and 114 polytechnics. Research and education are mainly financed by the government, whereas the participation of the private sector increased from 3% to 8.2% between 1982 and 1997. The universities and polytechnics spend around 14 billion DM p.a. for Research and Development. 29% of these expenditures is spent on natural sciences, followed by medicine (23.4%), social sciences (20.7%) and engineering science (20.3%). 10 The organizational structure of German universities is important for an understanding of the research and transfer system. The various schools are the major bodies in charge of the distribution of institutional funds for teaching and research. These schools comprise a number of chairs responsible for different areas of teaching. Several chairs often establish institutes where the professors organize research. The status of theses institutesvaries widely from completely independent institutes to closely linked ones. Often the institutes’ research is financed and performed jointly with the promoting organizations. 112.3 Research organizationsAll over Germany there are 225 publicly funded research institutes which belong to four groups of research centers. Apart from the universities these institutes constitute the four columns of the publicly financed institutional Research and Development infrastructure in Germany.Table 2 The four institutional columns of public financed research and development infrastructure 12 Institution Helmholtz Max Planck Leibnitz Fraunhofer Centers institutes institutes Gesellschaft Facilities 16 80 82 47 Personnel 23,000 11,000 10,000 9,000 Research profile Basic research Basic research Basic research Applied researchThe German Research Council (DFG) is the major promoting organization for science and research activities in Germany. Its major task is financial support for research projects, support for research cooperation, and the promotion of junior researchers. Moreover it is an important advisor in terms of science policy-making. The DFG also develops and maintains the
65Drawing lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in MacauVol. 262005. 2relations to and cooperates with international research institutions.13 2.4 SME and ResearchSME are much less likely to interact with Research institutions than large firms. The opposite might be expected sincelarge firms can afford their own research and development laboratories, whereas SME suffer from lack of scale and indivisibilities in this respect. The German policy-makers are aware of the problem, their efforts to involve SME more in research and development programs had enormous effect. The Center of Innovation and Technology in North Rhine-Westphalia (ZENIT) is a technology oriented consultancy company which was founded in 1984, largely on private initiative. It is owned by the Ministry of Economics of the Land of North Rhine-Westphalia, a banking consortium which comprises the StateBank of North Rhine-Westphalia as well as private banks, and aprivate association which unites about 170 companies. Its mission is to facilitate support for SME, especially in technical and technological areas. Apart from technology transfer, ZENIT is also engaged in the fields of marketing and management consultancy. Here the focus is on market research, consultancy services in marketing, quality management issues and employee training as well as opportunities to obtain public funding. The center offers strategy advice regarding entry into other European markets, like identification of potential cooperation partners in other EU countries, information on EU legislation, and information regarding environmental and communication technologies. At the same time ZENIT is one of the more than 30 Euro-Info-Centers (EIC) 14 in Germany, which inform, coordinate and encourage SME to get access to EU support programs. ZENIT develops its own technology and restructuring projects with its members as part of main support actions of the EU Framework Programs for Research and Development.153. Banks with Special Focus on SMEGermany has a large number of financial institutions. Large banks, such as Deutsche Bank or Dresdner Bank, mainly cater tolarge enterprises. But there are other institutes which support the SME. They act at different levels, according to their historical background. At the local and regional levels there are public savings banks (Sparkassen) and credit cooperatives, at the state level there are collateral guarantee banks, and at the national level there are the Bank for Reconstruction (KfW) and the Deutsche Ausgleichsbank (DtA).3.1 Public savings banks and credit cooperativesThey are public-law institutes of the city or the county inwhich they are located, i.e. government representatives play a keyrole in governing these institutions, and the government has to bail out Sparkassen which run into financial difficulties. 16 They emerged at the regional level to give the lower classes of society an opportunity to save money in interest-bearing accounts as wellas to improve the savings ratio and the supply of credit at the regional and local levels. Until today they have had the duty to offer a savings account to everyone who wants one. 17Although their main business focus is still the collection of the population’s savings, they evolved into commercial banks. These savings finance long-term investments, for example in the real estate sector and the local and regional communities. The activities and investments of the Sparkassen are ─ due to their regional principle ─ concentrated in their local areas. Sparkassen participate in the construction and operation of other institutions or agencies such as technology centers or regional and local economic support agencies and offices.18The Sparkassen are the main source of credit for SME. However, their behavior differs substantially from county to county, especially in terms of risk-aversion. They are the main source of credit both for long established SME and for start-ups. Apart from the normal business of financing investment and working capital, Sparkassen are the main intermediaries for national and state levelfinancing programs targeted towards SME. They implement financing and guarantee programs for SME which are offered by the KfW and the DtA as well as the credit guarantee banks. 19The credit cooperatives (Volksbanken) are involved in the same tasks as the Sparkassen, and they have additional responsibilities due to their organization form as credit cooperatives. They emerged as private self-help institutions of craftsmen, small entrepreneurs and peasants, who had difficulties in getting credits from the established banking system. Apart from the organization form and the historical background, the task of the cooperatives does not differ to a large extent from the one of the Sparkassen. Although the cooperatives are not bound to the locality principle, their investments are in fact oriented towards the respective
Drawing lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in Macau澳門研究66BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESgeographical area. 20 3.2 Credit guarantee banksFounders and shareholders of collateral guarantee institutions (Burgschaftsbanken) are the chambers of commerce, the guilds of the different trades, associations of various business sectors as well as banks and some insurance companies. They provide the founding capital, payments into reserve funds, advice and expertise in the decision-marking process. No dividends are paid, as surplus funds are retained and allocated to reserves.Burgschaftsbanken operate under the regulations of the German banking law. They are supervised by the federal supervisory agency (Bundesaufsichtsamt fur das Kreditwesen) in much the same way as all other banks in Germany. 21Burgschaftsbanken provide banks with guarantees for loans,lease-financing contracts and investments in SME, so that the latter are able to hand out higher credits. The rationale is to facilitate enterprise financing, thus overcoming the limits of firms’ own collateral. They support enterprises in the seed - and start-upphase as well as projects of existing companies. In addition totraditional credit and loan financing ─ including those from government-supported programs ─ Burgschaftsbanken are also addressed as “risk partners” in leasing contracts and providers of equity capital. The scope ranges from capital investments for the founding of new enterprises and company expansion, moving the business to a new location, rationalization and measures for adapting to changing markets on the one hand, andthe whole sphere concerned with working capital, such as the financing of merchandise, of receivables, as well as guaranteeing of bonds for down-payments, warranties etc. on the other hand. 22In addition to the support from the founders and shareholders, the government helps the Burgschaftsbanken in three important areas: As non-profit organizations they do not have to pay corporate income tax, the guarantees of the Burgschaftsbanken are counter-guaranteed by the federal and Land government, long term loans are financed by the federal government, taken from the so called European Recovery Program (ERP) fund at lowinterest rates.233.3 The Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau and the Deutsche Ausgleichsbank The Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau (KfW) was established in 1948 by law as a public corporation for special functions. KfW isthe German economic development bank. Its main business takes place inside Germany. However, it is also the executing agency for financial assistance to developing countries. In the first years after World War II, KfW financed the reconstruction of Germany with long-term credits. Later it focused more and more on the support of structural adjustment within the German economy. Today its task is in investment finance, export and project finance, financial cooperation and advisory as well as other services. KfW can be seen, together with the Deutsche Ausgleichsbank, as one of the most important institutions of the national SME policy, since they administrate the government’s financial support programs forSME. 24The Deutsche Ausgleichsbank (DtA) is a wholly-owned development agency of the German federal government. The agency, which was established in 1950, was initially set up to help compensate for the financial burdens and to aid the integration ofexpelled persons and refugees into West Germany after WorldWar II. Over time its function changed to a special purpose agency which provides subsidized loans, equity financing and guarantees on behalf of the federal government in order to promote SME. This now constitutes the Bank’s main area of business. Due tothe programs of the national SME policies the DtA does not only support business start-ups. DtA, like the KfW, funds SME in Germany from two sources ─ from ERP fund and its own funds which it raises on the domestic and international markets. DtA is the main lending bank for loans from the ERP fund. 254. Chambers of Industry and Commerce and of CraftsThey are public-law institutions administrated by the private sector. Membership is compulsory. Due to their long tradition and early political incorporation in German history they are in charge of many public supervision tasks, especially in terms of registering companies, certifying vocational training and taking exams. They issue certificates of origin. Moreover, they offer their members a range of courses in ongoing education, informationand advice in export, start-up, technology transfer and legal issues. They organize events to stimulate enterprise cooperation and joint ventures, start-ups, and technology updating within the region and worldwide, and they are responsible for giving advice on guarantees to the corresponding banks at the regional and federal
67Drawing lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in MacauVol. 262005. 2levels. They also advise the local and regional government on questions which concern their members and the local, regional, and federal economy. They are also well informed of existing support instruments for SME and large enterprises. Chambers sometimes take a share in technology centers and incubators or local and regional economic support agencies. Cooperation with other institutions like training and advisory organizations leads to the construction of “Houses of Crafts” or “Economic Support Centers” in many larger cities. 265. Policy Conclusions for MacauIt is not really true that Germany has found some kind of magic formula to create a particularly dynamic SME sector in all situations. Rather, SME support is an essential element of an overall system which favors industrial growth. In terms of policy recommendations for Macau, the conclusions to be derived from the German experience are straightforward:1. At the meta-level, strengthen those elements which favor entrepreneurship and a business-friendly environment. Moreover, it is not sufficient to have rhetoric of creating favorable conditions for entrepreneurial activities. Consistence between rhetoric and practice is essential.2. At the macro-level, secure framework conditions which create a competitive structure of markets. An important reason of the mediocre performance of SME is that they are often crowded-out by large firms which can exploit market failures or privileged access to the government. Another reason is the fact that SME sometimes can survive by producing mediocre products and selling them to non-demanding customers. Further key issues are the establishment and enforcement of property rights, and the availability of means of conflict resolution, such as fair and effective law courts. Still at the macro-level, alleviate the anti-SME bias in the economy, especially with respect to the amount of time a business has to spend to deal with cumbersome governmentregulations, also barriers in access to credit or other market failures.3. At the meso-level, strengthen generic business supportstructures, e.g. the financial system, including guarantee banks and specialized export finance and insurance institutions. Additionally at the meso-level, create SME support institutions witha clear focus, on top of generic support structures, rather than cover-all organizations. Both specialization and rivalry can improve the performance of support institutions. Still at the meso-level, support restructuring of business associations. They can play an important role in articulating demands of the private sector,especially SME, as well as in providing services to member firms. Notes:1 There is an unwritten rule that the president of the National Federation of Employers’ Associations comes from SME.2 Sigurt Vitols, “German Industrial Policy: An Overview” in WZB discussion paper (Berlin, 1996), p.2.3 Ibid. p.4.4 Ibid. p.5.5 Karin Wagner, “The German Apprenticeship System after Unification” in WZB discussion paper (Berlin, 1998) S.2.6 Ibid. S.24. 7 Ibid. S.21.8 After reunification chambers had to be built up in the new federal states. Trade unions and employers’ associations moved to East Germany and helped to set up the new system. For further compensation of existing deficits in the training facilities, external training centers were instituted with a high financial public support. Despite this transfer of institutions the number of apprenticeship places is not yet sufficient but adjustments to the West German working environment are taking place in the new federal states.9 Karin Wagner, “The German Apprenticeship System after Unification” in WZB discussion paper (Berlin, 1998), p. 26.10 Andreas Stamm, Wirtschaftsnahes Technologiemanagement ─ Erfahrungenaus Deutschland und Implikationen f r die fortgeschrittenen L nder Lateinamerikas (Berlin,1999), p. 17.11 Alfred Spielkamp, National Innovation System and Mapping Innovative Clusters at the Firm Level (Mannheim, 1997), p. 17.12 Andreas Stamm, Wirtschaftsnahes Technologiemanagement ─ Erfahrungenaus Deutschland und Implikationen f r die fortgeschrittenen L nder Lateinamerikas (Berlin,1999), p. 20.13 Alfred Spielkamp, National Innovation System and Mapping Innovative Clusters at the Firm Level (Mannheim, 1997), p. 16.14 Other EIC are integrated in chambers, state or house banks. The European funding programs in the areas of innovative products, processes and organization for SME are integrated in the Fifth Framework Program for research, technological development and demonstration activities. www.cordis.lu 15 www.zenit.de16 Because the Sparkassen do not receive equity from the cities or the counties, they have to finance themselves through savings and the retentions of the profits. 17 www.sparkasse.de18 Ibid.19 Ibid.20 In the past the Raiffeisenbank concentrated on agricultural sectors in the countryside, and the Volksbanken on manufactured sectors in the cities. In 1970s these two banks merged. www.volksbank.de21 www.buergschaftsbank.de22 Ibid.23 Ibid. A substantial part of the funds which Germany received from the ERP, i.e. the Marshall-Fund, after World-War II, was handed over as a credit rather than a grant. The repayments of those funds created the ERP fund, which is a revolving fund used for specific purposes such as SME support. KfW and DtA administrate the ERP fund.
Drawing lessons from Germany for the Development of SME in Macau澳門研究68BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES24 www.kfw.de25 www.dta.de26 www.ahk.deReferences:1. Dennis De, Bestimmungsgr nde der Mittelstandsforschung als Beispiel f r Staatseingriffe (K ln,1996).2. Bernhard Lageman, Kleine und mittlere Unternehmen im sektoralen Strukturwandel (Essen, 1999).3. Alfred Spielkamp, Technologietransfer an kleine und mittlere Unternehmen: Analysen und Perspektiven f r Baden-Wurttemberg (Baden-Baden, 1995).
69Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionVol. 262005. 21. AbstractThis paper explores a range of issues in the planning and conduct of research into Quality of Life indicators andmethodologies. It maps in outline the field of Quality of Life research,and argues that, at each stage of Quality of Life research, there are tensions and dilemmas to be resolved that affect reliability and validity. A conventional view of the research process is adopted, addressing: the purposes of Quality of Life research; the contents of Quality of Life research, drawing on mainstream international examples; reliability and validity in indicator systems; methodologies in quality of life research, including issues of operationalisation, sampling and stratification, approachesand instrumentation, and ethics; data analysis and interpretation; reporting and dissemination. For each area of the research process, key issues to be addressed are suggested. Examples ofQuality of Life Research are presented from different major organizations, and from these a range of possible focuses of Qual-ity of Life Research for Macau are delineated. Some issues in using subjective and objective measures of quality of life are raised. The argument is advanced for a mixed methodology, the avoidance ofaggregation into simple indices, and the stratified utilization of quality of life research for development purposes, rather than having data remain inert.2. IntroductionThis paper explores some issues in planning and conductingresearch into Quality of Life indicators and methodologies, approaching the topic as a researcher would, and as a researchmatter. The paper maps the field, presenting an outline map rather than a detailed, close-grained map, and it argues that, at each stage of Quality of Life research, there are tensions and dilemmas to be resolved. A conventional view of the research process is taken, addressing: The purposes and intended outcomes of Quality of Life research; The contents of Quality of Life research, drawing on mainstream international examples; Methodologies in quality of life research, including issues of operationalisation; sampling, approaches and instrumentation, ethics; Reliability and validity in indicator systems; Data analysis and interpretation; Reporting and dissemination; Follow-up and impact.The quality of life movement is not new. It has several roots. For example, Veenhoven’s Happiness Life Expectancy Index1 asked “To what extent do you regard yourself as a happy person?” “How satisfied are you with your present life?”. Campbell et al.2 asked respondents to rate satisfaction with health, social and familyconnections, material wealth/well-being, and work/productive activity. The social indicators movement in the US in the 1960s and the annual Social Trends measures in the UK and elsewhere (e.g. Australia and France) provide the backdrop to Quality of Life research. The 1969 Toward a Social Report3 document in the US reported several indicators of quality of life: health and illness;Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionKeith Morrison** Vice-Rector of the Macau Inter-University Institute
Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction澳門研究70BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESincome and poverty; the physical environment; public order and safety; social mobility; learning, science and art; participation and alienation. In 1983 UNESCO published Quality of Life: Problems of Assessment and Measurement. In 1995 the Human Development Index was published by the United Nations. More recently the concepts of quality of life have moved on from being only social indicators to including market, business and economic indicators, and policy matters.3. The Purposes of Quality of Life ResearchThere is a range of purposes of Quality of Life research and indicators. Some of these are specific to a particular field of study, e.g. health, environment, employment, but these are nested within wider purposes, such as: To evaluate the effects of social policy; To set agenda and recommendations for targeted action: areas of focus and groups of people; To construct indices of the quality of life; To report on the quality of life, however defined; To understand the nature of contemporary society and the issues that it faces; To describe, measure and improve specific areas of life, community and society; To identify areas of need for development, research, training and resources; To promote independence and interdependence in soci-ety and community; To provide a common language for service providers; To address accountability and responsibility for quality of life; To provide a screening device for understanding society; To develop a clearer understanding of the concept of Quality of Life.Given the different purposes and focuses, it is scarcely surprising that there are multiple methodologies and instruments. It also raises the issue of which, and how many, purposes, Quality of Life research should strive to address. Whether a single piece study or set of studies can address all of these purposes (or, indeed, others) adequately is a moot point. Indeed some of these purposes lie in tension with each other, for example some are focused on evaluation and some are focused on development and targets; data to be used for evaluation (summative data) are not always the same as data to be used for development and improvement (formative data), the latter typically being richer than the former. Further, some data are focused on a whole population and some are focused on target groups, between group differences may be greater than within-group differences, and these risk being lost in global reporting and sub-group reporting.In the Macau context, the purposes of a Quality of Life Project might be: To develop a comprehensive set of indicators of the qualityof life in the territory of Macau; To apply those indicators to the territory of Macau,gathering, processing and reporting data; To provide specific and general indices of the quality of life in Macau; To provide a picture of the quality of life in Macau, based on the indicators and data; To provide stratified data according to nominal characteristicsof the population as well as to the overall population; To establish a database that can be used as the basis for trend survey and longitudinal studies; To identify areas for attention and intervention in Macau; To make recommendations for action to the relevant parties in Macau; To evaluate the impact and effects of action consequent to Quality of Life research in Macau. There are many purposes; hence there are many content areas and, consequently, many methodologies.4. Quality of Life as a Multidimensional and Multilevel PhenomenonQuality of Life is a multidimensional construct. For example, Cummins4 identifies 173 domains, and the Australian Quality ofLife directory lists 447 measures. The Calvert-Henderson study, which is discussed later, identifies twelve main areas. The OECD (2001) in its document The Well-being of Nations: The Role of Human and Social Capital conflates individual, social and national levels of analysis, linking these to economic growth, and suggesting that Quality of Life is not only multidimensional (many components) but multilevel (e.g. individual, community, society, territory, state,
71Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionVol. 262005. 2nation). An early study from UNESCO gave a circumplex of quality of life indicators5 that included: moral and spiritual values, family life; amenities for comfortable life; adequate supply of wholesome food; play and leisure time; freedom; peace of mind; personal qualities; peace in the world; personal development and success; knowledge; god, stable government; security and adequate provision for old age; creative abilities; simple living; justice and equality; music; love; education; environment; health; social relationships; money and employment. The study is important, for it includes a much broader sweep of issues than are often found in quality of life studies; indeed the more recent trend has been away from such a broad sweep and towards a greater emphasis on objective numerical measures of a more limited set of indices (e.g. more on economic performance and cost-effectiveness).More recently, the work of Richard Estes at the University ofPennsylvania 6 includes the Weighted Index of Social Progress (WISP) in terms of: education; health status; women’s status;defense; economic status; demography; environment; social chaos;cultural diversity and welfare effort. Estes’s own approach in developing his Weighted Index of Social Progress was to use available data from a variety of sources to measure and aggregate a range of some 38 different factors for each nation.The World Bank defined “the wealth of nations” in terms of human capital (60%), environmental capital (20%) and built capital (20%).7 In 1997 William Easterly of the World Bank used 95 indicators of the Quality of Life covering: Individual rights and democracy; Political instability and war; Education; Health; Transport and communications; Inequality across class and gender; “Bads” : crime and the environment.Cummins8 suggested that Quality of Life could be dividedinto objective and subjective factors. This has been used subsequently by Noll 9and Hagerty et al..10 Objective factors arethose data that are independent of individual evaluations, whilstsubjective factors are explicitly designed to catch individual perceptions, opinions and feelings. Objective factors might include items such as: Life expectancy; Crime rate; Unemployment rate; Gross Domestic Product; Poverty Rate; School attendance; Working hours per week; Perinatal mortality rate; Suicide rate.Subjective factors might include items such as: Sense of community; Material possessions; Sense of safety; Happiness; Satisfaction with ‘life as a whole’; Relationships with family; Job satisfaction; Sex life; Perception of distributional justice (meeting human needs, equity and equality); Social class membership; Clubs and hobbies.Veenhoven’s recent Happy Life Expectancy Index11 is one example of subjective measures. As discussed later, it is perhaps unacceptable to try to combine different approaches, focuses, sub-groups, objective and subjective data into a single index or single set of indices─it is trying to mix oil and water.Reading the World Bank’s reports (e.g. the World DevelopmentReport, 2000/2001), it is possible to glean some indicators of Qualityof Life, for example: Poverty; Infant mortality rates; School attendance; Individuals’ and groups’ political power and voice; Vulnerability to illness and disease; Economic location and dislocation; Personal violence; Susceptibility to natural disasters.
Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction澳門研究72BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESGDP is often complemented by a Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) (e.g. Eckersley12). Whereas the former is more a measure of the money accumulated or changing hands, a measure of the total value of all goods and services traded in an economy, the GPI adds in the economic contribution of factors like household and volunteer work, and subtracts factors like crime, pollution, family breakdown, environmental phenomena (e.g. depletion of natural resources), i.e. non-monetary factors.The World Health Organization13 defines Quality of Life as a multidimensional concept, comprising several elements: Individual physical health (energy and fatigue; pain and discomfort; sleep and rest); Individual psychological health (bodily image andappearance; negative feelings; positive feelings; self-esteem; thinking, learning, memory and concentration); Level of individual independence (mobility; activities of daily living; dependence on medicinal substances and medical aids;work capacity); Social relationships (personal relationships; social support;sexual activity); Environment (financial resources; freedom, physical safety and security; health and social care: accessibility and quality; home environment; opportunities for acquiring new information and skills; participation in and opportunities for recreation/leisure; physical environment (pollution/noise/traffic/climate); Spirituality/religion/personal beliefs. The Healthy Cities Report Documenting The Urban Health Situation14 for the World Health Organization) provides an example of a specific focus─health─and identifies the key areas of focus in this field: Community assessment; Health promotion; Quality of life (55 quality of life indicators, including: the environment; land use; health; alcohol; tobacco and other drugs; education; the economy and employment; commerce; housing; arts and culture; recreation and open space; transportation; com-munity safety; crime; social welfare); Delivery of health services; Food and nutrition; Youth.In the UK many county councils have been gathering and keeping data on quality of life for many years. For example, Oxfordshire County Council15, following the areas delineated by the UK government’s Audit Commission, reports on: Economy: skills, education, employment rate, children’s day care, income; Social: safe and supportive communities (and violent crime), housing (house price index, housing supply, unfit housing), health (life expectancy), transport (travel plans, traffic levels, public transport use), public perceptions of living in Oxfordshire; Environmental: climate (and climate change), cleanliness (e.g. of roads), domestic use of resources, domestic waste and recycling, biodiversity and countryside, land use.From its analysis of the data it has identified eight priorities for development: Key workers (named and permanent individuals attached to named individuals) (for social and psychological care services) and housing; Safe and supportive communities; Transport; Economic prosperity; Education and lifelong learning; Environment; Health and well-being; Recreation, culture and leisure.This is a good example of how analyzing the data can lead to development priorities and action/intervention.In the UK the government appointed its Audit Commission to develop Quality of Life Indicators16, to set definitions, to give timeframes, and to provide an ‘indicators handbook’. It identified32 Quality of Life Indicators, setting these out under three headings: economic, social and environmental, providing directions on the location of source materials and data, methodologies used, and breaking down the data for evidence of inequality (e.g. by gender and ethnicity). This is a good example of a comprehensive focus, with data streams and strata of the population identified. The Audit Commission commissioned a poll by Market Opinion and Research International (MORI) on Quality of Life Indicators17 which enquired about 20 areas of life: Access to culture; Access to nature;
73Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionVol. 262005. 2 Activities for teenagers; Affordable decent housing; Clean streets; Community activities; Education provision; Facilities for young children; Health services; Job prospects; Low level of crime; Low level of pollution; Low level of traffic congestion; Open spaces; Public transport; Race relations; Road/pavement maintenance; Shopping facilities; Sports and leisure facilities; Wage levels.It used these to ask respondents the questions “what makessomewhere a good place to live?” and “what needs most improving in this local area?”, asking them to rank these items, which were then stratified by age, gender, location (rural/urban).It graphed these responses in terms of “what most needs improving locally” by “importance”.Cummins18 defines Quality of Life in objective and subjective terms in 7 domains: Material well-being; Health; Productivity; Intimacy; Safety; Place in community; Emotional well-being. In the US a recent celebrated study used the Calvert-Henderson Quality of Life Indicators19, covering: education; employment; energy; environment; health; human rights; income; infrastructure; national security; public safety; re-creation; and shelter. The study combined quantitative and qualitative indicators.This is a tool for assessing national trends, i.e. which opts for overall samples rather than sub-samples. Within a small territory such as Macau it should be possible to gather data both by anoverall population and sub-population. In 2004 the European Communities used the Calvert-Henderson Quality of Life Indicators in its Special Interest Group (SIG1) Quality of Life Proposals, having reviewed: The Calvert-Henderson Quality of Life Indicators; The Eurostat Environmental Indicators (the statistical office of the European Community); The Wellbeing of Nations (from the International Development Research Centre); The State of the Nation’s Ecosystems (from Lands, Waters and Living Resources of the United States); The 2001 Environmental Sustainability Index (a consortiumfrom the Global Leaders of Tomorrow’s Environment Task Force, and the World Economic Forum).The EC proposals combined an index, tracking changes in a selected phenomenon over time, with a collection of social and community indicators, and decided to focus on: education; health; infrastructure (mainly new type information and communication); energy; environment; and public safety.The Human Development Reports from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)20 concentrate on three measurable dimensions of human development and report annually on 177 countries in respect of: Living a long and healthy life; Being educated; Having a decent standard of living.The UNDP also presents an annual Human DevelopmentIndex, weighting factors such as: income; education; life expectancy; military versus civil budget ratios; environment; poverty gaps; gender; and human rights. It lists 87 main areas of measurement, with several subcategories21, deliberately stating that it is not a comprehensive index, and that some of its sources may not be up to date. By way of example, for Hong Kong in 2004 it reported the following: 22 Human Development Index (HDI) rank = 23/177; GDP per capita rank = 17/177; HDI value = 0.903; Life expectancy at birth = 3rd/177, at 79.9; Combined primary, secondary and tertiary education gross enrolment rate (%) = 89th/177, at 72%;
Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction澳門研究74BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES Gender-related Development Index (GDI) = 23/144 at 0.898; Female administrators and managers (%) = 53rd, at 25.7%; Female professional and technical (%) = 68th, at 39.8%; Ratio of female earned income to male earned income = 70th, at 0.56.The New Zealand Quality of Life Indicators project23 lists 56 main indicators, under 11 main areas of quality of life: People (demography); Knowledge and skills (education); Standard of living; Economic development; Housing; Health Natural environment; Built environment; Safety; Social connectedness; Civil and political rights.The South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc.24 identify 10 main areas of quality of life indicators, including: Enterprising community; Prosperity and economic growth; Engaged and flexible workforce; Quality of life; Health; Participation; Criminal justice; Home loan affordability; Population; Environment.The report prefaces each section with two questions: Why is this important? How are we going? Each data field is one page only, making it easily readable.The government of the UK lists 15 indicators of quality25 under 3 main headings: 1. Economic Growth Economic output; Investment; Employment;2. Social Progress Poverty and social exclusion; Education; Health; Housing; Crime;3. Environmental Protection Climate change; Air quality; Road traffic; River water quality; Wildlife; Land use; Waste.What one can observe from this range of studies are two key features: a degree of consensus on the areas of focus for Quality of Life Research, and that the areas are very many. This suggests that conducting fair and rigorous research into Quality ofLife will be a huge enterprise rather than a small enterprise, if justice is to be done to the issue. It tends to be an all-or-nothing activity if it is to be valid. This has huge resource implications: time, people, expertise, administration, networking and linkage, cooperation of governmental and non-governmental agencies andorganizations. Drawing together all of these areas of focus, indicators of Quality of Life might include for Macau: 4.1 Objective Indicators4.1.1 Education (e.g. expenditure per student, entrance to higher education and employment; income by educationalattainment; levels of attainment; exclusion rates; attendance rates; provision for different sectors; schools and universities; social mobility; literacy and numeracy levels; the quantity, quality and distribution of education, defined as lifelong learning and contribut-ing to the broader dialogue on who learns what, where, when, and how throughout the life cycle).4.1.2 Employment (e.g. employed: full-time and part-time; unemployed and under-employed: full-time and part-time; voluntary and involuntary part-time employment; hours worked; employment, underemployment and unemployment by age,
75Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionVol. 262005. 2education, employment sector, duration, gender, ethnicity and special needs; occupational types and sectors; the structure of employment as developed by the government and amended by private research efforts, clarification of basic questions as to what constitutes “employment” and “unemployment” and what it means when figures fluctuate over time).4.1.3 Energy (e.g. expenditure; energy production, transmis-sion and consumption; carbon intensity, emissions and pollution; how much and how efficiently energy is consumed what can be done to reduce the environmental impact of energy consumption). 4.1.4 Environment (e.g. quality of air, water, sea, river, soil,biodiversity; waste: household, air pollutants, industrial and commercial; ozone, built environment; non-built environment; resources: energy, water, materials, land; consumer products and services: water, electricity, gas; industries; traffic and congestion; urbanization; population density; immigration; protected areas; the production-consumption process).4.1.5 Health (e.g. mortality and life expectancy; diseases and disease control; acute and chronic disease; health services expenditure and coverage; types of service and funding streams; illness and mortality; physical and psychological services; emotional and psychological health; what constitutes “health” ; the overall state of health of the people by age, race and gender).4.1.6 Social welfare (e.g. social and care services; expenditure on services; services by age, need).4.1.7 Civic rights and duties (e.g. private and public rights and freedoms; religion and assembly; rights of privacy; right to due process and protection; rights to political participation and voting; freedom from oppression and illegitimate arrest; politicaland economic rights; punishment and imprisonment; equal opportunities and uptake; residency, immigration and citizenship; membership of political parties; representation).4.1.8 Income and wealth (e.g. by demographic characteristics: age, education, gender, family types, ethnic-ity, occupation; wealth, income and asset levels by population segments; government, public, private, corporate, and personal/family income; relationship to full-time and part-time employment; sources of income; gap between rich and poor; taxation levels; poverty; hourly/weekly/monthly rates of income by occupation, gender, age; trends in levels of income by occupation and demography; GDP; indicators of wealth: property; luxury goods and non-essential items; changes in the standard of living as reflected in monetary measures of family income; trends in the level and distribution of family income and wealth along with stagnant and unequal wage growth over the past 25 years). 4.1.9 Infrastructure (e.g. economic: highways, air, transit, bus, car, pipelines and service conduits, ports and waterways; communications, telephone, radio, television, computer, post; utilities: electricity, gas, water, liquid and solid waste; social: health, safety, education, hospitals, primary and secondary health care services, fire and police, conservation and development, parks and recreation; human capital; environmental; the importance of the physical infrastructure to the economy and how to supplement national accounts with an improvement asset account to monitor physical stock).4.1.10 Security (e.g. national and local: prevention, deterrence, protection, response, peace-keeping; military and civil; industry and technology; crime, criminality and punishment; protection from attack; legal and judicial services, protections, operation and legislative frameworks; the processes followed to achieve a state of national military security, and including both a diplomatic strategy and a military strategy, all of which are affected by public opinion and the perceived threat to security).4.1.11 Public safety (e.g. individual: substance abuse, prevention, protection, treatment and reduction; accidents, injuries and death: motor, domestic, public, occupational, fire, firearms, murder and suicide; natural disasters: protection and response; health and safety in the workplace; safety of products and consumer protection; disease and disease control, health; howeffectively society promotes private and public safety when faced with complex interrelationships between personal decisions, public actions, risks, and hazards in the environment that result indeaths from injuries).4.1.12 Recreation, culture and leisure (e.g. income,expenditure, consumption and uptake; facilities, technology and provision; community; socialization; age and gender factors; time and money available and used; types of recreation; spectator and participation activities; sports and physical activity; media; gaming; tourism and travel; hobbies and pastimes; music, arts and theatre; religious activity; amateur and professional activity; recreational drugs (e.g. alcohol); steps taken in society to recreate the self, to be revitalized in body and mind, and to reestablish social
Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction澳門研究76BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIEScontracts through leisure and/or recreational activities).4.1.13 Housing (e.g. amount; type; quality; living space; cost; private and public; crowding and overcrowding; persons per room; shared: e.g. dormitories for workers and shared between more than one family; home ownership; homelessness; neighbourhood; affordability: price: purchase and rent; location; services: e.g. water, electricity, telephone); vacancy and occupancy; sectoral provision: e.g. by income, gender, family size and nature, ethnicity and residency status, socio-economic status, poverty; how housing affects broader social outcomes).4.1.14 Governance (e.g. government efficiency and effectiveness; laws and the judicature; international relations; gender, racial, age equality in government).4.2 Subjective Indicators Sense of community; Material possessions Sense of safety; Happiness; Satisfaction with life “as a whole” ; Relationships with family; Job satisfaction; Sex life; Perception of distributional justice Hobbies and club membership; Self-actualization; Freedom from want; Psychological well-being; Physical well-being; Social well-being; Material well-being; Social capital. Clearly the weighting of all of these factors is difficult, or even undesirable, even if one uses conventional multiple regression analysis. The multi-dimensional and multi-level nature of Quality of Life indicators requires data to be stratified, by, for example: age, gender, ethnicity, residency status, occupation, socio-economic status; income; family size; education level; marital status, and forindividuals, groups, communities, neighbourhoods, sectors, and overall.4.3 Some Tensions in the Contents of Quality of Life ResearchIn addressing the contents of research into Quality of Life, several tensions present themselves. Firstly, a balance has to be struck between too many and too few data. Too many data and one cannot pick out the significant few issues from the trivial many, and here the Pareto principle is perhaps a useful guide to how to proceed. Too few data and selectivity, unreliability and invalidity ensue. A second tension is between coverage and manageability: the more one moves towards reliability and validity the larger the data set has to be and the more difficult this becomes to manage both practically and as a research exercise─data overload can be problematic. Reliability and validity are addressed a little later in this paper. A third tension lies between viewing Quality of Life as a holistic concept and as a collective noun which embraces discrete elements: the fragmentation/atomization of the research versus a holistic approach. Quality of Life is a convenient umbrella for discrete elements, though we have to recognize that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.A fourth tension lies in the balance of complexity and simplicity. On the one hand Quality of Life indicators are multifaceted and complex, with the devil lying in the detail. Research that concentrates on such levels of complexity may become impenetrable. On the other hand it is also useful, not leastfor public understanding, to have simple indicators, provided thatthey do not violate canons of validity and reliability. How one achieves simplicity in managing complex phenomena is not simply a matter of domain sampling but of deciding what those domains will be, without compromising the complexity of the phenomena in question.A fifth tension lies between inclusion/participation and representation: some approaches to Quality of Life research discuss it in terms of empowerment of individuals and groups through participation in the process and the research; much research methodology is devolved onto discussions of samples rather than whole populations, and how to ensure representativeness in sampling, particularly of small sub-groups and strata. The issue is akin to discussions of a participatory rather than a representative democracy, and is twofold: how does one ensure participation in the research, and how does one ensure adequate representation of all strata and groups? One cannot be too restrictive or selective
77Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionVol. 262005. 2in the range of the areas of focus, the participants or the kinds of data, yet the more one wishes to be inclusive and fair to all parties and issues, the more difficult the research is to manage.5. Methodologies in Quality of Life Research 5.1 Approaches: to measure or not to measure?There is the very big issue of the methodology to be used. There is no single methodology; rather several methodologies are used for different aspects of Quality of Life research. These rehearse the familiar paradigm wars of quantitative versus qualitative approaches. There is also value in both subjective and objective metrics.Does one use numbers to indicate quality of life? The mathematisation and scaling of our lives seems unstoppable, and the thirst to quantify and measure is barely slaked by the massive databases held on every aspect of human lives. For some this isnot a problem; as Durkheim and Giddens remarked in the last century, there are “social facts” that play themselves out behind the backs of individual actors, and the behaviourists argue that if a thing exists then it can be measured. For others the measurement of life is part of the aggressive scientisation of society that must be resisted, and, indeed, the notable feature of the notion of “quality” is that it is just that─a quality, an abstraction, intangible andinvisible, i.e. it is not entirely susceptible to numeric measures. Many approaches use numerical measures. With tens of thousands of studies published, whilst those studies operating at a national level have been both theoretically and methodologically sound, Rapley26 suggests that those at an individual level are not, particularly those using psychometric measures, lacking reliability and measurement adequacy. Indeed he also argues for the use of qualitative data, both per se and as an essential complement to numerical measures.Further, in many approaches to quality of life indicators, different kinds of data and datasets are used, on the basis of fitness for purpose. It is perhaps invidious to combine different kinds of data and data that have been gathered using different methodologies, designs and instrumentation and for differentpurposes, areas and focuses of quality of life indicators. In fairness, quality of life indicators tend not to combine data too greatly, but the urge to secure a quick fix by constructing individual─general, overall─indices of quality of life within cognate areas of focus must be resisted. One has to be aware that many Quality of Life data may be gathered from databases not initially set up for Quality of Life research, i.e. there may be a problem of validity in usingdata acquired for one purpose in the service of a different purpose.Multi-level modeling and meta-analysis can address these matters. Multi-level modeling offers a way of working with differentlevels of data (from sub-sub-groups to whole samples), and meta-analysis offers a prospect of reducing error variation if several studies are used, even taking into account the differentialrigour of several studies, which reduces as more and more studies are combined (e.g. Glass and Smith27).In a written question to the European Commission in October 2003, Herman Schmid28 pointed out that:“different measurements systems yield different results. Therefore it is interesting to ask the Commission whether it considers that any of these systems can give a reliable, usable and fair picture of the quality of life in a Member State......here are also other scales which raise their sights above the measurement of mere economic and statistical figures.” Indeed, in response to this question, Mr. Solbes Mira29 wrote: “Rather than trying to compress a multi-dimensional subject such as the quality of life into a single number, it may be more appropriate to use a range of measures that reflect this multidimensionality and avoid the subjectivity that is an inevitable weakness of index-based approaches.”Bodies which commissioned measurement systems, including the UN, considered that quality of life must include citizens’ perceptions of their situation. Increased standards for the few need not automatically lead to better quality of life. The issue is important: the metrics may drive the view of Quality of Life rather than vice versa, and this can be dangerous─it should be that the view of Quality of Life drives the metrics.However, quality of life is about a quality, which may be intangible and invisible; we cannot touch and see it. How far is quality measurable? I recall a child being asked to write about a visit to a zoo, in which she saw an elephant. She could comment on the fact that it had tusks, large ears, walked slowly, had a trunk
Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction澳門研究78BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESthat could do many tricks, and had thick skin. All of these are measurable (two tusks, the size of the ears, the speed of walking, the thickness of the skin). However, the overwhelming feature of seeing the elephant for that child was its enormity in comparison to her smallness. Here was this huge animal, gentle and dignified, yet capable of massive destruction and power, looking down at her from high up and making her feel tiny and vulnerable. That isa quality that is best described in prose rather than numbers. Meaning is not necessarily that which is expressed in numbers. All the measures in the world would not capture that feeling of greatness and smallness. One should not be blind to prose, though it is unfashionable more recently in using indicators of quality.This issue goes to the heart of quality of life indicators. Thelists of indicators and focuses for measurements are often markedby the singular absence of vast areas of what gives life its quality─music, culture, the arts, dialogue, spirituality and religion. They do not feature on most indices of quality of life, yet it could be ar-gued that it is precisely these that bring quality to living, and thatthe other areas that have been included here are simply starting points─Herzberg’s “hygiene” factors, in his two-factor theory, that guarantee a minimum platform on which true quality of life is built. If we are to get to the heart of life then the argument here isthat we need qualitative data from dialogue, reflection and ethnographic methods.A mixed methodology may be required, including, for example: public domain statistical data from government and non-government sources; additional statistical data from objective measures specifically gathered for the exercise, from different existing and to-be-formed agencies and organizations; cross-sectional, trend analysis and longitudinal survey data; perception-based data (e.g. levels of satisfaction); interviews and conversations (qualitative and ethnographic data); data that are stratified for segments of the population, as appropriate; an overall index of the quality of life, based on the weighted elements of each area (perhaps using aggregates, correlations, regression analyses, principal components analysis, Paretoclassification and multilevel modeling); an index of the quality of life for each of the areas (perhaps using betas or multilevel modeling).A useful source of methodologies in Quality of Life research is the website of the ISQOLS Department of Marketing, Virginia Institute and State University.30 A further useful source isKolenikov31, which not only reports different methods, but also for how to aggregate diverse data and calculate responses for different sub-samples, and how to take account of multicollinearity. 5.1.1 SamplingThe quality of any research stands or falls on the sampling used. Sampling is in part a function of the size of the population; it is also a function of how sophisticated the analysis is that is required, how many variables are to be introduced, the complexityof the phenomenon under study, into how many strata the population is to be divided (e.g. gender, age, income, ethnicity, education, occupation, family types (e.g. Eckersley32), access to the sample, attrition rates in the sample, the levels of confidence required in the data, and the representativeness of the sample. Though the greater is the number of the variables to be addressed, the larger is the sample, random sampling for generalisability also places on researchers the requirement to opt for larger samples rather than smaller samples, indeed to over-sample minority groups (a boosted sample) that is subsequently adjusted through weighting. The point here is that the sample to be used in this complex area, with a range of sub-groups, will be large. This, in turn, places demands on resources for data collection. There is a tension between the necessary size of the sample in order to ensure reliability and the practicability and resourcing of theresearch: to be effective will require large sampling, yet such large sampling can quickly deplete human and financial resources. Post hoc stratification of the sample, for example through cluster analysis, can only be adopted reliably if the overall sample is large. To be successful a Quality of Life project will require plentiful resources. Not only is there sampling of the population and sub-population. There is also the issue of domain sampling, the fields ensuring not only that the domain of Quality of Life in question is established comprehensively, but that the selection of items for sampling from that domain is representative. This is an issue that has exercised the minds of evaluators and test compilers for generations. The
79Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionVol. 262005. 2issue is familiar to researchers in the fields of testing (e.g. Cohen et al.33 ) and content analysis (e.g. Krippendorp34). The point is that each domain, for example education, is itemized comprehensively, and that the selection for use in a Quality of Life analysis taps that domain fairly and fully, with weightings within and between domains as appropriate. This is the double issue of reliability and validity, which is discussed below.5.1.2 Ethical IssuesQuality of Life research is not neutral; it is an ethically bound enterprise, and it both protects and exposes individuals, groups and parties. It can bring benefit but also bring harm, blame and recrimination. It is important for Quality of Life research to abide not only by ethical principles but to have ethical codes. Ethical codes offer guidelines which are subject to interpretation by individuals, so care has to be taken in the consistent interpretation and application of such guidelines. Ethical issues, like those in any research enterprise, address such matters as: Informed consent and involvement; Treating people as subjects; Whose views and definitions count?; Are everyone’s views and voices heard?; Protecting vulnerabilities and harm (non-maleficence); Protecting rights and freedoms; Protection from, or exposure to, litigation: liabilities, libels, negligence, misrepresentation, risk, harm (e.g. health), etc.; Confidentiality, anonymity and non-traceability; Public’s right to know versus the individual’s right to privacy; Bringing improvement and benefit (beneficence); Giving scientific legitimacy to contested matters (e.g. abortion, euthanasia) Use of rigorous, reliable, comprehensive and valid designs, methodologies, instrumentation, sampling, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, reporting and dissemination; Avoidance of misrepresentation of data/people/groups; Fair use of data and avoidance of misuse of data; The avoidance of negative ‘surveillance’ and the extent of the operations of the state; Consideration of the ethical implications of failure; Considerations of covert and overt practices;Who owns and controls the data? When does ownership pass from one party to another (e.g. the donor to the researcher to the government or a third party)?; Access to, and release of data; Establishing and following protocols for access to, and control and release of data; Consideration given to the effects of reporting on those who are involved in, or affected by the reporting; Permissions, copyrights and fair attention to intellectual property.It is not mere pedantry that produces such a long list of ethical issues; the whole enterprise of quality of life research is nested within ethics.5.2 Reliability and Validity in Indicator SystemsMany direct indicators of quality exist, but, recognizing that the terms “quality” and “life” are abstractions, and capable of many interpretations, many aspects of Quality of Life research use proxy indicators of quality, not the quality of life itself, but an indicator of the quality of life. An indicator is a summary measure of a more complex phenomenon or trend (e.g. South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc.35). For example, in some countries students from deprived backgrounds are given free school meals. The incidence of free school meals is taken to be an index of socio-economic status. In some countries the number of university staff with doctorates is taken to be an index of quality, though, of course, as those of us know who have met doctorate holders who cannot teach, cannot research, cannot publish, cannot contribute to the community, and who have not an original idea in their head, that is a highly suspect proxy. In quality of life research, for example, whilst infant mortality, perinatal death, vehicle emissions and air pollution are direct indicators, proxy indicators might be school attendance, divorce rates, military expenditure, and feelings of wellness, though these might be dubious indicators of school quality, happiness in relationships, national security, and health respectively. Simply asking somebody how hot or cold they feel is not a reliable indicator of how hot or cold it is; an IQ test is a contested measure of intelligence; asking a person how well they feel or what they think is the matter with themselves is a poor guide to wellness or illness respectively. People may not have sufficient knowledge or objectivity to be able to assess correctly the state of whatever is being asked. Indeed people with low expectations may
Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction澳門研究80BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESfeel great happiness and those with high expectations may feel great unhappiness, indeed there may be little correlation between material wealth, socio-economic status and happiness. Further, some groups may deliberately under-report their happiness and other groups may deliberately over-report their happiness. A happiness index provides a limited and sometimes unreliable index of quality of life. More important, perhaps, a happiness index or set of descriptors offers little way forward, little basis for action; simply stating that a person or group of people is not happy about such-and-such gives developers no basis for where or how to intervene, and the argument here is that the purpose of quality of life indicators is to inform development planning and action. An example of this is reported by Eckersley36 who found that 24% ofAustralians thought that life was improving, 36% thought that it was worsening, and 38% though that it was staying the same: such data provide no guidelines for action, but only give an index of a spirit of optimism or pessimism. Indeed there is a conceptual difficulty to be faced in discussing “happiness”, for example whether it is a possession, a satisfaction of needs and requirements, self-realization, the positive outcome of being compared to others, or something else.37 The “feel good factor” can be deceptive. Behind subjective perception is the more important matter of objective indica-tors, and it is these that could or, arguably, even should, drive aresearch project. Subjective perceptions are prone to reactivity, the Hawthorne and halo effects, situational effects, attrition, selective and biased perception, and misrepresentation of the phenomenon under study. The philosopher Bertrand Russell38 recounts the tale of the “inductivist chicken” who becomes used to the farmer feeding it reliably every day, and feels good and secure in the knowledge that it will be fed every day, only to find that, one day, the farmer wrings its neck. Similarly the “feel good” factor is not necessarily a very accurate measure of how good things really are. Feeling good is not the same as being good; I may feel safe and positive about myself but not be safe. This is the danger of over-reliance on “happiness” indices of quality of life, such as those by Veenhoven, cited earlier.The use of proxy indicators not only risks problems of validity (do the indicators indicate what they are supposed to be indicating) and reliability (is there consistency within and between the raters? Proxy indicators might well be problematic in the field of health: is health simply the absence of disease of illness, or is there more than this? Are the presence of an army of such-and-such a size and destructive power, or the size and level of qualifications of a police force good indicators of security? Further, how much store do we put on a patient sufferingfrom the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease who declares herself to feel very well, very happy, healthy and empowered? Who should speak for those who cannot speak for themselves, and how are their judgements to be judged as reliable? The issue of advocacyis important. Once one moves from objective description to subjective inference, there is a risk of violating reliability of the data, and inter-rater reliability may be insufficient to guarantee reliability-all the raters might be collectively mistaken. This suggests that reliability may have to be construed as “good enough” rather than as perfect. Further, in the interests of manageability, many studies have adopted the selective use of indicators or by using a limited set ofindicators for a complex and extended set of focuses, thereby compromising reliability and construct, content, predictive and concurrent validity. This is the issue of domain sampling which were referred to earlier. Reliability and validity are easily attenuated. It is essential that accurate, honest, complete, objective, consistent, metric-based, auditable, sound, credible, dependable, confirmable, generalisable, representative and qualitative data are collected and verified by independent third parties in the interests of accountability. A good indicator will be reliable and valid, understood readily, indicate trends, encompass a variety of views, and enable readers to come to clear and informed views and opinions (South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc.,39).Concurrent validity requires triangulation of methodologies,data, instruments, data sources and streams, time, place,researchers, sub-samples and so on if reliable data are to beobtained. This is not akin to the system in some countries whereby, for example, the police investigate themselves, but outside parties are involved for their guarantee of neutrality. The move toward objective, complete and verified data will necessitate the setting up, by government, not only of databases for interrogation but the means of collecting those data for entry and the guarantees of reliability from the agencies collecting the data; this may mean
81Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionVol. 262005. 2that an approval system should be in place for the acceptance of bid for outsourced work─not necessarily to the lowest bidder but to the proposal that brings the highest quality data. It also means that expert validation and respondent validation should be in place, with cross-checking and interrogation of data, their analysis, interpretation and reporting, in the interests of reliability and validity should be in place. Low inference should be the target─with the data speaking for themselves rather than through the subjective filter of researchers. As different data types will be collected, this poses a problem with the compatability of levels ofrigour in each data type, and therefore the need for expert validation and an overarching panel of experts is important─to monitor the monitors.The list of types of validity is familiar to researchers; this paper has only touched on content, concurrent, construct and ecological validity. Further, catalytic validity (Cohen et al.40) requires that the research leads to action, helping participants to understand their worlds and improve them. This is a political as well as a research agenda, and is particularly apposite in respect of disempowered or denied social groups.5.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation5.3.1 Being Cautious with StatisticsStatistics can be manipulated. For example, at a simple level, the scaling of graphs can be arranged to make small improvements look massive, and averages can mask a huge variation in the dispersal of scores. Equally importantly, perhaps, some aspects of quality cannot be measured and, even if they are measured, such measures may be meaningless. What actually does it mean to say that a society is, on average, 50% happy withlevels of pollution, or that a sub-group of society feels that the quality of education is 70% good? These are numbers, but they are largely devoid of meaning and utility; one should ask, perhaps “are they relative or absolute measures?”; “what are the criteria, domains, and standards of reference that are being used to make the judgements?”; “what counts as ‘pollution’ “; “what counts as ‘education’?”. Such measures offer little or no basis for evaluation or for development, yet the seduction of society by numbers is widespread. The problem of numerical approaches is compounded when we enter the steamy world of statistics. For example, it iscommonplace to see in respected journals the misuse of statistics:parametric tests are applied to non-parametric data; the assumptions behind the statistical tests are routinely violated; thescaling and calibration of graphs can make matters appear betteror worse than they are; measures of association are taken to bemeasures of causality; simple linear measures of causality mistake the non-linearity and multi-directionality of multi-causal variables, data are aggregated unfairly, the dispersal of scores islost to a reported mean and so on. The allure of numbers appearsirresistible; they have the superficial attraction of simplicity, immediacy, unquestionability, absoluteness and finality.The thrust toward numbers is dangerous through over-simplification. For example, many measures of quality (e.g. service quality, customer satisfaction) use variants of multiple regression, for example: Notation:Quality Quality index (percentage)X i Mean score of variable i. Weight of variable (the standardized beta coefficient).Here factors are given weightings, an these are combined into an index. It is a familiar practice in measures of quality (e.g. SERVQUAL). However, this raises several issues, not least in thedanger of assuming causality and of the tenability and permanenceof the weightings, but also in the problem of aggregation, for example: Each variable is itself an aggregate of sub-variables and sub-sub-variables (the data are multi-levelled); Sub-variable and sub-sub-variables use different metrics; The overall index is meaningless, if superficially attractive; let us say that in an English test I score a Grade A in punctuation and a Grade E in spelling; my average English grade is a Grade C, but this is a meaningless average as it combines discrete and unrelated data; Variations in dispersal are lost; The index offers no basis for action, planning or development; it is a summative rather than formative measure; A single index can be a naive and crude index (and most indices of quality avoid this approach, though Kolenikov41 shows how a single index can be constructed);
Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction澳門研究82BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES The data take no account of those factors which have been excluded from the equation (factor analysis, for example,may be helpful here in indicating the amounts of variance explained, though it, too, only works with given variables─it is the economists’ problem of beginning with the statement “let us assume that such-and-such is the case”).Further, the case is being made against aggregated data, and for disaggregated data, related to strata in the population. However, though this may be useful for development planning, itmay be unhelpful to policy makers and those seeking re-election, who favour global indices and their persuasive power, and short-term solutions and interventions. Short-term results are frequently more attractive to politicians seeking re-election rather than necessarily long-term benefit, yet Quality of Life is a long-term, sustainable matter. One has to be in it for the long haul rather than the quick fix. Further, a politician may prefer to say that the overall well-being of the nation has risen by 10% than saying that it has fallen by, say, 25% for the poorest 10% in society and risen by 15% for the richest 10% in society, thereby sanctioning a policy that favours the rich and punishes the poor. The authors of the Calvert-Henderson Quality of Life Indicators project (Henderson et al.42), similarly, write that “many believe, as we do at Calvert-Henderson Quality of Life Indicators, that aggregating all these ‘apples and oranges’ into one index is inappropriate and often confusing” . If measures are to be used (and these may or may not bedesirable), then their limitations must be made explicit; both aggregated and disaggregated data must be presented, as must stratified data for different population groups. This, in turn, creates further issues, in that the number and constitution of the strata must be clarified and decided, and the greater the number of strata is in order to secure validity and to assist forward planning and targeted development work, often the greater is their incomprehensibility, the inability of the data to be summarized easily and fairly and, consequently the lack of appeal to policy makers. The tension is between necessary detail to ensure targeted action,representation and coverage of issues on the one hand, and manageability, public understanding, dissemination, and political attractiveness on the other.5.3.2 Making JudgementsAnalysing data by itself is incomplete. If a true appraisal orevaluation of quality of life is to be made then analysis must move to judgement. This requires criteria to be made explicit for makingthose judgements, and for these to be applied fairly and consistently. The setting of criteria is problematic, and many indicator systems do not venture into this territory, unless they ask respondents directly what their opinion is of the quality of their lives or use a happiness index. The problematic nature of criteria is revealed when, for example, we have to decide when the quality of life is very acceptable, not very acceptable, or plainly unacceptable, of a high standard, medium standard or poor standard. What constitutes a high standard, or a medium standard, or a low standard in any measure or set of measures? What is the cut-off point between a high and medium standard, or between a medium and low standard? It is akin to setting a passing level in an examination at an arbitrary figure, say 50%. Why should it be 50% and not, say 70% or 30%? If I generate an air pollution index of, say 125 (whatever calibration is used), how does the public know if this is low or high, acceptable or unacceptable, dangerous or tolerable, and, mutatis mutandis, what constitutes acceptability, danger, tolerability? Definitional matters move us away from numbers and into abstractness, which brings us close to the heart of trying to decide what a “quality” really is. How does a high standard in one area compensate for a low standard in another? Should the weighting of factors be decided statistically or by human consensus (which may be impossible to achieve)? Many indicator systems, perhaps in the espousal of continuous improvement and target setting, do not use terms such as high, medium or low, or very acceptable, moderately andunacceptable. Important questions are raised about which criteria are to be used in judging the data, whose criteria are to be used, and how the criteria are to be generated and agreed. What many indicator systems do is to provide the data and let the stakeholders make the judgements. Whilst this is a useful move towards democracy, it also, perhaps, absolves people of sufficient responsibility and accountability, and assumes that the stakeholders will be able to make judgements about acceptability. Surely stakeholders need guidance on what is acceptable, but the question here is who is sufficiently expert, neutral, disinterested and objective to make such judgements on behalf of the public. In a small territory like Macau this suggests the need for outside, independent bodies.
83Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionVol. 262005. 25.4 Reporting and DisseminationIt is at the stage of reporting of findings that the bad news is frequently doctored, either omitted or given a particular “spin”, or that the good news is amplified. Selective reporting of unwelcome news is unethical, just as over-attention to the good news distorts the picture. Similarly, opting for simplistic summaries of complex data, however appealing it may be to political bodies, accountable and responsible groups, is tantamount to an unethical practice, misrepresenting such complexity and sensitivity of the data. The issue, perhaps unpalatable to some, is that the reporting should be fair, complete and comprehensive, with due consideration to consequential validity─using the data, either in description or inference, in ways that are fair to such data. Unfair selective reporting must not occur; if selective reporting is to occur (e.g. focusing on only one or two areas of Quality of Life, or one or two sub-samples of people or groups), then it must be an accurate and fair representation of those data that apply to such issues andsub-samples. The message is that reporting, as in UK courtrooms, must “tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth”. Datamust not be used unfai r ly select ively, inaccurately, unrepresentatively or in a way that misrepresents the issues or overall data; the context and parameters of the data must be declared, together with the confidence intervals and confidence levels of thedata, and claims that cannot be sustained by the data must beavoided (Cohen et al.43). The timing of the release of the data must also be considered; we know of adverse reports that are deliberately published on days when bigger “news” is released, so as to conceal the messages. The dissemination of the project should take various forms and engage many media, on order to reach a wide public, including, for example: Reports; Conferences and symposia, before, during and after the project; Academic and professional journals; Initial, interim and final reports; Books; Newspaper and television coverage; Conferences, seminars and workshops; Establishment of a databank and web site; Publication of technical papers; Interviews.These would be targeted to different groups, as appropriate, for example the general public, special interest groups, stakeholders,politicians, policy makers, service providers, the academic/researchcommunity etc.. Differentiation of dissemination as required wouldbe important, as would subsequent impact and uptake projects.The attribution of accountability and responsibility for the situation must also be reported fairly in dissemination.It is important to gather feedback on data and reporting. Thereby hangs a problem, in that some groups may regard a dataset very positively whilst another group may regard it very negatively. For example, car dealers may regard the high density of traffic as evidence of good sales and marketing, i.e. economic performance, whilst another group may regard it very negatively as a major contributor to polluted air. The issue here is whose views are to be heard or hold sway in feedback?What is being argued here is for rigorous research. I also repeat the issue that I raised earlier: quality of life has to attend tothose areas that bring true quality to life: arts, culture, music, literature, drama, spirituality, religion, relationships, and so on. Many of the areas that are addressed in conventional quality of life research barely touch on these central features. We have tobroaden the scope of quality of life research to go from the necessary minimum to the possible or sufficient maximum, what makes humans human.Quality of Life is important to the extent to which it leads to improvement. Data by themselves are inert. In the 19th century Karl Marx wrote in his Theses on Feuerbach that “the philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways; the point, however, is to change it.” We cannot be complacent and simply report. Complacency kills. Quality of Life research must go somewhere; it must bring improvement to the quality of life and to people.Notes: 1 Veenhoven, R., Conditions of Happiness (Reidel: Dordrecht, 1984); Veenhoven, R., “Happy Life-expectancy: a comprehensive measure of quality-of-life in nations,” Social Indicators Research, Vol. 33 (1996), pp. 299-313. 2 Campbell, A., Converse, P. E. and Rodgers, W. L. The Quality of American Life: Perceptions, Evaluations and Satisfactions (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1976).3 United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
Quality of Life Indicators: An Introduction澳門研究84BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES Toward a Social Report (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1969).4 Cummins, R. A., “The domains of life satisfaction: an attempt to order chaos,” Social Indicators Research, Vol. 38 (1996), pp. 303-328.5 UNESCO, Quality of Life: Problems of Assessment and Measurement (Paris: UNESCO, 1983)6 Estes, R., Weighted Index of Social Progress, WISP (2003), http://caster.ssw.upenn.edu/~restes/world.html.7 World Bank, World Development Indicators (Washington DC: World Bank, 1997).8 Cummins, R. A., “The domains of life satisfaction: an attempt to order chaos,” Social Indicators Research, Vol. 38 (1996), pp. 303-328.9 Noll, H.-H., “Social indicators and social reporting: the international experience,” (2000), http://www.ccsd.ca/noll1.html, retrieved on 18th November, 2004. 10 Hagerty, M. R., Cummins, R. A., Ferriss, A. L., Land, K., Michalos, A. C., Peterson, M., “Quality of life indexes for national policy: review and agenda for research.,” Social Indicators Research, Vol.55 (2001), pp.1-96.11 Veenhoven, R., Conditions of Happiness (Reidel: Dordrecht, 1984); Veenhoven, R., “Happy Life-expectancy: a comprehensive measure of quality-of-life in nations,” Social Indicators Research, Vol. 33 (1996), pp. 299-313.12 Eckersley, R. Quality of Life in Australia, Discussion Paper 23 (Australia: Australian National University, National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, 1999)13 World Health Organization, WHOQOL: Measuring Quality of Life (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1997)14 World Health Organization for Europe, Documenting the Urban Health Situation: Tools for Healthy Cities (Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana University School of Nursing for the World Health Organization, 1995)15 Oxfordshire County Council, Quality of Life in Oxfordshire (2004), http://www.oxfordshire.gov.uk/print/index/living/facts/ quality_life_indicators.htm., retrieved on 18th November, 2004.16 Audit Commission, Voluntary Quality of Life and Cross-Cut-ting Indicators. Indicators Handbook: Revised Definitions and Timeframes (London: Audit Commission, 2002). 17 Hatter, W. and Gilby, N. Quality of Life Indicators. MORI Social Research Institute for the Audit Commission (London: Audit Commission, 2001).18 Cummins, R. A., The Comprehensive Quality of Life Scale ─ Intellectual Disability, Fifth Edition (COMQol - ID5): Manual (Toorak: Deakin University School of Psychology,1997)19 Henderson, H., Lickerman, J. and Flynn, P. (eds.), Calvert- Henderson Quality of Life Indicators, (Bethesda, MD: Calvert Group Ltd and H. Henderson, 2000) , http://www.calvert- henderson.com/20 United Nations, Human Development Reports (2004), http:// hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/, retrieved on 18th November, 2004. 21 United Nations, Human Development Index,http://hdr.undp. o rg / s t a t i s t i c s / d a t a / i n d e x _ a l p h a _ i n d i c a t o r s . c f m . 22 United Nations, Country Fact Sheets: Hong Kong (2004), http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/country_fact_sheets/ cty_fs_HKG.html, retrieved on18th November, 2004.23 The New Zealand Quality of Life Indicators project (2003), http://www.bigcities.govt.nz. 24 South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc., Making a Difference through Benchmarking: Indicators of the State of South Australia (Adelaide, South Australia: South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc., 2004)25 United Kingdom Government, Headline Indicators of Sustainable Development for the UK (2004), http://www. sustainabledevelopment.gov.uk/indicators/headline/ index.htm26 Rapley, M., Quality of Life Research (London: Sage Publications, 2003), p. 103. 27 Glass, G. V. and Smith, M. L. Meta-analysis of Research on the Relationship of Class Size and Achievement (San Francisco: Farwest Laboratories, 1978)28 Mira, S., “Answer to the written question E-3151/03 given on behalf of the commission,” Official Journal of the European Union (2004/C78E/0232), 27th March, 2004.29 Ibid.30 http://market1.cob.vt.edu/isqols/HowToMeasureQualityOfLifeIn DiversePopulations.html31 Kolenikov, S. The Methods of Quality of Life Assessment (Moscow: NES/Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Russian Academy of Science, 1998).32 Eckersley, R. Quality of Life in Australia, Discussion Paper 23 (Australia: Australian National University, National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, 1999)33 Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. Research Methods in Education, 5th edition (London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2000)34 Krippendorp, K., Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc., 2004).35 South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc., Making a Difference through Benchmarking: Indicators of the State of South Australia (Adelaide, South Australia: South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc., 2004)36 Eckersley, R. Quality of Life in Australia, Discussion Paper 23 (Australia: Australian National University, National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, 1999)37 Kolenikov, S. The Methods of Quality of Life Assessment (Moscow: NES/Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Russian Academy of Science, 1998), p. 9. 38 Russell, B., The Problems of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 35. 39 South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc., Making a Difference through Benchmarking: Indicators of the State of South Australia (Adelaide, South Australia: South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc., 2004)40 Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. Research Methods in Education, 5th edition (London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2000), p. 111. 41 Kolenikov, S. The Methods of Quality of Life Assessment (Moscow: NES/Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Russian Academy of Science, 1998). 42 Henderson, H., Lickerman, J. and Flynn, P. (eds.), Calvert-Henderson Quality of Life Indicators, (Bethesda, MD: Calvert Group Ltd and H. Henderson, 2000), pp. 5-6, http://www.calvert-henderson.com/43 Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. Research Methods in Education, 5th edition (London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2000)References:1. Audit Commission, Voluntary Quality of Life and Cross-Cutting Indicators. Indicators Handbook: Revised Definitions and Timeframes (London: Audit Commission, 2002). 2. Campbell, A., Converse, P. E. and Rodgers, W. L. The Quality of American Life: Perceptions, Evaluations and Satisfactions (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1976). 3. Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. Research Methods in Education, 5th edition (London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2000)4. Cummins, R. A., “The domains of life satisfaction: an attempt to order chaos,” Social Indicators Research, Vol. 38 (1996), pp. 303-328.5. Cummins, R. A., The Comprehensive Quality of Life Scale ─
85Quality of Life Indicators: An IntroductionVol. 262005. 2 Intellectual Disability, 5th edition (COMQol - ID5): Manual (Toorak: Deakin University School of Psychology, 1997)6. Easterly, W., Life During Growth (1997), http://www. worldbank.org/research/peg/wps17/wps17v2.pdf7. Eckersley, R. Quality of Life in Australia, Discussion Paper 23 (Australia: Australian National University, National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, 1999)8. Estes, R., Weighted Index of Social Progress, WISP (2003), http://caster.ssw.upenn.edu/~restes/world.html.9. European Communities, Foresighting the New Technology Wave SIG 1 ─ Quality of Life (Brussels; European Commission, 2004)10. Glass, G. V. and Smith, M. L. Meta-analysis of Research on the Relationship of Class Size and Achievement (San Francisco: Farwest Laboratories, 1978)11. Hagerty, M. R., Cummins, R. A., Ferriss, A. L., Land, K., Michalos, A. C., Peterson, M., “Quality of life indexes for national policy: review and agenda for research.,” Social Indicators Research, Vol.55 (2001), pp.1-96.12. Hatter, W. and Gilby, N. Quality of Life Indicators. MORI Social Research Institute for the Audit Commission (London: Audit Commission, 2001). 13. Henderson, H., Lickerman, J. and Flynn, P. (eds.), Calvert-Henderson Quality of Life Indicators, (Bethesda, MD: Calvert Group Ltd and H. Henderson). 14. Kolenikov, S. The Methods of Quality of Life Assessment (Moscow: NES/Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Russian Academy of Science, 1998). 15. Krippendorp, K., Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc., 2004).16. Mira, S., “Answer to the written question E-3151/03 given on behalf of the commission,” Official Journal of the European Union (2004/C78E/0232), 27th March, 2004.17. Noll, H.-H., “Social indicators and social reporting: the international experience,” (2000), http://www.ccsd.ca/noll1.html, retrieved on 18th November, 2004. 18. Oxfordshire County Council, Quality of Life in Oxfordshire (2004), http://www.oxfordshire.gov.uk/print/index/living/facts/ quality_life_indicators.htm., retrieved on 18th November, 2004. 19. Oxfordshire County Council and Oxfordshire Community Partnership, Making a Difference for Oxfordshire-How Well Have We Done? (Oxfordshire, UK: Oxfordshire County Council and Oxfordshire Community Partnership, 2004). 20. Rapley, M., Quality of Life Research (London: Sage Publications, 2003)21. Russell, B., The Problems of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959). 22. Schmid, H., Written Question E-3151/03, Official Journal of the European Union (2004/C78E/0232), 27th March, 2004. 23. South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc., Making a Difference through Benchmarking: Indicators of the State of South Australia (Adelaide, South Australia: South Australian Business Vision 2010 Inc., 2004)24. UNESCO, Quality of Life: Problems of Assessment and Measurement (Paris: UNESCO, 1983)25. United Kingdom Government, Headline Indicators of S ustainable Development for the UK (2004), http://www. sustainabledevelopment.gov.uk/indicators/headline/ index.htm26. United Nations, Human Development Reports (2004), http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/, retrieved on 18th Novem-ber,2004. 27. United Nations, Country Fact Sheets: Hong Kong (2004), http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/country_fact_sheets/ cty_fs_HKG.html, retrieved on18th November, 2004.28. United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Toward a Social Report (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1969). 29. Veenhoven, R., Conditions of Happiness (Reidel: Dordrecht, 1984)30. Veenhoven, R., “Happy Life-expectancy: a comprehensive measure of quality-of-life in nations,” Social Indicators Research, Vol. 33 (1996), pp. 299-313. 31. World Bank, World Development Indicators (Washington DC: World Bank, 1997).32. World Health Organization for Europe, Documenting the Urban Health Situation: Tools for Healthy Cities (Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana University School of Nursing for the World Health Organization, 1995)33. World Health Organization, WHOQOL: Measuring Quality of Life (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1997)
改進澳門經濟政策研究體系的一些構想澳門研究86BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES一、回顧正 如 美 國 聯 邦 儲 備 局 主 席 格 林 斯 潘 ( A l a n Greenspan)所論:“任何政策不奠基於堅實,科學化的證據則形同魔法”(Any policy not grounded in solid, scientific evidence is akin to witchcraft)。政府政策的素質及信譽,因此是取決於是否具備有關政策研究的基礎,亦即是否在政策執行前,對客觀現實環境作科學化觀察、論證和分析。在經濟政策研究的領域,客觀現實環境或“證據”的表述,通常是以相關、準確及沒有操控的經濟統計數據來表達。因此主要經濟政策的制訂者,如先進國家中央銀行行長的工作,簡單來說就是“研究所有數據,再將利率設定在合適水平”。2因此,澳門政府在1984年正式建立“澳門統計資料體系”(第23/84/M號法令),系統地編制及發佈各項經濟數據,才開始為科學化的經濟政策研究提供必要的基礎。政府內部的政策研究具體運作情況很難為外界所知悉,然而,基於澳門經濟的對外依賴性較強,加上調控政策的有效性受聯繫匯率及入口外溢效應偏大所制約,因此在宏觀經濟政策研究層面上的活躍程度,可能受到一定的限制。但是隨 “澳門統計資料體系”的建立,澳門政府亦在1984年開始出版《澳門經濟季刊》,定期向公眾匯報澳門經濟的發展情況;而澳門的中央銀行機構──即澳門發行機構(現時澳門金融管理局前身)──亦在1980年代開始,在其年報中對澳門的經濟情況提供定期評述,並在2001年開始出版刊載與澳門經濟及金融政策相關論文的《澳門金融管理局季報》。這些有關出版物間接反映了政府各部門內部經濟政策研究的狀況。同時,非公營部門的專業學術力量逐漸形成,並在1980年代開始亦漸次參與經濟政策研究。由製造業帶動的經濟起飛,使澳門經濟經歷了高速的增長,接受高等教育的市民大眾數目開始增加,均為社會積累了一定的研究資源。在澳門經濟結構及環境變得較為複雜化的情況下,社會對經濟問題探索的積極性亦漸見提高。中葡兩國在這段時期更開展了澳門回歸祖國的談判,引起了社會各界對澳門未來發展──包括經濟領域方面──的關注。一些學術社團例如澳門社會科學學會、經濟學會相繼成立;澳門大學前身東亞大學亦在1987年成立澳門研究所(即現時的澳門研究中心)。這些立足澳門的學術團體分別以多種形式,包括進行特定課題調查研究、舉辨研討會、講座及交流會來參與澳門經濟事務及政策的研究;並透過出版專著、研究報告及期刊學報來發佈及存錄有關研究成果。政府部門及公共基金會對這些涉及經濟政策的研究,在財政及設施上亦作出了巨大的支持。在後過渡期澳門經濟陷入持續衰退的困局,更引發了大量以民間社團及學術團體為骨幹的經濟政策研究,其中主要涉及復甦策略、改善就業、產業優化、經濟定位等課題。澳門自1999年回歸祖國後,經濟在旅遊博彩業帶動下強勁復甦。民間的經濟政策研究課題轉向側重旅遊博彩業的發展、人力資源開發、結構性失改進澳門經濟政策研究體系的一些構想1陳守信** 澳門金融管理局研究暨統計辦公室總監
87改進澳門經濟政策研究體系的一些構想Vol. 262005. 2業,2005年全球紡織品及成衣配額制度之取消及區域經濟協作等課題。另一高等院校澳門理工學院亦在這段時期成立了社會經濟研究所,由澳門工業家創辦的澳門發展策略研究中心,以及由中、港、澳研究港澳問題人士組成的澳門政策研究所(原名為名流政策研究所), 亦在1990年代末期成立,參與澳門的經濟政策研究。現時,刊載民間經濟政策研究成果的期刊包括澳門基金會與澳門大學澳門研究中心合編的《澳門研究》、澳門社會科學學會出版的《濠鏡》、澳門經濟學會出版的《澳門經濟》、澳門基金會出版的《澳門年刊》及行政暨公職局出版的《行政》雜誌等。這些刊物在一定程度上反映了民間對澳門經濟研究的熱點課題和研究水平。同時,研究內容對政府的政策提供了一些寶貴參考,亦增加了公眾對經濟問題和相關政策的關注和瞭解的渠道。二、建議具素質的政策研究能帶來巨大的社會效益,原因是它可提高政策的成效──建立政策的公信力及公眾對政策的認受性,使社會大眾均能受惠。無疑,澳門的學術團體對經濟政策研究的參與積極性相當高,一個顯著的例子是在構建旅遊博彩業為澳門龍頭產業的政策論證上作出具體的貢獻。但很多民間學術團體的主事人員畢竟多屬以工餘參與社會服務的角色來投入研究工作;與先進國家的政策研究比較,大部分的本地經濟政策研究成果的理論及實證基礎均有顯著的改善空間。具體來說,就是在探討一政策問題時鮮有對有關的國際級前緣文獻作全面(或至少是部分)的回顧;在立論方面則鮮有結合相關經濟制度分析( Inst i tu t ional Analys is)及計量經濟/統計模型(Econometric Model)的驗證。後者亦與澳門的經濟統計發展起步較遲,時序數據累積不足的客觀困難有關。在缺乏理論及實證基礎的情況下,這些研究的結論或政策建議,很多時反受政府的立場或直接以問卷調查收集的大多數主觀意見所影響,削弱了政策研究原來希望所產生的成效──即為政策的制訂提供一獨立、客觀及科學化的堅實基礎。因此,具素質的經濟政策研究基本須具備以下各項條件: 包括具專業資歷經濟學家的投入參與; 能讓部分研究人員全職或在一段時間內能全職投入一研究項目的制度安排; 在財政上及行政上不附屬於任何利益團體的獨立性; 與政府及公眾保持恆常的溝通及交流;及 與世界其他先進的政策研究組織保持持續的聯繫及交流。為了彌補目前澳門經濟政策研究體系的不足,應考慮在逐步提高現有政府研究水平的基礎上,結合民間及大學的專業力量,來進行一些整合及調整。在具體的制度安排上,下圖展示了本人就建立具素質的澳門經濟政策研究制度的初步構想。圖1 澳門經濟政策研究的框架建議為了孕育上述各項基本條件,一個具特定公共財政資源分配,但獨立於政府以外的專門及非政府實體──澳門經濟政策研究所──須相應組成。在小社會的“規模經濟”(economies of scale)考慮下,政策研究所可不局限於經濟領域,但在研究所內需作明確的經濟專業部門分工。為保證這個能為社會帶來利益的團體能持續運作,穩定的財政分配來源可透過公共基金會的收入或某項稅收的特定比例轉移來達致。研究所的專業研究人員主要來自三大領域──大學、學術社團及有關政府部門。他們部分需就特定研究課題需要,以短期借調的方式安排全職在研究所工作。待研究所具一定基礎及建立對外聯繫以後,亦可就課題需要,向外地同類機構邀請具不同課題專長的訪問研究員參與。同時研究所需聘請少量長駐的專業經濟學家及研究助理,為研究所進行如數據整理及分析的長期工作。
改進澳門經濟政策研究體系的一些構想澳門研究88BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES研究所的職能應該明確定義為就澳門經濟政策有關的課題進行研究。課題的設定主要來自政府、公眾及研究所自身對題材的發掘。政府對政策研究項目的選取可保留一定的決定權,但對研究過程則不應作任何形式的干預。就研究項目的敏感度而定,研究報告及政策建議可選擇以保密形式供政府參考,或以公開的形式發表,供公眾就研究結果進行討論。三、結語任何政策決定無疑均具相當程度的主觀政治考慮,然而經濟政策的成效具明確的客觀性(如達致經濟增長、低通脹率等),因此在政策制訂及實施以前,必須具嚴謹及科學化的驗證,才能達致理想及預期的效果。同時大量的研究亦證實,經濟政策具高度的可信性(credibility)及透明度(transparency),不單可促進政策的成效、還可減低地區風險及增強對海內外投資者的吸引力。3每項經濟政策對每個市民的生活均構成不同程度的影響。建立澳門經濟政策研究的制度框架,可視作為促進特區長遠發展的一項公共投資。正藉第二屆特區政府提出全面提升本澳居民生活素質之際,高素質的經濟政策實為不可或缺的一環。本文嘗試在經濟政策研究方面提供一些建議,供公眾及政策制訂者參考及討論。註釋:1 感謝鮑偉春先生對本文初稿提出一些寶貴意見。2 參考J. Tuceille, Alan Shrugged (John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2002)3 參考 M.G., Ortiz, “Comment,” in M. Feldstein (ed.), Economic and Financial Crisis in Emerging Market Economies (University of Chicago Press, 2002) 及 R. Glennerster & Y. Shin, “Is Transparency Good for You, and Can the IMF Help?,” IMF Working Paper, No. WP/03/132, June 2003.
加強教育研究,為教改謀出路──對教育制度法律草案的商榷澳門研究94BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES則;校董會的具體組成和運作等十多項,且大多未有列出基本原則或方向。稍後,特區政府逐一頒佈這些頗具爭議性的後加法規之前,按例無須交由立法會審議通過,也無必要公開諮詢。事實告訴我們,一些地區教育體制的弊病絕大部分出於教育行政機關大量地濫用法規、命令及行政規則,對學校作出過多不合理的干預。可舉一例以說明:1992年初,鄧小平南巡視察廣東改革開放的成果結束不久,廣東省省委常設教育領導小組組長方苞、省政協副主席王屏山、廣東省教育廳、廣東省教育科學研究所及華南師範大學隨即於9月下旬在東莞聯合召開“第一屆珠江三角洲教育改革研討會”,在會上作報告的包括了主要的縣市教育領導。為期三天的研討會《總結》指出“十三年經驗證明,傳統大一統的教育管理體制過多過死不利於教育的發展……統死放活,是珠江三角洲開放中最深刻的體驗……,一個重要的真理,即越是底層的學校,越是依靠群眾的學校,越好辦,辦得越好。”(第43頁)《總結》更毫不留情的針對過去的教育行政政策說:“現在看來實際上搞的僅僅是一種行政控制手段,是便於少數高層領導者的領導來設置。”(第44頁)上述總結,教人震撼!6 《草案》內註明的十多項後加法規,如何確保其適當性?(三) 如何確保教育法律不抵觸澳門基本法和一些國際公約?《澳門基本法》第8條規定“澳門原有法律、法令、行政法規和其他規範性文件,除同本法相抵觸或經澳門特別行政區的立法機構或其他機關依照法定程序作出修改者外,予以保留。”澳門特區成立時,《澳門教育制度》(第11/99/M號法律)獲得過渡。現時“依照法定程序”,收窄或取消某些既有的原則是否適當?《澳門基本法》第122條確保“澳門特別行政區各類學校有辦學的自主性,依法享有教學自由和學術自由。”但現時《草案》第36條結合第22條一旦頒為法律,英文中學若繼續其辦學自主性堅持不改五年一貫制,就會被“依法”取消其獲得政府教育資助的權利。按《草案》第12條,學生也將被“依法”排除在享受免費教育範圍之外,學歷也將因不符“法定學制”而不被承認。英文中學在這樣的行政/財政手段下能不被迫放棄其辦學的自主性而改變其學制?這如何體現《澳門基本法》第122條?又如何解釋《澳門基本法》第11條“澳門特別行政區的任何法律、法令、行政法規和其他規範性文件均不得同本法相抵觸?”現行《澳門教育制度》法律,明確規定“行政當局不得以任何哲學、美學、政治、意識型態或宗教方針計劃教育內容。”是“教育的基本原則”。但《草案》卻窄化為“澳門特別行政區政府不得以任何片面的意識型態或宗教信仰為依據來規劃教育內容。”;現行教育制度法律確保“社會的進步及其民主化”,要“促進民主與多元論”,但《草案》卻將之刪除。這一切意味 要窄化《澳門基本法》保障的教學自主?從《澳門基本法》第11條的角度去看,又將如何解釋?在國際公約方面,澳門特區政府第15/2001號行政長官公告:《經濟、社會與文化權利國際公約》繼續在澳門特別行政區適用。該公約第13條2款規定初等教育應屬義務性質並一律免費。第12/2001行政長官公告:《取諦教育歧視公約》繼續在澳門特別行政區適用。該公約第3條丙項規定,在學費和給予學生的其他方式的協助等事項上,除了以成績或需要為基礎外,不容許公共當局對不同國民作不同的待遇。現時《草案》第12條2款“凡在義務教育階段就讀免費教育網的,屬澳門特別行政區居民的學生,均享受免費教育”;第37條“給予就讀於未加入免費教育網的不牟利私立學校的義務教育階段的,且屬澳門特別行政區居民的學生,提供津貼,其學費津貼以就讀於加入免費教育學校網之私立學校的學費為根據給予資助,金額依當時政府的財政狀況而定。”顯然,《草案》漠視了“初等教育屬義務性質並一律免費”和“以學生成績或需要為基礎”兩個原則,這是否抵觸了兩個國際公約?上列問題及將延伸出的其他問題,應獲得當局足夠的重視。此外,身兼特區政府行政會委員、教育委員會委員、私校校長的教育界立法議員唐志堅,在《建議》逾半年的諮詢工作後表示,“教育界對文本的關注點過份側重在教育資源的分配上,例如免費教育應向上推向高中還是向下覆蓋幼稚園,相反,對基礎教育根本理念未夠重視,對教育目標、人才培養政策等原則性問題研究太少”7 又有傳媒以“教改反應焦點免費教育”為題指出:“自從教育制度檢討建議案提出後,家長提出的意見基
加強教育研究,為教改謀出路──對教育制度法律草案的商榷澳門研究96BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES該文見報當天,主管教育事務的司長接受傳媒訪問。據澳門日報2月21日報導:“他回應說:日後可證明未有失實……”。 2000年3月25日華僑報報導,立法議員吳國昌就教育投入問題致函行政長官提出書面質詢,要求提供具體數據。 2004年3月19日,主管教育事務的司長在立法會上回應議員有關教育支出時表示:“各地區在教育總投資方面有不同的概念和計算方式,難作比較。”20教育經費佔公共總開支的百分比和佔國民生產總值的百分比是國際通用的教育指標,澳門官民之間連這些最基本的教育指標也會有“不同的概念”而至認知上的嚴重落差。這又說明澳門有待加強教育研究,凝聚官民共識。要評價澳門過渡期及回歸至今的教育研究成果,可閱讀下列書刊、網頁:澳門大學教育學院的教育研討會論文集系列;澳門大學研究中心的《澳門研究》;歷屆海峽兩岸暨港澳地區教育學術研討會論文集;澳門中華教育會的《澳門教育》;教育暨青年局的《教師雜誌》;教育當局委托學術單位進行的,分別以單行本或在網頁公開的一些研究報告;澳門基金會的新澳門論叢;澳門公共行政雜誌《行政》以及澳門大學教育學院歷屆碩士生的畢業論文。粗略統計,上列書刊、網頁有關教育的內容,主要是一般課程、教與學的論文,或一般的教育現象、青少年現象的調查報告。屬教育研究的較少,其中探索教育學術理論,例如思想、觀念、學術流派的理論導向的基本研究少,針對特定的教育問題,藉 應用研究將理論概念付諸實踐的應用研究居多,涉及澳門教育政策和教育行政的研究則罕有。現時,澳門有待創造條件建立教育研究目標體系,將現有的零散的教育研究提升為有系統的研究。四、教育研究的目標體系教育政策須要經得起理性分析,才會獲得信任與支持。修改教育制度須建立在學術研究的基礎上,並以研究結果凝聚社會的廣泛共識。現時,《建議》和《草案》都反映出缺乏社會共識,更經不起理性分析的部分。加強教育研究,將有利教育改革。首要考慮建立教育研究的目標體系。要建立教育研究的系統性組織,第一,要創造教育研究的條件,包括人力、物力資源;要建立研究機構和訂定設立宗旨;要制定研究員的培訓計劃;要建立資料和數據庫。這都是基本建設。第二,要根據澳門教育的實況和問題的緩急輕重制定短、中、長期教育研究目標。第三,是研究的方法論。當具備了研究的基本條件和制定了研究目標後,就要考慮每項教育研究的方法論問題。教育研究法分為教育統計學、測驗與評量以及教育研究法三個領域。教育研究法涉及教育研究的基本概念以及各種研究方法。林林種種的研究法可歸為兩大類: 以科學主義為基礎的實證性研究法(例如量化研究法); 以人文主義為基礎的非實證性研究法(例如質性研究法)。這兩類研究法都互有優缺點。例如屬量化研究的調查研究法,較適合於事實的描述、意見的歸納或教育現象規律的呈示,但難適用於事實原因的探究。屬質性研究的個案分析,所強調的是價值與事實, 重對教育現象背後的意義和價值的理解和詮釋。但是,對研究結果的詮釋易有主觀偏差。因此,對於教育問題的研究應依問題的性質、研究的目的去善用量化或質性研究的優點,或結合量與質的研究方法,盡量呈現教育問題的真面?。不同的研究項目所使用的研究方法是否適當以及研究過程是否嚴謹等問題,是研究成果信度和效度的關鍵。第四,是研究成果的公佈和運用。舉凡研究成果的編寫、出版、供社會運用,其目的為能對教育決策和教育實踐產生實質性影響。必須指出的是,教育研究不應淪為政治或經濟工具。更必須指出的是教育決策屬政治範疇,教育研究屬學術範疇,兩者之間應有適當的分離。決策過程,執行過程和評核過程更必須分開,不能集於一身。最重要的是要保證教育研究理論框架的獨立品格。五、建構理論框架問題理論,是系統化了的概念性原則原理,是客觀事物的本質和規律的正確反映。理論來源於實踐,並指導人們的實踐活動。理論的建立一般通過兩條途徑:第一,是“歸納”。把複雜的現象進行歸納
澳門公共衛生醫療:總結經驗,締造健康生活澳門研究100BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES一、前言澳門衛生醫療事業的發展具有深遠而悠久的歷史。16世紀中葉葡萄牙海軍抵達澳門後,一個平靜的漁港隨即起 急速的變化並飛快發展,成為南中國海一個主要對外通商口岸。這時,遠東的第一所西醫醫院亦在此誕生,澳門的衛生醫療事業亦由此紮根,西方醫學自此在澳門運轉了近四個半世紀。而專門提供中醫藥治療的醫院到19世紀後期才正式設立,及後更融合西方醫學一併為普羅大眾服務。雖說澳門的衛生醫療歷史源遠流長,但礙於人口稀少,至今整體發展仍未臻完善,只能滿足居民的一般需要。近20年來,澳門的衛生醫療體系急劇變化。前澳葡政府銳意改革,引入全新的管理和服務概念,用意建立一個具福利性質的衛生醫療系統,甚得澳門居民接受。目前,特區政府在經濟全球化的大勢下,其社會發展和經濟增長已不能再獨善其身,澳門居民的個人及集體健康更不能倖免,逐漸受到更多外界因素影響。如何能在這多變的環境及因素下維持居民的健康及城市的持續發展是現今要面對的一大挑戰。二、從葡萄牙人抵澳到20世紀的醫療發展追溯葡萄牙人來華歷史,首次踏足中國,時為1513年,即明朝正德八年。至於他們何時正式居澳,則說法不一,但不出1553-1557年間,即明嘉靖三十二年至三十六年之間。1因為葡萄牙人進入澳門有其過程,直到1557年才正式在此建屋居住,所以該年被認定為葡人進入澳門之年份。(一) 澳門第一所醫院的由來根據資料所載,在1562年,澳門有人口800,其中屬葡萄牙籍的有500-600人。1563年,澳門人口激增至5,000,葡萄牙人亦增至900。 2 7年後,即1569年(隆慶三年),當耶穌會士加利諾(D. Melchior Carneiro)抵達澳門後,認為有需要興建一所醫院為當地居民服務,故此旋即展開籌募工作,並把西醫學及西醫藥傳入澳門。這所醫院就是中國第一所歐洲式的西醫院。該院除收治基督徒外,還接納非基督徒就醫,為貧苦大眾贈醫施藥。最初,加利諾原本打算設立兩所醫院,但最後只興建了一所,而把原意獨立興建的痲瘋病院收納在這所醫院內,成為專供痲瘋病人留醫的隔離病區。直至一個多世紀之後,該所醫院才正式一分為二,一所位於市內,名為“窮人醫院”(Hospital dos Pobres),另一所則是位於市外的“痲瘋院”(Hospital de Leprosos)。自此,西醫學和西醫藥開始漸為澳門居民信賴和使用,並透過澳門,漸漸在廣東一帶為人所認識、推廣及應用。1784年,駐印度果亞(Goa)葡萄牙總督下令在窮人醫院旁興建一所軍人醫院。實際上,軍人醫 院與窮人醫院相連,兩院並非各自獨立,只是前者專供軍人留醫之用。1834年,窮人醫院被賦予民間醫院(Hospital Civil)之名,以識別於軍人醫院。“窮人醫院”一直本 慈善的宗旨,服務到1883年才被易名為人所共知的“白馬行醫院”(Hospital de S. Rafael)。3 4澳門公共衛生醫療:總結經驗,締造健康生活鄧達榮** 澳門財政局研究暨財政策劃廳特級資訊技術員
101澳門公共衛生醫療:總結經驗,締造健康生活Vol. 262005. 2(二) 白馬行醫院白馬行醫院長期努力不懈為貧苦服務,但隨時間的推移,設施及設備不斷老化。新醫院大樓工程遂於 1938年 8月施工,至 1939年 9月竣工,一幢全新莊嚴瑰麗的白馬行醫院大樓在原址落成啟用。此外,舊門診部亦得到擴充,增聘了各類專科醫生;而舊有部門亦進行了改革。同時,還增設了一些診療輔助部門,其中包括臨床化驗室、治療室等。 5 直到1975年,白馬行醫院經歷了興衰滄桑406年後關閉,完成了歷史賦予之任務而劃上句號。之後該址一度淪為帝汶難民庇護所。現時則改建為葡萄牙駐澳門領事館,其外牆仍保留 1939年的面貌,繼續矗立在澳門半島見證澳門衛生醫療的發展。(三) 其他外國人建立的醫院 1827年,一名派駐廣東和澳門的英國外科醫生哥尼特茲(Dr. Thomas Richarson Colledge)見中醫藥對眼部疾病束手無策,於是在澳門的外國社群資助下,聯手建立了澳門第一所眼科醫院,該院運作至1832年關閉,合共治癒超過6千宗病案。6早在 1835年,一所英國醫院已在外港一帶設立,但卻一直被普遍誤以為是美國醫院。1838年 7月5日,哥尼特茲(Dr. Colledge)、帕加(Dr. Parker)和畢特文(Dr. Bridman)醫生共同在中國創立“傳道醫療公司”(Sociedade Médica Missionária)。1839年,倫敦傳道公司的洛克特(William Lockart)抵達澳門後,被中國傳道醫療公司委任為該院的負責人。他不單祇在澳門留下了醫療服務光輝的一頁,還在香港、中山、上海和北京享負盛名。由於該公司認為在中國設立同類機構會有更好的發展,遂於1846年關閉了澳門的英國醫院。在醫院關閉前15個月,共錄得 5,265宗診治和433宗住院個案。71845-1860年間,美國海軍在澳門龍嵩街設立了一所只為其海員服務的海軍醫院。81850,法國海軍在中國水域不斷加強海上實力。直到1862年,總共錄得295名法國海軍在這裏的戰事陣亡,屍體埋於澳門。法國當局為了照料其海軍傷員,於1858年在澳門聖老楞佐堂區設立了法國人的私家醫院。9(四) 仁伯爵綜合醫院“聖若憲軍人醫院”(Hospital Mil i tar de Sam Januario)於1874年1月6日正式開始為軍人服務。這個名字亦可在當日的《憲報》內找到。從1917年起,該院除收治軍人外,還開始為市民,包括中國籍人士、貧困人士,和自費人士服務。其後,在1919年10月25日頒佈的《衛生局總規章》(Regulamento Gerados Serviços de Saúde)規定,該院是為所有人種而設立,並正式易名為“政府總醫院”(Hospital Geral do Governo)。1937年7月8日,當時的衛生局局長致函民事行政中央廳(Repartição Central dos Serviços deAdministração Civil)廳長,要求在下一期憲報中公佈把“政府總醫院”改名為“仁伯爵醫院”(Hospital Conde de S. Januario)之訓令。101952年,原有的醫院建築開始拆卸,分三期興建新大樓。第一期新大樓於1953年6月10日開幕啟用,其餘兩期則分別於1955年及1958年竣工並投入運作,同時提供入院、留醫、門診、治療和檢驗、行政和總務等服務。第一及第二期工程主要是興建醫院大樓及添置設備,而第三期工程則圍繞醫院建築在聖若憲山崗興建護土牆。工程總費用約澳門幣五百萬元。1959年,衛生局局長馬丁士(Paiva Martins)在一份報告中指出當時結核病樓(Pavilhão da Tuberculose)的衛生環境非常惡劣及設備陳舊。隨後在1960年的建設計劃中,提出在醫院南面外牆對開興建結核病大樓。工程於 1962年展開,在 1963年 8月 29日竣工,隨即在9月投入運作。111984年,前澳葡政府在施政方針內指出銳意建立一個綜合性的衛生醫療體系的政策,把澳門衛生醫療建設為一個社會福利性的系統。從過去的數據中得出,這個長期政策很明顯獲得了前所未有的成功。除了軍人、公務員及其家屬、貧困人士能免費使用醫院設施及服務外,還增設了個人危險和社會危險的免費組別,同時更破天荒地向所有澳門居民提供免費初級衛生保健服務和優惠的醫院服務,此政策讓政府醫院在華人心目的地位大大提高。由於服務的迅速擴展,舊有的醫院設施在不足以應付市民需求和醫療技術進步的情況下,需拆卸及重新計劃興建。第一期內外科大樓及第三期精神科大樓於1989年落成啟用。同年10月23日,擴建後的仁伯爵醫院正式改名為“仁伯爵綜合醫院”。隨後,由於舊有的婦兒科大樓未能配合第一期新大樓的設施及
澳門公共衛生醫療:總結經驗,締造健康生活澳門研究102BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES運作,亦被清拆重建為第二期醫院大樓。與此同時,結核病大樓舊址亦改建為行政大樓,兩者同於1993年5月3日正式啟用。原定為精神科使用的大樓則於1998年5月15日起改為醫院門診之用,而精神科則在 仔原址繼續為社會服務。2002年年底,位於舊址旁邊的精神科新大樓亦落成啟用。這一系列的工程,構成了現今仁伯爵綜合醫院的面貌。(五) 鏡湖醫院清代同治九年,即1870年7月28日,當時的澳門政府准許在聖保祿區以外的一塊土地建立一所華人醫院,於是在翌年10月28日,鏡湖醫院在一塊由四名華人登記的土地上正式開始為澳門貧苦大眾贈醫施藥。初期,鏡湖醫院只提供中醫藥服務為主的簡單廟堂式醫院。1892年,孫中山先生於香港大學完成醫學後來到澳門,在該院創辦西醫,開始在鏡湖醫院提供歐洲式的治療服務,並設立中西式(中國和歐洲混合式)的藥房。1918年,鏡湖醫院獲當時的澳門總督批准重建。同年8月10日,拆卸已破舊不堪的醫院舊舍,並根據當時歐洲的衛生模式和概念,興建全新的醫院大樓,並於1920年1月12日開幕和投入服務。1942年,由於鏡湖醫院不斷發展和擴充,及其慈善事業持續發展,於是在政府註冊並正式定名為“鏡湖醫院慈善會”。其時業務共分八個部分:總秘書處、藥房、財務、門診、工程、教育、社會援助和固定財產租賃。 12其後,在1970和1978年,分別興建了一幢5層和一幢9層的醫院大樓投入服務,以滿足當時貧苦華人對醫療門診和住院服務的需求。1999年,鏡湖醫院得到澳葡政府的大力支持,發展私人醫療服務,以配合政府公共和私人醫療雙軌併行的醫療政策,獲撥款在原來具有典型歐陸風格的醫院大樓的荒廢舊址,全新興建一所具先進配備及規模的醫院大樓。今日,鏡湖醫院已成為了一所集中西醫療、預防、教學和科研於一體的現代化綜合醫院。13三、近20年來澳門公共衛生醫療的改變上世紀90年代初,隨 澳門社會持續發展,經濟迅速增長,普羅大眾對衛生醫療的需求明顯提高。為回應1978年世界衛生組織發表的“亞拉木圖宣言”,並期望達到“21世紀人人享有衛生保健”全球目標,前澳葡政府在80年代中期實施了免費醫療政策,至今澳門已達到和超越了其中某些具體目標的要求,如產婦死亡率為0%及1998-2001年的出生時預期壽命為78.9歲等。(一) 澳門進入世界衛生組織由於澳門長期受前澳葡政府的管治,其衛生的管理和運作模式深受葡萄牙影響。由於葡萄牙是世界衛生組織的成員國,為此,1994年前澳葡政府遂藉 與葡萄牙的關係和身份,開始跟隨葡國代表團參加世界衛生組織會議,包括每年一度在瑞士日內瓦舉行的世界衛生組織大會,以及由澳門所屬地區的世界衛生組織區域辦事處舉行的世界衛生組織西太平洋地區會議。該地區的年度會議地點輪流在馬尼拉及區內其他城市舉行,由當地衛生部門和世界衛生組織區域辦事處聯合主辦。藉 前澳葡政府與該區域辦公室的良好合作關係和澳門衛生的優越條件,前澳葡政府取得了1999年“第五十屆世界衛生組織西太平洋地區會議”的主辦權。會議於9月20-24日舉行,由世界衛生組織西太平洋地區辦公室總監尾身茂博士(Dr. Shegiru Omi)及前澳葡政府社會事務暨預算政務司董樂勤(Alarcão Troni)聯合主持。在該次會議上,澳門的衛生醫療系統受到高度的評價及讚賞,並獲世界衛生組織評為西太平洋地區的先驅,與日本和澳洲等先進地區看齊。自1999年12月20日起澳門回歸中國以後,由於中國自1946年7月起已是世界衛生組織的成員國,澳門遂轉隨中國代表團並以成員身份繼續參加世界衛生組織會議。(二) 衛生醫療系統改革的契機1. 現行的衛生醫療護理制度1986年3月15日頒佈的第24/86/M號法令《醫療護理的取得》以及修訂此法令的第68/89/M號法令,確立了澳門衛生醫療系統中提供醫療護理的模式、財政承擔及收費標準,構成系統的中樞部分,並體現了一個福利性的衛生體系為澳門社會帶來前所未有的醫療保健服務。在這個公共衛生體系的網絡下,它所提供的免費服務範圍相當廣泛,主要包括五大範疇:初級衛生保健;維護公共衛生之原因;個人危險;社會危險;以及公職人員。此外,專科衛生護理服務方面,凡是澳門居民,只需支付應繳
澳門公共衛生醫療:總結經驗,締造健康生活澳門研究106BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES4. 中醫藥發展澳門的中醫藥服務歷史源遠流長,回顧過去,提供中醫藥服務的最大機構是成立於1870年的鏡湖醫院。目前,該院設有一所中醫中心,專門為市民提供中醫藥診療服務。此外,同善堂慈善會亦為有需要人士提供免費的中醫藥服務,與由其他提供中醫藥服務的社會團體及個人執業中醫,共同形成一個遍佈澳門各區的中醫藥服務網絡。根據資料所示,澳門第一家中藥房於1939年在政府正式註冊,但專門規管從事中藥配製及活動的法例卻到1994年才正式頒佈,在此之前有關活動只靠零碎鬆散的條文規範。明顯可見,前澳葡政府一直以來,對中醫藥發展採取放任態度,在資源不足和技術落後的情況下,中醫藥的發展長期處於滯後狀態。直到澳門回歸前數年,澳葡政府藉 建立完善醫療制度的後期工作,才把中醫藥管治納入全澳的衛生醫療體系之中,並於1999年在筷子基衛生中心設立政府第一所中醫中心,為區內有需要的市民多提供一個治療疾病的選擇和機會,得到市民廣泛歡迎。從1999-2002年,合共提供了1,935,374人次的中醫診療服務,為政府籌劃在其他衛生中心開設中醫藥服務打好基礎。以往澳門的中醫藥從業人士均為中醫帶徒,以父傳子、師授徒的方式扶掖後進等,亦有部分是在內地接受專門培訓後來澳執業。說到澳門的正規中醫培訓和教育,要到2000年,澳門科技大學與南京大學合作設立的澳門中醫藥學院開辦中醫藥專業學士學位課程才正式開始。及後,在2003年,澳門科技大學增設中醫學專業碩士學位課程,讓有意者繼續深造。同年,又開辦了中醫診療中心,為學員提供臨床實習機會。此外,澳門科技大學中醫藥學院得到特區政府衛生局的協助,提供筷子基衛生中心內的中醫中心作為中醫課程學生的實習場所,並由該中心的中醫臨床帶教。這些設施和安排均為培育本地中醫藥人才而設,明顯可見特區政府在推動澳門中醫藥發展方面不遺餘力。2004年8月29日,澳門科技大學更與中國中醫研究院和中華中醫藥學會分別簽訂合作協議,共同推動中藥和教學科研兩方面持續深入發展。此外,澳門大學也在2003年增設了中醫藥碩士課程,並撥出龐大經費開展中醫藥研究。16澳門的中醫藥學術科研工作近年能夠長足發展,主要歸因於澳門特區政府的支持,在一開始,特區政府已對本地中醫藥事業的發展相當重視,把有關工作納入年度施政方針之中, 意在政策層面推行有關工作,全面配合地區發展。在2002年的施政方針中,提出了“研究中醫藥在澳門發展的可行性”的目標,2003年則強調“完善中醫藥管理法規”,並成立專項管理工作小組來落實法律草擬、藥品名錄、中藥應用、質量鑑定等中藥管理工作。對外交流方面,在2004年8月28-29日,在澳門舉行了“2004澳門國際中醫藥學術研討會”。此會議是特區政府首次舉行的大型國際性中醫藥會議,出席者包括來自中國內地、澳門、香港、台灣、新加坡和加拿大等地區的中醫業界人士約260人,對進一步促進澳門中醫藥事業的發展、國際間同業的友好交流,提升澳門在國際間中醫藥發展的地位,起 積極的作用。(三) 區域性衛生網絡在國際層面上,澳門自回歸以後跟隨中國參與世界衛生組織的會議,並在“一國兩制”的前提下獨立與該組織聯繫和對話,直接互通信息。在國內層面上,澳門特別行政區社會文化司和衛生局與國家衛生部有直接而緊密的溝通。為進一步加強合作,2002年6月4-6日,在北京舉行了首屆“內地、香港、澳門三地衛生高層聯席會議”,國家衛生部部長、香港特別行政區衛生福利局局長和澳門特別行政區社會文化司司長分別率領代表團參加,共同對中國的醫療機構改革、社區衛生發展、農村衛生改革、疾病控制體制與衛生監督體制改革、入世對衛生影響及對策,以及中醫藥發展等專題作出探討,達到整體瞭解中國衛生發展的目的,體現了“一國兩制”的精神。2003年10月,第二屆會議在澳門舉行,內容主要針對傳染病控制的整體策略、中醫藥方面的交流和合作、醫療法規的監控工作及食品衛生監督與管理四個範圍進行討論。2003年第二季,為了持續抗擊 SARS,廣東省、香港特別行政區和澳門特別行政區政府共同組織了“粵港澳防治傳染性非典型肺炎專家組”,並分別在三地多次舉行會議,進一步研究情報互通、人口移動、交通運輸等事務的特殊安排,俾能有效
澳門公共衛生醫療:總結經驗,締造健康生活澳門研究108BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES究和執行。2001年12月26日,由衛生當局、社團及醫療機構、以及社會人士共27人組成的澳門醫療改革諮詢委員會,透過第276/2001號行政長官批示正式成立,委員會下分三個小組:法律諮詢專責小組、非政府醫療機構專責小組和公共醫療財務制度檢討專責小組,以期全面評估和檢討現行的醫療衛生體制,分析和研究各項改善和改革的具體方案,期望能在三年內完成所有諮詢工作。與此同時,2002年澳門特別行政區施政方針中強調,在“先改善,後改革”和“確保現存之免費醫療網絡”的原則下,將把有關建議逐一落實,體現了衛生當局決心改革,致力規劃出一個符合澳門地區情況的衛生醫療體系的宏大志向。在醫改的諮詢工作中,直至目前為止,較為突出的成就可算是《傳染病防治法》制定。至於其他如法律修訂、醫療發展和財務安排等工作,現時仍在諮詢和商討階段,預計在2004年年底,即上述委員會任期屆滿前,將會全部完成。四、澳門未來的衛生事業如何配合地區的發展澳門特別行政區在2001及2003年分別經歷了登革熱及嚴重急性呼吸道綜合徵兩類傳染病的威脅,深深體會到做好衛生工作,不能單靠衛生機構及團體,還有賴社會各界的通力合作,社會各方面的發展才不致於受傳染病的衝擊而停頓下來。因為衛生事業不是獨立於其他社會事務,反而是緊扣相連,尤其與政治、經濟、旅遊和教育等互相影響。那麼,要搞好衛生秩序,衛生當局深明“未雨綢繆,防患未然”是不二法門,況且成功非僥幸,故早於2001年初 手籌設負責疾病預防和控制的附屬單位,在傳染病向全球迅速擴散的趨勢下為澳門地區作好充分準備,以及為積極推行社會各界人士的“健康生活模式”工作斷定優良基礎。(一) 鞏固、完善及更新基礎建設依照目前澳門特別行政區政府的意向,衛生醫療體制改革工作仍待醫療改革整體規劃出台後方能大規模進行。但是,衛生醫療的基礎建設是否能真正滿足當時及將來的衛生需求,無論在任何時候,均應受到密切關注。而值得強調的是,醫療改革工作中的一個重要方面,是“軟基建”的改革,具體來說,就是針對法律和有約束力的制度、行政系統和運作、醫藥管理、信息網絡、資訊應用系統等提出創新思維的修訂,使之更切合現實社會的需要和達到更大的成本效益。此外,人員的行為和智慧、資金和物資的調配、後勤支援等亦屬軟基建的重要組成部分。另一方面,“硬基建”的改革也不能輕視,因為完善的衛生醫療設施和設備,能給軟基建提供一個堅穩的平台,讓其充分發揮能力,為此缺乏“硬基建”的配合支持,縱使有更好的軟基建,亦只會事倍功半,不能達到理想效果。澳門特別行政區作為一個國際化城市,推動衛生建設配合社會發展,並為全民帶來健康生活的保證,是理所當然的事。故此,以具前瞻性的眼光進行硬基建的投資與發展可為優良醫療衛生體系的實施帶出先機,充分發揮體系的潛力。所以,如何能有獨到的眼光發展和投資硬基建,深入研究和分析澳門的潛在需要,是不可或缺的工作項目,而且只有這樣,才能維持澳門健康的人文發展。(二) 加強對外及對內的聯繫近年間,全球化進程的步伐不斷加快,除工商貿易、旅遊以外,傳染病亦隨 全球化向世界各地快速蔓延。病菌隨 宿主的移動,如動植物的跨域貿易,人類過境旅遊等,迅速地轉移到其他宿主身上,並以類似途徑重複不斷擴散。此外,病毒本身亦為適應環境而變得更加頑強,更具傳染力和殺傷力。例如近年不斷在各地發生的H5N1禽流感和2003年爆發的SARS疫情,就是為人熟識的最佳例子,這類疾病如不及早加以控制,後果將難以想像。為了預防傳染病從外傳入、區內流行或向外散播,具備識別、查證和回應能力的傳染病預警系統無疑能發揮有效的監控作用。此系統必須包括國際、區域和區內三個聯繫和溝通層面,形成金字塔式的縱橫向信息通報網絡的軟基建,配合良好的運作機制,為預防和控制疾病工作提供充分條件。(三) 加強公共衛生和社區衛生工作為了預防傳染病全球化,澳門衛生體系已踏出了第一步,2001年10月正式成立了疾病預防控制中心,真正地全面承擔公共衛生職能,肩負起本地衛生的防禦任務,把過往一直實施的衛生醫療工作由被動改為主動,把傳統的“治療、康復”的工作擴大至“預防、治療、復康”三個方面,顯示出現今的衛生醫療工作,已從以往只集中在衛生醫療機構
澳門公共衛生醫療:總結經驗,締造健康生活澳門研究110BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES 澳門公共衛生醫療體系的雛型並發展至今愈130年。澳門現行的社會福利性衛生醫療系統,經過了18年的運作,部分配置及安排已追不上現今社會的發展步伐,醫療改革的呼聲亦因此在數年前再度響起,當中要求的改革莫過於是制度的改革,而這一改革依賴立法手段才能實施。在這18年裏,澳門居民享受了衛生福利政策帶來的好處。由於基本上是免費醫療,澳門在經濟滑落時期,行政當局縱使要面對龐大公共醫療開支的沉重壓力,但仍然堅守向全澳居民作出的承諾和肩負社會義務,為維持澳門個人及集體健康而努力不懈。要是政府將來放棄或更改這個承諾,恐怕社會的安定繁榮將受到嚴重打擊。但如何才能達成妥善的解決辦法?前澳葡政府和特區政府分別聘用了外國專家為澳門的衛生醫療體系作出評估分析,並提出建議。前者較為低調,不為大眾所知。後者則廣泛宣傳諮詢,一時間引了社會議論紛紛,收效立竿見影。但無論如何,最後釐定的改革方向,仍待有關委員會完成諮詢,再由特區政府衛生當局訂定政策和逐一落實,成效拭目以待。但肯定的是,澳門公共衛生醫療的發展,必定要一方面緊隨世界衛生組織訂立的全球及區域政策,展開共同目標計劃,另一方面顧及本地社會的整體發展和經濟增長之所需,並鼓勵和支持私人醫療個體和機構的參與,使用他們的力量,在不干預但給予援助的情況下,除了有利私人醫療的持續發展外,又能配合現代公共行政的“外判”管理概念,收小政府、高效益之效,一起為澳門居民創造有利的健康生活條件。註釋:1 黃啟臣:《澳門歷史》,澳門:澳門歷史學會,1995年9月,第19頁。2 同上註,第9頁。3 同上註,第310頁。4 Pe. Manuel Teixeira, A Medicina em Macau, Volumes I-II, Gabinete do Secretário-Adjunto para os Assuntos Sociais e Orçamento, 1998, pp.197-199.5 同上註,第213-217頁。6 同註4,第229-231頁。7 同註4,第230-231頁。8 同註4,第233頁。9 同註4,第233-234頁。10 同註4,第101-104頁。11 同註4,第125-132頁。12 同註4,第237-239頁和第257-258頁。13 鏡湖醫院網頁:http://www.kwh.org.mo/Introduc.htm14 統計暨普查局:《醫療衛生統計2003》,2004年6月。15 衛生局:《2002年度統計年刊》,初版,2003年7月。16 何厚鏵:《2004年財政年度施政報告》,澳門:印務局,2003年11月19日。
111澳門非營利組織研究Vol. 262005. 2一、前言在全球結社革命底下,近年對非政府組織(non-governmental organization)、非營利組織(non-profit organization)、第三部門( the third sector)、公民社會(civil society)的研究興盛起來,縱然上述各名稱的涵義略有出入,但大致都是指由民間組織的非牟利團體,在澳門一般稱為社團,葡語為Associação。事實上,基於不同社會文化、習慣以致學者所作的定義或法律上的用詞,對同一事物各方所賦予的名稱時有差別,在學術的層面,對非營利組織至今可說還沒形成一致的概念和理論體系。本文不在於探討概念定義問題,但決定以非營利組織為題,而行文中非營利組織、第三部門、社團各詞會互用。澳門的非營利組織眾多已是普遍的說法,如2003年平均每2.6日就有一個社團登記成立,平均156.2個15歲或以上的人士就有一個社團。澳門的非營利組織之活躍,廣涉政治、經濟、社會、文化等各方面,與大眾息息相關,投入研究的人越來越多,但對比之下,對非營利組織的總體瞭解、系統研究和深入的探討看來仍是不足。本文旨在指出這方面研究的意義,並嘗試檢視本地現有的相關文獻,繼而訂立研究的理論框架和尋找可發展的研究方向。二、研究的意義研究非營利組織的權威薩拉蒙(L. M. Salamon)指出:“非營利組織在20世紀晚期快速成長。如果說19世紀全球最大的結社革命是民俗國家的誕生,20世紀的代表將是私有的、非營利、非政府組織。”1並指出過去20年全球出現了一場“結社的革命”(associational revolution)。王紹光研究總結這場全球結社的革命的原因,提出了一般原因和特殊原因,一般原因包括經濟增長、教育水平提高,以及中產階級形成;特殊原因則有發達資本主義國家的福利國家危機,轉型國家的社會主義危機和第三世界國家的發展模式危機,指出這場革命非偶然的,而是有深刻的歷史背景。2澳門公認是社團眾多,截至2004年4月底,經政府正式登記的社團共有 2,362個(表 1)。本人認為,澳門的社團如此興旺,與政治社會環境不無關係。葡萄牙人進入及管治澳門四百多年,有一段相當長的時間對當地華人事務,尤其是民生方面的投入並不多,因此,華人自發組織起來,補充這方面的不足。至1974年葡國民主革命以後,民主風潮延伸至澳門,頒佈了結社權規範,規定凡年齡在18歲以上具有公民權的公民,保證其得自由行使其宗旨不違背法律及公德的集會結社權而無須取得任何預先許可。故此,自80年代開始,澳門的民間社團數目大增,為70年代的1-23.5倍(表2)。由1990-1999年這10年間,平均每年就103.2個社團登記成立,亦即約每3.5天就有一個社團成立。增長情況持續,於2003年平均每2.6日就有一個社團登記成立,又2004年4月底,澳門有2,362個社團(含基金會),以人口總數450,000人計,15歲及以上人口佔大概82%,以此計算平均156.2個15歲或以上的人士就有一個社團。這裏所列的社團,均指有登記而成立者,相信澳門非營利組織研究鄧玉華** 南京大學社會學系博士研究生、澳門社會保障學會理事長
澳門非營利組織研究澳門研究114BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES或一些社團的特刊、指南和一些報刊中,本文所列,難免掛一漏萬。(二) 相關研究的重點、取向《澳門社會工作機構結構的評估最後報告》乃回歸前由葡萄牙天主教大學科學研究協調學院應澳門政府委託所作的,評估報告共分三章,並非全部研究非營利組織,當中第三章探討政府與民間機構的關係和所提供的社會服務,報告書認為是較具規模和多元化的。《社團實務》是作者結合長期的社團工作經驗而編寫有關社團的管理和實務操作的書,可說是一本社團工作者的應用手冊。澳門發展策略研究中心所作的《澳門社團現狀與前瞻》研究,可說是對澳門社團的一次較具規模的研究,具有開創性,對社團的現狀、面對的挑戰與機遇及發展趨勢作出了分析。政府審計署所作的《公共部門向社團發放財政資助的研究》,有難以取代的地位,皆因其他組織是較難取得足夠相關的資料,很難深入研究並指出公共部門對社團資助所存在的問題,事實上,不少社團正杖賴政府資助才能開展活動。本人最近新公佈的《澳門社會福利服務機構管理研究報告》,研究對象為非營利組織的一個類別,重點在管理問題,透過搜集第一手資料去瞭解分析非營利社會福利服務機構管理的一般情況。至於其他文章,我們可發現天主教青年牧民中心的《活流》季刊較早已對社會組織作研究,當中較突出的是所採取的社團系統分類,將研究對象分為政府、街坊會、天主教會、基督教會、菜農會、工聯會等系統,從而分析社會組織勢力的分佈。葡萄牙學者蘇保榮於1989-1991年間應澳葡政府之邀來澳門進行研究,所列的文章就是其研究結果的部分內容。作者選擇訪問了全澳24個街坊會,對澳門社團的組織運作模式、民主化和多元化提出了見解,其研究對開啟澳門的社團研究有刺激作用。楊仁飛所發表了多篇文章,大體上有兩個方向,其一是澳門的社團發展史,其二是分析澳門社團的特點和財政問題,從中可對澳門社團發展有一系統的認識。澳門政策研究雜誌第4期以《社團在特區的角色與治澳模式》為專題,當中收集了三篇文章,明顯地各文章的重點是政治取向的, 意探討澳門回歸後在新的政制之下社團角色的轉變。姚嬴志的幾篇文章,主要是提倡以商業模式來推行社會服務,觸及管理功能問題,對澳門社會福利服務團體來說是先進的,對其他類型的非營利組織也有一定的參考作用。本人的幾篇短文在於探討社團的發展歷史、分類法、非營利組織與政府、企業的關係等,也談到另一種特殊的組織類型──“智庫”( think tank)。尹國輝一文主要從政治角度分析比較香港及澳門兩地的社團發展,焦點在前者的多元化和後者傾向單一化之別,亦論及兩地社團在採取社會行動(social action)方式的態度上異同。婁勝華或許是最近期加入有關研究最活躍的一位,其多篇長篇文章,分別分析了澳門民間結社與近代變遷的關係,提出研究澳門社團理論與方法,分析社團組織結構、功能的改變和特徵,多作理論性的探究。四、建構研究的理論系統(一) 概念介定理論的建立,必須有清晰的概念。本文一開始就用上非營利組織、非政府組織、社團等詞,也提及第三部門一詞,若要深入研究,首先就要對這些以及相關的概念有所釐定,最好是大眾有共識。在本人的工作圈子中,非牟利團體、民間團體之詞似乎是最常聽到的,而社團一詞,隨 人們對非營利組織的關注,亦成為普遍被採用的詞彙,尤其是在傾向學術的研究上。然而,想指出的是在內地和台灣,以致國外的學術研究上,則傾向採用非營利組織、非政府組織、第三部門等詞,而這也是筆者要在此強調先要明確介定概念用詞的原因之一。組織為社會學的基本概念,非營利或非政府只指出組織某些特性,尋求概念共識並不困難。社團一詞在澳門《民法典》中有介定,應是可共同使用的概念,第三部門乃學者為突出這些影響力不斷擴大的民間組織,將之與政府部門(第一部門)和企業(第二部門)分別開來,其特徵可概括為志願與強制、公益與私利之別,如屬於第三部門的非營利組織乃志願組成,從事公益之事。當然,學術的研究上,既未有,亦沒有一致永恆的概念定義,因此與
蓮花寶地共生的語言景觀:策略、回顧與展望澳門研究130BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIESTo see a World in a Grain of SandAnd a Heaven in a Wild Flower,Hold Infinity in the palm of your handAnd Eternity in an hour.─William Blake, “Auguries of Innocence”1想看一粒沙子裏的天地,想看一朵野花裏的天堂;把無限緊握於你的手掌,把永恆留住在片刻之間。─威廉‧布萊克:《純真的預示》2一、從語言政策說起2004年8月16日下午,蓮花寶地正在角逐連任的行政長官何厚鏵先生, 應邀出席了澳門文化界的座談會。中間有一段對話,頗引人入勝。座中有位知名人士當面向特首提出,希望“鏵哥”公開承諾,在日後的施政報告內寫進“特區將大力推廣普通話”,從而更好地領導、推動政府各部門和社會相關團體的普通話推廣教育工作。3 對此,特首除從積極方面予以肯定外,似乎對具體建議基本是婉拒了。特首無論在其上任前的參選政綱和以後連續五年的施政報告裏都沒有提語言政策。為何不提語言政策呢?特首解釋說,主要是照顧社會上各方面人士的感受,不想使有些人有種誤解,認為澳門回歸後特區政府“事事都要求‘政治正確’,勁擦‘北京鞋’,……不明複雜事理的居民,可能誤信這些立場,對‘一國兩制’初步落實階段有疑問,繼而形成社會分化。”4何特首這一席話,說得很平易近人,促膝談心間,既道出語言政策跟社群和民族感情、社會感受和社會分化的關係,也說出了語言策略、語言運用以及具體落實的複雜性。在澳門,光是語言問題就有那麼多奧妙,不禁令人讚嘆,在這座小城,不僅能克服那種僵硬的、絕對的“非此即彼”、“非彼即此” 的思維模式,而且我們能真的看到“一粒沙子裏的天地”,看到“一朵野花裏的天堂!”二、語言政策面面觀根據專注於美國語言政策和立法研究的克勞福德(James W. Crawford)所言,語言政策基本指“1. 政府通過立法、法庭判決、行政措施和其它手段對語言的正式介入,決定語言在公共範疇的使用;為滿足國家迫切需要而優先發展語言能力;確定個人或群體學習、使用、維護語言的權利;2. 政府規範其本身的語言使用,其中包括保證清晰無誤溝通的措施,人員的徵聘和培訓,確保程序運作暢通順利,促進政治參與、擴大參與面,以及使各項公共服務、一切進程和文件傳遞暢通無阻。” 5 語言政策在世界各地各國的情況是很不相同的。一方面,有些國家和地區從來就沒有制訂語言政策;而另一方面,有些國家和地區對官方語言、語言使用的場合、以及使用範圍等都有嚴格的規蓮花寶地共生的語言景觀:策略、回顧與展望楊秀玲** 澳門大學教育學院助理教授
蓮花寶地共生的語言景觀:策略、回顧與展望澳門研究132BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES性的有程祥徽教授主編的《澳門語言論集》,吳志良博士主編的《東西文化交流》,澳門社會科學學會出版的學報第13期(特刊)《澳門三化論文集》等等,從人類語言學、社會語言學、應用語言學等諸方面對澳門的語言狀況進行了觀察、研究和描述。程祥徽和劉羡冰的文章指出,澳門是漢、葡、英三語流通的社會,“從社會學和語言學的觀點看問題,三語流通,彼此之間的相互影響勢難避免,而且根本無須避免。問題只是要分辨影響來自正面還是負面,以便在語言學的理論指導下因勢利導地將語言的發展引向健康的道路。”兩位學者就英語對漢語的負面影響,對於上個世紀80年代港澳粵語夾雜英語詞語的情形,以及對於中英混雜、非英非中的CHINGLISH都予以批評,指出過渡期內逐步取得官方地位的中文應該是健康的中文。13過渡期事務研究暨計劃辦公室主任林柏濤則認為,中文的官方地位有足夠的法律保障,並在其《中文的官方地位》中指出,對於“中文的實際地位,本人認為大家心中對中文地位不會存有任何疑問。由於本地大部分居民為華人,他們的語文在本地社會各種不同的語文中成為最廣泛使用的一種,是絕對自然和可理解的。故此,無論在法律上有甚麼規定,中文都有其不容爭論的實際地位。”他最關心的是行政當局與本地居民的溝通和關係方面,因為在落實中文的官方地位時,就是在這一方面出現最大的困難。“這些困難歸根究底是由於過去不幸地沒有以適當的方式關注在葡語學校教授中文和在華語學校教授葡語這種教育制度所致。”14本人則對回歸前的語文教學、語言學習作過一些研究,特別是澳門中英葡三語的教學模式、問題和挑戰。隨 回歸的腳步聲越來越近,澳葡政府也越加快葡語教學的推廣,祈求在1999年之前的最後幾年,畢其功於一役。雖然很難指望用幾年的時間來成就過去幾百年未成就的大業,可還是有一些成績的。當年有些政府部門規定官員要學中文或葡文以成為雙語人才,為華人開葡文班,為葡人開設中文和普通話班。有的政府部門星期一至六,每天上午九至十時用來學習語言,辦公室成了語言課室。而晚間開設的各種形式的葡文班,也擠滿了護士、醫生、教師、警員及其他專業人士。上班前上課,午間工休也上課,晚飯前、晚飯後上課,還有“赴葡就讀”、“赴京就讀”,真的,那陣子澳門人學語 言 還 是 挺 拼 搏 的 。總之,回歸前的澳門,語文教學和語言使用的問題不少,基礎教育中,雖然多數學校都利用澳門的特色開設了葡語課程,但成效甚微。英語教學和使用也遇到重重困難。至於中文,就連最起碼的中文官方地位也是“有名無實”。但是,澳門人努力進取,不斷探索,並滿懷期盼,希望回歸後不僅問題可乘回歸效應迎刃而解,而且在原有的多元、包容的基礎上,創建更富有人文色彩的、更理想的語言景觀,從而更好地面向未來、面向世界。四、變革已悄然發生“朝辭白帝彩雲間,千里江陵一日還;兩岸猿聲啼不住,輕舟已過萬重山。”── (唐) 李白彈指間,澳門已經回歸五年了。稍作回顧,就會發現,語言領域的變革已悄然發生了。更令人意想不到的是,回歸前有些浪漫的、帶有童話色彩的預見和期盼,也令人驚喜地看到已成為現實了。 澳門的中、英文教學和整個語言景觀已經發生了很大的變化。就普通話的推廣來說,不僅學校重視,整個社會對學習普通話的態度是積極、開放的。總的來說,澳門人學習、使用普通話的態度,認識普通話的政治、經濟、和商業價值,以及普通話的溝通能力,都勝過香港人,這是大家公認的。就基礎教育中的中文教學來說,澳門本來就有良好的語文教學傳統和不俗的語文教師隊伍,在這樣的基礎上,進步和成績是顯而易見的。基礎教育中的英語教師隊伍也在成長、壯大,由90年代初只有少數完成基本培訓,到如今絕大多數都成為合資格的教師,成為教師隊伍中的骨幹。特別是作為新生力量、本地培養的年青教師,在前輩的扶掖和精心栽培下,校長們又給予支持和機會,表現朝氣蓬勃,敢於創新,使澳門的英語教學面貌有了很大的改觀,英文教學水平普遍有明顯的提高。在有些學校,英語原本是弱科或無望的科目,如今受到重視,成為學生們力爭獲獎的科目。
133蓮花寶地共生的語言景觀:策略、回顧與展望Vol. 262005. 2有些學校後來居上,在一些方面接近、甚至趕上澳門的傳統優質名校,出外參加各項英文比賽也能取得相當好的成績。澳門學生以前只能參加兩、三種(即SAT,TOEFL,以及GCE)國際認可的英語測試,如今,可以自由參加多種多樣的英語測試,除了TOEFL之外,還有NEW SAT,SAT II,SSAT, IELTS(雅思),GCSE,BULATS(博思)以及內地各種語文測試。澳門也開始培育出自己本土的高等院校的教師和翻譯人才,是難能可貴的,應該珍惜、愛護。語言學習、語文教育不是大張旗鼓、轟轟烈烈就能出成績的。要教師不斷提高自己的全面素質,腳踏實地,花心思做許多細致的工作,改進教學方法,學生認真刻苦學習,師生共同努力,才能教出水平、學出水平的。正是這樣,澳門由無到有,逐步向前邁進的。澳門老早就有普通話電視節目、普通話新聞以及學講普通話等廣播和電視節目。如今,澳門也開始有了自己的英文電視新聞廣播,自己的英文日報Macau Post Daily: Connecting(澳門郵報),都很有澳門特色。不知道人們是否還留意到,就是中文報紙,英文廣告所佔的篇幅也在擴大。至於葡語,香港的報紙有這樣一段報道:……除了是賭業中心之外,澳門已成為中國的葡語中心,現今在澳門學習葡語的人數,比回歸前還要多。澳門大學以葡語講授葡萄牙法律,安哥拉、莫三鼻給的學生來上課。此外,中文學校開設葡語班,選修學生多達5,000人。前葡萄牙殖民地的學生,到澳門參加旅遊、看護、翻譯、工商管理的不絕如縷。澳門雖小,卻因為歷史原因,葡文在澳門生根,巴西商人到澳門營商,可聽葡語電台、看葡語電視、讀葡文報紙、吃葡國菜,好不愜意。……另一葡語國家安哥拉最近拒絕了印度,改與中國簽訂石油合作協議,中國投桃報李,貸款20億美元給安哥拉興建連接東西部的鐵路。凡此種種,中國與葡語國家的經濟和外交關係,日益密切,急需葡語人才。天造地設,澳門回歸中國,正好為中國提供了最佳的葡語基地。15如果這一報道全是事實,那是十分鼓舞人心的!當然問題還是存在的,而且即使原有的問題解決了,新的問題還會接連出現。該普及的,應該加緊普及;該多的,也應該不斷增多。如今,問題的關鍵已經不是普及和量,現在我們應該 手做的,就是要在普及的基礎上提高;在量的基礎上抓質。高素質的各種語文人才、出色的語言專才還是太少了。但求質、提高要比普及求量艱巨得多,特別是在某些追逐權力、崇尚平庸的文化裏,提高質素、追求卓越更是困難重重而又吃力不討好的!五、蓮花城共生的語言景觀對於現代澳門的語言景觀,上個世紀90年代初葡萄牙科英布拉大學蘇保榮教授(B. S. Santos, 1991)曾有過這樣的描述:澳門是一個極其複雜的微型世界,是一個十分特別的葡國老殖民地,又是一個多種文化、多種語言的社會。她將好幾個多元化──文化多元化、社會政治多元化、語言多元化、法律多元化─共冶於一爐。……澳門在文化諸方面已是一個高度多元化的社會,這一點應繼續保持。我們發現澳門的種種多元化,非常錯綜複雜地交織在一起,既有中國華南文化的風貌和習俗,也有獨特色彩的澳門文化、葡萄牙行政管理文化,以及香港經濟文化等。因此,澳門的獨特地位絕非抽象概念。16蘇保榮教授對於現代澳門社會的概括、特別是語言景觀的描述,是較全面和有代表性的。澳門除了中英葡三語的使用和流通以外,還有來自世界各國遊客、外籍人士以及外籍勞工所使用的其他外語。假如再更深入、細緻的觀察和研究,我們還會有更令人振奮的發現。例如,長期居住在澳門的約五萬歸僑,他們會因其不同的場合,使用不同的語言。在家裏或遇到同鄉,他們會說家鄉話或祖籍方言;在正式場合,他們就說粵語或普通話,或帶有各種口音的粵語或普通話;有時,他們還繼續使用原僑居地的語言─印尼語、緬甸語等等。澳門確實是一個語言大匯點! 今天的澳門,由於龍頭產業的帶動,我們還能聽到來自內地各省、市、自治區遊客帶來的方言,語言景觀更加豐富多彩了。我們應該在原有的多元、和睦共處的基礎上,發展共生的社會環境和語言環境。因此,澳門無論因其固有的社會和歷史特徵,還是作為國際旅遊城市的需要,都要保持和不斷改善其共生的語言景觀。語言文化是澳門的特色
蓮花寶地共生的語言景觀:策略、回顧與展望澳門研究134BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES和優勢;語言文化課程是澳門高等教育的強項。澳門應該繼續為語言學者、學生提供生動活潑的實踐、研習場地,為語言學家提供一個理想的研究園地。六、多元是真實的: 擁抱多元香港大學出版社對鄭妙冰(2004)專著《澳門殖民滄桑中的文化雙面神》的評語中,有這樣一段話,令人深思:於21世紀門檻的澳門也許預示 一種嶄新的城市文化的來臨。她既能包容不同的文化,同時又避免了文化差異與沖突所帶來的破壞。中、英、葡三語的使用,使澳門人具有多方位的視覺。澳門樂意接受外來影響:中華文化,葡萄牙文化,受中、西雙方影響,又反過來是中、西文化的橋樑。同時又寬容地接受香港和其他鄰近地區的影響。17根據馬什(C. J. Marsh, 1997)對多元文化社會 (a multicultural society)所下的定義,澳門已經是一個較為成熟的多元文化的社會。在一個多元文化社會裏,多種不同文化群體和睦共處,自由保留各自獨特的宗教、語言、及社會風俗習慣,平等地享用適合每人需要的資源和服務和享受公民與政治權利,以及對整個社會有共同的承擔和價值。18 多元文化在澳門是真實的。創造寬鬆的語言環境,特首本人作出了榜樣,在出席葡人社群晚宴時,也學講幾句土生葡語,胸懷寬廣、開放交談,深受外籍人士、葡籍人士、尤其土生葡人尊敬和擁護。澳門族群融和、和睦共處可成國際典範。多元的語言景觀是寬容、多元的文化生態的組成部分。我們應抓住澳門多語言環境所提供的大好機會,廣開“言”路,接受多元的世界,擁抱多元,更好地去迎接未來。註釋:1 引自 Palmer J. Parker, The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher’s Life (San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 1998), p. 115. 2 本文作者譯。3 見《澳門日報》,2004年8月17日,澳聞版。4 同上註。5 See Crawford, J. W. “The English Only Movement” (1997); “Language Policy” (2000); “Language Rights” (2000); “Language Legislation in the U.S.A.” (2003); in Issues in U.S. Language Policy, http://ourworld.compuserve.com6 見周明朗(譯音)等主編:《中華人民共和國的語言政策──1949年以來的理論與實踐》;Zhou, Minglang & Sun, Hongkai(eds.), Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949 (Springer, 2004). http://www.springeronline.com/sgw/cda/frontpage 7 同上註。8 See “Calls Grow for Use of Hanyu Pinyin”, in Taipei Times, 12th October 2000; “Tzeng Wants Language Policy Decided by Cabinet”, 11th October 2000, http://taiwanheadlines.gov.tw, “Taiwan Languages” http://www.etaiwannews.com/Taiwan_Languages9 See Crawford, J. W. “The English Only Movement” (1997), http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWF.html10 見《中華人民共和國澳門特別行政區基本法》總則第9 條,澳門基金會,1999年11月,第2版。11 見《澳門日報》,2004年11月14日,澳聞版。12 即“法律本地化”、“公務員本地化”及“中文官方化”。13 見程祥徽主編:《澳門的三語流通與中文的健康發展──兼評CHINGLISH》,載於《澳門語言論集》,1992年,第13-26頁。14 澳門社會科學學會出版的學報第13期(特刊);馬克平主編:《澳門三化論文集》,1994年,第74-76頁。15 見喬菁華:《澳門成為中國葡語中心》,載於《明報》菁英會欄,2004年10月27日。16 見Santos, B. S., A Justisa e a Cominsdade em Macau: Problemas Sociais, a Administração Pública e a Organização Comunitaris no Contexto da Transição (1991).17 見鄭妙冰:《澳門殖民滄桑中的文化雙面神》,香港:明報出版有限公司,2004年。18 見Marsh, C. J., Perspectives: Key Concepts for Understanding Curriculum (London and Washington, D. C.: The Falmer Press, 1997).參考書目:1. Crawford, James “Anatomy of the ‘English-Only’ Movement” (2000); “The English Only Movement” (1997); “Language Policy” (2000); “Language Rights” (2000); “Language Legislation in the U.S.A.” (2003); in Issues in U.S. Language Policy. http://ourworld.compuserve.com2. Kibbee, D. A. (ed.), Language Legislation and Linguistic Rights (Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1998). 3. Marsh, C. J., Perspectives: Key Concepts for Understanding Curriculum (London and Washington, D.C.: The Falmer Press, 1997).4. Santos, B.S., A Justisa e a Cominsdade em Macau: Problemas Sociais, a Administração Pública e a Organização Comunitaris no Contexto da Transição (1991).5. Zhou, Minglang & Sun, Hongkai (eds.), Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949 (Springer, 2004). http://www.springeronline.com/sgw/cda/frontpage6. 程祥徽主編:《澳門的三語流通與中文的健康發展── 兼評CHINGLISH》,載於《澳門語言論集》,1992年。7. 楊允中:《澳門2020──未來20年遠景目標與發展策 略》,澳門發展策略研究中心、澳門經濟學會,2000年。8. 鄭妙冰:《澳門殖民滄桑中的文化雙面神》,香港:明 報出版有限公司,2004年。9. 周明朗(譯音)等主編:《中華人民共和國的語言政策──1949年以來的理論與實踐》。
鄭觀應科技興國思想初探澳門研究136BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES切相關的篇章有《論商務》、《論開礦》、《論火車》、《論電報》、《論開墾》、《論治旱》、《論機器》、《論船政》、《論鑄銀》、《論郵政》、《論鹽務》、《論考試》(附《論洋學》)、《論邊防》、《論水師》、《論火器》、《論治河》、《論書吏》、《論醫道》等18篇,佔全書一半以上的篇幅。在《易言》二十篇本中,又新增《西學》、《鐵路》等篇。在《盛世危言》中,不但把《西學》篇提前放到顯著的位置,而且新增《學校》、《女教》、《藏書》、《停漕》、《商戰》、《商船》、《保險》、《修路》、《驛站》、《銀行》、《紡織》、《技藝》、《農功》、《炮台》等科學技術或與之密切相關的10多篇。進而又把《易言》中有的《考試》、《鐵路》、《郵政》、《開礦》等篇擴展為上、下篇,把《商務》篇擴展為一、二、三、四、五篇;把《邊防》篇擴展為一、二、三、四、五、六、七、八、九篇等9,使科學技術的內容更為厚重。在19世紀及其以前,中國歷史上像鄭觀應這樣重視科學技術並有較為系統的論述的思想家,不說是獨一無二,也應該是鳳毛麟角。二鄭觀應的西學觀,遠在當時一般人所談的西學之上。當時一般人所指的西學,多限於格致製造之學。鄭觀應所理解和推崇之西學,內容廣泛、深刻得多。他在《易言》中,曾認為西學包括經學、法學、哲學、醫學四門。10 把“經學”置於西學之中,並放之首位,顯然是不恰當的,後在《盛世危言》中作了更改,認為西學分為天學、地學、人學三類。他稱:“所謂天學者,以天文為綱,而一切算法、曆法、電學、光學諸藝,皆由天學以推至其極者也”;“所謂地學者,以地與為綱,而一切測量、經緯、種植、車舟、兵陣諸藝,皆由地學以推至其極者也”;“所謂人學者,以方言文字為綱,而一切政教、刑法、食貨、製造、商賈、工技諸藝,皆由人學以推至其極者也”。11 這個西學的分類現在看來有許多不妥之處:例如,把數學、物理學不適當地歸入天學;把生物學、農學、軍事學等不適當地歸入地學:把製造、工藝等不適當地歸入人學。但是,這個分類至少有兩個非常可取之處:西學不僅有自然科學、工藝技術之學,而且還有“政教”、“刑法”、“食貨”、“商賈”之學,即還有社會人文科學。他說:這個學問“皆有益於國計民生,非奇技淫巧之謂也”。 12 鄭觀應把西方社會政治學說視為科學,並擺在格致技術同等重要的地位,在當時是很難能可貴的。 西學是一個整體,學西學要全面的學習,不能只學格致技術之學。在這裏,鄭觀應既繼承了中華傳統學術的整體觀,又吸收西方尤其是培根以來科學主要是分科發展的一些成果。例如電學、光學、測量、經緯、種植、政教、刑法、製造、工技等。也正是出於上述的西學觀,鄭觀應曾大聲疾呼:“政治不改良,實業萬難興盛”。13 表明鄭觀應明確地認識到政治改良是強國的先決條件。即要發展科學技術和近代工商業,富民強國,不改良封建專制制度不行。這是他積數十年實業生涯和社會實踐的經驗總結。怎麼改良?他提出了具有資產階級民主色彩的政治制度改良方案──建立君主立憲制,包括開設議院、實行“公舉”和讓賢等一系列主張。鄭觀應雖然還未能從本質上超越當時盛行的“西學中源”、“中體西用”的理論,但正是出於上述的西學觀,使他同時提出了中西文化必然融合的觀點,這是超越了單純的“西學中源”,“中體西用”論的先進的見解。他說:中國“古人名物象數之學。流徙而入於泰西,其工藝之精遠非中國所及”;“秦漢以來,中原板蕩,文物無存,學人莫窺製作之原,循空文而高談性理”,結果是“我墮於虛,彼征諸實”,“中學日見其荒,西學遂莫窺其蘊矣”。14 鄭觀應與主張“西學中源”論的洋務派等學者一樣,弄不清楚西方近代科學技術主要源於古希臘、古羅馬的科學技術,而誤認為源於中國古代的象數之學。但是,鄭觀應實事求是肯定了“我墮於虛,彼征諸實”,中學“荒”而西學“蘊”的現實情況。進而他說:“以中國本有之學,還之於中國,是猶取之外廄”。如若“尚鰓鰓焉謂西人之學中國所未有,乃必歸美於西人,西人能讀中國書者不將揶揄之乎?”即說西學不但可以學,而且必須學;學西學不是恥辱,不學西學才是恥辱,那是對“中國本有之學”的不敬重。在議論“西學之源”之後,他滿懷信心地預測中西學融化的趨勢:“今西人由外而歸中,正所謂由博返約,五方俱入中土,斯即同軌同文同論之見端也。由是本末具,虛
500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析澳門研究140BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES一2005年是人類歷史上首次大規模洲際遠航──中國偉大航海家鄭和下西洋600週年。“毫無疑問,2005是一個重要的年份,可與最近的紀念達伽馬和其他歐洲‘發現家’的慶祝媲美。”1 兩岸四地及海外都已展開各種形式的紀念活動。應該承認,長期以來,鄭和下西洋的研究一直未得到應有的重視。從580週年及590週年慶祝活動起,鄭和研究才有了顯著的發展和成就,逐漸在中國學術界成為了一門顯學。儘管如此,較之西方航海家哥倫布、達伽馬、麥哲倫,鄭和遠航尚未在世界範圍內得到廣泛的認識和足夠的重視。2000年重走鄭和航路的范春歌這樣寫道:“而600年來,我們和這世界大多數人一樣,每當說起航海史,首先就會想起那三位歐洲人的名字。我們忘了,我們自己曾經有過那麼波瀾壯闊的蔚藍色。印度南部卡利卡特一個僻遠的漁村,鄭和與葡萄牙人達伽馬都曾在這裏登陸。我尋鄭和無蹤,當地 卻 建 有 一 座 紀 念 達 伽 馬 的 航 海 碑 , 鐫 刻‘1498’,他登陸的日子。”2去年出版的《世界新史》嘆息道:“中國達伽馬──鄭和太監的偉大航行完全被遺忘了。”3 既然大家認為鄭和下西洋本身是國際性的壯舉,具有世界意義,那麼,鄭和研究自然也不能不是一門國際性的學科,而21世紀的鄭和研究所面臨的主要任務之一便是國際化。我們認為,鄭和研究國際化包括兩個方面:首先,將中國百年鄭和研究的優秀論文匯編成冊4,然後刊印英語版,向國際學界介紹自己的研究成果。其二,翻譯、出版國外有關鄭和的重要論文和專著,並組織召開國際學術會議,與國外學界交流接軌。一般學科國際化的最大受益者通常是國內學界,但在鄭和研究中,情況有所不同。由於漢語本身資料的匱乏,除了早期西方幾位漢學大家對漢語資料拓荒性的翻譯、介紹外,近幾十年來,西方學界出現的力作數目不多。5 從事研究而且有所成就者都是精通漢語的漢學家。漢語新史料的披露有如鳳毛麟角,中外研究無不受制於此。較之其他中國問題的研究,西方的鄭和研究數量少、水平不高的結癥也在此。歐美漢學界的特點是“小題大做”,一口井挖到底,不窮不罷,自然不會有人花功夫、下力氣去進行史料匱乏,難出理想成果的研究。商業界則不受此規律支配,甚麼書都可能出。學人需要遵守基本的學術規範,而純粹求利那類書籍的作者通常是語不驚人死不休。一個最近的例子便是孟席思的《1421年──中國發現世界》。6 這本書未出籠前,所謂的驚人發現被炒得沸沸揚揚。其實作者是“傘兵”式業餘歷史愛好者,其書絕對不是學術著作,只能作為虛構的歷史演義來讀。就是演義也太歪批三國了!孟氏藉此書名利雙收,80萬英鎊已經入腰包,不知還有多少各種語言的版稅滾滾而來,在中國大陸也足足實實風光了幾回。最近,他還要到港澳地區宣傳。楊槱院士已告誡我們:“孟席斯的書不會導致改寫世界航海史,我們應該感謝他為弘揚古代中國海洋文化所做的孜孜不倦的努力,但如果再為他的那本書宣傳,則將貽笑500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析金國平、吳志良** 前者為旅葡語言兼歷史學者,後者為澳門基金會行政委員會委員。
141500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析Vol. 262005. 2大方了。”7如果說,研究鄭和的現實意義是宏揚我們的民族精神,那麼,我們這些搞鄭和研究的人當應該先振奮自己的學術自信心。在某種新說高論鋪天蓋地而來之時,應有最基本的學術判斷能力。總體而言,中國的鄭和研究並不落後於目前西方的研究水平。可以說,鄭和研究是中國人社會科學研究的強項。同仁們深知,鄭和研究最大的困難莫過於資料不足。在進一步發掘漢語史料的同時,當務之急是有組織地開發域外資料,即開展資料的國際化工作。其具體做法是普查鄭和船隊所經國家和地區史料中的有關記載。目前多數研究集中在東南亞,而且有了相當的成果問世8,相比之下,印度沿海、波斯灣及東非海岸的研究則顯得十分不足。這一地區正是葡萄牙人東來首先接觸的區域,因此,在葡萄牙史料中留存了他們在這裏收集到的關於鄭和下西洋的情報。鑒於國內鄭和研究學界對此不太熟悉,我們發表了一部分搜集到的資料9,引起了同仁的興趣,得到了他們的鼓勵,因此我們又作了進一步的爬梳,獲得了一些新資料。10鄭和研究始於何時?相信在座的同仁會毫不猶豫地說:西方研究始於英人梅輝立(W. F. Mayers),我們中國的研究以梁啟超1904年在《新民叢報》發表的《祖國大航海家鄭和傳》一文為開山之作。這便是通常所說的“百年鄭和研究”。一條葡萄牙史料將這個時限前推了400年,換言之,鄭和航海400多年前已經受到葡萄牙人注意,可以說,鄭和研究已有500年之久。儘管刊載此資料的葡萄牙海外大發現時期的御用編年史官若昂員‧德‧巴羅斯(João de Barros)的《亞洲旬年史之三》(TERCEIRA Decada da Afia de Ioam de Barros)出版於1563年,鑒於葡萄牙人從1498年達伽馬抵達古里時已經開始收集中國人航海的資料,所以我們才提出鄭和研究500年說。巴羅斯記敘、分析說:“為保持其征服者之英名,華人在內陸東征西戰。他們曾出師勃固王國。那裏至今尤存的華人的手跡向我們敘述了他們的征戰業績,尚存碩大無比的金屬鐘及火銃。似乎他們使用火銃的歷史較我們更為悠久。在勃固北部的阿瓦王國的遍達(Piandá)與米蘭都(Mirandú)之間,尚存華人在那裏興建的一城市的遺址。不僅上述王國,正如前述,暹羅中包括的大大小小諸國,如位於勃固北部的梅里台(Melitay)、堡高(Bacam)、茶蘭瓦拉固(Chalam Varagu)及其他與其相臨的內陸王國,或多或少地保存華人的宗教、華人的自然科技知識﹕他們將年分為12個陰曆月份,在黃道圖中使用12宮及天體運動的其他知識。因為華人在其征討之地,傳播了他們的文化。這些被征服的王國,作為對中國的承認,從那時起直至現在,每隔3年,遣使中國,進呈禮物。貢使人數總在4人以上,因為抵達中國大皇帝、王爺所在地的路程遙遠,候見及賞賜的時間又長,一兩個恐有不測。即使免於病卒,出席為他們所設的宴會後,也有人入土。暴死者得隆重安葬,豎有靈位,上面書寫死者姓名、何國貢使。此種種做法,不無為其王國樹碑立傳之意。但當他們從陸地或水路前來印度時,(前有所述),其行動必比希臘人、羅馬人、迦太基人尤為小心謹慎。華人因征戰他國,遠離故土,竟然一度失去了自己的祖國,但無意重蹈覆轍。相反,看到他們在印度勞民傷財,與四鄰兵戎相見且時有敗北時,他們發覺自己的土地上有金有銀,其他金屬不一而足,自然財富如此豐富、百工技藝如此高超。人人從中國得益,但她從未從他人處獲益,為何他們要流血征服他人之地?在當時一位賢明君主的命令下,華人重返家園,實行務實的防務,但詔令不得出海,違者以死論之。此禁海令沿用至今,仍有兩條未廢︰外人不得經陸路或海路入華。替國王擔任重要使命入華者均係貢使。他們的一舉一動有專人監視,一言一行稽查在案。那些欲由陸路入華的商人,甚至聯合推舉一人為首領,藉貢使之名,行貿易之實。其二為華人不得出海。大陸鄰近數個海島的居民深受其害。無論前往何處,當年必須返回。航前,需向當地官員申請出海許可且要取保按時返回。船的噸位不可超過150噸。若申請大噸位船出海,絕無獲准的可能,言之叛國。但無法禁止外人經海路潛至山洲海島或偷入華夏大地,當地居民與其交易不絕。如今我們的商人便以此法買賣。” 11此處雖未明確涉及鄭和之名,但從文字內容來看,無疑報道的是鄭和下西洋。篇幅不短,有敘有議,當可視作迄今為止、古今中外最早的鄭和研
500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析澳門研究142BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES究。巴羅斯不清楚蒙古人和漢人的區別,因此他所說的“內陸東征西戰”的“征服者”是橫掃歐亞大陸的蒙古鐵騎。蒙古人以攻為守,因此他們節約了邊防的費用。“國初,府庫充溢,三實鄭太監下西洋,齋銀七百餘萬,費十載,尚剩百萬餘歸。蓋乘元人所藏。而元時不備邊,故其充溢至此。可見閭閻疲憊,去於邊費為多。”12 歷史上,元、明都曾師征勃固,因此巴羅斯的資訊是正確的。葡萄牙人曾為勃固王13 和暹羅王14 充當僱傭軍,接觸過“碩大無比的金屬鐘及火銃”。這一消息可能來自於他們。鑄銃技術以更早的鑄鐘技術為基礎,兩物並提符合邏輯,因而巴羅斯毫不猶豫地得出了“似乎他們使用火銃的歷史 15較我們更為悠久”的結論。中國火器發展史證明了此點。巴羅斯報道了在勃固、阿瓦、暹羅“大大小小諸國”及其他“相臨的內陸王國”“或多或少地保存華人的宗教、華人的自然科技知識”,具體的例子是陰曆年和黃道12宮的天文知識。巴羅斯結論說:“因為華人在其征討之地,傳播了他們的文化。”不久前,何芳川先生在香港城市大學中國文化中心舉辦的《鄭和的世界‧世界的鄭和──鄭和下西洋六百週年紀念研討會》上說,鄭和七下西洋有強烈的歷史使命感,傳播了中華文明,提升了周邊國家的文明水平。在此,我們找到了歐洲人報道的實例。我們認為,今後的鄭和研究應該加強這方面的調研,凸現下西洋的文明傳播意義。巴羅斯對朝貢貿易制度的描寫,也可能是西方文獻中最早的涉及。“被征服的王國”大多是在元蒙時代。鄭和七下西洋顯然為了保持這種朝貢關係。對此,漢語文獻記載繁多,學界並無異議,但5個世紀前,巴羅斯便有了此種認識,不謂不深刻。除了關係極好的國邦,如暹羅一年一貢外,一般的國家確實是三年一貢。關於“貢使人數總在4人以上”的原因,巴羅斯的解釋別開生面。雖不見之漢籍,但卻也符合邏輯。德州的蘇祿王墓及南京渤泥王墓足以證明“暴死者得隆重安葬”一語不虛。巴羅斯這段文字最有價值處,是他對下西洋中止原因的分析。鄭和航海事業輝煌一時,卻又曇花一現,偃旗息鼓的原因何在?這是多年來中西學者十分關心並努力探索的問題,至今仍未塵埃落定。想不到的是,早在近 450年前巴羅斯便提出了自己的看法,雖不盡完全與正確,至少可資參考,幫助我們瞭解16世紀西方人對鄭和下西洋驟止原因的認識。這個看法與中國傳統的勞民傷財、得不償失說不謀而合。看來,葡萄牙人是深入瞭解了情況,足以證明這是當時國人流行的看法。在很長時間內,西方地理學及地圖學將東非埃塞俄比亞以東的地區泛稱為印度。葡人東來建立的“印度國”範圍更廣,從好望角一直延伸至遠東的日本,中國包括在其中。巴羅斯筆下的“他們在印度勞民傷財,與四鄰兵戎相見且時有敗北時”,是指蒙古人對亞洲廣大地區的征戰。“時有敗北”顯然是指征日、征爪哇失利。明朝在擁有絕對海權後,也未因此而對東南亞、印度洋及東非實行後來西方式的強權。這體現了中國人的一種固有思維觀念。天子是當然的全天下的統治者,“普天之下,莫非王土”,自然無必要征服理論上在中國版圖之內的任何地方。中國只要求“萬邦來朝”。除了其貿易性質外,朝貢貿易是一種十分有效的政治、外交及軍事制度。中國與外邦互通有無,提升他們對中華帝國的忠誠度,以此來避免軍事衝突。這比殖民佔領聰明得多,有效得多,也經濟得多。元朝是以攻為守,明朝卻反其道而行之。《明史‧鄭和傳》謂下西洋,乃“耀兵異域,示中國富強”。此說頗精,而歐洲人、美國人幾百年後才得出了相同的“新殖民主義”的認識。即使如此,歐美國家今天依然四處點火,試圖征服擴張。無論如何,看看這些資訊和分析,葡萄牙人對中國歷史的瞭解令人驚訝!相比之下,我們到1565年才弄清楚“佛郎機”的正式國名叫“蒲利都家”。16 巴羅斯始終未搞清進行大規模洲際擴張的元蒙與取而代之的朱明之間的區別,以為是同一個朝代。他將鄭和下西洋稱為“流血征服他人之地”,是時代的局限。在地理大發現時代,任何大規模的海外活動,除了征服之外,無其他解釋。“人人從中國得益,但她從未從他人處獲益”,這是對“薄來厚往”的朝貢貿易經濟性質的一種分析,但他還不理解其更深遠的政治及國防意義。巴羅斯將罷下西洋的明仁宗朱高熾稱為“賢明君主”,認為“華人重返家園”是“實行務實的防務”。這一對海禁的論述在
143500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析Vol. 262005. 2漢籍不難找到印證。至於“不得出海”的“詔令”,《明史》曰:“初,明祖定制,片板不許入海。”他所言“外人不得經陸路或海路入華。替國王擔任重要使命入華者均係貢使。他們的一舉一動有專人監視,一言一行稽查在案”,正是嚴密的朝貢貿易制度的真實寫照。“不可超過150噸”的船是單桅船,“大噸位船”指“雙桅”船”。“即使有警而禁,惟禁乎雙桅重匠之舡,勿禁乎單桅平底之舡。以雙桅重,乃過洋過番之舡;單桅平底,乃採捕通販之舡,一區別之間,則海糶既通,海禁未嘗不嚴。”17 由於“絕無獲准的可能,言之叛國”,於是,“邇來漳泉等處奸民,倚結勢族,私造雙桅大船,廣帶違禁軍器,收買奇貨,誘博諸夷,日引月滋,倭舟聯集,而彭亨、佛郎機諸國相繼煽其兇威,入港則佯言貿易,登岸則殺擄男婦,驅逐則公行拒敵,出洋則劫掠商財,而我內地奸豪,偃然自以為得計。”18 這與巴羅斯所描寫的:“但無法禁止外人經海路潛至山洲海島或偷入華夏大地,當地居民與其交易不絕。如今我們的商人便以此法買賣”如出一轍!故《明史》總結說:“承平久,奸民闌出入,勾倭人及佛郎機諸國入互市”。的確,宋元積極鼓勵海外貿易,而明初卻採取了海禁政策,嚴重窒息了對外貿易。永樂派遣鄭和下西洋有明顯的貿易性質,而且是壟斷形的官方海外貿易。後來粵、閩、浙民間走私海外貿易的興起,正是補充了官方海外活動結束後留下的真空。葡萄牙人在此背景下,迅速抓住了商業契 機 19, 據居澳門後,更開闢了果阿─馬六甲─中國─日本航線,將歐亞貿易發展至前所未有的繁榮階段。由此看來,在葡萄牙人和中國民間走私貿易推動下出現的雙嶼、漳州月港、浯嶼、南澳、上川、浪白滘以及澳門開埠是因應商品經濟而產生的,衝破了以往官府對海外貿易的壟斷,孕育了帶有反封建束縛的民間自由貿易,並已具有資本主義僱傭關係的經營方式。這改變了東南沿海對外交通和貿易的形態,將中國同正在形成的世界貿易體系接駁在一起,對整個中國社會經濟及文化的影響至深,直接導致了“隆慶初年,巡撫福建涂澤民題請開海禁,准販東西二洋。”20 至此,200年厲行的海禁壽終正寢,而在中國沿海活動的葡萄牙人是促成此種裂變的主要因素之一。無獨有偶,繼巴羅斯之後,葡萄牙文學史上最傑出的詩人卡蒙斯(Luís de Camões,又譯賈梅士)在其1572年初版的不朽史詩《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》(又譯《葡國魂》)中也涉及了中國的航海21:“馬丁斯用精通的阿拉伯語,半通不通與他們進行交談,獲悉有與我們一樣的大船,在此處海域上下往來航行,他們從日出之地遠遠而來,沿海岸駛向南方然後返回,他們所居之地有一種人民有同我們一樣的白晢膚色。”22這是1498年達伽馬的船隊在莫桑比克得到的消息。“他們從日出之地遠遠而來”顯然是指東方的中國。“沿海岸駛向南方然後返回”一語說明中國船隊曾沿著東非海岸南行至莫桑比克,然後返回。事隔幾代之後,鄭和航海的事跡仍在當地人中流傳並傳播給東來的葡萄牙人。看來,下西洋確實對南洋、印度洋以及後來的西方航海者產生過巨大的影響。葡萄牙人的航海大舶在當時的西方是最先進的,當他們得知“有與我們一樣的大船”,其內心的震撼可想而知。1590年在澳門以拉丁文出版的《日本遣歐使團》(De Misione Legatorvm Lapen)內,亦有對中國“航海”和“軍事藝術”的敘述:“除了這些機械和非自由職業的技藝外,還可補充兩項,即航海和軍事藝術。古代的中國居民對此最得心應手,因為華人曾航行至印度,征服了她的一些部分;之後,在減少其國家的軍隊之前,將他們分散到許多省,改變了看法並決定退避在國境之內。”23孟三德( Duar te Sande)和范禮安( Alesandro Valignano)在列舉了中國的“鑄炮術”、“火藥”和“印刷術”後,專門強調了“航海術”和“軍事藝術”。看來,兩位耶穌會會士十分推崇中國的航海及軍事技術而特別加以介紹,足見鄭和下西洋地位之崇高、影響之廣遠。《日本遣歐使團》是已知的在澳門印刷出版的第二部拉丁文著作,因此澳門又添加了一個“之最”的稱號:澳門是中國最早刊印涉及鄭和航海外語著作的地方。
500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析澳門研究144BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES賈梅士、孟三德和范禮安的著作雖未超出巴羅斯的水平,但考慮到他們曾在澳門逗留過,他們的信息還是有一定的價值,因為從實地核實了海外發現的“官史”。鄭和航海的偉大不是用華麗的詞藻堆砌的,葡萄牙史料中的這些細節記載比連串的形容詞更高級更具說服力。上述幾種資料的披露,直接導致了對現有幾種鄭和研究分期理論的探討。黃慧珍和薛金度於1985年最早提出:“第一時期:1904-1934年 第二時期:1935-1949年 第三時期:1950-1984年。”24在第一時期裏,兩位專家簡單涉及了西方歷史學家和漢學家研究鄭和的情況,認為“西方和日本學者研究鄭和比國人要早二、三十年。”25 將梅輝立(W. F. Mayers)1874年起發表的《十五世紀中國人在印度洋的探險》一文視為西方研究之始。2001年,黃宗真提出了更細的劃分:“這一百年來的鄭和研究分為兩大階段:第一階段從 1904-1949年,其中分為兩期,即 1904-1934年和1935-1949年。我認為第一期中可以包括英國人梅輝立(W. F. Mayers)於1874年在(中國評論)(英文)第三、四卷上發表的《十五世紀中國人在印度洋的探險》一文。因為他摘要介紹了黃省曾《西洋朝貢典錄》有關鄭和下西洋的部分史料,並對其中地名及民俗作了考證。他是西方研究鄭和的第一人。第二階段從1950-2000年,其中也分為兩期,即1950-1984年和1985-2000年。”262001年,時平在全面評述20世紀鄭和研究時,構思了“五個發展階段說”: “(一)鄭和研究的開拓階段(1904-1934年) (二) 對鄭和開拓專門研完並引向深入的階段(1935-1949年) (三) 鄭和研究廣泛展開和進一步深入研究階 段(1950-1982年) (四) 鄭和研究全面開展階段(1983-1997年) (五) 鄭和研究面向21世紀的創新時期(1998 年以後)。”27由此可見, 1985年,黃慧珍和薛金度在論述“第一時期:1904-1934年”只是簡單涉及了西方歷史學家和漢學家研究鄭和的情況,並未明確地將其列入這一時期。2001年,黃宗真發現了這個問題,於是明確地將西方的研究編入第一階段,而且作了一定的說明。這種分類不無牽強之感,因此時平作了不予涉及的處理。在談到《鄭和航海圖》研究時,他評述了西方和日本的有關研究,但謹慎地未將其歸入任何時期。我們認為,中國以外的研究不宜列入學界公認的從1904年開始的中國鄭和研究。外國的鄭和研究應該有自己的分期,16世紀開始的葡萄牙文獻應為其上限。只有對16-21世紀國際研 究 28 的情況進行大規模普查後,才能進行恰如其分的科學分期。總而言之,葡萄牙史料中的大量關於鄭和下西洋的記載,基本符合事實的分析,將鄭和研究的歷史提早了500年。這確鑿地說明了鄭和航海在世界上產生過重大的影響,葡萄牙及其他域外史料的重要性也不言而喻。在確鑿的文獻面前,英國人梅輝立“西方研究鄭和的第一人”這頂桂冠看來要讓給葡萄牙人巴羅斯了。無新史料便無史學的繁榮。21世紀的鄭和研究欲“寬頻化”,提升水平,看來努力發掘中外新史料是關鍵的關鍵,否則難免“老生常談”。更多域外史料的發掘與披露,定會將鄭和研究提升到一個單掘漢語文獻不可能達到的新水平。希望大家共同努力,將鄭和研究的國際化作為中國社科現代化的一項開拓性工作來認識、來實行。這大概也是鄭和研究的現實意義之一。二、鄭和卒因與下西洋中止的原因新探整個鄭和生平研究謎團處處,疑點重重。其生年,因無確鑿史料為據,尚未定論。而其卒年與卒地,因《非幻庵香火聖像記》的發現,被確定為“1433年4月初旬”“卒於古里國”。29 然而,對於卒因這個涉及鄭和身世的重大問題,多少年來國內外學者雖十分關注,探索不息,但尚無結論,仍為歷史疑案。本文欲比勘有關中外史料,對此問題進行新的探討,以求教於方家。關於鄭和的卒地,伯希和早年提出:“考鄭和第七次奉命通使南海之時,在1430年陰曆六月,以王景弘為副,他們歷經蘇門荅剌(Sumatra今作蘇門答臘)、忽魯謨斯(Ormuz)等國。30 乃考後來說到的費信足本《星搓勝覽》卷首所載旅行次數同經歷的
500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析澳門研究146BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES“無人質疑,如同倫巴第(lombardos)人在放棄了一切征服而退居和固守名為倫巴第(Lombardia)的地方認為是最佳的選擇那樣,華人的中國百物遠遠豐富過從所有島嶼和其他地方得來的一切,於是認為撤回並在自己的國家安享和平,不要再消耗,更不用說為了別人的東西征戰不絕 43 為一善政。於是,他們在陸地以那些城牆44 ,在海上以那些船隊閉關自守,只有在防止別人來騷擾他們或他們不騷擾別人的情況下,才訴諸武力。”45其次,雖然從表面上看來都是“動武”,但其目的大不相同。鄭和為了獲得和平,而西方發現者則完全為了征服。對此,著名的耶穌會史家鄧恩的評論可以說是脫離了一般偏見的真知灼見:“擴張主義的侵略狂熱和由擴張主義點燃了的推動西方世界的想像力,與晚明時代的中國是格格不入的。高漲的探險精神,對擴張帝國、對攫取權力、對追求榮譽、對聚斂財富的欲望和傳播天主教的熱情,驅使 西班牙和葡萄牙的航船遍佈到海洋的各個角落。歐洲人在每一處海岸登陸,急切地從征服到征服,以及滿足無止境的欲望,無休止地探險和掠奪,等等。對這種精神,中國完全是陌生的。”46葡萄牙史料披露了一次鮮為人知的鄭和船隊與古里國王的衝突事件。1501年夏季,第二次航行印度的葡萄牙人卡布拉爾船隊在返回里斯本時,攜帶了兩個克蘭加若爾(Cranganor)的異教徒,一個洗名若澤(José),另一個叫馬蒂亞斯(Matias)。後者在途中逝世。若澤是神甫,在里斯本向葡萄牙王室提供了一些印度及東方的情況。他逗留了六個月後,在別人的陪伴下前往羅馬和威尼斯,分別得到了教皇亞歷山大六世(Alexandre VI)及執政官羅倫達(Leonardo Lorenda)的接見。他1502年6月在威尼斯的敘述,經人整理後於1507年由蒙塔博多(Fracanzio da Montalboddo)以《印度人若澤論航行》(Iofephi Indi nauigationes)收入《重新發現的國度》(Paesi novamente retrovati)中在威尼斯刊行。次年,便在米蘭出現了拉丁語單行本,題為《葡萄牙人的航路》(Itinerari Portugall si )。該書後被收入《新地球》(Nouus Orbis),於1532年在巴塞爾初版,並同年之內在巴黎連續增印兩次。該書分別於1537年及1555年兩次再版並被譯為多種歐洲語言,廣為流傳。該書在涉及古里同“契丹”的商業聯繫時說:“印度的百貨在此匯集。以前契丹人在此貿易時尤甚。契丹人是基督徒,像我們一樣白,十分勇敢。 80或 90年前他們在古里內有一個特殊商站(eximie negociabantur)。古里王曾侮辱他們。一怒之下,他們集合了一支龐大的船隊來古里,摧毀了它。從那時至今,他們從未來此貿易,但他們到了一個屬於narfindo王 47 的名叫mailapetã48 的城市。該城沿印度河(indo flumine)東行1,090海浬(mille)可至。這些人名叫大之那人(malafines)。49 他們運輸來各種絲綢、銅、鉛、錫、瓷器及麝香,換取完全加工過的珊瑚50 及香料51。”52此處所稱“一隻龐大的船隊”無疑為鄭和船隊。時間上雖有差異,大致上可以推測到第七次下西洋。鄭一鈞稱:“據《前聞記》中的記載,鄭和船隊在出使途中到古里時,僅在古里停留了4天,而回國途經古里時,卻停留了9天,時間竟多了一倍多。而通觀《前聞記》全篇記載,當船隊離開某地(包括出使途中離開古里)時,都是僅寫‘開舡’兩字,唯獨三月二十日離開古里時,寫‘大笂 船回洋’,頗有一種莊嚴隆重的氣氛。這些異乎尋常之處,當與鄭和突然在古里逝世有關。”53“一支龐大的船隊”與“大 船”不是吻合嗎?鑒於漢語史料中無任何關於鄭和卒因的記載,聯繫這條域外史料,我們想大膽提出一個假設,希望史學界提供更多的史料及進行更深入的論證:鄭和死亡是否與此役有關?“三保下西洋,費錢糧數十萬 54,累民死且萬計,縱得奇寶而回,於國家何益?”55 鄭和有無可能是“死且萬計”之一?中國歷史上,遇有皇帝駕崩,主帥身亡,為穩定朝政,為穩定軍心,一般秘不發喪。鄭和之死會不會是此種情況?但回國後,應該發喪。可事實是沒有治喪。參加了最後之第七次航行的費信、馬歡和鞏珍三人都到過古里,可在他們三人傳世的著作中,竟然也對主帥的逝世地點及原因無任何涉及。這不能說不是咄咄怪事。應該說是比較可靠的《實錄》也隻字不提,想必有難言之隱。《明史》《鄭和傳》稱:“和經事三朝,先後七奉使,所歷占城、爪哇、
147500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析Vol. 262005. 2真臘、舊港、暹羅、古里、滿剌加、渤泥、蘇門答剌、阿魯、柯枝、大葛蘭、小葛蘭、西洋瑣里、瑣里、加異勒、阿撥把丹、南巫里、甘把里、錫蘭山、喃渤利、彭亨、急蘭丹、忽魯謨斯、比剌、溜山、孫剌、木骨都束、麻林、剌撒、祖法兒、沙里灣泥、竹步、榜葛剌、天方、黎伐、那孤兒,凡三十餘國。所取無名寶物,不可勝計,而中國耗廢亦不貲。自宣德以還,遠方時有至者,要不如永樂時,而和亦老且死。自和後,凡將命海表者,莫不盛稱和以誇外番,故俗傳三保太監下西洋,為明初盛事云。”56由“而和亦老且死”一語可知,至編寫《明史》時,無史料可援引加以確定,因而含混而語。既不知其卒地,更不知其卒因。可謂“實錄”不實,“明史”不明。《鄭氏家譜首敘》稱:“後又受命使三十餘國,止於王事,歸葬牛首山,賜祭田萬頃,詔以立功之處建立。”57 同治《上江兩縣志》云:“牛首山,太監鄭和墓。永樂中,命下西年,宣德初,復命,卒於古里,賜葬山麓。”58 從“歸葬”和“賜葬”二語,無法確定是鄭和的遺體還是骨灰“歸葬”。連世代相傳的家譜都如此含糊,更證鄭和遺體的下落是個歷史謎團。鄭和後人當時可能知道真實情況,但不宜寫入家譜傳世。連其卒地也是保留在《非幻庵香火聖像記》的碑文及兩本清朝的縣誌中才得以傳世,可見其卒地及其卒因受到了官方的徹底封鎖,給後世留下了一個巨大的歷史懸案。悲哉!一代偉人生不知時,死不知因。對於鄭和下西洋中止的原因的,若昂‧德‧巴羅斯的《亞洲旬年史之三》文中所分析的中止的原因不一定完全正確,但至少是16世紀中葉的看法。若昂‧德‧巴羅斯的這段論述後為克魯茲(Gaspar daCruz) 59、門多薩(J. G. de Mendoza) 60、魯塞納(João de Lucena)61 及曾德昭(Álvaro Semedo)62 等人多次引用,廣為傳播。尤其是門多薩的《中華大帝國史》為16世紀漢學暢銷書,有多種歐洲文字的刊本。若昂‧德‧巴羅斯因不知中國歷史和鄭和下西洋的戰略意義,將中國的任何域外軍事行動稱之為“東征西戰”,尤其是元蒙的洲際性擴張。從西方的觀點出發,他認為,各國朝貢是被征服的結果。若昂‧德‧巴羅斯關於鄭和下西洋結束的原因 ──“華人無意重蹈覆轍”的分析很有道理,但他不知道,“以海屏陸”正是永樂的雄才大略。若昂‧德‧巴羅斯認為,中國“在印度勞民傷財”。令人驚詫,這種觀點竟然與後來朝廷的反對派的論點如出一轍。“與四鄰兵戎相見”應該是指鄭和的那幾次軍事行動。“時有敗北”說明失敗乃兵家常事,但已知的漢語資料只有捷報。“人人從中國得益”顯然是指“厚往薄來”的朝貢貿易制度。這在以營利為目的而進行海外擴張的西方人看來,實在不可思議。“為何他們要流血征服他人之地”的疑問,也有一定道理。成祖不是死在北征途中?若昂‧德‧巴羅斯肯定,命令“華人重返家園,實行務實的防務”的仁宗皇帝是“一位賢明君主”。最後涉及的禁海令也完全符合歷史事實。既言“務實的防務”,我們是否也應該承認,下西洋也是一種“防務”?近10年來,鄭和研究的課題呈現多樣化趨勢,涉及下西洋軍事因素的論文日益增多 63,開始探討鄭和的海權思想及下西洋的戰略意義。 64 國家領土安全是一個民族最基本和最高的利益。永樂大帝通過親征漠北,以攻為守,鞏固了北疆,繼而通過“下東洋”,用朝貢貿易羈絆了日本,然後命令鄭和下西洋,安撫諸國,將他們切實納入朝貢貿易,這樣形成了一個北陸南海的有效防務體系,確保了國家的安全。這遠比尋找一個被趕下台的建文帝和尋覓海外奇珍異獸要重要的多,因此,我們認為,這個戰略意圖應該是鄭和下西洋的最根本的原因與目的。除了“以海屏陸”的因素外,是否可以將其視為傳統生存策略“遠交近攻”的一種實踐?這種“遠交”既有“交誼”,又有“交易”。“交誼”省去可能的征戰費用,“交易”互通有無,促進經濟。下西洋耗費百萬,但省下的錢、賺回的錢,如何計算?當在此數之上不知多少倍!朝貢貿易是別人送甚麼來,朝廷接受甚麼;下西洋是朝廷要甚麼,鄭和就尋找甚麼。這不是最早的國家對外貿易嗎?19世紀開始的較系統的西方鄭和研究的各位學者,包括伯希和,也未有若昂‧德‧巴羅斯如此切實、精闢的分析見解。葡萄牙史料對鄭和研究的重要性由此可見一斑。關於中國海外活動的各種情況,葡萄牙人是作為軍事、政治及經濟情報來搜集
500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析澳門研究148BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES與分析的,直接影響到他們海外擴張的政策與戰略部署,遠遠不同於19世紀以後的純學術研究,所以應該引起我們的高度重視,至少可以作為參考借鑑。我們在這裏披露上述史料的初衷僅僅是,鑒於漢語記載闕如,為鄭和卒因提供形成一新說的線索。既不是成說,更不是定說。這個問題的最終解決,恐怕還要等待更有力的新資料的發現。我們願與海內外學人一道,為最終揭開鄭和卒因及停下西洋之謎而繼續努力。附︰相關研究成果一覽1. Hierzu z. B. Walter Goode, On the Sanbao taijian xia xiyang-ji and Some of Its Sources (Canberra: Austra- lian National University, 1976) (博士論文)2. Roderich Ptak, Cheng Hos Abenteuer im Drama und Roman der Ming-Zeit: Hsia hsi-yang, eine bersetzung und Untersuchung; Hsi-yang chi, ein Deutungsversuch (Stuttgart, F. Steiner,1986) (專著)這是普塔克於 1984年獲得教授資格的論文,簡介可見[德]普 塔克著,張寬譯:《明代雜劇與小說中的鄭和 下西洋》,載於《文學研究參考》,1987年, 第4期,第29-30頁及錢江:《德國漢學家帕塔 克與中外關係史研究》,載於《中國史研究動 態》,1997年,第1期,第24-27頁。3. Haraprasad Ray, Trade and Diplomacy in India-China Relations: A Study of Bengal during the Fifteenth Century (New Delhi, Radiant Publishers, 1993)(專著) 見普塔克的書評:Haraprasad Ray: Trade and Diplomacy in India-China Relat ions: A Study of Bengal during the Fifteenth Century (New Dehli/ London,1993), in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1995), pp. 300-303. 4. Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: the Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne 1405-1433 (Simon and Schuster, 1994) (歷史小說,有漢譯,李露曄著,邱仲麟譯:《當中國稱霸海上》,台灣遠流公司,2000年,並有蘇明陽的書評:www.nm.ncku.edu.tw/personal/cjh/cheng-ho/su-r.txt)5. Fei Hsin, translated by J.V.G. Mills, revised, annotated and edited by Roderich Ptak, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan: The Overall Survey of the Star Raf (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1996) 6. António Pereira Cardoso, Navegações dos chineses (Lisboa, Academia de Marinha, 1996) (單行本論文)7. Dominique Lelièvre, Le dragon de lumière: les grandes expèditions des Ming aux dèbut du XVe siècle (Paris, Èditions France-Empire, 1996)(專著)有簡介:“法 國研究鄭和新著《龍之光》內容梗概”([法]勒列沃德著,韓旭譯:《鄭和研究》,1996年,第 2期,第54頁)。另見普塔克的書評:Dominique Le l ièv re , Le dragon de lumière : Les grandes expédi t ions des Ming au début du XVe s ièc le (Paris,1996), in Monumenta Serica, Vol.45 (1997), p p . 4 9 6 - 4 9 9 .8. Deng Gang, Chinese Mmari t ime Act iv i t ies and Socioeconomic Development, c. 2100 B.C.-1900 A.D. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1997) (專著, 部分章節涉及)9. Roderich Ptak, China and the Asian Seas: Trade, Trave l , and Vis ions o f the Other (1400-1750) (Aldershot; Brookfield, USA, Ashgate, 1998) (論文 集,收錄鄭和下西洋重要論文5篇)。10. Deng Gang, Maritime Sector, Institutions, and Sea Power o f Premodern China (Westpor t , Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1999) (專著,部分章節涉及)11. Rui Manuel Loureiro, Fidalgos, Missionár ios e Mandarins: Portugal e a China no Século XVI (Lisboa, Fundação Oriente, 2000)(專著,部分章節涉及)12. Pierre Gamarra, Vie et prodiges du grand amiral Zheng He (Paris, Mazarine, 2000)(長篇歷史小說)13. Haraprasad Ray, Trade and Trade Routes between India and China, c. 140 B.C.-A.D. 1500 (Kolkata: Pro- gressive Publishers, 2003) (專著)14. Roderich Ptak, China, the Portuguese, and the Nanyang: Oceans and Routes, Regions and Trades C. 1000-1600 (Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004)(論 文集,收錄鄭和下西洋重要論文1篇)值得一提的是,普塔克是當代歐洲著名漢學家之一,也是著作出身的中葡關係、澳門歷史學者。曾用漢語發表過比較中葡航海研究的論文(《中國明初與葡屬印度公司海上貿易制度
149500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析Vol. 262005. 2比較研究》,《鄭和‧歷史與現實──首屆鄭和研究國際會議集萃》,昆明鄭和研究會編,雲人民出版社, 1995年,第 52-70頁)。還最後審定、出版了《星槎勝覽》英文版 (Fei Hsin, translated by J.V.G. Mills, revised, annotated and edited by Roderich Ptak, Wiesbaden, Hsing-Ch’aSheng-Lan: The Overall Survey of the Star Raft(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1996)。此英譯有大量註釋和書目,很有參考價值。這是普塔克對世界漢學和鄭和研究的最大貢獻。建議國內翻譯此書和Ma Huan Ying-yai Shen-lan, translateda n d e d i t e d b y J . V. G . M i l l s . , “ T h e O v e r a l l Survey of the Ocean’s Shores” [1433], (Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, Extra SeriesNo. XLII, 1970)。從其發表的鄭和研究的論文質量與數量來看,他無愧當今西方最有成就的鄭和研究專家,代表了歐洲漢學鄭和研究的最高水準。據悉,他正在主持一個由歐洲多國學者參加的鄭和研究計劃,將出版論文集。他最新集子China, the Portuguese, and the Nanyang:Oceans and Routes, Regions and Trades (C. 1000-1600)中的首篇 “Ming Maritime Trade to SoutheastAsia, 1368-1567: Visions of a ‘System’ “ 為一力作,從宏觀的角度分析了明朝的東南亞海外貿易,將其分為5個時期。在第二及第三時期中重點論述了鄭和下西洋。Haraprasad Ray是印度漢學家,除了前引專著外,還有幾篇較有份量的論文: ”An Analysisof the Chinese Maritime Voyages into the Indian Ocean during the Early Ming dynasty and Their Raison d’être”, in China Report, Vol. 23, No.1 (1987) pp. 65-87; “The Eighth Voyage of the Dragon that Never Was, An Inquiry into the Causes of Cessation of Voyages duringthe Early Ming Dynasty”, in China Report, Vol.23, No.2 (1987), pp.157-178; “Bengal’s Texti le Products Involved in Ming Trade during Cheng Ho’s Voyages tothe Indian Ocean and Identification of the hitherto Undeciphered Textiles”, in Roderick Ptak & DietmarRothermund (eds.) , Emporia, Commodit ies and Entrepreneurs in Asian Maritime Trade, c.1400-1750 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1991), pp.81-94 and Francis A. Dutra & João Camilo dos Santos (eds.) “The Eastern Ocean and the Western Ocean-Chinese Involvement in the Geopolitics of the Pacific and the Indian Ocean Region Prior to the Advent of Portuguese Power”, in The Portuguese and the Pacific, I Proceedings of the International Colloquium on The Portuguese and the Pacific held at the University of California (SantaBarbara, October 1993), pp. 364-380. 澳大利亞漢學家Geoff Wade(韋傑夫)以研究《明實錄》為擅長。其博士論文The Ming Shi-lu as a Source for Southeast Asian History: Fourteenthto Seventeenth Centuries, unpublished PhD thesis (University of Hong Kong,1994)充分發掘了鄭和下西洋的史料。此外,他根據《明實錄》中的資料,發表了 “Ming China and Southeast Asia in the 15th Century: A Reappraisal”, paper presented at the Workshop on Southeast Asia in the 15th Century: The Ming Factor, Singapore, 1st-2nd May, 2003)一文。 繼之,又發表了 “The Pre-Modern East Asian Maritime Realm: An Overview of European-Language Studies”, paper originally presented at the symposiumon the occasion of the 10th Anniversary of Japanese Research Group of Marit ime Asian History, “The Potential of Maritime Asian History”, Naha, Okinawa, Japan, on 1st November, 2003,下載於:www.ari.nus.edu.sg/pub/wps2003/abs016.htm。此文所附的參考書目中包括最新的西方語言鄭和研究論文及書籍,很有參考價值。正在以英文撰寫鄭和研究專著的還有著名學者蘇明陽,書名為The Seven Grand Expeditionsof Zheng He: Facts, Fictions and Fabrications,預計今年年底出版。註釋:1 Roderich Ptak, China, the Portuguese, and the Nanyang: Oceans and Routes, Regions and Trades C. 1000-1600 (Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004), p.vii.2 下載於:http://www.npcnews.com.cn/gb/paper84/165/class008400003/hwz116942.htm3 J. M. Roberts, The New History of the World (Oxford University Press, 2003) p. 460.4 南京和北京的一些學者已有計劃開展這項工作。5 在附錄,我們開列了一些李約瑟以後的西方語言著作(以
500年前鄭和研究一瞥──兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析澳門研究150BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES 學術研究為主並按出版年代排列)。6 Gavin Menzies, 1421, The Year China Discovered the World (London: Bantam Press, 2002), p.520. 台灣繁體版:孟西士 (Gavin Menzies)著,鮑家慶譯:《1421:中國發現世 界》,遠流出版,2003年。大陸簡體版難產,據說作者 漫天要價,無一家出版社喫得消。關於對此書的評論, 可見蘇明陽編:《孟席思著 〈1421:中國發現世界〉中外評論集》,台灣,2003年。7 《紀念鄭和下西洋600週年海峽兩岸學術研討會論文 集》,第3頁。在香港城市大學中國文化中心舉辦的《鄭 和的世界.世界的鄭和──鄭和下西洋六百週年紀念研討 會》上還有人堅持說,目前還沒有人能駁倒孟氏的理 論,我們建議讀一讀中國鄭和研究公認的權威之一朱鑒 秋先生的《虛構的環球航行—評孟席斯〈1421〉的寶船隊 航線》一文及《孟席思著 〈1421:中國發現世界〉中外 評論集》。8 Kong Yuanzhi, Sam Po Kong dan Indonesia (Jakarta: Haji Masagung, 1993); Kong Yuanzhi, Muslim Tionghoa Cheng Ho: misteri perjalanan muhibah di Nusantara; penyunting, Hembing Wijayakusuma ; pengantar, Ali Yafie, Ed. 1 (Jakarta: Pustaka Populer Obor, 2000) and Kong Yuanzhi, Pelayaran Zheng He dan alam Melayu (Bangi: Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2000)9 《葡萄牙史料中所見鄭和下西洋之史實述略》及《1459年毛羅世界地圖考述》,載於金國平、吳志良:《東西望洋》,澳門成人教育學會,2002年;《〈1421年──中國發現世界〉中葡萄牙史源之分析》、《西方文獻中所見中國式帆船之龍骨及“鄭和寶船”之桅桿資料》、《鄭和船 隊冷、熱兵器小考》、《龍涎香是否可作船體塗料使 用?》、《“木蘭皮國”考》、《“巴喇西”與“吧兒西” 試考》及《鄭和航海的終極點──比剌及孫剌考》,載於 金國平、吳志良:《過十字門》,澳門成人教育學會, 2004年。10 除了本文所用資料,還有兩三種與本文主題關係不大的 史料,我們將另文發表。11 TERCEIRA Decada da Afia de Ioam de Barros,里斯本,1563 年,第46-46頁反面。12 王士性:《廣志繹》,北京:中華書局,1981年,第5頁。13 M. Ana de Barros Serra Marques Guedes, Interferência e integração dos portugueses na Birmânia ca 1580-1630 ( Lisboa, Fundção Oriente, 1994), pp.173-176.14 Maria da Conceição Flores, Os portugueses e o Sião no século XVI (Lisboa, Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses e Imprensa Nacional Casa da Moeda, 1995) , pp. 103-115.15 關於這個問題,請見金國平、吳志良:《鄭和船隊冷、 熱兵器小考》,載於《過十字門》,第378-393頁。16 楊繼波、吳志良、鄧開頌總主編:《明清時期澳門問題檔案文獻匯編》,中國第一歷史檔案館、澳門基金會、 暨南大學古籍研究所合編,北京:人民出版社,1999 年,湯開建主編第5卷,第234頁。17 同上註,湯開建主編第5卷,第86-87頁。18 同上註,第227頁。19 精彩的理論性論述,可見何芳川著:《澳門與葡萄牙大葡帆──葡萄牙與近代早期太平洋貿易綱的形成》,北京:北京大學出版社,1996年。另見萬明:《中葡早期關係史》,北京:社會科學文獻出版社,2001年,第 151-168頁。20 《明清時期澳門問題檔案文獻匯編》,湯開建主編第5 卷,第118頁。21 從文學作品比較中葡航海的論文可見Robert Finlay, “Portuguese and Chinese Maritime Imperialism: Camõe’s Lusiads and Luo’s Voyage of the San Bao Eunuch”, in Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.34, No.2 (1992), pp.225-241. 國內史學界一提“帝國主義”就緊張, 我們認為,大可不必“談虎色變”,且應該放棄對具有某種時代內涵的“帝國主義”的偏見。有帝國就有“帝國主義”。鄭和下西洋和平外交的基本原則就是“大明帝國” 的“主義”,或稱“大明帝國主義”,但不具有當今“帝國主義”的含義。22 路易斯‧德‧卡蒙斯︰《盧濟塔尼亞人之歌》,北京︰中國文聯出版公司,1995年,第227頁。23 Um tratado sobre o reino da China : dos padres Duarte Sande e Alessandro Valignano (Macau, 1590) / introd., versão portuguesa e notas de Rui Manuel Loureiro (Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau, 1992) , p. 49.24 《鄭和研究資料選編》,北京:人民交通出版社,1985 年,第4頁。25 同上註,第7頁。26 《鄭和研究》,2001年,第1期,第4-5頁。27 同上註,2001年,第2期,第3-8頁。28 《八十年來國內外關於鄭和研究的論著目錄》,載於《鄭和研究資料選編》,第459-520頁,對鄭和研究產生了很大影響,但亟待更新。29 鄭一鈞:《鄭和死於一四三三年》,載於《光明日報》,1983年3月16日。作者認為,鄭和在古里國去世後,船 隊經蘇門答臘、爪哇等地,因值盛夏,屍體無法保存, 就近葬在爪哇三寶壟完全有可能。更詳細的考證,可見 同一作者:《鄭和下西洋史事新證》,載於《鄭和研究》, 1986年,第2期,第7-12頁。30 見《明史》卷三四○,卷三二五,卷三二六。31 《明史》卷三二五。32 〔法〕伯希和著,馮承鈞譯:《鄭和下西洋考 交廣印度 兩道考》,北京:中華書局,2003年,第12頁。33 張維華主編:《鄭和下西洋》,北京:人民交通出版社,1985年,第59頁。34 葛曉康:《南京牛首山鄭和歸葬處之考證》,載於《鄭和研究》,2003年,第l號,總第52期,第43頁。35 謝方早有此種觀點,見《鄭和生卒年歲考》,載於《鄭和研究》,1994年,第4期,第6頁。36 寧宇:《詩情的鄭和墓》,載於《鄭和研究》,1998年,第2期,第56-57頁。37 至於目前的鄭和墓究竟是不是鄭和的葬地還有爭論,參 見《金陵晚報》所載《鄭和墓?還是衣冠塚?業內學者多爭議》,2004年3月23日,下載於: www.js.chinanews.com.cn/2004-03-23/1/34402.html38 莊為璣:《明下西洋鄭和、王景弘兩正使的卒事考──兼談鄭和的宗教觀》,載於《鄭和研究》,1987年,第5期,第7頁。39 埋葬海外各說詳見莊為璣,前引文,第6-7頁。40 《明太祖實錄》,卷六十八,引自張維華,前引書,第20頁。41 《明史》,北京:中華書局,1974年,第7,767頁。42 比較有代表性的人物是印度漢學家Haraprasad Ray。其中 “The Eastern Ocean and the Western Ocean-Chinese Involvement in the Geopolitics of the Pacific and the Indian Ocean Region Prior to the Advent of Portuguese Power” in The Portuguese and the Pacific, University of California (Santa Barbara, 1993), pp. 364-380一篇,對1406年“入侵”安南、舊港擒拿陳祖義、錫蘭山之役、蘇門答臘平亂有較多的敘述評論。43 可能是指元朝對中國周邊國家失敗的出征。44 長城。45 魯塞納(João de Lucena):《沙勿略神甫生平》,里斯本,1989年,第4卷,第180頁。46 〔美〕鄧恩著,余三樂、石蓉譯:《從利瑪竇到湯若望──晚明的耶穌會傳教士》,上海古籍出版社,2003年,第9頁。47 為當時統治滿剌加的三佛齊的Narasimha的訛音。參見格林利(William Greenlee)著,多利亞譯(António Álvaro Dória):《卡布拉爾巴西及印度之行》,波爾圖,1951年,
澳門通洋貿易與廣州黃埔設港的關係澳門研究154BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES明白曉諭知之。”9乾隆的本意是為了防止洋船和洋人深入內地,試圖從調整稅率 手以限制,但執行的結果卻並不理想。因為外商重點購置的生熟蠶絲,綢緞等貨物本來就產自浙江,而茶葉、瓷器則多出自江蘇和福建,從商業產銷規律和減少轉口運輸成本考慮,亦為逃避粵海關官吏衙役嚴重的陋規勒索,外國商船仍不在乎徵稅偏重,依然駛向松、寧、泉三口岸,申請在當地繳稅卸貨和收購商品。針對這樣的情況,乾隆皇帝轉而作出強制性的規定,從二十三年(1758)開始,頒旨禁止洋船再入江、浙、閩交易。為此諭令兩廣總督:“檄行(澳門)海防同知並香山知縣及稅口委員等,令其傳集番商當面明白曉渝,嗣後商船遵照向例,俱在廣東收泊,聽其自擇行戶照常貿易。如再至浙省,定必押回粵東,徒勞往返,致誤時日。並將所諭抄錄,持回該國,遍諭眾商遵照。”10使用強制押送回廣州的斷然措施,在一定時期內,確實收到如期的效果。在當時,清朝政府即使對於來自外國的重要使節也不稍予遷就。乾隆五十八年(1793),英國派遣規模龐大以馬戛爾尼為首的使團訪問中國。該使團是一個承擔有在政治上試探開拓殖民主義和要求擴大開放通商渠道的組織,馬戛爾尼等在北京時即代表英國國王遞交了致乾隆帝的表文,提出了要求在天津、浙江、寧波等處增設關口以通貿易,還請求“賞給”寧波附近的珠山小海島一處和廣東省城附近地方一處給他們居住,允准使臣和英商長駐北京等等。乾隆認為所有要求都是“越例干瀆,斷不可行”。在使團離京前,便發佈了《所提增設關口及在京行商等七款不便允准事致英國王敕書》,一一予以駁回。中英這次交往是18世紀中外關係中最重大的歷史事件,其實質是兩種制度,兩種文明的撞擊。乾隆還為此專門頒發諭旨, 令浙江、江蘇的督撫大吏們嚴格監督,在英國貢船途經淮安、楊州、蘇州等處時,“飭知各該地方官,嚴禁商民不許與貢使私相買賣”。11 當英國使團又提出,請求在途經寧波時,將所有攜帶來的洋貨,就近用以貨易貨的方式換購茶葉絲斤等,這無疑是借以突破清朝將對外貿易合併於廣州一口的規定,企圖開一先例。乾隆帝對此立即斷然駁回,專門下諭給欽派陪同英國使團南下,負責監督其在沿途活動並禮送出境的戶部侍郎松筠。據稱,貢使以銀兩無多,欲將洋貨在彼兌換茶葉絲斤,經松筠以寧波地方向無洋行,無從交易,應赴澳門、黃埔,將貨交易,自應如此辦理。浙江向無洋行,亦不值為伊等特調粵省洋行之人遠赴浙省也。12這就是說,堅持英國使團的船隊在辦理完所謂“朝覲”等官方事務後,對於附帶來的貿易貨物,則必應遵從規章,俟船隊回航到澳門,辦理好一應手續之後才准再進入黃埔,遵章交易,並未因它具有官方使團的身份而得優免。馬戛爾尼使團在其訪華過程中,確實是一再借用各種理由,相繼提出各種新問題和新要求,企圖逐一突破清朝有關貿易和防備的規定,而清朝自皇帝以下沿途督撫、將軍大臣等,則是處處設防,不敢稍存疏懈。除了禮儀方面的事務外,對一切帶實質性的問題幾乎全予駁回。使團臨離境途經浙江時,又試探地提出,可否允准奉命護送船隊來貨的軍艦(英使團初含糊稱之為大船,繼又稱之為戰船)進入黃埔,欽差松筠和剛奉諭升任兩廣總督的長麟等磋商後,一方面飛馳上奏;另一方面,則決定由長麟提前赴任,搶在英國使團到達澳門之前抵達廣州密為籌措,防範英艦闖入,再由松筠當面諭告英使,不准其軍艦進入黃埔。雙方會談情況如下:(英使)稱:“我等由浙江定海乘坐原船回國,將來順便還要到廣東澳門口岸,看我國在彼貿易之人,不知可不乘坐大船到黃埔地方否?”(松筠)答諭:“澳門口岸是爾等向來貿易之地,爾等原可前往。至黃埔地方,大船亦不能去,例上亦不准去,所稱斷乎不可。”13乾隆收到松筠不准英艦進入黃埔駁詞和所作部署的奏折後,在奏折中的不同段落一再朱批:“是”、“甚好”、“妥當之極”、“所稅覽之”等14,表示完全同意。松筠在接奉到上引朱批後,又瞭解到英方前稱的所謂“大船”,其實是“戰船”。因此,在接見英使時,進一步指出:“大戰船一隻自不應到黃埔停泊,所有貿易船隻,原系照例准往,嗣後戰船仍不准去。”15 英使在一再碰壁之後,只好“點頭凜遵”,悻悻而去。原來早在19世紀末葉,中英雙方都已意識到,在錢貨交易的背後,在有關禮
澳門通洋貿易與廣州黃埔設港的關係澳門研究156BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES信他們一再表白過的“甘為外藩,代守疆士”等美好言詞,認為當時的清葡關係是海靜無波,一切都是和睦融洽的,事實並非如此。因為在這些甘言諛詞掩蓋下,澳葡有些上層人士,曾經持續在其內部醞釀和採取過對抗和破壞,總是企圖恢復回他們在明末清初時期擁有過的豐厚利潤和海上霸權。中葡在澳門海洋貿易與廣州黃埔設港之間,一直就是存在 矛盾和利益衝突的。明乎此,就比較易於理解,為甚麼在1840年中英爆發鴉片戰爭,當清政府戰敗以後,葡萄牙當局便馬上改變臉譜,反恭為倨,緊隨西方列強之後,向中國諸多凌辱和訛詐。至於葡萄牙當局雖遵從葡王之命,在澳門設置過“稅館”,但由於中外商人,包括葡商在內,都沒有人向它納稅,因葡方稅館發的稅單不過是廢紙一線,對與中國貿易是完全無效的,這樣的“稅館”只能有疾而終,關門了事。直到乾隆晚期,從澳門偷運鴉片及其他違禁品進入中國國境,仍然要受到重刑嚴懲,澳葡縱容的歹徒不能不稍加收斂。在當時,不論葡萄牙的國王諭示或神父建議,都無法得逞。為甚麼出現這樣的格局,主要是因為清朝在其前期仍然是一個強盛的國家,中葡之間國力懸殊,葡萄牙當局不得不接受現實,不得不在表面上服從清方頒行的一系列有關措施,就連那位亞歷山大吉馬良神父也只好無奈地哀鳴道:“在澳門,中國皇帝掌握 全部權力,而我們一無所有”,“他是澳門的直接主人,澳門向他交納地租銀,而我們只有管理權:這塊土地不是奪取來的,連我們的居住權也不牢固”。 26 這說明,國力強大就具有外國不敢輕犯的鎮懾力,黃埔開港後之能長期正常運轉並日漸繁榮興旺,之能夠有效抗禦外國的干擾,最關鍵的原因就在這裏。還必須鄭重地注意到,在清朝廣東地區的高級文武官員中,對於是否應該在黃埔開港,並用以取代澳門作為華洋貨物聚散中心地位的做法,也是存在過不同意見的,最典型的是,從雍正十年(1732)到乾隆二年(1737)之間,曾發生過較為尖銳的政策爭論,為時將達5年之久。兩方均堅持己見分別上奏,最後才由乾隆皇帝拍板裁定,堅持仍以黃埔作為唯一洋港。爭論是從雍正十年七月間,由廣東右翼鎮總兵李維揚首先提出的,他上奏說:“外洋商艘從前皆在虎門停泊,迨康熙五十年間移入番禺縣之黃埔,距省城僅三四十里,其早晚操演銅鐵大炮,省會之地,大非所宜,請飭令仍在虎門海口灣泊。”27雍正閱奏後批示, 署理廣東總督鄂彌達核查回奏。當時的鄂彌達和署理廣東巡撫楊永斌是明確表示過支持李維揚意見的,並請求盡迅恢復以澳門作為貨物中轉中心的舊制,曰:“臣等查得虎門所屬,巨海汪洋,風濤甚險,其口外口內,皆不可長久灣泊。若現在夷船停泊之黃埔,實系逼近省城,一任夷商揚帆直入,早晚試炮,毫無顧忌,未免駭人聽聞。該鎮臣所奏之言,實有可採。……臣等仰請聖恩,請自雍正癸丑年(按,即十一年)為始,凡各外國夷船,仍照舊例在澳門海口拉青角地方,與西洋澳夷船隻一同灣泊,所有往來貨物,即用該澳小船搬運……如此,則內地防範周密,夷船亦無漂泊之虞矣。”28 僅以洋船在黃埔演炮可能造成干擾,便因此建議仃開黃埔,轉歸回由葡人管治的澳門承擔廣州外港職任的舊制,所持論據是十分單薄的。雍正並沒有輕率地批准李維揚及鄂彌達等人的建議,又飭令“九卿會議具奏”。29 黃埔問題,逐第一次成為高級國務會議的議題。討論一經深入,便顯露出,是否規定外國商船一律灣泊黃埔,接受監管,絕不僅是甚麼演炮干擾的問題,本質上是管理外貿權力誰屬的問題。雍正十一年(1733)三月,兼管粵海關稅務的廣州左翼付都統毛克明便有針對性地上奏列舉事實,堅持仍應以黃埔為通洋港口,反對移回到葡管的澳門去。曰:“查廣東黃埔地方……灣泊外來洋人船隻,自康熙二十四年間經前監督宜爾格圖等議定奏准,迄今四十餘年遵行罔替,相安無事……如各洋人凡遇節令喜慶,及船隻往回口岸之際,必演炮數通,以宣揚利市。奴才等任事以來,即令通事諭禁,不許在內河放炮,彼等俱帖然遵守……”30可見,演炮問題不難解決,李維揚等的論據已不復存在。毛克明還有理有據地提出,將洋船移泊澳門之十字門,極有損於中方對外商經營貿易的監管和不利於徵收國稅,相反,卻極有利於國內外歹
委黎多《報效始末疏》──一份新發現的澳門早期歷史文獻澳門研究170BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES朝見犒賞,以示優厚,餘依議行,欽此欽遵”,複蒙賜宴圖形,銃師獨命峨等,在京製造火藥、銃車,教練選鋒,點放俱能彈雀中的。部堂戎政科道等衙門,悉行獎勵,隨蒙兵部題請,複蒙恩護送南還,諮文稱:“各夷矢心報國,一腔赤膽朝天,藝必獻精,法求盡效,激烈之氣可嘉,但寒暑之氣不相調,燕粵之俗不相習,不堪久居於此,應令南歸,是亦柔遠之道也!”給劄優異,複與腳力回嶴,許多等子民一視,咸切感戴,且聞天啟五年寧遠城守大銃奏功,多等報效微忱,於斯少驗,豈期天啟七年紅毛結連內賊,複來犯嶴報仇,多等又自備船隻出外打退,焚燒賊船一隻,生擒紅賊三十二人,溺水者不計,解送軍門,報功卷案證。續聞呂宋、滿刺加等處商船報稱,紅夷盤據北港大灣,離福州海面三百里,築城建台,造載大銃大船四十號,候風犯嶴,漸及中土,在在告急,隨該多等申飭防禦外,茲崇禎元年七月內,蒙兩廣軍門李逢節奉旨牌行該嶴,取銃取人,舉嶴感念天恩,歡欣圖報,不遑內顧,謹選大銅銃三門,大鐵銃七門,並鷹嘴護銃三十門,統領一員公沙‧的西勞,銃師四名伯多祿‧金荅等,副銃師二名結利窩裏等,先曾報效到京通官一名西滿‧故未略,通事一名屋臘所‧羅列弟,匠師四名若盎‧的西略等,駕銃手十五名門會 等,傔伴三名幾利梭黃等,及掌教陸若漢一員,系該嶴潛修之士,頗通漢法,諸凡宣諭,悉與有功,遵依院道面論,多等敦請管束訓迪前項員役,一併到廣,驗實起送,複蒙兩廣軍門王尊德遣參將高應登解銃,守備張鵬翼護送,前來報效,伏乞皇上俯念遠人兩次進銃進人微功,並前次多番功績,懇求皇恩收錄忠勤,一視如內地赤子,感戴綏柔,莫大德澤,倘蒙不鄙末技,或有任委,敢不承順,謹令統領公沙·的西勞代控愚衷,仰祈聖明鑒察,臣不勝激切待命之至。崇禎元年九月十五日具本,三年正月十七日奏聞,二十二日奉聖旨:“知道了,該衙門知道”。4這份署名“委黎多”的《報效始末疏》全文1,355字(不含標點符號),應是目前所見最早的一份澳門葡萄牙人對明廷所上的中文奏章,也是第一份向明廷匯報澳門開埠及澳門葡人與明廷早期關係的最為詳細的中文文獻。《報疏》完成的時間是“崇禎元年(1628年)九月十五日”,正式上奏的時間是“崇禎三年(1630年)正月十七日”。該疏是由澳門葡人公沙‧的西勞(Gonzalves Teixeira)統率葡人銃師進京時代上的,即疏中言:“謹令統領公沙‧的西勞代控愚衷”。與此疏同時上奏的還有耶穌會士陸若漢(Jean Rodriguez Tuzzu)的《貢銃效忠疏》。5澳門議事亭委黎多藉崇禎元年(1628年)給明朝皇帝進獻西銃西兵之機上了一封長達一千三百餘字的奏疏,曆陳澳門葡人報效明朝的赤膽忠心及事蹟。作為17世紀葡萄牙帝國仍處於發展勢頭的海外擴張據點之一的澳門自治政權──為甚麼會出現這樣一份向明朝表忠心的文件,我認為是有其歷史背景的。葡萄牙人在明武宗正德年間來華,一直試圖在中國沿海尋找一貿易據點,以發展其對遠東地區的貿易。經過近40年的努力,葡人通過幫助明朝政府驅海盜,進龍涎香及收買中國政府官員等手段,終於於嘉靖三十六年(1557年)獲得廣東地方政府的允肯,得以入住澳門。葡萄牙人入住澳門後,建立了以澳門為中心通往日本、菲律賓及東南亞地區的貿易網路,獲得了巨大的商業利潤。雖然葡萄牙人在澳門的居住是獲得廣東政府的同意,甚至是中國政府的默許,萬曆十年(1582年),在葡萄牙人定居澳門20餘年後,澳門葡人代表還通過送禮的辦法,獲得廣東最高地方官兩廣總督陳瑞的親口承諾:“殖民地的一切將均可照舊,但是要屬中國官員管轄。”6 但是,這一居住權始終沒有這個政府給予法理上的保障,即中國政府始終沒有同葡萄牙人簽署一個正式的檔或頒佈一個正式的公文,將葡萄牙人入住澳門合法化。正是這一原因,居澳葡人始終有兩大隱患:一是正因為葡人居澳尚缺乏中國政府具有法律效應檔的保障,葡人的居澳權就具有很大程度的臨時性和不穩定性。因此,一旦中國政府內部反對葡人居澳派佔上風,驅趕葡人出澳就有可能變成現實,如嘉靖四十四年(1565年)間,俞大猷提出要全力驅逐葡人 7;萬曆三十三年(1605年)盧兆龍提出“盡逐澳中諸番出居浪白外海” 8;萬曆四十一年(1613年)郭尚賓提出“令夷人盡攜妻子離澳”9;二是繼西、葡後起的海上強國荷蘭開始其遠東貿易,對葡萄牙人入居澳門後所獲海外貿易的巨大商業利潤十分眼紅,希望能在澳門將葡萄牙人取而代之。從1601年到1627年,先後多次進攻澳門,雖然未得手,但奪取澳門的野心於荷蘭人則始終沒有泯滅。
委黎多《報效始末疏》──一份新發現的澳門早期歷史文獻澳門研究172BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES號“神威”。臣等不直陳大銃戰守事宜,有負皇上九重鑒知,有虛臣等遠來報效。臣念本嶴貢獻大銃,原來車架止堪城守,不堪行陣。如持此大銃保守都城,則今來大銃六位,並前禮部左侍郎徐光啟取到留保京都大銃五位,聽臣等相驗城台對照處,措置大銃得宜,仍傳授點放諸法,可保無虞。如欲進剿奴巢,則當聽臣等另置用中等神威銃及車架,選練大小鳥銃手數千人,必須人人皆能彈雀中的。仍請統以深知火器大臣一員、總帥一員,臣等願為先驅,仰仗天威,定能指日破虜,以完合澳委任報效至意。臣等啣感德澤,不覺言之及此。伏乞皇上俯察貢銃效用微忠,並悉大銃戰守事宜。敕下該部,立覆施行。別有貢獻方物,因聞陸路亟行,尚留濟甯地方,容到日另疏進呈。臣等不勝惶悚待命之至。崇禎三年正月十七日奏聞,二十二日奉聖旨:嶴夷遠來效用,具見忠順,措置城台,教練銃手等項,及統領大臣,著即與覆,行該部知道。 15如果說,以“委黎多”的名義上奏《報疏》其立場是代表澳門議事會的話,則陸若漢所上《貢銃效忠疏》其立場是代表澳門耶穌會。1628年時,陸若漢已經67歲高齡,而當時耶穌會巡視員班安德(Andre Parmeiro)還同意陸氏參加這次遠征,不外乎是希望通過極富外交經驗與才幹的陸若漢改善耶穌會教士同中國政府的關係 16,亦想通過貢銃之舉代表耶穌會向中國皇帝表示效忠,在疏中反覆強調耶穌會教士從利瑪竇起,“身親天朝豢養弘恩,其所以圖報皇上者,已非一日;”“天朝信任寵賚臣等,何如深厚!”“臣等啣感德澤,不覺言之及此,伏乞皇上俯察貢銃效用微忠。”其主要目的就是要說服崇禎帝在中國內地開放自由傳教。因為,自萬曆四十四年(1616年)“南京教案”爆發後,於當年十二月二十八日頒佈禁教令,南北兩京西教士首被驅逐,並“要打擊全國的基督教,一舉全殲”。17 萬曆四十八年,徐光啟、李之藻、楊廷筠、孫元化這一批具有天主教背景的官員集團開始制定一個新的計劃,即通過從澳門輸入西銃西兵加強明朝對外作戰的軍事能力,解決當時朝廷東北邊境的燃眉之急。與此同時,還有一個目的就是“乃欲同時招致教士也。”18 如果澳門進獻西銃西兵成功,不僅“大有利於國家,尤能為教會樹大功。”19 除此之外,徐光啟集團不遺餘力地輸入西銃西兵,招致西方傳教士,引進西方實用科技力量及西方宗教勢力對中國的影響而強化與穩固自身集團在明宮中的日漸重要的地位。這一當時在文獻中未予表露的語言,應是萬曆四十八年制訂這一套新計劃的另一目的。而澳門議事會及耶穌會中國傳教區也希望通過進獻西銃西兵,引進西方科學技術來幫助明廷抵禦外侮,加強以徐光啟為首的天主教集團的政治地位,以致影響明朝皇帝對澳門及天主教的政策,在明廷中尋求一勢力強大的政治保護傘,以保澳門的穩定及天主教在中國的迅速發展,這是一個一石數鳥、予惠多方的良策。曾德昭(Alvaro Semedo)《大中國志》稱:自從頭一次南京迫害以來,到這時已過了六、七個年頭,而韃靼人向中國人進行了殘酷的戰爭,不僅打敗了他們的幾支軍旅,還攻佔了他們在遼東的若干地方:他們不知如何制止敵軍的入侵。不管怎樣,神父竭力想法在中國出現,公開露面,按北京來函的意見做。但他們是被皇帝的詔令驅逐。他們發現在這件事上有不小的困難。不過,基督徒們和我們的博士朋友們決定撰寫一份奏疏,利用和韃靼人打仗的事及中國人遇到的困境,上呈皇帝,首先談戰爭的災害、他們所受的傷亡損失、喪城失地,花費無數錢財和喪失人馬,未能在多年時間裏避免或制止那場戰禍。其次,他們指出驅逐歐洲神父所犯的錯誤,神父們有德行、學識,是能勝任大事的人,此外他們也是精通數學的人,無疑地在國家面臨困難時有秘方奇策供他們優先採用,如果神父們如以往一樣仍在朝廷,他們有能力使形勢得到好轉。最後,他們稱,神父們或許尚未全部離開,那麼多的人不能經過許多秘密險道走出這個大國,陛下最好下旨在全國進行認真的尋找,以便發現仍有留下的神父,遣往朝廷,那麼他們可以在此戰爭之際為陛下效勞。20曾德昭所指“我們的博士朋友們”應指徐光啟、李之藻這一批已成為天主教徒的明廷官員。徐、李集團的新計畫初步奏效,奏章上達天啟帝後:皇帝立即贊同,把它轉交兵部,兵部不僅支援這個計劃,還補充說,他們深信,神父們以其數學技藝,將能迷惑韃靼人,令敵人不能用武裝攻擊他們。於是兵部很快下令,盡可能積極尋求神父們,但這不需費力就找到他們。……當時住在南方的總監羅若(如)望(Jean de Rocha)神父很快得到皇帝詔令
173委黎多《報效始末疏》──一份新發現的澳門早期歷史文獻Vol. 262005. 2的消息,還要他派兩名神父去北京。很難想像在神父們和其餘基督徒中引起的歡樂,他們知道,神父們公開返回中國傳佈福音,這是最確定的途徑,他們可以如前一樣享有自由。龍華民神父和陽瑪諾(Emmanuel Diaz Junior)神父被提名作這次旅行。 21據何大化(Antóne de Gouvea)《遠方亞洲》記載,在天啟元年(1621年)九月十日之前,兩廣總督接到北京的命令後,即派人入澳索要傳教士進京:接總督諭,內稱接北京兵部命令及內府總管私函轉有玉璽的聖旨,命令向該城諸官索要100名精兵及數名優秀炮手及文士(傳教士)。他們是當年在華大名鼎鼎的利瑪竇同伴,他們無罪,但被驅逐出國。召上述眾人進京,為皇上效力。我立即執行此令。22中文文獻雖然沒有明確指出天啟帝允許“神父們公開返回中國傳佈福音”的記載,但有些奏章中已透露出這一相同的資訊。李之藻天啟元年的奏章中稱:如果臣言可採,伏乞聖明俯允,敕下兵部復議停妥,馬上差人填給勘合,一面前往廣信府查將原寄大銃四門,督同張燾陸路押解來京:一面前往廣東賚文制按衙門,轉行道府,招諭前項善能製造點放夷目諸人,仍前赴京報效;及將陽瑪諾神父,一面出示招徠,以廣群策。23兵部尚書崔景榮天啟元年五月的疏章則稱:惟是諸嶴之素所信服者,西洋陪臣陽瑪諾、畢方濟(Françios Sambiasi)等,皆博涉通綜,深明度數,並飭同來,商略製造。24明廷通過兵部直接調西洋傳教士陽瑪諾、畢方濟進京,完全可以說明萬曆四十四年(1616年)頒佈的禁教令已經解禁,神父們已開始獲得“公開返回中國傳佈福音”允許。但天啟二年進京的不是陽瑪諾和畢方濟,而是陽瑪諾與龍華民。此事在衛匡國(Martin Mareini)的《韃靼戰紀》亦有記載:兩個可尊敬的基督教士保羅(應譯作保祿,指徐光啟)和蜜雪兒(應譯作彌額爾,指楊廷筠)設法勸說皇帝向澳門的葡萄牙人借用更大的火炮和更多的炮手,希望借此使被驅逐的基督教神甫回來恢復傳教。他們的建議產生了效果。兩人被派往澳門。神甫們可以公開傳教了。25明廷對天主教的寬容與開放使久經教禁的基督徒們剛剛喘過一口氣,然而,天啟二年(1622年)五月,“白蓮教起義,沈 之黨即誣天主教與白蓮教同,又請朝廷禁傳。”26 這時天主教的死對頭沈 由於與當朝宰相方從哲“相善”,官升禮部尚書,兼東閣大學士,又與太監魏忠賢勾結,權傾朝野。一方面在政治上不斷攻擊徐光啟的所作所為,另一方面又唆使其黨徐如訶、餘懋孳等誣陷天主教與白蓮教同,並指控徐光啟、楊廷筠、李之藻為邪教魁首。在這種情況下,徐光啟被迫辭職,李之藻被調出北京到南京任職,次年告歸 27,入中國內地自由傳教希望遂又破滅。巴篤裏(Daniello Bartoli)《中華耶穌會史》稱:葡人除炮手之外,一概不許入境。時有教士十二人又準備偕葡軍同來,以便分赴各省成立新教區。至是,遂被剔除。28這一次教禁時間不長,前後只有幾個月時間。但是卻給耶穌會傳教士一個警醒,在中國傳教,如果沒有明廷上層強大的政治勢力的支持和保護的話,欲求天主教在中國的發展是不可能的。因此,崇禎三年代表耶穌會向崇禎皇帝上的“效忠疏”其目的就是要獲中國最高統治者的接受與認可,獲得自由傳教在中國內地的切實保障。應該說,這一次耶穌會的貢銃效忠取得效果非常良好。巴篤裏書載:中國教會因彼(指龐類思Louis Gonzalez及鄧玉函J. Terrenz)之死所受之損失,賴本年(1630年)十月日五教士之來華,得一部分補償。其中義大利籍者二人,即P. T. Grassetti(謝貴祿)與P. P. Canevav(聶伯多);葡萄牙籍者一人P. B. de Mattos(林本篤);法蘭西籍者一人P. E. Fevre(方德望);弗拉芒籍者一人P. M. Trigaule(金彌格,乃金尼格之侄)。彼等之入境也,不如以往之須採用秘密方式,乃系公然而行,且不衣葡裝,蓋其時澳門適有大炮十尊進呈明帝之舉,教士輩遂受其惠。29當時記錄此事的曾德昭稱:通往福音之門打開了,歸化異教徒之路平整,上帝鼓勵我們做的事業沒有遇到阻力和對抗。30同時,以徐光啟為首的天主教官員集團的政治勢力大增,崇禎三年,徐光啟升禮部尚書,崇禎五年又兼任東閣大學士,入內閣辦事。 31在徐氏的舉薦與保護下:從此教士寄居京師,奉有明文。其他居各省之
委黎多《報效始末疏》──一份新發現的澳門早期歷史文獻澳門研究174BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES傳教士,亦得有所庇蔭。中國開教之基,乃愈鞏固。32這就是崇禎三年澳門議事會與澳門耶穌會同時給崇禎皇帝上“效忠疏”的另一重要背景。三從《報疏》表述的內容看,主要是敘述葡萄牙人從正德年間入華,嘉靖年間居澳,直至崇禎年間向明朝進獻西銃西兵等事,時間跨 120年。可以說,是葡人入華後自己撰寫的一部中葡關係第一個百年史,也是葡人自己撰寫的第一部澳門早期開埠史。而這部明代中葡關係史和澳門早期開埠史,一是來自於葡人自述;二是用中文撰寫而成;三是這部歷史是要呈報明朝宮廷的。當時的澳門議事會正是要向明朝政府表示其“矢心報國,一腔赤膽”,所以,我們應該相信,在這種情況下,澳門葡人自述其報效明朝的各項事實應是真實的。他們決不敢當 明朝政府的面來自編謊言欺瞞與他們打了百餘年交道的明政府。故我們對《報疏》史料記錄之真實及其史料價值之高是可予以完全信賴的。綜觀《報疏》的全部內容,我們可以將其分為四個大的部分:第一部分敘述了葡萄牙人入華及葡萄牙人居澳後,明朝政府對來華或居澳葡人的早期政策,包括中葡貿易的關稅,對居澳葡人授廛資糧,對來華貿易葡人開放廣州市場等問題,同時還記錄了許多葡萄牙人向明朝表示效忠的態度和語言。第二部分敘述了來華葡萄牙人在廣東海上幫助明朝政府剿滅海盜諸問題,包括嘉靖年間剿除阿媽賊;隆慶年間剿滅曾一本,萬曆年間協剿逃至柬埔寨的林道乾及天啟年間擊滅海盜謝天佑等。第三部分敘述了居澳葡人與早期來華荷蘭人的關係,包括天啟二年荷蘭人進攻澳門慘敗,天啟七年荷蘭人封鎖澳門被葡人擊退及其後荷蘭人準備犯澳之史實。第四部分敘述了明廷天主教集團官員徐光啟、李之藻與澳門議事會、澳門耶穌會合作從萬曆四十八年到崇禎三年輸入西銃西兵的全過程。其中包括萬曆四十八年天主教集團私自入澳門購炮4門,天啟元年葡人主動進獻紅夷炮26門,天啟二年入澳招募銃師24人,及崇禎元年招募葡兵32人及西銃40門等史實。可以看出,這一部早期葡人自述百年史,內容豐富,史實詳細,其中有許多史實與細節均為現存之中文文獻所缺或語焉不詳。《報疏》這一部新發現的極為重要的中文文獻,其中所反映的內容,既可以增加許多明代中葡關係及澳門早期歷史文獻缺載的史實,還可以糾正以往研究中的許多訛誤。如果將《報疏》同明人撰寫的各《佛郎機傳》相比,它晚於黃佐、嚴從簡、蔡汝賢、熊明遇的《佛郎機傳》,而早於陳仁錫、茅瑞征的《佛郎機傳》33,以上六傳均記事至澳門開埠前,而《報疏》記錄文字均為澳門開埠後的中葡關係及澳門歷史。《明史.佛郎機傳》是明代史料中關於早期中葡關係及澳門歷史最重要的記錄,全文約2,100餘字,比《報疏》略長,但該傳記錄澳門開埠以後之史文僅佔全傳的1/3,約為700餘字,而《報疏》全文1,355字,所載內容幾乎全為澳門開埠以後的歷史,而且所載史實與細節均為《明史‧佛郎機傳》所缺。因此,我認為,在明代中葡關係和澳門早期史研究的中文文獻中,《報疏》和《明史‧佛郎機傳》是兩篇互為證補、交相輝映且具有重大史料價值的姊妹文獻,應當引起史學界,特別是中外關係史研究者的特別注意。近年,海內外學者翻譯和公佈了不少16至17世紀的葡、荷、英、法、日等國文字的原始檔案和文獻,其中有不少資料與《報疏》中涉及的史實相關。鑒於此,利用新公佈翻譯的外文資料,再加上舊有的中文檔案文獻對新發現的《報疏》中的相關史實進行一次系統而詳盡的清理與疏證。這樣,不僅可證實《報疏》反映史實的真實,且強化了這一歷史文獻的權威性與可靠性,還能使我們進一步認清撲朔迷離的明代中葡關係和早期澳門歷史的真相。註釋:1 關於韓霖事蹟,參見乾隆:《直隸絳州志》卷11《人物:韓霖傳》;蕭若瑟:《天主教傳行中國考》卷4,第119-120頁,中國天主教史籍彙編第一種,輔仁大學出版社出版,2003年及方豪:《中國天主教史人物傳》上冊,《韓霖、韓雲、韓霞》,第253-258頁,中華書局,1988年。台灣清華大學歷史研究所黃一農教授:《明清天主教在山西絳縣的發展與反彈》,載於台北中央研究院近代所集刊,卷26,1996年,第3-39頁,及《天主教徒韓霖投降李自成考辨》,載於《大陸雜誌》,卷93,第3期,
175委黎多《報效始末疏》──一份新發現的澳門早期歷史文獻Vol. 262005. 2 1996年,第133-138頁。師道剛《明末韓霖史跡鉤沉》,載於《山東大學學報》,第1期,1999年。Z rcher, Erik, “Un ‘Contrat Communal’ chr tien de la fin des ming: Le Livre d`adomonition de Han Lin(1641)”, in European China (1993), pp. 3-22; Z rcher, Erik, “A Complement to Confucianism: Christianity and Orthodoxy in Late Imperial China”, in Chang, Chun-chin & E. Z rcher (eds.), Norms and the State in China (Leiden: Brill, 1993) pp. 71-92. 此處西文資料由金國平先生提供,特此鳴謝。2 (明)韓霖:《守圉全書》卷首,韓霖:《守圉全書自敘》,第2及8頁。台北中央研究院傅斯年圖書館善本書室藏明崇禎九年刊本。這份文獻承黃一農教授抄錄寄贈。後我又托學生赴台從該館《守圉全書》光碟中錄製。在此,向黃教授致謝。3 黃一農:《天主教徒孫元化與明末傳華的西洋大炮》,載 於《中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊》卷64,第4期, 第911頁,1996年。4 前揭《守圉全書》卷3之1,委黎多:《報效始末疏》, 第86-91頁。5 前揭《守圉全書》卷3之1,陸若漢:《貢銃效忠疏》, 第90-94頁。 6 〔意〕利瑪竇(Mathew Ricci)著,劉俊余、王玉川、羅漁合 譯:《利瑪竇全集》第1卷,台北:輔仁大學,光啟出版 社,1986年,第118頁。7 (明)俞大猷:《正氣堂集》卷15,《論商夷不得恃功恣橫》,道光龍溪味古書室重刊本。8 (明)沈德符:《萬曆野獲編》下冊,卷30,《香山嶴》,中華書局,1982年,第785頁。9 (明)郭尚賓:《郭給諫疏稿》卷1,《防澳防黎疏》,叢 書集成初編。10 《明神宗實錄》卷527,萬曆四十二年十二月已未條。11 (清)谷應泰:《明史紀事本末補遺》卷2,《熊王功罪》,中華書局,1977年,第1,417頁。12 (明)陳子龍輯:《明經世文編》卷483,《李存我集》卷1,《制勝務須西銃敬述購募始末疏》,中華書局影印平露堂刊本,第5,325頁。13 葡萄牙里斯本阿儒達宮圖書館《耶穌會會士在亞洲》54-XI-21鈔件,1646年《呈吾主吾王唐‧若昂四世陛下進言書。 中國居民若爾熱‧平托‧德‧阿澤維多於 1646年 3 月親手交給唐‧菲利佩‧馬斯卡雷尼斯總督先生轉呈印 度議事會》,轉引自金國平︰《西力東漸:中葡早期接觸 追昔》,澳門基金會,2000年,第145頁。此進言書雖 上於1646年,所言也是澳門同南明政權的關係,但透過 此書,我們亦可看出,澳門葡人希望透過對明王朝的軍 事援助而獲得葡人居澳的法律地位的心態是一以貫之 的。14 葡萄牙里斯本阿儒達宮圖書館:《耶穌會會士在亞洲》,第49-V-7及147反面頁。15 前揭《守圉全書》卷3之1,陸若漢:《貢銃效忠疏》, 第90-94頁。16 〔英〕庫帕(Michael Cooper)著,松本玉譯:《通辭:羅德 里格斯》,原書房,1991年,第17章,第324-325頁。17 〔葡〕曾德昭(Alvaro Semedo)著,何高濟譯:《大中國志》第2部,上海古籍出版社,1998年,第10章,第269頁。18 〔法〕巴篤裏(Daniello Bartoli):《中華耶穌會史》,轉引 自方豪:《明末西洋火器流入我國之史料》,載於《東方雜誌》,第40卷,第1期,1944年,第696頁。19 〔比〕金尼閣(Nicolas Trigault):《1621年報告》,轉引前 揭方豪:《明末西洋火器流入我國之史料》,第139-140頁。20 前揭《大中國志》第2部,第12章,第283-284頁。21 同上註,第284-285頁。22 葡萄牙里斯本阿儒達宮圖書館《耶穌會會士在亞洲》49- V-2號手稿,何大化(Antóne de Gouvea):《遠方亞洲》,第6編,第3章,第80-91頁。23 前揭《明經世文編》,卷483《制勝務須西銃敬述購募始末疏》,第5,327頁。24 王重民輯:《徐光啟集》上冊,卷3《練兵疏稿》2,《謹申得以保萬全疏》,附錄2《題為制勝務須西銃敬述購募始末疏》,上海古籍出版社,1984年,第182頁。25 〔意〕衛匡國(Martin Mareini)著,戴寅譯:《韃靼戰紀》,載於杜文凱編:《清代西人見聞錄》,中國人民大學出版社,1985年,第10頁。26 方豪:《李之藻研究》之《李之藻先生簡譜》,台灣商務印書館,1966年,第204頁。27 蕭若瑟:《天主教傳行中國考》卷4,中國天主教史籍彙 編本,台灣輔仁大學出版社,2003年,第106頁。28 前揭巴篤裏:《中華耶穌會史》,第771-772頁。29 前揭巴篤裏:《中華耶穌會史》,第961頁。案:《東方雜誌》刊登方豪譯文,其中西文人名訛誤甚多,此為訂 正後的西文人名。30 前揭《大中國志》第2部,第12章,第285頁。31 前揭《徐光啟集》下冊,附錄1《傳記》,2徐驥:《文 定公行實》,第558頁。32 前揭《天主教傳行中國考》,卷4,第108頁。33 嚴傳見嚴從簡:《殊域周咨錄》,卷9《佛郎機傳》,中 華書局標點本,1993年,第320-325頁。該書成書於萬曆 十一年(1583年);黃傳見、黃佐:《(嘉靖)廣東通志》卷66,《外志》3,《番夷》,廣東地方誌辦公室影印嘉靖刊本,該書成書於嘉靖三十八年(1559年);蔡傳見、蔡 汝賢:《東夷圖說》之《佛郎機傳》,四庫存目叢書本, 該書成書於萬曆十四年(1586年);熊傳見、熊明遇: 《綠雪樓集》之《素草》下,《島夷傳》,四庫禁毀叢刊 本,該傳當成書於天啟元年(1621年)前;陳傳見、陳仁 錫:《皇明世法錄》卷82,《南蠻傳》中,明崇禎刊本, 該書成於崇禎年間,大約與茅瑞征書同時;茅傳見茅瑞 征《皇明象胥錄》卷5,《佛郎機傳》,該書成於崇禎五 年(1632年)。
有關抗日戰爭勝利後收回澳門的問題澳門研究176BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES澳葡當局於1849年發動澳門事件,破壞中國對澳門行使主權,其後又通過1887年中葡條約,迫使清政府承認其管治權。從那時起,中國人民就不斷進行鬥爭,反抗葡人的殖民統治、爭取收回澳門。但由於當時政府的腐敗無能,未能達到目的。 國民政府定都南京後,中葡兩國於1928年12月19日,在南京簽訂了名為《中葡友好通商條約》的新約,該約確定中國關稅自主、廢除領事裁判權,以及在華外國人應受中國法律和法院的管轄。但卻使葡萄牙暫時避開了交還澳門的問題,繼續對澳門進行殖民統治。澳葡進行殖民擴張活動,其矛頭對準灣仔和大小橫琴島等地。1932年10月24日,中山縣測量員陳峰等人前往小橫琴莨崗下村測量沙田,遭到葡艦襲擊,拘留測量員陳峰等人,扣留測量儀器,帶往仔炮台,後又轉押至澳門警察所問話,迫令留下測量憑證及測量通知等件,然後放人。1 這一事件充分暴露了澳葡企圖佔領橫琴島的野心,頓時使中葡關係緊張起來。國民政府外交部為此向葡使提出抗議,要求澳葡立即交還扣留物件,並保證以後不得再有此種舉動2;30年代以後日本大舉侵華,中國人民集中全部力量同日寇進行殊死戰鬥,澳門問題被暫時擱置起來。這期間,澳葡以“中立”的身分,為日寇侵華提供了方便。他們一方面允許日艦停泊澳門港,任由日寇假道澳門入侵內地,其時日本飛機轟炸中山縣多數經由澳門入侵,日本艦隊補充給養也從澳門採辦;另一方面澳葡卻極力反對中國在澳門附近設防抗日。當時中國軍隊為了防止日軍自唐家灣、香洲埠或澳門附近登陸入侵,決定在關閘至唐家灣,以及澳門以北的北山、葫蘆山等處構築工事,此種工事雖然完全在中國領土之內進行,但卻遭到澳葡的反對。為此,國民黨軍廣東戰區長官余漢謀和吳鐵城等人均曾向澳葡提出交涉3;1939年因國民黨駐澳機構開展抗日活動,召集各界開會,簽名通電,聲討汪精衛,大觸漢奸之忌,慫恿日本海軍司令出面向澳葡抗議。澳葡為了討好日寇,便於9月16日出動警察搜查國民黨澳門支部,拘拿國民黨廣東僑務處處長周雍能至澳門警務廳問話。澳葡廳長聲稱:國民黨澳門支部糾集抗日份子進行抗日活動,危害澳門治安,日本駐華南海軍司令已經提出抗議,海軍武官亦來澳門要求嚴辦。因此,要求國民黨駐澳機構停止抗日活動。同時,澳葡華務局局長又召集澳門商會主席、中華教育會主席訓話,要求他們安份守己,不要參加抗日活動4;事實表明,澳葡當局在所謂中立的外衣下,處處事事維護日本人的利益,破壞中國人民的抗日正義鬥爭。抗日戰爭勝利後,中國人民又一次掀起了要求收回澳門的運動。當時由於中國堅持抗戰,做出了極大的犧牲,國際地位大大提高,成為戰勝德日法西斯的四大強國之一。國民黨蔣介石雄心大發,企圖趁接收香港日軍投降的機會,一舉收回香港。1945年8月25日,蔣介石在國防最高委員會與中央常務委員會聯席會議上演講, 號召“完成民族主義”,宣稱“現在中國全國各租借地均應次第收復,九龍的租借條約,自非例外”。為了收回香港,蔣介石進行了必要的軍事部署。他於8月18日任命張發奎為接收廣州、海南島、香港的受降官。有關抗日戰爭勝利後收回澳門的問題黃鴻釗** 南京大學歷史系教授
特區成立五年來澳門史地研究之回顧與展望澳門研究184BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES合著的《鏡海飄渺》(2001年)、《東西望洋》(2002年)及《過十字門》(2004年)。澳門成人教育協會2003年也出版了余振、鄭煒明、崔寶峰編的《澳門歷史、文化與社會》。尤其值得高興的是,章文欽窮多年心血完成的《澳門詩詞箋註》(四冊),終於2003年由澳門特別行政區文化局和珠海出版社出版。除了《澳門日報》的《學海》之外,雜誌亦是澳門研究的重要陣地。大型學術刊物《澳門研究》至今已經出版了24期,而且今年開始從季刊改為了雙月刊。這一雜誌選題廣泛,幾乎涵蓋了澳門社會的各個方面。作者大多是澳門及大陸的學者、專家,為開展廣泛的學術交流提供了平台,為年輕學人提供了發表學術成果的園地。總體來說,文章的質量在不斷提高,但相對而言,國外學者的論文刊登較少,希望今後考慮提高域外學者論文的比例。《文化雜誌》復刊後,較之葡管時代質量有所提高,成為了國內外較有影響的澳門史地研究專門刊物之一。前幾年,華人學者的論文刊登較多,近來外國學者的文章刊登的比例有所提高。從內容來看,《文化雜誌》較偏重開埠史、早期經濟史、美術史、宗教史等領域,但關於澳門宗教建築史的某些論文則給人雷同的感覺。《文化雜誌》是同類雜誌中第一個設立學術爭鳴欄的刊物,值得讚揚,因為有學術批評才有學術進步。百分之百的中葡雙語是《行政》雜誌的特點,因此它在國內外享有一定知名度。除了與行政、法律有關的文章外,也刊登了相當一批史地研究論文,其特點是時間跨度較大,從古至今,因而引起了國外,尤其是葡國學者的注意。新創辦的《中西文化研究》可謂後起之秀,學術性很強,文章體裁廣泛,匯集了國內外的研究新成果。對上述四本刊物的共同建議是,可考慮開闢一些新的欄目,如新書介紹、研究動態等。《理工學報》也刊登了不少優秀的史地文章。新近成立的澳門歷史文化研究會出版了兩期《澳門歷史研究》,發表了一批很有質量、選題得當的論文。新聞性的《澳門雜誌》也發表了一些史地短文。澳門社會科學學會的《濠鏡》繼續出版,也為研究的深化起了推動作用。回歸五年來,澳門研究穩步發展的另一標誌是以澳門史學、文學為中心,完成了為數不少的博士論文(限於澳門居民作者)。例如,《十六至二十世紀澳門葡語文學的探索與研究》1、《澳門聖保祿學院研究》2,《汪兆鏞與近代粵澳文化》3,《二十一世紀初期澳門特別行政區圖書館事業發展規劃之研究》 4、《澳門特色文獻資源研究與整體發展策略探討》5 等。文史研究只有得到多種學科的支撐才能不斷深入。上述博士論文以歷史學、文學為主幹,採用了學科整合的研究方法,獲得了研究理論上的新突破,標誌了澳門研究的新水準。暨南大學、中山大學、南京大學和北京大學為中國培養博士的重鎮,澳門高等院校顯然應該急追直上。總體來說,中國大部分博士論文的篇幅遠遠低於國際標準,而且出版率也低於國外。這是中國社會科學在現代化過程中應該加以注意的。首先,應該參照國際標準,修改論文篇幅的規定;其次,評委應該邀請國際著名學者參加,利用互聯網審閱可以部分解決經費的問題;最後,設立博士論文國家出版基金,刊印經過評選的優秀論文,擴大社會影響。台灣文津出版社印行的《大陸地區博士論文叢刊》中匯集的近百本書籍,難道不應該引起我們的深思?值得讚賞的是,澳門基金會有感於近年來澳門學術風氣日漸濃厚,不少學子在本澳、國內和國外完成的博士論文中有相當部分專著於澳門研究,且質量很高,不乏創新、突破之見,部分還填補了澳門研究的某些領域的空白,極具出版價值,2003年開始與廣東人民出版社合作,策劃並資助在國內出版、發行《澳門叢書》,以出版高水準研究澳門的學術專著、特別是博士論文為主,推動澳門的學術研究、擴大澳門學術的影響力。通過對特區成立五年來澳門史地研究的大致瀏覽,可以發現,科研成果豐碩,而且呈持續穩步發展的勢頭。然而,某些傾向和問題也應該值得注意。對此,本人不揣簡陋,提幾點不成熟的看法,僅供參考:1. 提升澳門研究的水平,需要我們有更寬廣的視野、更宏觀的思維和更嚴謹的學風。無視野的“寬頻化”,便無研究成果的深度和精確性。對澳門開埠若干重大事件的微觀研究取得了相當的進展,但宏觀的考察尚嫌不足。我們在研究中,已經意識到了這個問題,做了一些努力,可是成績仍不大。看來,需要大家共同提供認識,齊心協力,在中外歷史發展的長河中探索澳門存在的意義、互動發展
185特區成立五年來澳門史地研究之回顧與展望Vol. 262005. 2和歷史轉折。更嚴謹的學風,則要求我們對選定課題的古今中外的研究成果有一個通盤瞭解。這是學術研究的一個基本前提。然而我們看到,因未作深入細緻的文獻回顧、參考書目檢索而造成的忽視前人研究成果的情況屢屢發生。這種忽視有客觀的原因,但也不排除主觀的懶惰和缺乏學術嚴謹訓練,造成了大量的重覆研究,在若干課題上,既無新資料又無新觀點的“冷飯”常有供應。不是說老課題是禁區,深化、轉換視角的“老生常談”也能令人耳目一新。不過,我們不能忘記的是,學術發展的本質便是對未知的探索,創新是學術進步的靈魂。捨此,學術便無生命力可言,自然也就失去了存在的資格和權利。澳門史地研究要推進,除了要深化某些有了一定研究成果的基礎問題外,還需花大力氣、下苦功去開拓和發展新領域,提出和探索新課題,努力爭取使“澳門學”成為一門較齊全的學科。2. 時間範圍方面,早期史佔鰲頭。此類研究成果較多,之後各時期的相關研究則顯得薄弱,需要加強。今後應該從早期逐漸向18世紀,尤其是19世紀和20世紀移動。3. 選題失衡,值得注意。研究中心多偏重於開埠原因的探討。通過國內外學者的多年努力對新史料的發掘,這方面研究成果的理論、學術高度處於國際領先的水平。澳門早期開埠的歷史基本上清晰了。我們認為,今後澳門研究的主題之一是澳門城市發展史。在湯開建教授的指導下,嚴忠明在進行澳門城市建築史的研究並發表了《直街觀念與澳門早期城市建設的規則》一文。2004年12月,葡萄牙國家檔案館館長、葡萄牙著名的海外藝術史專家迪亞斯教授(Prof. Pedro Dias)將在澳門發行一部積十餘載之功而成的同葡萄牙海外建築對比的澳門建築史葡語新著(隨後將出版漢語及英語版)。我們認為,應該逐步組織編寫各種專業史。為配合2005年“東亞運動會”,澳門有關部門邀請廣東專家編寫了《澳門體育史》。既然將旅遊博彩作為澳門發展的龍頭,自然應該有像樣的澳門旅遊、博彩史。博彩史方面,澳門及大陸都有這個專業的博士。澳門正在申請世界文化遺產,可能有些資料的內容缺乏歷史準確性,是否有必要編寫一部較權威的澳門名勝古跡史?這些大概是應該列入議事日程、值得綜合研究的澳門專史新課題,也是史學研究適應和服務澳門社會經濟發展的一項重要任務。4. 澳門研究既涉及政治、法律、軍事、經濟、外交、文化、宗教、地理等方面,又與民族、風俗、人物等因素密切相關,因而研究方法必然朝向跨學科的整合,各種專業學科的研究理論與方法都應該引入澳門有關問題的研究,這樣才能提高研究的理論水平。如在張憲文、吳志良指導下,婁勝華完成的《轉型時期澳門社團研究:多元社會中法團主義體制解析》以及查燦長《澳門早期現代化研究 (鴉片戰爭至1945年)》(南京大學,2004年)是兩個成功的嘗試。現有的研究成果多採取慣用的分析理論模式和描述性的研究方法,一些著述常常分析不足,描述有餘。5. 加強學術爭鳴與評論。近年的澳門研究中,出現了多種不同的學術觀點,見仁見智。某些論題與觀點不是沒有分歧和爭論的,只是缺乏學術交鋒,仍然各執己見,致使對某些問題的認識停滯不前。學術批評是繁榮澳門研究的一個重要方面。我們看到,在目前的學術討論中,時有悖於學術原則和規範的傾向。“師爺式”的點評,以個人思維定式簡單否定史料或有史料支援的觀點,曲解他人觀點,小錯大糾,甚至“上綱上線”、“大批判”等早已進入歷史博物館的“文革”現象應該受到學人嚴正的指責。學術評論的本質是批評性的,但其方法應該是建設性的,水平是創造性的。“炒冷飯”式的評論和“炒冷飯”式的研究同樣不足取。某些批評文章對應該評論的問題未有能力察覺評論之,卻糾纏於照片反印之類的枝節問題。學術批判必須堅持學術原則和學術規範。作為個人應該杜絕一切學術之外的言行,作為出版者應該嚴格把握純學術的準則。任何對學術原則和學術規範的偏離,只會給澳門研究增加矛盾、帶來混亂。展望21世紀的澳門史地研究,重要的工作是將史料出版及研究同新清史的纂修接軌。應當拓寬研究的領域及年代,將社會科學和自然科學的研究方法引入澳門史地研究,使其相互交叉、滲透、整合,進而創造新概念、新模式、新方法,達到新水平。在個案、專史與通史研究過程中,致力於宏觀考察與微觀調研的結合。同時,必須擴大學術批評,但也必須堅持學術規範,為推動澳門研究的不
特區成立五年來澳門史地研究之回顧與展望澳門研究186BOLETIM DE ESTUDOS DE MACAUJOURNAL OF MACAU STUDIES斷發展,營造健康的學術環境至為關鍵。如同“自由行”、“緊密經貿安排”、“9+2”等中央措施給澳門帶來了經濟繁榮,在纂修清史工程的有力推進下,澳門史地研究新一輪的學術昇平指日可待。註釋:1 李淑儀著,饒芃子教授指導,暨南大學,2000年。2 李向玉著,陳勝 教授指導,中山大學,2000年。3 彭海鈴著,桑兵教授指導,中山大學,2000年。4 王國強著,吳慰慈教授指導,北京大學,2002年。5 楊開荊著,王錦貴教授指導,北京大學,2002年。