目錄邁向 自 主 的澳 門 社 會 科學 —— 《 社會 科 學 發 展在 澳 門 》 序 ………………………………………………… 鄧 正來智慧 的 選擇 —— 對2005年 施 政報 吿 的理 論 分 析 ……………………………………………………………… 蘇東 斌16立 法 會 選 舉 與 “ 一 國 兩 制 ” 文 明 ………………………………………………………………………………… 楊允 中 15論要 物 合 同 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………唐 曉 晴 18論兩 性 參 政行 為 的 差 異 ………………………………………………………………………………………… 李 焯 輝 26試論 醫 療 事 故 民 事責 任 之 歸 責 原 則—— 對澳 門 醫療 事 故責 任歸 責 法的 思 考 ………………………………………………………………………簡 萬 寧 32政治 多 元 化 與 港 澳 台 族 群 的 “ 和 平 跨 居 ”………………………………………………………………………廖 楊 40回歸 五 週 年 的澳 門 社 情 演 變—— 澳 門勞 動 市 場變 動 與就 業 政 策調 整 的經 濟 分 析 …………………………………………………… 雷 強 46後配 額 時 代 澳 門紡 織 品 加 工 貿 易的 發 展 策 略 研 究 …………………………………………………………毛艷 華 53新加 坡 的 陸 地 運 輸 政 策 與大 眾 運 輸 對 澳 門 的 啟 發 …………………………………………………………林瑞 海 60論非 歐幾 何對 經濟 學的 啟 示 …………………………………………………………………………………………李曉 平 71Q ua li t y o f L i f e a n d S o c ia l ln d ica t o rs ……………………………………………………………………… C H A N Chan U 77澳門 的貧 窮 問題 與 對策 思 考 ……………………………………………………………………………………… 鄧玉華 88從東 亞 各 國 現 狀 看澳 門 社 會 福 利 體 制 ………………………………………………………………………………梁啟賢 95香港 教 育改 革 經驗 評 述 ……………………………………………………………………………………… 李曉 康 、 葉 建 源 99The S ta t e of B i l ing ua l i sm in Macau SAR……………………………………………………………… L I Cho r Sh i n g 1 1 0清代 中 文檔 案 中 的澳 門 漢 語詞 彙 現 象 …………………………………………………………………………… 黃 翊 115從葡 萄 牙 史 料 看鄭 和 船 隊 洲 際三 角 貿 易 形 態 ……………………………………………………金 國 平 、 吳 志 良 1 25嶺南 , 西學 東 漸的 基 地—— 兼論 中國 近代 科學 技術 史起 始時 間………………………………………………………………………… 孫關 龍 134駭人 聽 聞的 澳 門苦 力 貿 易 …………………………………………………………………………………… 黃 鴻 釗 143穗港 澳 旅 遊歷 史 文 化景 觀 的 開發 與 利 用 ……………………………………………………………………… 彭 順 生 151論 1 9世 紀 40年 代 前 期 英 國 對 澳 門 的 幾 次 主 要 侵 略 活 動 ……………………………………………………張 運 華 160基督 教 教 會教 育 中 西演 變 述 略 …………………………………………………………………………… 夏 泉 、 孟 育 東 165書評澳門文化史上的豐 碑 —— 評《澳門百 科全書》(修訂版 ) ……………………………………………… 孫關龍 173歐洲鄭 和研究 一部力 作 …………………………………………………………………………… 金 國 平 、 吳 志 良 180
CONTENTS Marching towards Autonomy—Preface for "Social Science Development in Macau" .....................................................DENG Zhenglai 1 A Wise Choice—A Theoretical Analysis on the 2005 Fiscal Policy in Macau .................................................................... SU Dongbin 6 The Legislative Council Election and the Civilization of "One Country, Two Systems" .......................................... IEONG Wan Chong 15 A Discussion on "Contrato Consensual"............................................................................................................................TONG lo Chen 18 The Differentiation of Political Participation for Both Sexes.................................................................................................. LEI Cheuk Fai 26 A Thinking on the Legislation of Civil Liability of Medical Negligence in Macau..............................................................KAN Man Neng 32 Political Diversification and the "Cross-Living" of Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan Ethnic Groups......................................... LIAO Yang 40 An Economic Analysis on the Changes of Labour Market and the Adjustments of Employment Policy in Macau................. LEI Qiang 46 The Developmental Strategies for Macau's Textile Processing Trade in the Post-Quota Era .............................................. MAO Yanhua 53 Land Transport Policy and Public Transport in Singapore—Implications for Macau............................................................. LAM Soi Hoi 60 Non-Euclidean Geometry and Its Implications for Economics.................................................................................................... LI Xiaoping 71 Quality of Life and Social Indicators ..................................................................................................................................CHAN Chan U 77 Poverty Problems and Policies in Macau..........................................................................................................................TANG Yuk Wa 88 Exploring a Social Welfare System for Macau from the East Asian Experience........................................................... LEUNG Kai Yin 95 The Experience of Educational Reform in Hong Kong .................................................................................. LEE lo Hong, IP Kin Yuen 99 The State of Bilingualism in the Macau SAR ...................................................................................................................... LI Chor Shing 110 The Phenomenon of Macau Chinese Vocabulary in the Chinese Documents of Qing Dynasty ........................................... WONG Yee 115 The Intercontinental Trading Pattern of Zheng He's Fleet from Portuguese Historical Record........................ JIN Guoping, WU Zhiliang 125 Linan, the Base of Western Learning Spreading in the East —an Analysis of the Origin of the History of Science and Technology in Modern China ..................................... SUN Guanlong 134 The Shocking History of Macau Coolie Trading..........................................................................................................HUANG Hongzhao 143 The Development and Utilization of Historical and Culture Landscape in Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau................................................................................. PANG Shunsheng 151 Britain's Several Invasions in Macau in the Early 1940s................................................................................................ ZHANG Yunhua 160 The Evolution of Christian Missionary Education in the West and China........................................................ XIA Quan, MENG Yudong 165 Book Review: Encyclopedia of Macau .............................................................................................................................. SUN Guanlong 173 Book Review: Zheng He: Images and Perceptions ........................................................................................ JIN Guoping, WU Zhiliang 180
新加坡的陸地運輸政策興大眾運輸對澳門的啓發1 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Policy and Regulations: Land Transport, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of Access: 15th September 2003. 2 Land Transport Authority (LTA), White Paper: A World Class Land Transport System, (Republic of Singapore, Land Transport Authority, 1996). 3 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Policy and Regulations: Land Transport, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of access: 15th September 2003. 4 Wilber Smith and Associates, Singapore Mass Transit Study, Phase I Final Report, (Singapore,Wilbur Smith and Associates, 1974). 5 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Policy and Regulations: Land Transport, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of access: 15th September 2003. 6 URA, Master Plan 2003, available: www.ura.gov.sg/ppd/gazettedmp2003/index.htm, date of access: 15th November 2003. 7 Menon, G. "Travel Demand Management in Singapore – Why Did It Work?" available: www.adb.org/Documents/Events/ 2002/RETA5937/Manila/downloads/tp_l5B_menon.PDF, date of access: 22nd September 2002. 8 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Policy and Regulations: Land Transport, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of access: 15th September 2003. 9 Phang, S.Y., "Singapore's Motor Vehicle Policy: Review of Recent Changes and a Suggested Alternative." Transportation Research A, Vol.27 (1993), pp. 329-336. 10 Foo, T.S., "A Unique Demand Management Instrument in Urban Transport: the Vehicle Quota System in Singapore," Cities, Vol.15, No.l (1998), pp. 27-39. 11 Chin, A. & Smith, P., "Automobile Ownership and Government Policy: The Economics of Singapore's Vehicle Quota Scheme," Transportation Research A., Vol. 31, No. 2 (1997), pp. 129- 140. 個主要的整合型態。除了在交通基礎設施的投資以及大眾運輸服務之改善外,大眾運輸業者被限定必須確保其所提供的服務是大眾可以負擔且有效率的,以及可用的選擇。 最後,新加坡在過去30年發展以及實施其道路運輸政策的經驗,已經成為亞洲獨一無二且成功的例子。創新且大膽的方法來制定交通政策,實施政策的決心,並且可根據各種情況來修改的彈性,是導致此成功現況的重要因素。 地窄人稠比新加坡尤甚的澳門如何能順應經濟的進展制訂合宜的交通政策並提供合適的交通系統給居民及旅客是一個重要的課題。對澳門而言,新加坡在推行及制訂交通策略和系統上的決心及創見,無疑有其可取之道。更重要的是能在交通策略及系統的發展上及早防止交通的惡性循環及廣泛性的交通擁塞的出現。而新加坡所推行的多重交義管理方法也可能在澳門有其實用之可能性。在系統建設上,正在討論當中的輕便捷運系統,更突顯了其在未來澳門的骨幹系統的迫切性。 12 Foo, T.S., "A Unique Demand Management Instrument in Urban Transport: the Vehicle Quota System in Singapore," Cities, Vol.15, No.l (1998), pp. 27-39. 13 Land Transport Authority (LTA), White Paper: A World Class Land Transport System, (Republic of Singapore, Land Transport Authority, 1996). 14 Ibid. 15 Menon, A.P.G., Lam, S.H. & Fan, H.S.L., "Singapore's Road Pricing System: Its Past, Present and Future," ITE Journal (Dec 1993).pp.44-48. 16 Foo, T.S., "A Unique Demand Management Instrument in Urban Transport: the Vehicle Quota System in Singapore," Cities, Vol.15, No.l (1998), pp.27-39. 17 Menon, A.P.G. & Lam, S.H., Singapore's Road Pricing System: 1975-1989, Research Report NTU/CTS/92-2, (Centre for Transportation Studies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 1992), 24p. 18 Menon, A.P.G., Lam, S.H. & Fan, H.S.L., "Singapore's Road Pricing System: its Past, Present and Future," ITE Journal (Dec 1993), pp. 44-48. 19 Ibid. 20 Menon, A.P.G. & Lam, S.H., Singapore's Road Pricing System: 1975-1989, Research Report NTU/CTS/92-2, (Centre for Transportation Studies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 1992), 24p. 21 Menon, A.P.G. & Lam, S.H., Singapore's Road Pricing System: January 1994 to September 1998, Research Report NTU/CTS/00-05 (Centre for Transportation Studies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 2000), 34p. 註釋: 22 Menon, G. "Travel Demand Management in Singapore – Why Did It Work?" available: www.adb.org/Documents/Events/ 2002/RETA5937/Manila/downloads/tp_l5B_menon.PDF, date of access: 22nd September 2002. 23 Chin, K,K. "Road Pricing-Singapore Experience." (2002). The third seminar of the IMPRINT-EUROPE Thematic Network: "Implementing Reform on Transport Pricing: Constraints and Solutions: Learning from Best Practice", Brussels, Belgium, available: www.imprint-eu.org/public/ IMPRINT3_chin.pdf, date of access: 4th May 2003. 24 Wilber Smith and Associates, Singapore Mass Transit Study, Phase I Final Report, (Singapore,Wilbur Smith and Associates, 1974). 25 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Facts and Statistics, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of access: 14th September 2002. 26 Land Transport Authority (LTA), White Paper: A World Class Land Transport System, (Republic of Singapore, Land Transport Authority, 1996). 27 Public Transport Council (PTC), Annual Report 2002/2003 (2003), 51p. 28 Ibid. 29 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Facts and Statistics, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of access: 14th September 2002. 30 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Policy and Regulations: Land Transport, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of access: 15th September 2003. 31 Statistics Singapore, Singapore Transport Statistics, available: www.singstat.gov.sg/keystats/economy.html#transport, date of access: 30 th December 2002. 32 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Policy and Regulations: Land Transport, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of access: 15th September 2003.
新加坡的陸地運輸政策興大眾運輸對澳門的啓發33 Statistics Singapore, Singapore Transport Statistics, available: www.singstat.gov.sg/keystats/economy.html#transport, date of access: 30th December 2002. 34 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Policy and Regulations: Land Transport, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of access: 15th September 2003. 35 Tong, C.V., "The Integration of Commuter Facilities at Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Stations," "Proceedings of the International Conference on Seamless and Sustainable Transport," (Centre for Transportation Studies Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 2002). 36 Ibid. 37 Konopatzki, "SMRT's Role in Integration and Multimodal Transportation in Singapore," Institution of Engineers Singapore Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3 (2002), pp. 37-41; Segaran, C.S., An Integrated public Land Transport System for Singapore, Journal of the Institution of Engineers, Singapore, Vol. 34, No.2 (1994), pp. 14-23 Tong, C.V., "The Integration of Commuter Facilities at Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Stations, "Proceedings of the International Conference on Seamless and Sustainable Transport," (Centre for Transportation Studies Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 2002). 38 Land Transport Authority (LTA), White Paper: A World Class Land Transport System, (Republic of Singapore, Land Transport Authority, 1996). 39 Ministry of Transport (MOT), Policy and Regulations: Land Transport, available: www.mot.gov.sg, date of access: 15th September 2003. 40 Public Transport Council (PTC), Annual Report 2002/2003 (2003), 51p. 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 Statistics Singapore, Singapore Labour and Productivity Statistics (2003 Fourth Quarter), available: http://www.singstat. gov.sg/keystats/mqstats/mds/mds33.pdf, date of access: 30th April 2004.
新加坡的陸地運輸政策興大眾運輸對澳門的啓發Quality of Life and Social Indicators Chan Chan U * Introduction The Chief Executive of the Macau Special Administrative Region (MSAR), Mr. Edmund Ho, has set the overall policy aim for his second term in office as to stimulate the quality of life of the population. Through the publication of Despatch No. 307 2005, the Centre for Quality of Life Studies (Centro de Estudos para a Qualidade de Vida) was instituted in the form of a project team (equipa de projecto). The prime function of the Centre is to establish conceptions of quality of life (QOL), the methodologies of assessment, as well as to select the subjective and objective indicators.1Mukherjee identified that there are essentially two perspectives in QOL research: social indicators research undertaken by "elites" to value the needs of the people, and conventional quality of life research, "which studies what people want, in order to improve their quality of life".2 The former can be interpreted as such that QOL research is an initiative taken by policy-makers, whereas the latter implies a wider coverage of research in a variety of academic domains. On the other hand, it should be noted that the establishment of QOL indicators is dependent on which domain is based on - economic, sociological or psychological.3 Whereas indicators based on theories of psychology are subjective in nature, economic indicators do not necessarily have links with the overall QOL (to be discussed later). Indicators based on sociological theories, or social indicators, acknowledge the defects of economic and psychological indicators, and thus tend to include both subjective and objective elements. Social indicators therefore appear to be the more appropriate direction forward for developing QOL indicators for Macau. Social indicators have been widely in use in the West for a variety of purposes, namely for policy making in governments and marketing for business. From the perspective of this Centre for Quality of Life Studies, the establishment of an indicator system is required as a basis to serve another function of the Centre, that is to identify and characterize the principal social problems that affect the QOL of the population, and to propose short, medium or long-term measures and actions to rectify these problems.4 In other words, the QOL indicator system should at least provide a studied, if not scientific, basis for policy making. The application of social indicators is something that is not new to Macau. The Statistics and Census Bureau has been calculating the Human Development Index (HDI), formulated by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), for years. In some policy and academic research areas, namely the Macau Youth Indicators System, a study conducted by the University of Macau on behalf of the Education and Youth Affairs Bureau (DSEJ), and the Monographic Studies on a Comprehensive Index System of Macau's International Competitiveness, prepared jointly by the Renmin University of China and the Centre for Macau Studies of the University of Macau, with the sponsorship of the Macau Foundation, have been developed. On the national scale, the State Development and Planning Commission (now the National Development and Reform Commission) commissioned in 1999 a study on the indicator system of the quality of life of the people ("人民生活質量指 · Candidate for Master of Science in Public Policy and Management at the School of Oriental and African Studies, the University of London
Quality of Life and Social Indicators 標體系研究"),covering ainland China. Despite these efforts, the knowledge of the concept of social indicators still requires wider dissemination in order to stimulate exchanges of ideas between members of the public and the Government in order to achieve the widest possible consensus on what the QOL indicators for Macau should consist of. In addition, the concept of "quality of life" is almost a completely new concept for Macau. Needless to say, dissemination is more essential to this regard, and again for the same purpose as mentioned. Given the deficiency of experience to establish an institutionalized indicator system, the task to establish the QOL indicators is an entrepreneurial one. Through reviewing a selected collection of literature, this essay attempts to describe the concept of QOL and social indicators as well as debates and comments in their applications. A case study will also be quoted to reflect on the applicability of social indicators in governance. Here, the author has no intention to draw conclusions on the direction of the establishment of the QOL indicators for Macau and the details of these indicators, but intends to draw from the findings of the selected literature in order to ignite the interests of the public to debate on this issue. Definition of Quality of Life Before exploring the definition of the term "quality of life", it must be emphasised that the definition of anotherterm, "standard of living" is very different. Economists define "standard of living" as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, which effectively means that the standard of living is a measure of satisfaction of basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter. Academics and specialists tend to separate the meanings of "quality" and "life" when attempting to define the term "quality of life". There has been less debate on what "quality" means, as it has been equated to "grade", or whether a particular condition is improving or deteriorating, or elevating or lowering. However, the meaning of "life" has been much debated, with arguments focused on whether it barely refers to mental life, or it should include certain environmental conditions.5 QOL is studied in a number of different disciplines. In philosophy, QOL is the reference for concepts of the good and the defence of these concepts. In psychology, it explains the concepts of mental health and causes of subjective well-being and human development. In social science, QOL explains how governments and markets contribute to better qualities of life and persons.6 Schuessler and Fisher argued that researches of QOL have been particularly prevalent in central or planned economies 7, although the author deems that this is not necessarily be the case, as QOL research is in reality more sophisticated in developed market economies. The World Health Organization currently defines QOL as "the individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals."8 The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) preferred not to formally define QOL, because it "has fewer roots in any particular scientific discipline". Instead the Organisation recommended the term "social well-being" to describe "the aggregate well-being of a group of individuals", and "societal well-being" to describe the evaluation of institutional structure of society.9 Lane focuses on the relations between the subjective elements and objective circumstances when defining QOL.10 The subjective elements consist of "a sense of subjective well-being and personal development, learning, growth", otherwise known as "quality of persons" (QP). The objective circumstances consist of "opportunities for exploitation by the person living a life", otherwise known as quality of conditions (QC). QOL is then a function of QP and QC, or QOL = f(QC, QP). Meanwhile, QOL depends on quality of persons and subjective well-being (SWB). These two concepts are deliberately separated because the capacity to enjoy life (which belongs to, but not confined to, SWB) is clearly different from achieving such capacity (or personal or personality development, which belongs to QP). QP in turn depends on the elements of such quality, the relations among the elements and justification or derivation of the included qualities. The elements include capacities, beliefs and knowledge, emotions and evaluation, as well as state of being. Throughout his life, a person develops certain parts of these qualities better than the others. This implies trade-off relations among the elements, and priorities exist among these elements, depending on particular needs. Indeed, the relationship will inevitably involve "matters of commensurability, ordering,
Quality of Life and Social Indicators weighting (and) compatibility". This in turn implies some justification of these elements, which can be achieved through "consensus among those who have thought about the problem of human development." Lane stressed that only those who possess "appropriate personal qualities" are able to exploit the elements that are said to produce a high QC (see table below). Finally, it should be noted that both QC and QP are not static but dynamic, which means changes to both of them will ultimately change QOL, and so does SWB. In short, Lane's concept to QOL is "what people do with what is given". Table 1 Qualities of Persons to Exploit Quality of Conditions11 This concept of QOL is supposed to provide a direction for governments to devise policies and programmes to promote the qualities of persons that are required to exploit the elements which are considered to constitute a high QC. However, this is not always the case, as Lane acknowledged, owing to historical factors like poverty, religion and authoritarianism; human development factors such as resistance intrinsic to individuals to change, the fact that people themselves do not acquire the theories of sources of well-being ("what makes them happy"), the focus on profitability, as well as the "doctrinal resistances" in the fields of psychology, economic theory, philosophy and political philosophy. Definition and Typology of Social Indicators Depending on the area of study, QOL can generally be addressed in three ways: by subjective estimation of well-being and happiness, by subjective estimation of satisfaction with specific domains, such as work, health, interpersonal relations; and by social indicators that reflect the environmental conditions.12 Meanwhile, the United Nations restricts the measurement of QOL "by social indicators rather than by 'quantitative' measures of income and production."13 Whereas the first approach is derived from the context of medical science, the United Nations approach is derived from the sociological perspective. Nevertheless, the definitions of QOL, as described in the previous section, basically have all included subjective and objective factors. Social indicators appear to be the only way to measure both environmental conditions and subjective satisfaction of happiness as well as the specific domains of daily and mental life. The term "social indicators" was defined by the OECD as a "direct and valid statistical measure which monitors levels and changes over time in a fundamental social concern".14 The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines social indicators as "measures of social well-being which provide a contemporary view of social conditions and monitor trends in a range of areas of social concerns over time."15 A Canadian consultancy firm identified four types of social indicators, according to the sources of data and principles of public finance and economics are mainly used as the starting point: 1. Compendia of social statistics, which is regarded as "the least sophisticated" approach. A number of social statistics are compiled and presented according to specific social areas; 2. Composite social indices, based on several variables in one or more specific areas of social concern; 3. Social modelling, which based on programme expenditures and socio-demographic and economic variables to explain particular outcomes in a social area; 4. Matrix-based social indicators, which are regarded as the most comprehensive social indicator approach", involve extending the traditional economic focus of national accounts to include social dimensions as well.16 From the perspective of sociology, Land identified three classes of social indicators, according to the objects of measurement: 1. Normative welfare indicators, which measure welfare
Quality of Life and Social Indicators directly and are subject to interpretate the direction of change of indicators, be it improving or deteriorating; 2. Satisfaction indicators, which were initially linked directly to the concept of QOL, particularly its links to the definition by Campbell etalas "a sense of achievement in one's work, an appreciation of beauty in nature and the arts, a feeling of identification with one's community, a sense of fulfilment of one's potential" .17 However, it was indicated that this class of social indicators might not be able to become a unique criterion for public policy formulation, and that policy actions failed to affect those areas of life which were deemed to be the most crucial. 3. Descriptive social indicators, with focus on "social measurements and analyses" which leads to improve the understanding of the main features of society, as well as the interrelation between these features, in both static and dynamic ways. They are "simply indexes of social conditions and changes therein over time for various segments of a population." Here, social conditions include both the subjective and objective elements of human existence in a given society. This makes the coverage of descriptive social indicators more general than the two above.18 It is the distinction between subjective and objective indicators identified in the descriptive social indicators class that necessitates a definition of "subjective" and "objective" social indicators. Subjective social indicators are "individual perception and evaluation of social conditions", whereas objective social indicators are "statistics which represent social facts independently of personal evaluations"19. Examples of subjective and objective social indicators are listed below: Table 2 Subjective and Objective Social Indicators20 Noll noted that the selection of the type of social indicators was dependant on the concept of welfare. Whereas the "level of living approach" in Scandinavia focuses on the objective living conditions and their determinant, the "quality of life approach" in the US focuses instead on subjective well-being. QOL in Germany, on the other hand, is approached by combining both subjective well-being and objective living conditions. In other words, "good living conditions...go together with positive subjective well-being."21 This approach can be further explained by the matrix below. Assuming all other factors are constant, the larger the proportion of population in the "well-being" category, the higher the welfare level of a society: Table 3 Categories of Quality of Life 22 Despite this combination, Noll doubted the usefulness of this concept in response to the goals of societal development, namely in connection with the concepts of reflexive modernisation and sustainable development. He therefore appealed for a reconsideration of the concept so that it is able to maintain the pace with the times in observation of the social development23. In his more recent work on constructing the "European System of Social Indicators", he added "social cohesion" and "sustainability" (together known as the "quality of society") in parallel with QOL as the three dimensional pillars to measure the individual and societal welfare.24 Thus QOL can be a category of the measurement of welfare, and QOL indicators are one of the indicator blocks of a larger system of social indicators.25 Application of Social Indicators Social indicators were applied initially to evaluate the impact of government programmes. For example, the Department of Community Welfare Services in the Australian state of Victoria sponsored the University of Melbourne in the late 1970s to establish a social indicators database, which provided descriptive statistics within the jurisdiction of the state, and to develop social indicators, which were categorised into functional areas of service delivery. Needs formulae were derived from these indicators for resource allocation between the regions. However, these indicators were deemed to be "of limited value"
Quality of Life and Social Indicators because the indicators developed from the database were far too remote from the activities of the government programmes they were intended to evaluate.26 Through an extensive review of research projects in the United States, Ferriss identified a number of uses of social indicators: "As statistical time series, social indicators are used to monitor the social system, helping to identify changes and to guide intervention to alter the course of social change. Extending time series into the future, while an imperfectly developed art, enables more realistic planning. The geographic allocation of resources by governments through ecological indicators redistributes funds more equitably. By combining with programmatic activities to alter the rate and direction of change, social indicators may play a role in social transformations. The social indicator "movement" has led to improvements in social measurement, social reporting, and social accounting and has stimulated measurement of the quality of life."27 International organisations, such as the OECD, use social indicators for two purposes: to describe social developments in member countries and regions, and to determine how effective the society and government have been in changing social outcomes. Noll noted of two functions of social indicators, as a means to measure welfare, whose objective is "to measure and monitor improvements or deteriorations of individual and societal well-being"; and to monitor social change, whose objective is "to measure and monitor structural changes and progress in modernization of a society and to register related problems and consequences."28 On the other hand, despite the specific advantages and disadvantages of each type of social indicators described in the previous section, they all share some common problems. Firstly, most social indicators are purely quantitative, and room to express the valuations and judgements of individuals does not exist. Secondly, most social indicators do not actually include societal goals within, and this could hamper measurements of performance.29 Finally, social indicators still merely serve as a function of enlightenment on social conditions.30 The difficulties of developing and using social indicators to evaluate government programmes were further addressed by Armstrong etal, drawing from their experiences in the Crime Prevention Victoria project conducted in the state of Victoria in Australia, which involved the development of a social indicators system in order to study the relationships between crime prevention and community governance.31 The "inherent" difficulties included the following: 1. The selection of framework that will guide the development and analysis of indicators. A number of frameworks have been identified, namely sustainability, health, quality of life, local democracy and social capital. 2. Access to reliable cross-government comprehensive data base. Most social data held by government agencies is confidential or deemed sensitive to be published. Also, there is a problem of "ownership" of the coordinated database, and existing, collected data may not always meet the requirements of research. 3. Collection of data is affected by different contexts, policy goals and government programmes. 4. Different definitions of constructs, and the use of these definitions, will lead to the production of conflicting results. For example, the definition of "relative poverty" by the OECD is when a family income is below half of the median income of a particular country. But this definition means that richer countries have a higher poverty line, although this "does capture well the idea that what really matters is not just subsistence but also the ability to participate in the mainstream society."32 5. The criteriaforthe selection of indicators and measures. Although the authors focused on performance indicators, criteria such as validity, relevance, appropriateness, robustness and manageability are deemed to be also relevant to social indicators. The definitions of these criteria are enlisted in the table 4. There are also diverging views on how indicators could or should be used. Provided the division of labour in public management is that the government determines priorities and allocating resources to its departments to achieve these priorities, and provided performance targets including financial and social indicators are established in order to report the performance against the targets, government departments with different expertise then basically "(work) together to achieve a common
Quality of Life and Social Indicators Table 4 Definitions of the Criteria for Indicators and Measures Selection 33 objective", or the priorities of the government. However, it was foreseen that "government priorities may change with a change of government, or even a change of minister, and changing the direction of Departments is costly." There is a possibility that the previous set of social indicators will be inappropriate for the new priorities, because the data collected will not match. There are also technical difficulties as the criteria for "success" are influenced by the type of data collected. Moreover, the weighting of both quantitative indicators, which describe "what" is happening; and qualitative indicators, which demonstrate "why" a particular social phenomenon is happening, can influence the displacement of goals. Indicators tend to show results, not the costs of actions. They are also difficult to capture changes in outcomes over a short period of time. Meanwhile, because a change in an indicator is due to a variety of factors, it is difficult to separate these causes which together they contribute to that particular change. Finally, and most importantly, we cannot equate social indicators, which can identify social goals and targets, to performance indicators, which are served to identify organizational goals and targets.34 Summarising from the experience of social indicators application in the United States, Cobb and Rixford listed 12 lessons for the current development of social indicators that will make an impact to the society: 1. Obtaining a figure does not equate to establishinga good indicator. This is because quantities should reveal qualities, but qualities are "always ambiguous and that any statements about (them) are provisional rather than final." 2. Effective indicators require a clear conceptual basis. Ideally, concepts should be defined before data is collected, but in practice this is not easy. On the other hand, "(although) measurement can help clarify a concept, the concept itself will not simply emerge from the data." 3. No indicators are free from values, because "all serious indicators work is political". Value judgements prevail from selecting indicators to the formulation of survey questions. 4. Comprehensiveness may tamper with effectiveness, because historically the most effective indicators tended to focus on one single issue, by guiding people to consider deeper questions. In addition, interpreting indicators is more important than simply describing them. Indicators covering a small area for specific audiences tend to be more effective. 5. The symbolic value of an indicator may outweigh its value as a literal measure, especially the fact that indicators serve as metaphors, not statistics. 6. Indicators must not be confused with reality, because "even the best indicator is only a fractional measurement of the underlying reality." Multiple indicators measuring the same social phenomenon may overcome this problem. 7. Democratic establishment of indicators requires more than good public participation processes, the result of emphasis on procedural justice. This practice will effectively suffocate changes to status quo, and perhaps substantive justice, such as equal opportunities, should be emphasised instead. 8. Measurement does not necessarily induce appropriate action. 9. Better information may lead to better decisions and improved outcomes, but this is not easy. This is because indicators only have indirect effects to policy-making, and behaviour plays a larger part. 10. Innovative thinking on causes of a particular social problem is often required to resolve this problem, because indicators have a function of enlightenment, which are supposed to lead people to reconsider the common understanding of a problem. 11. Indicators that reveal causes, not symptoms, of a
Quality of Life and Social Indicators particular social problem should be searched in order to take action. Mere description of indicators without providing insight to trends is more unlikely to lead to remedial action. 12. Indicators provide the basis for setting outcomes as long as one has control over resources, that is if developers of indicators "have a connection to those with the power to make substantive changes." This brings us to determine who actually has the power to take action.35 Case Study: Quality of Life Project in New Zealand In the Despatch of the Chief Executive on instituting the Centre for Quality of Life Studies, the identified main issues of quality of life include employment, qualifications, remunerations and conditions of work, accessibilities to education, health, social security and social work, conditions of public safety, quality of living and environmental conditions, as well as the participation of the citizens in cultural, sports, recreational and civic life.36 Because the degree of urbanization in the MSAR is very high, it is quite possible to assess the quality of life of the population in Macau from the perspective of quality of urban life. Here, the author introduces the Quality of Life project, which has been conducted in eight major cities in New Zealand since 2001. The author hopes that the introduction can provide some implications on how QOL indicators can be applied in the domain of public policy and management, especially in governance. The eight major cities of New Zealand, North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin, comprise some 45.9% of the entire population. Population projection model suggests that 75% of the population growth in the country over the next 20 years will occur in these cities, of which around 60% will occur in the four cities in the region of Auckland.37 Addressing QOL in urban areas thus became important to guarantee sustainable development, not only to the cities in question, but also to the overall majority of the population of New Zealand. The Quality of Life project is divided into three stages: 1. Monitoring, where indicators are selected and data for the defined indicators are collected; 2. Reporting, where the monitored conditions are analysed and reported. Social and policy issues arisen from the monitoring stage are identified, not for participating cities, but for the metropolitan areas of New Zealand as a whole in comparison to the rest of the country; 3. Advocating policy responses and changes to the issues identified in the reporting stage. Some 56 QOL indicators were identified for monitoring purposes (see Appendix). Most of these indicators were then branched out to a number of measures. Data was broken down into national trends, differences in trends between the eight cities in total and the rest of the country, and individual city trends. Indicators were presented according to ethnicity, age and sex, where possible and/or appropriate. The trends of the QOL indicators revealed a number of social and policy issues in the report on the Quality of Life in New Zealand's Eight Largest Cities 2003, otherwise more commonly known as the Quality of Life Report, They can be summarised as follows: 1. Cities are unsustainable; 2. Further work is still required to enhance community safety, despite improvement; 3. It is a "key challenge" to manage diversity; 4. City councils does not play sufficiently important role in enhancing social connectedness; 5. The socio-economic disadvantage has had impacts on QOL; 6. Members of the public want more involvement in decision-making; 7. There requires an ongoing monitoring of the QOL indicators.38 Based on these findings, the Report appealed for the Government, partner organisations and city councils to "work together". The ministerial portfolio of Urban Affairs, instituted in 2002, thus became the focal point of action. In order to support the Minister with responsibility of Urban Affairs (currently the Environment and Urban Affairs Minister), the Ministry for the Environment established an Urban Group and imposed a programme of action for the sustainable development for New Zealand as the Group's direction of work. The focus of the programme of action is currently on the application of the concept of sustainable development in four areas: the quality and allocation of freshwater, energy,
Quality of Life and Social Indicators sustainable cities and investing in child and youth development. Meanwhile, since sustainable development of cities is the overall policy priority, four work programmes that focus on cities are currently being conducted by the Ministry, with the ultimate aims to make cities as "centres for innovation and economic growth", and to guarantee cities that are "liveable" and "support social well-being, quality of life and cultural identities": 1. The New Zealand Urban Design Protocol, a voluntary document open to signature by governments, the property sector, design professionals and other groups in order to help cities to become more economically competitive, liveable, environmentally-friendly, inclusive (in terms of equal opportunities), unique in identity and well-governed. The essential "design qualities" include context, character, choice, connections, creativity, custodianship and collaboration; 2. Urban Affairs Statement of Strategic Priorities, which will describe the key urban issues in New Zealand, the framework for priority setting and the actual priorities for the central government. This Statement is currently being drafted, and is a joint effort between the Ministry for the Environment and other departments in the central government as well as the local authorities; 3. Sustainable Cities Regional Programme, a project jointed implemented by agencies in the central government and local government which covers several key areas, such as development strategy, community development, migrant settlement, child and youth development, urban design and development, transport and compliance of law. Greater Auckland was selected as the first region for action, given its status as New Zealand's largest urban area; 4. Year of the Built Environment 2005, a campaign organised by the New Zealand Government in conjunction with the New Zealand Institute of Architects and local governments, industry, research and professional institutes, "to explore and celebrate our built environment - the buildings, spaces and structures in which we live, work and play", and "will also raise awareness of how the built environment can be designed to create more liveable environments and how this helps to ensure a sustainable future forall ourcities and towns." Seminars, conferences, games and walks will be organized.39 The New Zealand Government has a clear objective in launching the Quality of Life project, which is to ensure the sustainable development of the cities. This objective affected the selection preference of indicators in the monitoring stage, to include factors such as student drop-out rates, natural environment indicators, traffic and public transport and the growth in the number of business. These are the areas where problems were identified, and actions were required to be taken. Meanwhile, the whole system of indicators gives emphasis on quality of public life, and only a few subjective indicators, such as the look and feel of the city and perceptions of safety, were included. Finally, it should be noted that indicators that were not of direct or immediate relationship with current policy priority, such as crime levels, voter turnout and the reference of the Treaty of Waitangi40, were also included in the system. Closing Remarks: Quality of Life and Social Indicators from the Perspective of Public Policy and Management Quality of life cannot be equated to standards of living, and subjective and objective elements of QOL must be acknowledged in the studies of QOL. Although Lane's concept of QOL is effectively an ideal type and it encourages a rational approach in policy-making process, what is worth noted in his concept is that it suggests that the quality of persons must be developed in parallel in the quality of conditions. This parallel development is a dynamic and mutually-reinforcing process. From the public policy perspective, QOL studies can also be limited to a particular domain, such as the quality of urban life, the quality of work life, and the quality of family life, to give more relevance to the policy areas in question.41 The functions of social indicators are not merely confined to measuring and evaluating social phenomenon. Social indicators can also be used as tools for social transformation and to promote public administration reform, as Australia's Crime Prevention Victoria and New Zealand's Quality of Life projects have inspired us. If established properly, social indicators effectively can measure the components of "quality of conditions" and "quality of persons" of Lane's concept of QOL. One of the ultimate aims of establishing a QOL indicator system from the perspective of public policy is to improve governance. Such purpose was best described by the Ontario
Quality of Life and Social Indicators Social Development Council, as follows, although debates are still required on whether the coverage of the indicators is appropriate for Macau: "The purpose... is to provide a tool for community development which can be used to monitor key indicators that encompass the social, health, environmental and economic dimensions of the quality of life in the community. (It) can be used to comment frequently on key issues that affect people and contribute to the public debate about how to improve the quality of life in the community... Quality of Life is the product of the interplay among social, health, economic and environmental conditions which affect human and social development." 42 From the point of view of public management, the emergence of "New Public Management" (NPM) means the focus of the work of government departments and executive agencies have shifted to implementing the policy priorities set by the government. As a result, the objectives of the departments and agencies must meet with the overall government objectives. Social indicators, being a means to measure social outcomes, can then be linked with departmental performances. Armstrong etal pointed out that "performance indicators evaluate specific projects and (programmes) while social indicators are directed towards larger social goals". In reality, the relations between performance indicators and social indicators are not that clear-cut, because the complexity of a particular social problem means joint efforts are usually required across government departments in order to resolve it. The outcome of a particular government programme could be viewed as a performance indicator to a government department, but as a social indicator by the higher level. Thus there is an overlap between social indicators and performance indicators, in the fields of achieving programme outcomes and the organizational or strategic performance (see table 5): Nonetheless, the role of social indicators as evaluation instruments is still recognised. An investigation to the impacts of block transfers from the Federal to Provincial authorities to health and social services in Canada showed that social indicators can be used to evaluate social standards, areas of social programming such as employment and education, equity target Table 5 Uses of Social and Performance Indicators43 groups as well as the block-transfer programmes themselves.44 The application of social indicators also brings forth the issues of public management and governance, such as the management structure required to manage programmes that are jointly implemented across government departments, the capacity-building of the members of the public in reading and interpreting the published indicators so that correct conclusions can be drawn. Meanwhile, indicators contain "a normative element", meaning that they cannot be used as the only basis for resource allocation. Other political constraints must be taken into account. The values of policy makers decide the criteria for success and values of delivery of government programmes, and they are subjective by every means. It is possible to resolve this constraint by employing the same technique used in the selection of social indicators, known as "values inquiry", but in turn this is constrained by the need to determine the priorities between different types of needs in the society, which is again a subjective exercise.45 Notes: 1 Despacho do Chefe do Executivo n.° 30/2005, Boletim Ofical da RAEM, n.° 9/2005, I Série, 2005, pp.217-218 2 Mukherjee R, Quality of Life (Sage Publications, 1989). 3 Zhou C et al, Well-Off Society and Quality of Life—Indicators of Quality of Life Study in an International Perspective (Social Sciences Documentation Publishing House, Beijing, 2003). 4 Despacho do Chefe do Executivo n.° 30/2005, Boletim Ofical da RAEM, n.° 9/2005, I Série, 2005, pp. 217-218. 5 Schuessler KF & Fisher GA, "Quality of Life Research and Sociology", in Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.11 (1985), pp. 129-149. 6 Lane RE, "Quality of Life and Quality of Persons: A New Role
Quality of Life and Social Indicators for Government? " in Political Theory, Vol. 22, No.2 (1994), pp. 219-252. 7 Schuessler KF & Fisher GA, "Quality of Life Research and Sociology", in Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.11 (1985), pp. 129-149. 8 Quality of Life and Social Justice Flagship, Australian Catholic University, http://dilibrary,acu.edu.au/resaerch/qlsj/definitions/ definitions.htm, accessed on 17th March 2005. 9 Schuessler KF & Fisher GA, "Quality of Life Research and Sociology", in Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.11 (1985), pp. 129-149. 10 Lane RE, "Quality of Life and Quality of Persons: A New Role for Government?", in Political Theory, Vol. 22, No.2 (1994), pp. 219-252. 11 Adopted from Lane RE, "Quality of Life and Quality of Persons: A New Role for Government?", in Political Theory, Vol. 22, No.2 (1994), pp. 219-252. 12 Orange LM, "Skills Development for Multicultural Rehabilitation Counselling — A Quality of Life Perspective", in Disability and Diversity - New Leadership for a New Era (The Howard University Research and Training Center, 1997). 13 United Nations, Glossary of Environment Statistics, Studies in Methods, Series F, Vol. 67 (New York:United Nations, 1997) 14 A social concern is defined as "an identifiable and definable aspiration or concern of fundamental and direct importance to human well-being". See OECD, asuring Social Well-Being - A Progress Report on the Development of Social Indicators Paris, OECD, 1976) and OECD, List of Social Concerns Common to Most OECD Countries (Paris, OECD, 1973). 15 Australian Bureau of Statistics, National Progress of Indicators, paper prepared for the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Working Group of Statistical Experts (1999). 16 Ekos Research Associates Inc, The Use of Social Indicators as Evaluation Instruments - Final Report, prepared for the former Human Resources Development Canada (now Human Resources and Skills Development Canada) (1998). 17 Campbell A et al, The Quality of American Life—Perceptions, Evaluations and Satisfactions (Russell Sage Found, 1976). 18 Land KC, Social Indicators, from Annual Review of Sociology, 9, (1983), pp. 1-26 19 Noll H-H, "Sozialindikatorenforschung in der Bundesrepublik- Konzepte, Forschungsansátze und Perspektiven", in Timmermann H ( e d . ) L e b e n s l a g e n , Sozialindikatorenforschung in beiden Teilen Deutschlands (Dadder, 1990), pp. 73-89. 20 Noll H-H, Social Indicators and Social Reporting – The International Experience, paper prepared for the symposium "Measuring Well-being and Social Indicators" (The Canadian Council on Social Development, 1996). 21 Ibid. 22 Zapf W, "Individuelle Wholfahrt-Lebensbedingungen und wahrgenommene Lebensqualitát", in Glatzer W & Zapf W (eds.), Lebensqualitát in der Bundersrepublik (Frankfurt and New York Campus, 1984), pp. 13-26. 23 Noll H-H, Social Indicators and Social Reporting-The International Experience, paper prepared for the symposium "Measuring Well-being and Social Indicators" (The Canadian Council on Social Development, 1996). 24 It should be noted that the "European System of Social Indicators" does not merely measure QOL. The inclusion of social cohesion and sustainability means that the "quality of society" is also measured. "Values and attitudes" and "social structure" are measured under the umbrella of "monitoring social change". Thus the monitoring of "welfare" and "socialchange" becomes the main purpose of the System. This is clearly out of the scope of this essay and will not be discussed. For related concepts, see Noll H-H, The European System of Social Indicators—A Tool for Welfare Measurement and Monitoring Social Change, paper prepared for the International Workshop on Researching Well-Being in Developing Countries, the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) Research Group on Wellbeing in Developing Countries (University of Bath, United Kingdom; and Hanse Institute for Advanced Study, Germany, 2004). 25 When describing the European System of Social Indicators, Zhou Changcheng still translated the term as "European System of Quality of Life Indicators" ( "歐洲生活質量指標體系 " ), despite the fact that the system measures concepts other than "quality of life" as well. See Zhou C et al, Well-Off Society and Quality of Life - Indicators of Quality of Life Study in an International Perspective (Beijing, Social Sciences Documentation Publishing House, 2003), pp. 22-39. 26 Armstrong et al, "Difficulties of Developing and Using Social Indicators to Evaluate Government Programs - A Critical Review", paper presented at the 2002 Australasian Evaluation Society International Conference (2002). 27 Ferriss AL, "The Uses of Social Indicators", from Social Forces, Vol. 66, No.3 (1988), pp. 601-617. 28 Noll H-H, The European System of Social Indicators—A Tool for Welfare Measurement and Monitoring Social Change, paper prepared for the International Workshop on Researching Well-Being in Developing Countries, the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) Research Group on Wellbeing in Developing Countries (United Kingdom, University of Bath; and Germany, Hanse Institute for Advanced Study, 2004). 29 The relationship between social indicators and performance indicators will be discussed in the Closing Remarks section. 30 Ekos Research Associates Inc, The Use of Social Indicators as Evaluation Instruments - Final Report, prepared for the former Human Resources Development Canada (now Human Resources and Skills Development Canada) (1998). 31 Armstrong et al, "Difficulties of Developing and Using Social Indicators to Evaluate Government Programs - A Critical Review", paper presented at the 2002 Australasian Evaluation Society International Conference (2002). 32 OECD, Society at a Glance - OECD Social Indicators (Paris, OECD, 2001). 33 Adopted from Armstrong et al, "Difficulties of Developing and Using Social Indicators to Evaluate Government Programs — A Critical Review", paper presented at the 2002 Australasian Evaluation Society International Conference (2002). 34 Armstrong et al, "Difficulties of Developing and Using Social Indicators to Evaluate Government Programs-A Critical Review", paper presented at the 2002 Australasian Evaluation Society International Conference (2002). 35 Cobb CW & Rixford C, Lessons Learned from the History of Social Indicators (Redefining Progress, 1998). 36 Despacho do Chefe do Executivo n.° 30/2005, Boletim Ofical da RAEM, n.° 9/2005, I Série, 2005, pp. 217-218. 37 North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland and Manukau, From Quality of Life Project, Quality of Life in New Zealand's Eight Largest Cities 2003 (2004), pp. 15. 38 Quality of Life Project, Quality of Life in New Zealand's Eight Largest Cities 2003, (2004), pp. 5-6. 39 The Ministry for the Environment website (http://www.mfe. govt.nz/issues/urban), accessed on 21st March 2005. 40 "A broad statement of principles upon which the British official and Maori chiefs made a political compact or covenant
1. Quality of Life and Social Indicators to found a nation-state and building a functioning government in New Zealand", from the Treat of Waitangi website (http: //www.treatyofwaitangi.govt.nz), accessed on 21st March 2005. 41 Campbell et al, 1976; from Schuessler KF & Fisher GA, "Quality of Life Research and Sociology," from Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.11 (1985), pp. 129-149. 42 Ontario Social Development Council (1997). 43 Adopted from Armstrong et al, "Difficulties of Developing and Using Social Indicators to Evaluate Government Programs-A Critical Review," paper presented at the 2002 Australasian Evaluation Society International Conference Í2002V 44 See Ekos Research Associates Inc, The Use of Social Indicators as Evaluation Instruments — Final Report, prepared for the former Human Resources Development Canada (now Human Resources and Skills Development Canada) (1998). 45 Armstrong et al, "Difficulties of Developing and Using Social Indicators to Evaluate Government Programs-A Critical Review", paper presented at the 2002 Australasian Evaluation Society International Conference (2002). Appendix: Quality of Life Indicators in New Zealand, 200346
1 Espi ng-Ander sen, G. , The Thr ee Wor l ds of Wel f ar e Capi t al i sm ( Pr i ncet on, N. J . : Pr i ncet on Uni ver si t y Pr ess, 1 990) .2 Espi ng-Ander sen, G. . , Wel f ar e St at es i n Tr ansi t i on: Nat i onal Adapat i ons i n Gl obal E c onomi es ( London: T hous and Oaks , Sage Publ i cat i on; Geneva: Uni t ed Nat i ons, Resear ch I nst i t ut e for Soc i al Devel opment , 1 996) .3 Pi er s on, C. , Beyond t he Wel f ar e St at e? The New Pol i t i cal E c onomy of Wel f ar e ( Cambr i dge: Po l i t y Pr es s , 1 991 ) ; Sai ns bur y , D. , Gender , E qual i t y , and Wel f ar e S t at es ( Cambr i dge: Cambr i dge Uni v er si t y Pr es s, 1 996) ; S i ar of f , A. , Compar at i v e E ur opean Par t y Sy s t ems : an Anal y s i s o f Par l i ament ar y E l ec t i ons s i nc e 1 945 ( New Yor k : Gar l and Publ i cat i on, 2000) ; Gal l i e, D & Paugam, S. , Wel f ar e r egi mes and t he exper i ence of empl oyment i n E ur ope ( Oxf or d; New Yor k: Oxf or d Uni ver si t y Pr ess, 2000) ; Hol l i day, I & Wi l di ng, P. , Wel f ar e Capi t al i sm i n East Asi a: Soci al Pol i cy i n Thei r Ti ger Economi cs ( Basi ngst oke; New Yor k: Pal gr ave Macmi l l an, 2003) .4 J ones, C. , ‘The Paci f i c Chal l enge: Conf uci an wel f ar e st at es. ' i n C. J ones, ( ed. ) , New per spect i ves on t he Wel f are St at e i n Eur ope ( L ondon: Rout l edge, 1 993) , pp. 1 98-21 7; Chan, R K H. , Wel f ar e i n Newl y-i ndust r i al i zed Soci et y - t he Const r uct i onof Wel f ar e St at e i n Hong Kong ( Al der shot : Avebur y, 1 996) ;Hol l i day, I & Wi l di ng, P. , Wel f ar e Capi t al i sm i n East Asi a:Soc i al Pol i cy i n Thei r T i ger E conomi cs ( Bas i ngst oke; New Yor k: Pal gr av e Macmi l l an, 2003) ; Tang, K L ( ed. ) , Soc i alDevel opment i n Asi a ( Dor dr echt , Kl uwer Academi c Publ i sher s ,2000) ; As pal t er , C. Democ r at i z at i on and Wel f ar e St at eDevel opment ( Hamps hi r e, Ashgat e publ i shi ng l i mi t ed, 2002) .8 Skocpol , T. , Br i ngi ng t he St at e Back i n. ( Cambr i dge New Yor k, N. Y. : Cambr i dge Uni ver si t y Pr ess, 1 985) ; Tang, K L ( ed. ) , Soci al Devel opment i n Asi a ( Dor dr echt , Kl uwer Academi c Publ i sher s, 2000) .11 Whi t e, G. & Goodman, R. , “Wel f ar e or i ent al i sm and t he sear ch f or an East Asi an model ”, i n R. Goodman, G Whi t e & Huck-j u Kwon, The East Asi an Wel f ar e Model Wel f ar e Or i ent al i sm and t he St at e ( London, Rout l edge, 1 998) .1 2 Hol l i day, I & Wi l di ng, P. Wel f ar e Capi t al i sm i n East Asi a: Soci al Pol i cy i n Thei r Ti ger Economi cs ( Basi ngst oke; New Yor k: Pal gr ave Macmi l l an, 2003) .1 3 Tang, K L ( ed. ) , Soci al Dev el opment i n Asi a ( Dor dr ec ht , Kl uwer Academi c Publ i sher s, 2000) )1. Gi l ber t , N & Ter rel l , P. , Di mensi on of Soci al Wel fare Pol i cy. Bost on ( A Pear son Educat i on Company, 20022. Padget t , D. K. , Qual i t at i ve Met hods i n Soci al Work Research ( Thousand Oaks; SAGE Publ i cat i ons, I nc. , 1998) .3. Rubi n, A & Babbi e, E. , Research Met hods f or soci al work, 2nd ed. ( New Yor k; Br ooks/ Col e Publ i shi ng Company , 1 992) .這些 特 性 是 以 “ 儒家 思 想 ” 為 基 礎, 倒 不 如 把 它 們 形容為 披 着 “ 儒家 思 想 ” 的 外衣 , 實 行 新自 由 主 義 為 實的 福 利 體 制 , 拖 延 、 推 遲 市 民 對 福 利 的 需 要 。20事實 上 , 在 高 度全 球 化 的 今 天 ,東 亞 地 區 已 不 能再 獨 善 其 身 , 只 標 榜 甚 麼 亞 洲 價 值 觀 或 儒 家 思 想 來抗 衡 全 球 化 的 挑 戰 , 似 乎 已 不 大 可 行 , 特 別 在 亞 洲金 融 風 暴 後 , 東 亞 各 國 原 依 賴 經 濟 增 長 推 動 福 利 發展 的 神 話 已 不 存 在 , 取 而 代 之 的 是 : 失 業 率 高 企 及經 濟 負 增 長 , 為 了 抗 衡 全 球 化 的 衝 擊 , 東 亞 各 國 均積 極 改 革 原 來 的 福 利 政 策 及 體 制 , 例 如 : 香 港 的 社會服務聯會倡議的“三方參與”( t r i p a r t i t e )模式,便是 希 望 推 動 政 府 、 非 政 府 組 織 及 商 界 共 同 承 擔 福 利服務 ; 台 灣 推 行 “ 投 資 積 極福 利 ” , 鼓 勵 市 民 不 要 只是 依 賴 政 府 ; 中 國 內 地 近 年 也 大 力 鼓 吹 “ 社 會 福 利· 社 會 化 ” , 意 即 由 民 間 和 政 府 共 同 負 責 社 會 福 利服 務 的 開 支 。 足 見 全 球 化 的 衝 擊 下 , 東 亞 各 國 的 福利 體 制 均 要 作 出 相 應 的 改 變 來 迎 接 挑 戰 , 在 全 球 競爭日 益 加 劇 的 今 天 , 各 國 政府 的 公 共 財 政 均 面 對 着 嚴峻 的 處 境 , 特 別 在 亞 洲 金 融 風 暴 後 , 東 亞 各 國 大 都為 了 嚴 重 的 財 政 赤 字 而 傷 透 腦 筋 ; 為 了 促 進 經 濟 發展,改善財政危機,新自由主義( N eo-l i b e ra l i sm)已成為 各 國 ( 包 括 東 西 方 ) 施政 的 主 要 理 念 , 而 澳 門 的福 利 體 制 也 可 能 繼 續 是 以 傳 統 文 化 為 體 , 新 自 由 主義 為 用 的 “ 混 血 兒 ” 。註 釋 :5 梁祖杉、顏可親:《權威與仁慈:中國的社會福利》,香港:中文大學出版社,1 9 9 6 年;黃黎若蓮著,唐鈞譯:《中國社會主義的社會福利:民政福利工作研究》北京:中國社會科學院出版社,1 9 9 9 年;黃黎若蓮:《邊緣化與中國社會福利》,香港:商務印書館,2 00 1年 。6 Gough ,I., Wel f are Regimes in Eas t As i a and Europe :Compari sons and Lesson(Depar tment of Soci al and Poli cySciences,Univer si ty of Bath,2000).7 余英時:《中國近世宗敎倫理與商人精神》,台北:聯經出版事業公司,1 98 7 年;金日坤、邢東田、黃漢卿著,史少鋒譯:《儒家思想文化園的倫理秩序與經濟:儒家思想文化與現 代化》,北京: 中國人民大學出 版社, 1 9 9 1 年; 黃 俊傑 、福 田殖 編 :《 東亞 文化 的 探索:近代文化的動向》,台北:正中書局,1 9 9 6 年。9 周怡君:《台灣風物》,第50卷,第1期,2000年3月。10 同上註 。14 同註1 2 。15 何厚鏵:《20 0 5 年財政年度施政報告》,澳門特區政府印務局,2 0 0 4 年。16 同上註 。17 同上註 。18 同註1 3 。19 許毓濤:《2002年兩岸四地社會福利學術研討會》,台北:財團法人中華文化社會福利事業基金會,2 0 0 2 年。20 Walke r,A & Wong,C.K,Eastern Welfare State in Transit ion,(Internationa l specia lized book services ,2005).參 考 書 目 :) .4. 元建 邦 、袁 桂秀 : 《澳 門史 略 》, 香港 : 中流 出 版社 , 1 9 8 8 年 。5.澳門社會工作司:《澳門社會工作—— 一份祖傳的團結力》 ,澳門 社會工 作司, 199 5年 。6.黃鴻釗:《澳門簡史》,香港:三聯書店,1999年
management:A multip1e-perspective ana1ysi s of the case ofHong Kong,”in International Review of Education,Vo1 .46,No.3/4(2000),pp.205-232.22 敎育統籌委員會[敎統會]:《教育統籌委員會第七號報告書:優質學校教育》,香港:政府印務局,1 9 9 7 年。23 校本管理諮詢委員會:《日新求進,問責承擔:為學校創建專 業新文 化》 ,香港 :政 府印務 局, 2 0 0 0 年 。24 教育統籌局[敎統局]:《2 0 0 2 年教育(修訂)條例草案》,香 港:政 府印務局 ,2 0 0 2 年 。25 陳日 君: 《 香港 人 還珍 惜 多元 化的 敎 育嗎 ? 》, 載 於《公教報》,2 0 0 3 年9 月2 1 日,第2 4 頁;陳日君:《我們 還 能 按 天 主 教 教 育 理 念 辦 學 嗎 ? 》 , 載 於 《 公 敎報》,2 0 0 3 年9 月2 8 日,第2 3 頁;陳日君:《再談談“2 0 0 2 年教育(修訂)條例草案”》,載於《公敎報》,20 0 4 年 3 月2 8 日 ,第4 頁 。26 教育統籌委員會[敎統會]:《教育統籌委員會第七號報告書:優質學校教育》,香港:政府印務局,1 9 9 7 年;謝均才:《香港教育改革的矛盾、弔詭和效果》,載於《香港社會科學學報》,第2 0 期,20 0 1 年,第1 -5 5 頁。27 教育統籌委員會[敎統會]:《教育統籌委員會第七號報告書:優質學校教育》,香港:政府印務局,1 9 9 7 年。28 同 上註 。29 謝均才:《香港教育改革的矛盾、弔詭和效果》,載於《香港社會科學學報》,第2 0 期,2 0 0 1 年,第1 -5 5 頁。3 0 Vi s i t i ng Panel,A Per spect ive on Education in Hong Kong:Repor t by a Vi s i t ing Pane l(Hong Kong:The GovernmentPrinter,1982)31 董建 華 : 《 共創 香 港 新 紀 元》 , 香 港 :政 府 印 務 局 ,19 97 年 ,第2 4 頁。32 同上 註, 第 2 5 頁 。33 Law,W.W.,“G1oba1i z a tion as both threa t and oppor t uni t yfor the Hong Kong te aching profession,”Journa l ofEduc ationa l Change,Vol.4(2003),pp.149-179.3 4 教育署:《持續發展,以臻卓越:校長持續專業發展諮詢文件》 ,香港 :政府 印務局 ,2 0 0 2 年 。35 師訓與師資諮詢委員會[師訓會]:《學習的專業,專業的 學 習 : 敎 師 專 業 能 力 理 念 架 構 及 敎 師 持 續 專 業 發展》,香港:政府物流服務署,2 00 3年,第13 -1 4頁。36 同上註,第1 4 -1 6 頁。37 敎育統籌委員會[敎統會]:《教育統籌委員會第三號報告書:高等教育的體制及私立學校的前瞻》,香港:政府印 務局 ,1 9 8 8 年 。38 教育署:《教育署通函第1 4/9 1號:直接資助計劃》,香港:教育署,1 991年;教育署:《教育署通函第210 /2 0 0 1 號: 直接資助計 劃》,香港 :教育署, 2 0 0 1 年 ;葉建源:《香港公營學校轉“直接資助計劃”趨勢與教育公平問題》,載於《學術研究》,第3 期,2 0 0 3 年,第1 0 4 -1 0 7 頁。39 譚萬鈞:《香港的私立學校》,載於顧明遠、杜祖貽主編:《香港教育的過去與未來》,北京:人民教育出版社,1 9 9 9 年,第5 4 7 -5 6 6 頁。40 曾榮光:《新精英主義與新直接資助計劃:對侵蝕香港特區教育資本的批判》,香港:香港中文大學教育學院香港教育研 究所,2 0 0 2 年 。41 敎育統籌局[敎統局]:《二零零四/零五學年直接資助學校名單 》,2 0 0 4 年 。42 李曉康、葉建源:《香港私立學校教育的發展》,載於《民辦教育發展研究》,第96 期,20 0 4年,第5 0-54 頁。43 教育統籌委員會[敎統會]:《終身學習,全人發展:香港教育 制度改革 建議》, 香港:政 府印務局 ,2 0 0 0年 , 第 1 頁 。44 敎育統籌局[教統局]:《改革高中及高等教育學制——對未 來的 投資 》, 香港 :政 府物 流服 務署 ,2 0 0 4 年 。
The State of Bilingualism in Macau SAR LiChorShing* 1. Macau: History, Land and the People Situated on the western shore of the Pearl River in South China, Macau1 is only about 40 nautical miles to the west of Hong Kong, making it accessible by jetfoil within an hour. It is a former Portuguese colony which boasts several firsts in the history of the Far East, for example, it is the site of the earliest European settlement dating back to the mid-16th century, and the establishment of the first occidental university, the University College of St. Paul. A small city of only about 23.8 square kilometers and 424,000 inhabitants (1998), the territory of Macau is geographically made up of Macau Peninsula and two islands, Taipa and Coloane, the latter being gradually linked together by reclamation. To international travelers and tourists, Macau is probably best known for its well-furnished casinos and sundry gambling activities, which have earned it the title of "The Monte Carlo of the Orient".2 Apart from being a lucrative business attracting millions of tourists to Macau per year, the gambling enterprises generate a huge amount of income representing a significant portion of the territory's GDP. All this will continue to thrive for at least 50 years thanks to the "one country, two systems" socio-political arrangement after the handover in 1999. · Although Macau, too, was a colony like Hong Kong, the patterns of its colonization and decolonization are very different.3 It was leased to the Portuguese in 1557 as an outpost to facilitate their trading activities in the Far East, especially with China and Japan, at a time when direct trading between these two countries was banned. The Portuguese request fora settlement area at the gate of South China was granted largely as a reward for their active role in keeping pirates off the southern Chinese coast. During the initial stage of the lease agreement, the Portuguese enclave had to pay an annual ground rent of 500 taels of silver to Ming dynasty, and the territory remained under Chinese jurisdiction until 1887, when a treaty was signed with the Chinese side conceding that "Portugal will forever administer Macau".4 Almost a century later, a new agreement was reached between Portugal and the People's Republic of China in 1979, redefining Macau as "a Chinese territory under Portuguese administration"5, an agreement which formally set forth the two-decade long decolonization process. On 20th December 1999, Macau became the second Special Administrative Region of China (MSAR) after Hong Kong. Commenting on the conquest-free colonization and non-violent decolonization processes of Macau, Cheng6 raises questions about Frantz Fanon's "paradigm of enmity between native and colonizer" and regards the case of Macau as "almost an anomaly because the phenomena do not fit in with global theorists' belief that colonization is homologous to conquest and decolonization to revolution".7 The overwhelming majority (some 96 %) of the population in Macau are ethnic Chinese. Cantonese is the mother tongue of close to 87% of all Macau residents.8 About 30% of them came to Macau from Mainland China some 10 to 15 years before the handover. These new immigrants speak a number of more or less distinct Chinese varieties, with Cantonese functioning as the lingua franca. Putonghua is getting more and more popular as a result of the government's efforts promoting it in the education domain. According to one language survey9, apart from Cantonese, Putonghua and Portuguese, other languages spoken in Macau include English, Thai, Associate Professor, Department of English and Communication, City University of Hong Kong
The State of Bilingualism in Macau SAP Burmese, Indonesian, some Filipino varieties and Japanese. Code-switching between Cantonese, Portuguese and English is very common.10 The ethnic Portuguese community is tiny. There is, however, a relatively small but important community which came to be called the Macanese. They are residents of Portuguese and Asian ancestry as a result of mixed marriages.11 This "emergent minority" owes their origin "largely to the fact that since the founding of Macau there had been very few Portuguese women there"12, for "wives ranked as a significant item in the list of imports".13 Cheng further remarks that early settlers "sought wives primarily from Malaysia, Japan and India" and that "some abandoned Chinese infant girls were brought up as Christians and became candidates for mixed marriages".14 There used to be over 20,000 Macanese in Macau. But after the Second World War, many emigrated overseas, mainly to Anglophone countries. Today, the Macanese number about 10,000 or barely 2% of the total population. Being highly educated, many Macanese are either professionals such as lawyers and architects, or occupy senior positions in the MSAR government. They are mostly bilingual in Portuguese and Cantonese, some trilingual in Portuguese, Cantonese and English, but their Chinese literacy skills are generally described as weak. The Macanese community often call themselves "Filhos da Terra "(literally "sons of the earth"),15 suggesting a widely shared awareness of being a rootless class, as well as a bitter resentment of the prejudice that they frequently have to put up with from both the Chinese and the "pure" Portuguese. One correlate of this perception of rootlessness is a feeling of not belonging to either community. According to Lei, herself a Macanese, "[t]hey can participate in either community; yet, they do not belong to any one of them. The Portuguese community would consider them more Chinese than Portuguese while the Chinese community would consider them more Portuguese".16 Throughout much of the colonial period, Portuguese was the only official language. Chinese became the second official language only in early 1992. After the handover, the Basic Law stipulates that apart from Chinese, Portuguese may also be used. As in Hong Kong, the term "Chinese" denotes standard written Chinese, which is largely based on PutonghuaorMandarin, whereas spoken Chinese is generally understood to be Cantonese. Like Hong Kong, as part of the "one country, two systems" socio-political arrangement, printed Chinese in Macau is written in traditional (as opposed to simplified) Chinese characters. During the colonial period, knowledge of Portuguese was a sine qua non for promotion in the civil service. This situation was reversed after December 1999. The Basic Law makes it clear that knowledge of Chinese is one important criterion for promotion within government ranks.17 As a colony, Macau was untypical as far as the spread of the colonizers' language is concerned. The Portuguese government made little effort to promote Portuguese among the local people. Hence, until the 1970s, very few Chinese learned or spoke any Portuguese. This point is nicely illustrated in the collection of first-person narratives in Jill McGivering's interesting book, Macau Remembers.™ There, 26 representative figures from different communities and walks of life were interviewed and their personal accounts made up the substance of a collection of fascinating stories falling into five distinct themes: Political Portraits, History and Heritage, Casinos and Crime, Culture at the Crossroads, and City of God. Thus Jose Chui, a successful ethnic Chinese civil engineer in his mid-thirties, recalls that "[w]hen I was a boy, there were only two or three schools for the Portuguese children using the Portuguese language. All the other schools taught in Chinese. When I started to learn a second language, it was English. It was unheard of to learn Portuguese".19 This point is echoed by Gary Ngai, an experienced Chinese promoter of local culture: "When I first came here [from Mainland China] twenty years ago, almost no Chinese, beyond a handful of civil servants, spoke Portuguese.... The attitude used to be: 'Why should I bother to learn Portuguese? It's useless'".20 The colonial administration seemed laissez-faire or indifferent as to their language policy in Macau, if there was one. Not only did the Portuguese have little initiative to promote their language, they also showed no interest in learning the regional vernacular, Cantonese. Thus Dr. Sales Marques, the Macanese mayor of Macau before the handover, said that "[w]ithin the [legislative] council, most of the business is done in Cantonese now, and I speak it pretty well. It's too late for me to learn how to read and write Chinese properly".21 As a consequence, there was a kind of language divide between the Portuguese and the local Chinese throughout the colonial era, which helps explain the lack of communication between them. According to Sir Roger Lobo, another "successful son of the enclave"22, "there was always a divide between the Chinese and the non-Chinese.... It was almost like two separate worlds".23 It is in this regard that the Macanese
The State of Bilingualism in Macau SAR have rendered a great service to Macau: they have played an active role as a bridge between these two communities. In the run-up to the handover, however, there was manifestly a change in attitude. Many Macau Chinese had the incentive to learn Portuguese. According to Gary Ngai, this trend was especially clear among young people attending Portuguese courses in evening classes.24 Lei also notes that many Macanese started learning Chinese (Cantonese and Putonghua) shortly before the handover. The vitality of Portuguese is further assured by the language-in-education policy governing the medium of instruction in primary and secondary schools after the handover.25 Sou notes that there are three categories of schools according to the teaching medium adopted in the school: Chinese, Portuguese and English. In "official schools", the principal teaching medium may be Chinese or Portuguese, with one or the other being a compulsory second language. Private schools, on the other hand, may choose to have any of the three languages as the teaching medium, with the proviso that a second language - to be chosen from the rest of the two languages - must be included in the curriculum.26 2 . Language Contac t Phenomena As Cantonese and Portuguese (including Macanese) have been in contact for more than four hundred years in Macau, it is not surprising at all that contact-induced changes have occurred in the vernaculars of their speakers. And, Macau Cantonese has also been influenced by English to some extent, largely as a result of exposure to Hong Kong electronic media and frequent contact with Hong Kong visitors. A survey of the relevant literature shows that much of this mutual influence manifests in the form of lexical borrowing, intra-sentential code-switching and, to a lesser extent, induced syntactic change as well. 2.1 Influence of Portuguese on Macau Cantonese Several studies27 show that lexical borrowing from Portuguese is very common in Macau Cantonese. For example, the Portuguese word folga "on leave" is transliterated as fo1 gaa2, as in 你幾時 “科架”呀?(Nei5 gei2 si4 fo1 gaa2 aa3? "When are you going on leave?").28 One point of interest is that fo1 gaa2 sounds similar to the indigenous expression with the same meaning 放 假 (fong3 gaa3). Another example is bolsa "scholarship", which is similarly rendered as 煲 沙 "bou1 saa1", as in你讀 Master可以申请 (Nei5 duk6 Master ho2 ji5 san1 cing2 bou1 saa1, "To study a Master's degree you can apply for a scholarship").29 Code-switching between Portuguese and Cantonese is also commonly heard. One high-frequency example is the adverb tudo"a\\", as in全家人tudo 出晒街 (cyun4 gaa1 jan4 tudo ceot1 saai3 gaai1, "The whole family all have gone out").30 According to Wong, some Cantonese speakers would pronounce tudoas du1 du4, making it more like an instance of borrowing.31 Other examples of contact-induced changes in Cantonese include the coining of new lexical items after the Portuguese model, as in the case of擺名 (baai2 meng2, "to apply [for something]"), which is based on pôr o nome, literally "put one's name (on it)". This lexical item has slowly supplanted the usual Cantonese expression 報名, (bou3 meng2) in such contexts as students applying for a place at the university.32 2.2 Influence of English on Macau Cantonese The spread of English in Macau may be partly attributed to the influence of Hong Kong English media-television and radio-and partly to the fact that English occupies an increasingly important position in the domains of education, business and tourism. Popular examples cited include the use of English sports jargon such as start, jumping (swimming), walking, jump ball, handball, line ball and outside (basketball). Ching further remarks that his own students typically greet each other with "Hi", and that part of their "university-speak" includes the word seminar, and the clipped word U (pronounced as you) which is short for university. Other examples of English words occurring in mixed code come from a variety of domains: shopping, ca//(verb and noun), cash, copy (verb and noun), intervie w (sometimes simplified as in), miss (e.g. the bus), to//et and walkman. Code-switching may also take the form of loan blends, or "compromise forms"33, as in食lunch (sik6 lunch, "eat lunch") and i&show (zou6 show, "acting out a show").34 As the lingua franca of both Hong Kong and Macau is Cantonese, most of the lexical borrowings from English found in Hong Kong Cantonese may also be found in Macau Cantonese. Apart from loanwords borrowed a long time ago, such as 巴士 (baa1 si2, "bus") and 的士 (dik1 si2, "taxi"), there are more recent examples which do not have accepted written forms in Chinese/Cantonese. One such example is quail (kwo1 Ii2, "qualification").35 Ching also shows that intra-sentential code-switching between Cantonese and English is fairly common in Macau, especially among educated Macau Chinese.36 2.3 Influence of Cantonese on Macau Portuguese and
The State of Bilingualism in Macau SAP Macanese Portuguese and Macanese, too, have been influenced by Cantonese to some extent. Obvious examples are loan translations involving culture-specific practices, such as bolo lunar (月饼"moon cake") and cabeça de cobra (蛇頭 "snakehead").37 According to Lei, there are quite a few loanwords and loan translations in Macanese which may be traced back to traditional Chinese religious practices38, for example, cau-tau ("to kowtow"), fu ("magical paper"), banco do além and papel de pagode, both meaning "paper money burnt as offering to the dead". At the level of syntax, Ching reports that Portuguese speakers in Macau have developed a Sinicized Portuguese question-tag, é não e?, which is modeled on the A-not-A construction in standard Chinese 是不是? (shi bú shi?) and Cantonese 係唔係 (hai6 m4 hai6), both meaning "isn't it ?".393 . Language Shi f t : The Case o f Macanese The forefathers of the Macanese community spoke a Portuguese Creole called Macanese (also known to members of the speech community as Patua), which was characterized by significant influence from Malay and other Pacific languages.40 Following the introduction of standard Portuguese in the 1950s, however, Macanese slowly lost its vitality and gradually disappeared. Today, as Lei points out, "Macanese as a medium of communication has largely vanished (...). The Creole exists only in songs, jokes, plays, and literature. The older generation of this community could understand and use the Creole, although they only use, most of the time, individual lexical items. The younger generation is more inclined to speak and write standard Portuguese".41 Many Macanese, however, feel psychologically insecure, as shown in the fact that they refer to themselves as "neither meat nor fish"42, or in Bhabha's phrase, "white, but not quite".43Although the Macanese community has lost much of their once vibrant vernacular, they are very proud of their culture and identity. For example, Macanese continues to be used in drama performance by a group of enthusiasts called Grupo de Teatro Doei Papiacam diMacau ("Macau's Sweet Language Theatre Group").44 According to Prof. Baxter of the Research Centre for Luso-Asian Studies at the University of Macau, there are fewer than two dozen fluent speakers of Patua in Macau and Hong Kong.45 The Macanese also take pride in their food and culinary practices. Thus Jorge Smith, one of the immigrants of Chinese and Zimbabwean ancestry, described how he was pleasantly surprised by a Macanese host's invitation to a cha gordo, which turned out to be a Mediterraneanstyle feast: "We started at six o'clock in the evening and I left his house at around one in the morning. It's neither lunch nor dinneryou keep eating on and off for five or six hours. The importance placed on food is extremely Chinese in its orientation ... but the format was very European, suited to the convivial aspect of Macanese society".46 This is of course just another example showing some of the more pleasant things that could happen when cultures are in contact. Notes: 1 The spelling 'Macao' is English, while 'Macau' is Portuguese. The same territory is referred to as Ou Mun in Cantonese, and Aomen in Putonghua or Mandarin. 2 The domain of gambling naturally has its own culture-specific register, which is the object of research in several studies (e.g., Ching, Cheung Fai,《澳門賭文化帶来的社會现象》 (The Language Phenomenon brought about by the Gambling Culture in Macau), in Wong et al. (eds.),《澳門:語言博物館》 (Macau: Language Museum) (Hong Kong: Hoi Fung Publishing, 1998), pp. 280-284; Shao, Caoyang,《港澳博彩用語研究》 (A Study of Gambling Language in Hong Kong and Macau), in Wong et al. (eds.),《澳門:語言博物館》 (Macau: Language Museum) (Hong Kong: Hoi Fung Publishing, 1998), pp. 184-279). 3 Cheng, Christina Miu Bing, Macau. A Cultural Janus, (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1999). 4 Ibid., p. 1. 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid., p. 35. 7 Ibid., p. of 42; Fanon, Frantz, trans, by Constance Farrington. Harmondsworth, The Wretched of the Earth (England: Penguin Books, 1967); see also Li, David C.S., "Hong Kong Parents' Preference for English-medium education: Passive Victims of Imperialism or Active Agents of Pragmatism?", in Andy Kirkpatrick (ed.), Englishes in Asia. Communication, Identity, Power & Education (Melbourne: Language Australia, 2002), pp. 29-62, with regard to the decolonization process of Hong Kong. 8 Wong, L.,《多語社會興語碼轉換——澳門語言状況的分析興思考》 (Multilingual Society and Code-Switching-Some Thoughts and Analysis on the Language Situation of Macau), in Wong et al. (eds.),《澳門:語言博物館》 (Macau: Language Museum) (Hong Kong: Hoi Fung Publishing, 1998), p. 2. 9 Ibid. 10 Ching, Cheung Fai,《語言興》( Language and Communication) (Macau: Macau Foundation, 1995); Wong, L.,《多語社會興語碼轉換——澳門語言状況的析興思考》 (Multilingual Society and Code-Switching-Some Thoughts and Analysis on the Language Situation of Macau), in Wong et al. (eds.),《澳門:語言博物館》 (Macau: Language Museum) (Hong Kong: Hoi Fung Publishing, 1998) 11 Ching, Cheung Fai, 《1999 興澳門語文規劃》 (1999andLanguage Planning in Macau), in Z. Wu, W. Yang and S. Feng (eds.),《澳門1999》(Macau: Macau Foundation ,1999),
1. The State of Bilingualism in Macau SAR pp. 246—253; Lei, Sio Lin, The Application of the Linguistic Relativity Thesis to the Situation in Macau: The Reflection of Chinese Religious Culture in Macanese Lexical Items. M.A. dissertation (The University of Hong Kong, 2001). 12 Ching, Cheung Fai, 《1999 興澳門語文規劃》(1999 and Language Planning in Macau), in Z. Wu, W. Yang and S. Feng (eds.), 《澳門1999》(Macau: Macau Foundation, 1999), p. 203. 13 Coates, Austin, A Macau Narrative (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press,1987), p. 34; of Amaro, Ana Maria, "Sons and Daughters of the Soil. The First Decade of Luso—Chinese diplomacy", Review of Culture, Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau, No. 10 (1994). pp. 13-67. 14 Ching, Cheung Fai,《1999 興澳門語文規劃》(1999 and Language Planning in Macau), in Z. Wu, W. Yang and S. Feng (eds.),《澳門1999》(Macau: Macau Foundation, 1999), p. 203. 15 Amaro, Ana Maria, "Sons and Daughters of the Soil. The First Decade of Luso-Chinese diplomacy", Review of Culture, Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau, No. 10 (1994), pp. 13-67. 16 Lei, Sio Lin, The Application of the Linguistic Relativity Thesis to the Situation in Macau: The Reflection of Chinese Religious Culture in Macanese Lexical Items. M.A. dissertation (The University of Hong Kong, 2001), p. 23. 17 Ching, Cheung Fai, 《語言興溝通》 (Language and Communication) (Macau: Macau Foundation, 1995), p. 25. 18 McGivering, Jill., Macau Remembers (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1999). 19 Ibid., p. 87. 20 Ibid., p. 158. 21 Ibid., p.33. 22 Ibid., p.71. 23 Ibid., p.73. 24 Ibid., p. 158. 25 Lei, Sio Lin, The Application of the Linguistic Relativity Thesis to the Situation in Macau: The Reflection of Chinese Religious Culture in Macanese Lexical Items. M.A. dissertation (The University of Hong Kong, 2001). 26 Sou, Chio Fai, "Establishment of an Education System in Macau", in Philip Kwok Fai Hui & Pui Kai Chan (eds.), Reform of Educational Systems & Teacher Education: The Asian experience. Department of Educational Studies (School of Foundations in Education, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 2000), pp. 205-209. 27 Ching, Cheung Fai, 《語言興溝通》(Language and Communication) (Macau: Macau Foundation, 1995); Wong, L . ,《多語社會興語碼轉換——澳門語言状況的分析興思考》 (Multilingual Society and Code-Switching-Some Thoughts and Analysis on the Language Situation of Macau), in Wong et al. (eds.), 《澳門:語言博物館》 (Macau: language museum) (Hong Kong: Hoi Fung Publishing, 1998). 28 Wong, L., 《多語社會興語碼轉換——澳門語言状況的分 興思考》(Multilingual Society and Code-Switching-Some )Thoughts and Analysis on the Language Situation of Macau , in Wong et al. (eds.),《澳門:語言博物館》 (Macau: Language Museum) (Hong Kong: Hoi Fung Publishing, 1998), p. 6. 29 Ibid., p.7. 30 Ching, Cheung Fai, 《語言興溝通》(L an g u a g e and Communication) (Macau: Macau Foundation, 1995), p.26. 31 Wong, L.,《多語社會興語碼轉換——澳門語言状況的 析興思考》 (Multilingual Society and Code-Switching —Some Thoughts and Analysis on the Language Situation of Macau), in Wong et al. (eds.), 《澳門:語言 博物館》(Macau: Language Museum) (Hong Kong: Hoi Fung Publishing, 1998). 32 Ching, Cheung Fai,《語言興溝通》anguage and Communication) (Macau: Macau Foundation, 1995), p. 26. 33 Clyne, Michael, Community Languages: The Australian Experience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). 34 Ching, Cheung Fai, 《語言興溝通》(Language and Communication) (Macau: Macau Foundation, 1995), pp. 28 -30. 35 Ibid., p. 29. 36 Ibid. 37 Wong, L.,《多語社會興語碼轉換——澳門語言状況的分析興思考》(Multilingual Society and Code-Switching-Some Thoughts and Analysis on the Language Situation of Macau), in Wong et al. (eds.), 《澳門:語言博物館》(Macau: Language Museum) (Hong Kong: Hoi Fung Publishing, 1998), pp. 6-7. 38 Lei, Sio Lin, The Application of the Linguistic Relativity Thesis to the Situation in Macau: The Reflection of Chinese Religious Culture in Macanese Lexical Items. M.A. dissertation (The University of Hong Kong, 2001). 39 Ching, Cheung Fai,《語言興溝通》 (Language and Communication) (Macau: Macau Foundation, 1995), pp. 26- 27. 40 Tomás, L, "Makista Creole", Review of Culture, No. 5 (Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau, 1988); Tomás, L, "The Life and Death of a Creole", Review of Culture, Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau, No. 9 (1994), pp. 55-65. 41 Lei, Sio Lin, The Application of the Linguistic Relativity Thesis to the Situation in Macau: The Reflection of Chinese Religious Culture in Macanese Lexical Items. M.A. dissertation (The University of Hong Kong, 2001). 42 Zepp. R.A., Macau: City of Commerce and Culture, Continuity and Change, (Hong Kong: API Press, 1991), cited in Lei, Sio Lin, The Application of the Linguistic Relativity Thesis to the Situation in Macau: The Reflection of Chinese Religious Culture in Macanese Lexical Items. M.A. dissertation (The University of Hong Kong, 2001), p. 21. 43 Cited in Cheng, Christina Miu Bing, Macau. A Cultural Janus (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1999), p. 203. 44 Bruning, Harald, "Sweet language", South China Morning Post, 2nd April 2004, p. A17. 45 Baxter, Alan N., "Macau's Sweet Language", South China Morning Post, 22nd April 2004, p. A16. 46 McGivering, Jill., Macau Remembers (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 187.
模的國際貿易,和‘遍歷諸番國,宣天子詔,因給賜其君長’。作經濟和政治的活動。帥領將士卒二萬七千八百餘人,分乘六十二艘大舶。擁有最新組織和設備的海軍,所到處有不服從的便用武力解決。當時印度洋上海盜縱橫,剽掠商旅,這次遠航除負有上述任務外,附帶有解決海盜,肅清航路的使命。”33“成宣間(1402-1435),努力向南洋發展之結果,第一為經濟上之收穫,用瓷器、絲、茶諸貨物到南洋博易,政府和人民兩受其益。第二是政台上的成功,國威遠播,南洋諸國王,稽首來庭,甘為臣屬。第三是文化的傳播,寶船迭出,信使往來,使南洋諸國均染華風。第四是華僑移殖之增加及勢力之發展,因航路之開闢及航海技術之進步,加以鄭和一行使人在南洋之成功,使中國人在南洋之地位陡然提高,在各方面均得便利;因之渡海博易及留居之人數頓增,以其靈敏耐勞的手腕,漸得當地人之信仰。華商遂取得南洋經濟上領袖之地位,同時參與當地政治,有為當地執政者,甚至有為國王者。”34“此並明云鄭和下西洋之使命為賜命‘互市’。……此文中所云‘打整番貨,裝載船內’之‘番貨’,即指寶船貿易所得之物品,故鄭和西行之舉之有‘貿易性質’,萬萬無有疑問!又鄭和下西洋所用之寶船,其全名為‘西洋取寶船’(見《皇明從信錄》等書)然則其性質不益明乎?鄭和下西洋,成績頗大,‘互市通商’之事遂為興起。如《明史稿》‘鄭和傳’云:‘和將命絕域,三擒賊魁,威震海外,凡所號令,罔敢不服從,而番人利中國貨物,益互市通商,往來不絕。’其所獲之珍寶亦甚多。如《明史》‘鄭和傳’云:‘ 和……所歷……凡三十餘國,所取無名寶物不可勝計。‘《瀛涯勝覽》書首紀行詩並云:‘歸到京華覲紫宸,龍墀獻納皆奇珍。’然‘貿采琛異’之所獲固多,而‘中國耗費亦不貲’(‘鄭和傳’語)。《殊域周咨錄》卷八載劉大夏之言曰:‘三保下西洋,費錢糧數十萬,軍民死且萬計,縱得奇寶而回,於國家何益?’此固可証明三保下西洋之目的為‘得奇寶’,然其以後所以乏繼響之故,亦可於此窺出也。”35上述論述是比較令人信服的。仔細閲讀《瀛涯勝覽》、《星槎勝覽》及《西洋番國志》三部時作,經商的細節比比皆是。明人黃省增直稱鄭和為“貿易珍寶之使”。“論曰:廣人陳祖義,國初竄舊港為酋長,以寇鈔為業,舶人苦之。鄭和至,有施進卿者白和,乃執祖義歸,之京師誅焉,而章紱進卿於其土云。然則和豈貿易珍寶之使哉! 除異域之患,為天子光,和亦賢矣。”36 曾隨鄭和船隊同行的鞏珍説下西洋是“經濟大海”。因此,筆者較認同“政治經濟雙重目的説”。鄭和下西洋,一方面為恢復和發展了明朝與海外諸國的外交、貿易關係,以鞏固和擴大明朝的統治和提高國家地位,另一方面是適應海外貿易的客觀要求,以國家之力壟斷海外貿易,專擅利源。“這反映在那裏的建築上”一句,是指華人的商站或“官廠”。漢語文獻中有關記載闕如,但葡語史料內卻有許多目擊錄。1 6世紀曾在印度生活了半個世紀的歷史學家戈雷亞(Gaspa r Cor re ia)在其《印度傳奇》中記曰:“他(Pedra l ua res Cabral)下令起造大房子,其中部分供人員居住。他命令代理商手下經常要有百人,隨時準備執行任務。他給教堂及修士們也造了房子。所有房子外面有巨大的柵欄。有的是地方。那裏是華人在古里和如前所述在整個印度時的居所(apos en t o )。當地人稱它 Ch i naco t a ,意即‘中國人的堡壘’( f o r t a l eza dos C hyns)。”37此處所言“居所”,可能便是等待分船隊返回並等候買賣成交的陸上住處。既然當地人稱之為“堡壘”,“外面有巨大的柵欄”,其制應類同馬歡與鞏珍筆下的滿剌加官廠。另外,另一位曾於1 6世紀初至中葉在印度生活過數 十 載 的 著 名 葡 萄 牙醫 生 兼 植 物 學 家 奧 爾 塔(Garc i a da Or ta),也為我們提供了一條彌足珍貴的資料:“華人很早便在這一帶航行了;由於當地人未開化,無學問,從華人那裏學到了法律和習俗,也學會了用高舷船 38 進行各種航行……他們以前在古里有一個商站( f e i t o r i a),今天(該書出版的1563年)還在。人們稱它C h i na c o ta,意即‘中國人的堡壘’(for ta 1eza dos C h ins) 39 。”40權威的葡萄牙大航海時代王室編年史家巴羅斯(Joã o de Bar ros)亦有此説:“當時華人航行印度海岸。因為香料貿易的緣故,他們在那裏有自己的多
處商站(fei to r i as)。”41對我們搜集、披露的葡語關於鄭和下西洋的史料,某些“學院派”研究者頗有疑問。42 是不是指鄭和下西洋?還是整體的中國海外航行?這段裏出現的拼音“f f om”看來是一個有力的回答:“現在,他們還來棉蘭老(Mimdanao)、渤泥、麻剌加和暹羅。這些及其他王國有他們的印,即‘封(f f om)’。”東南亞受到中國冊封的國家和地區很多,在此僅舉渤泥為例:“其朝貢不絕。(洪武四年,國王馬謨沙遣其臣亦思麻逸進金表銀箋及方物。永樂三年,遣使封其國王麻那惹加那乃為王,給印符誥命。六年,王率其妃及家屬陪臣來朝,至福建。遣內臣住宴勞之,令所過諸郡設宴。至京,王奉金字表文及諸珍物,妃進中供東宮箋及方物。上御奉天門宴王。是年,王卒於南京會同館,輟朝三日,祭賻甚厚。詔謐恭順,賜葬南京城南石子岡,以西南夷人隸籍中國者守之,樹碑立祠,命有司秋致祭。復令其子遐旺襲封,遣內官及行人護選還國。十二年及洪熙元年,俱來朝貢。)”43“這裏只用他們的硬幣,因為沒有銅,也不用其他東西鑄造”。此類記載漢語史乘中舉不勝舉,無需贅述。“此地有島嶼,主要的人稱為 Batachinas ,如同摩羅(M oro)、穆阿爾(Muar)和望加錫(Maquassar)的 Batach ina 。Ba tac h i na 的意思是土地。據説是他們給它起了‘中國石(pedra da C h ina),這個名字,……”這裏實際上是指明廷封祀海外鎮國之山的歷史。對此,何平立有精闢的概括分析:“鄭和下西洋時期,明廷封祀海外鎭國之山,其意義已遠遠超過山岳崇拜與宗教觀念範疇,主要反映了以下幾方面的作用與關係:首先,封祀海外鎭國之山表現了明朝宗主國的意識。鎭山觀念早在先秦時期就已產生。其次,這是海外諸國獲得明朝保護與支持的標誌 。故一般而言,這種封祀是應本國的請求,絕不是強求。而朝貢藩國一旦被明朝封祀鎭國之山,這就等於納入明朝保護傘下,鄭和艦隊就是其強大的武力後盾,地域利益就能得到有力的庇護。故渤泥國山被明朝封為‘長寧鎭國之山’後,爪哇就不敢再逼渤泥納貢,且爪哇國‘西王都馬板貢(給明朝)黃金萬兩謝罪。’因此,東南亞諸藩輕易不敢冒犯被明朝封祀鎭國之山的領土。再次,封祀海外鎭國之山,不僅有利於明朝朝貢宗藩政策的推行,而且有利於中外文化交流,有利於促進東南亞國家安定發展。在封祀海外鎭國之山時,均要立刊御制碑文,其封祀的意義已均表露其中。如明成祖親撰渤泥鎭國之山碑文中曰:‘朕嗣守鴻圖,率由典式,嚴恭祗畏,協和所統,無間內外,均視一體,遐邇綏寧……強罔敢侵弱,眾罔敢暴寡,皆天子之賜也。”44我們認為,“中國石(pedra da China)”可能便是封碑。再以渤泥為例:“初故王(麻那惹加那)言:臣蒙恩賜爵,臣境土悉屬職方,乞封國之後川為一方鎮。新王(遐旺)復以為言,乃封為長寧鎮國之山,御製碑文,令(中官張)謙等勒碑其上。”45葡語中也有涉及永樂柯枝御製碑逸事的多條記載 。葡人費爾南·羅佩斯·德·卡斯達聶達於1 551 -1561年間出版的《葡萄牙人發現征服印度史》書中記曰:“敵人潰逃後,城市及國王官邸遭到了洗劫。找到了一塊屬於柯枝國王的石碑。這是一塊白色的石頭,與其它石頭無所不同。其形制如同半扇磨片,上面刻有一些馬拉巴爾字。得到這塊石碑後,柯枝的軍事貴族大肆慶祝了一番。同時,還找到了幾塊金屬牌,上面刻着龍 46,還有漢字(letras chins)。雷批林(Repl i m)47 國王對這些東西頂禮膜拜,因為是他們宗教的物品。馬爾廷·阿豐索(Mar t im Afonso)48劫掠城市之後,將一切付之一炬,然後回到了柯枝。在那裏,他受到了隆重的接待。他把雷批林國王的華蓋、那些金屬牌以及石碑交給了柯枝王。柯枝王對這些物品十分珍惜,所以感激不盡。”49另外一位葡印歷史家戈雷亞(Gaspar Correia)在《印度傳奇》中敘述了此碑的政治作用:“在雷批林島上有一塊古老的石碑,薩莫林(ç amorym)50 摸着它便加冕成了(雷批林)國王,但他以前不是,他的前任也不是。”51 可見,當時這些小國將中國皇帝的封碑視為政治合法性的基礎。對此,葡萄牙學者有
進一步的論述:“以前華人成為了整個馬拉巴爾沿海的主人。他們在那裏設立了一些村落,至今仍有記憶。他們將那個國家(馬拉巴爾)的政府與統治限於兩個首領。一個具有世俗權,稱薩莫林,義即眾人之王;另一個擁有精神統治權,稱大婆羅門(Brâ mane-mor)。華人讓他駐紮柯枝城,並留下法律説,所有馬拉巴爾的皇帝必需到柯枝,經大婆羅門之手加冕。為此華人在柯枝留下了一塊石碑,所有皇帝必需觸摸它登位。這一儀式保留、繼續了多年,直至古里王(他在整個馬拉巴爾的國王培里馬(Per i ma l )將國家分為小王國,前往麥加後,成為了薩莫林),因為柯枝王同葡萄牙人的友誼(參見巴羅斯《亞洲旬年史之一》)而打敗他奪取了加冕碑,將其運至雷批林為止 。 ” 52“一塊屬於柯枝國王的石碑”當為永樂所賜的御製碑。此事見之《明成祖實錄》卷一百八十三,永樂十四年十二月,“遣中官鄭和等賚敕及錦綺、紗羅、彩絹等物,偕往賜各國王。仍賜柯枝國王可亦里印誥,並封其國中之山為鎮國山,上親制碑文賜之。”53對此,《明史》所記甚詳:“永樂元年遣中官尹慶齎詔撫諭其國,賜以銷金帳幔、織金文綺、綵帛及華蓋。六年復命鄭和使其國。九年,王可亦里遣使入貢。十年,鄭和再使其國,連二歲入貢。其使者請賜印誥,封其國中之山。帝遣鄭和齎印賜其王,因撰碑文,命勒石山上。其詞曰:王化與天地流通,凡覆載之內、舉納於甄陶者,體造化之仁也。蓋天下無二理,生民無二心,憂戚喜樂之同情,安逸飽煖之同欲,奚有間於遐邇哉。任君民之寄者,當盡子民之道。詩云‘邦畿千里,惟民所止,肇域彼四海’。書云‘東漸於海,西被於流沙,朔南暨聲敎,訖於四海’。朕君臨天下,撫治華夷,一視同仁,無間彼此。推古聖帝明王之道,以合乎天地之心。遠邦異域,咸使各得其所,聞風嚮化者,爭恐後也。”54“柯枝國遠在西南,距海之濱,出諸蕃國之外,慕中華而歆德化久矣。命令之至,拳跽鼓舞,順附如歸,咸仰天而拜曰:‘何幸中國聖人之敎,沾及於我!’乃數歲以來,國內豐穰,居有室廬,食飽魚鱉,衣足布帛,老者慈幼,少者敬長,熙熙然而樂,凌厲爭競之習無有也。山無猛獸,溪絕惡魚,海出奇珍,林產嘉木,諸物繁盛,倍越尋常。暴風不興,疾雨不作,札沴殄息,靡有害菑。蓋甚盛矣。朕揆德薄,何能如是,非其長民者之所致歟?乃封可亦里為國王,賜以印章,俾撫治其民。並封其國中之山為鎭國之山,勒碑其上,垂示無窮。而係以銘曰:‘截彼高山,作鎭海邦,吐煙出雲,為下國洪龐。肅其煩歊,時其雨暘,祛彼氛妖,作彼豐穰。靡菑靡沴,永庇斯疆,優游卒歲,室家胥慶。於戲! 山之嶄兮,海之深矣,勒此銘詩,相為終始。’”55葡人筆下記述的古里國王及柯枝國王對中國皇帝賜物的頂禮膜拜、視為宗教聖物及政治統治合法性基礎的情況,足以説明了大明王朝在西洋的巨大威望。此亦為鄭和下西洋政治外交作用足證之一。“這些及其他王國有他們的印”,顯然就是費爾南·羅佩斯·德·卡斯達聶達所説的“上面刻着龍,還有漢字”的“幾塊金屬牌”。《東西洋考》曰:“文萊即婆羅國,東洋盡處,西洋所自起也。唐總章二年,王旖達缽遣使者與環王使者偕朝,自後入絕。永樂四年,遣其臣勿黎哥來朝,並貢方物。賜王及妃文綺。俗傳今國王為閩人,隨鄭和征此,留鎭其地,故王府旁舊有中國碑。先年曾為佛郎機所逐,國人走山谷中,放藥,水流出,毒死佛郎機無數,佛郎機遂奔呂宋。其地故有一石城、一木城,後折石城於長腰嶼,築岸閉潮。今所遺者,木城耳。王削髮,裹金繡巾,腰佩雙劍,出自步行,從者二百餘輩。其親屬稱邦奇蘭,貴重與王相亞。王有金印一枚,重十六兩,印上篆文作獸形一隻,云是永樂間所賜者。夷人婚娶,請印印背上。恐或假寵中國以哃喝其部落,非果鑄自上方也。”56《明史》基本襲張燮説,只是刪節了“恐或假寵中國以哃喝其部落,非果鑄自上方也”一段:“婆羅,又名文萊,東洋盡處,西洋所自起也。唐時有婆羅國,高宗時常入貢。永樂三年十月遣使者齎璽書、綵幣撫諭其王。四年十二月,其國東、西二王並遣使奉表朝貢。明年又貢。萬曆時,為王者閩人也。或言鄭和使婆羅,有閩人從之,因留居其地,其後人竟據其國而王之。57 邸旁有中國碑。
王 有 金 印 一 , 篆 文 , 上 作 獸 形 , 言 永 樂 朝 所 賜 。 民間 嫁 娶 , 必 請 此 印 印 背 上 , 以 為 榮 。 ”58是否“鑄自 上方”並不 重要,重要 的是中國皇 帝“金 印 ”在 當 地威 信 之高 , 連“ 民 間嫁 娶 ,必 請 此 印印背 上 , 以 為 榮 。 ”“Ba tac h i na 的意思是土地。”一語有誤。“Ba ta ”來自馬來語的“Ba t u ”,其意為“石 頭、岩石”。59馬六甲民間相傳 ,鄭和三寶公的 “官廠”就設 在三 寶 山 。 韓 振 華 考 證 説 :“ 在 馬 六 甲 市 的 正 東 偏 北 之 處 , 有 一 座 山 , 名 叫‘Buk i t Ch i na , 意 曰 中 國 山 , 亦 稱 為 三 寶 山 , 恐 即 明朝 下 西 洋 時 , 以 馬 六 甲 所 設 的 官 廠 , 就 是 指 此 而言 , 貯 運 分 ★ 而 往 及 由 西 洋 所 運 回 貨 物 的 倉 庫 , 其 倉庫 恐 怕 就 在 這 個 ‘ 中 國 山 ’ 之 上 。 關 於 馬 六 甲 的 中 國山 或 三 寶 山 此 地 , 十 五 世 紀 末 馬 來 文 的 H i k u y u tHang Tuah 一 書 , 就 有 記 載 馬 六 甲 的 Buk i t C h i na ,1 6 1 3 年 的 Emmanue1 God i nho de Ered i a 所 繪 的 馬 六甲 城 市 圖 ( Pl an t a da Ci dade e povo Acoens deMa l ac c a ) , 亦 於 馬 六 甲 市 之 正 東 偏 北 之 處 , 繪 有BYQVET CHINA( 即 Buk i t C h i na) , 亦 即 華 僑 所 謂 三寶 山 , 高 達 1 4 9 尺 , 山 之 西 面 , 有 Madre de Deus ,意 譯 曰 上 帝 之 母 的 敎 堂 , 恐 怕 是 指 三 寶 太 監 下 西 洋時 及 其 以 後 中 國 航 海 者 所 信 奉 之 水 上 聖 母 廟 , 亦 即天 妃 宮 是 也 。 山 之 西 南 , 有 一 口 井 , 此 即 馬 六 甲 有名 的 三 寶 井 。 基 於 上 述 理 由 , 我 認 為 下 西 洋 時 在 馬六 甲 所 設 立 的 官 廠 , 應 在 今 之 三 寶 山 。 ” 60韓先 生的 結論 是正 確的 。在 此我 們略 作一 補考 。明成祖通過鄭和賜的麻 剌加鎮國山碑,據《明 太宗實錄》 ,立碑地 點是在 西山:“ ……其封 滿剌加 國之 西 山 為 鎮 國 之 山 , 錫 以 銘 詩 , 勒 之 貞 石 , 永 示 其萬世子孫國 人,與天 無極。”至 於“西山 ”為今哪 一座 ? 目 前 有 二 説 : 如 果 三 寶 山 是 鄭 和 曾 經 駐 紮 及 設官 廠 之 地 , 鎮 國 山 碑 應 該 豎 立 那 裏 ; 倘 若 將 鎮 國 山碑視為麻 剌加王朝 的“護 國之寶” ,那麼應 該立在 皇宮所 在 的聖 保 羅山 上 。 三寶 山 在馬 來 語 中作 “ Buk i tCh i na”(中國山)。據史密斯(W.H.C.Sm i t h)的研究,“ Ba toc hi na ”與“Buk i t Chi na”是同義詞。61對此 問 題 , 拉戈 阿 子 爵 考曰 “BATO CHI N A, 麻 剌 加城郊區一地,今名無考。( 巴羅斯 —— 亞洲)”62 查巴 羅 斯 著 作 的 原 文 為 : “ 在 我 們 碉 堡 上 方 的 山 頭上,就是後來科埃略(Duar te Coel ho)成立供奉恩典聖母(nó f f a Senho ra da Gr aç a)隱修院那個地方鎮守的是龐巴爾人博特略 (ló r ge Bo tel ho) 和稱為Ba toC h i na 的那個地方有家室的葡人;在通往 Vp i j 那邊摩爾 人 居 住 的 大 村 子 的 那 條 河 流 橋 上 守 衛 的 是 雷 莫 斯(Fer nam de L mos)”。 63 據 此 , 史 密 斯 的 考 證 是 有歷史憑依的。“Buk i t Chi na”原稱“Ba to Ch i na”。那麼三寶山則是“西山”。也就是説,“ Ba toch i na ”(中國石)曾立在現在的“ Buk i t Ch i na”上。從“Ba toc h i na”及“Ba to Chi na”的考證結果來看,摩鹿加群島也曾有過“ Batoch i na ”(中國石),即明朝的封碑。南 洋各地的“三寶 山”可能都與此 詞及 史 實 有 關 。“那條河流橋”大概就是鞏珍所目睹的:“有一大溪 紅 ( 原 文 如 此 ) 王 居 前 過 入 海 , 王 於 溪 上 建 立 木橋, 橋上 造亭 二十 餘間 ,諸 貨買 賣皆 集於 此。 ”64“據秦人( c h i ns )們説,他們的省份從未叫過 、現在也不叫Ch i na ,而是稱大明國(Taybemquo),他們叫大明國人( t a i bem quos)。”這透露出,當時行商 海 外 的 華 人 呼 祖 國 為 “ 大 明 國 ” , 自 稱 “ 大 明 國人 ” 。“秦人”(chi ns )得自“他們的計算法中有一個名字叫 gi na ”係附會穿鑿,不足取信。“ g i na ”應該是“支那”之類名稱的變音。 65“不 知為 何此 種航 行中 止了 ,高 舷大 帆船 許久 未來 此 地 了 , … … ” 無 疑 , 這 所 涉 及 的 是 鄭 和 七 下 西洋。 私 人 海 外 貿 易 從 來 是 禁 而 不 止 ! 不 用 説 當 時 不知 道 “ 航 行 中 止 ” 的 原 因 , 就 是 6 0 0年 後 還 爭 論 紛紛 , 不 得 要 領 呢 。這條史料的重要 意義在於,不但 證實了鄭和船 隊具有貿易性 質,還披 露了在“以 物易物” 的交換中 ,具有 以 丁 香 為 主 的 洲 際 三 角 貿 易 形 態 。附 錄 :葡萄牙海外擴張時期的 國家正史家官巴羅斯在 撰寫《亞洲旬年史之三》(里斯本,1 563年)時,可 能參考 過 這 一 檔案 手 稿 。 有關 敘 述 見 下 :“(135)然後,據説下面三個民族——秦人、馬來人或爪哇人的中國式帆船停靠此地。最多的説法是秦人,因為他們的信息現在還留在那個名叫Ba tec h i na do Mor o大島的名字裏。 這 些 島 嶼 66 就
的討論,見 Huber t Th. H. M. J acobs, A Tr eat i se on t he Mol uccas ( c. 1 544) , pr obabl y t he pr el i mi nar y ver si on of Ant óni o Gal v■o' s l ost Hi st ór i a das Mol ucas. Sources and St udi es f or t he Hi st ory of t he Jesui t s, Ⅲ, St . Loui s, Jesui t Hi st or i cal I nst i t ut e ( Rome) ( St . Loui s Uni versi t y, 1971) , pp. 6-1 6。 原 件 第 1 3章 , 第 6v -7r 頁 。 Doc ument a■ ■ o par a a hi st ór i a das mi ss■es do padroado por t uguês do Or i ent e: I nsul índi a, col i gi da e anot ada por Ar t ur Basíl i o de Sá, Li sboa,1 5 C. R. Boxer , The Por t uguese seabor ne empi r e: 1 41 5-1 825 ( L ondon, Car c ane t , 1 969) .1 6 Roder i ch Pt ak, “Chi na and t he Tr ade i n Cl oves ci r ca 960 -1 435”, i n Chi na' s Seabor ne Tr ade wi t h Sout h and Sout heast As i a ( 1 200-1 750) ( As hgat e, Al der s hot , Br ook f i el d USA, Si ngapor e and Sydney, 1 999) , pp, XⅡ 1 -1 3 and Asi an Tr ade i n Cl oves ci r ca 1 500: Quant i t i es and Tr ade Rout es-A Synopsi s of Por t uguese and Ot her Sour ces, i n i dem, pp. VⅢ 1 49-1 69e Manuel Lobat o, Pol ít i ca e comér ci o dos por t ugueses na I nsul índi a: Mal aca e as Mal ucas de 1 575 a 1 605 ( Macau, I ns t i t ut o Por t uguê s do Or i ent e, 1 999) , pp. 291 -332. document os da Tor r e do Tombo acer ca das navega■■es e c onqui s t as por t uguez as ) , 里 斯 本 社 會 科 學 院 , 1 892年 , 第 21 9-225頁 。26 詳細過程見 Armando Cor t es■o, “O I t i ner■r i o de Ant ■ni o de Abr eu”, i n Espar sos, ( Coi mbr a, BGUC, 1 974) , Vol . I , pp. 343-352.27 Ar mando Cor t es■o, “O Descobr i ment o da Aust r al ási a e aQuest ■o das Mol ucas”, i n Espar sos ( Coi mbr a, BGUC, 1 974) ,Vo l . I , pp. 261 -303.28 Her mann Kel l enbenz, El Negoci o de l os 350 000 Ducados, i n Vi ce-Al mi r ant e A. Tei xei r a da Mot a, I n Memor i am, Vol . I , L i s boa, Ac ademi a de Mar i nha e I I CT , 1 988, pp. 57-66.29 谢 方 點 校 : 《 東 西 洋 考 》 , 北 京 : 中 華 書 局 , 2000年 , 第 1 02頁 。30 C. R. Boxer , The Dut ch Seabor ne Empi r e ( London, Pengui n Book s ) , 1 97 3.在它的 沿岸。在居民中,‘ba t e’的通常意思是‘土地’與C h i na 連用 ,就 是‘ 中國 之地 (Ter ra da C hi na) ,再 給 它 一 個 當 地 的 本 名 Moro 加 以 限 定 , 以 區 別 於Batechina de Muar。在 這 些 人 67 來 之 前 , 只 有 生 病時 , 用 丁 香 粉 塗 抹 在 額 頭 和 面 頰 上 , 如 同 幾 內 亞 的黑 人 用 辣 椒 治 療 的 消 息 。 自 從 曾 統 治 東 方 ( queforam monarcas daque1e Ori ent e)的 秦 人 來 後 , 開 始有 丁 香 的 其 他 消 息 。 見 到 丁 香 可 以 滿 足 他 們 的 需要 , 於 是 起 了 佔 有 它 的 貪 慾 。 主 要 的 是 , 他 們 的 銅錢,如同我們的塞梯斯(c ei t i s ) 68 大 小 , 無 圖 也 無一字,只有(1 3 5 v )中間有一個洞用來穿串。每串1 0 0 0枚。此種硬幣稱凱塞(ca i xas) 69 。現在每1 2 0 0 枚合我們的一個十字錢( c r uzado )。 此錢在東方及馬剌 加起通 用 。 , … … 而 後 , 這 些秦 人 ( 如 前 所 述 ) 開 始 繼續 航 行 這 些 島 嶼 , 喜 歡 上 了 這 裏 的 丁 香 及 班 達( Banda)的 肉 豆蔻 和豆 蔻花 。爪 哇 人慕 名而 至貿 易 ,於 是 秦 人 中 止 了 。 似 乎 是 因 為 中 國 國 王 在 全 國 執 行一 條 法 律 , 任 何 華 人 不 得 航 海 出 國 , 原 因 是 如 前 所述 70 , 中 國 及 他 們 為 香 料 的 原 因 而 進 行 征 服 時 , 舶來 之 物 較 之 出 洋 的 人 、 物 損 失 得 不 償 失 71 。 ” 72註 釋 :1 金國平、吳志良:《東西望洋》,澳門成人教育學會,2002年,第212-246、353-355頁及《過十字門》,澳門成人教育學會,2004年,第322-436頁。2 當時的渤泥不僅僅 是今天的文萊, 而是整個加里曼 丹島 。3 關於它的辭源,可見《過十字門》,第357-362頁。4 Batachi nas ,亦作“Batoch i na ”、“Batechi na ”或“ Ba tuc h i na ”。具體位置,見巴羅斯:《亞洲旬年史之三》,里斯本,1563年,pp.132v、133、133v、135、136及巴羅斯《亞洲旬年史之四》,馬德里,16 15年,pp .4 9 、5 3 、5 4 。從1 6 世紀葡語史料的描述來看,Batochinas 是指今摩羅太( Morota i )島和哈馬黑拉島(Halmahera )。關於這個地名的詳細考證,可見拉戈阿子爵(Visconde de Lagoa):《古代葡萄牙海外史地名考—— 亞洲、 大洋洲部 分》,地理 考察及海 外研究委 員會,里斯本,1 95 3年,A-C卷,第97 頁。特別值得注意的是,《東方簡志》的作者皮萊資(Tomé Pi res )及《論大發現》的作者加爾旺(Antó nio Galvã o)在其著作中對 此均 有涉 及 。5 今 印 尼 摩 羅 太 島 。6 《亞洲旬年史之三》,第133v、135、138頁。此處是指賽蘭(C eram)島。《古代葡萄牙海外史地名考一亞洲、大洋洲部分》,A-C卷,第9 7 頁。7 之所以稱 聖老倫 索島, 是因為 是在1 506 年8月 10日 S.Lourenç o那天由葡萄牙航海家梅內澤斯(Manuel Teles deMeneses )“發現”的。8 這是希臘人對索科特拉島的稱呼。《鄭和航海圖》中作“速古答剌”或“須打大嶼”9 這是 托勒 密對 錫蘭 的稱 呼 。10 希臘人以此名稱錫蘭或蘇門答臘 。11 《亞洲旬年史之三》,p.133.Mak yan,位於0°20’,127°23’,參見《古代葡萄牙海外史地名考——亞洲、大洋洲部分》,1 9 5 4 年,D-N卷,第2 3 9 頁。12 參見塞維利亞東西印度總檔案館(Archivo General de lasInd ias),一部,保敎權檔,第1冊,第46號卷宗,第29 號文件。本文共6 0章,約作於1 54 4年。關於其作者19 8 8 ,Vo l .6 ,第36 -3 8頁上有一轉寫不太好的葡語本。本文譯自A Treat i se on the Mol uccas(c.1544),第7 8 、8 0 頁上 的 葡語 本 。13 現代葡語作“nau”。關於此船的特徵,可見盧伊斯·德 ·阿爾布爾克(Lu í s de Al buquerque)主編:《葡萄牙發現史字典》(Dicioná r io de Hi stó ri a dos Descobr imentosPortugueses),里斯本,1994年,第2卷,第792-794頁 。14 林天蔚:《宋代香藥貿 易史稿》,香港:中國學社 ,1960年,第48-49頁。o17 《明史》,北京:中華書局,1 9 7 4 年,第8 3 7 4 頁。18 聖老倫索(S.Lourenç o)島,今馬達加斯加島。19 莫桑比克島。20 意 大 利 佛 羅 倫 薩 圖 書 館 利 卡 迪 諾 第 1 9 1 0 號 鈔 件 第f .124rab-f .124vab頁。21 《達伽馬及其發現航行》(Vasco da Gama e as sua viagemde descobr imento),里斯本,1 969年, 第160頁 。22 《澳門:從地圖繪制看東西方交匯》,澳門:紀念葡萄牙發現事業澳門地區 委員會,第2 9 頁 。23 里斯本國家檔案館,聖維森特檔,第3 簿,第5 1 3 頁。2 4 同上註 ,第1 4 簿 ,第1 頁 。25 拉莫斯·科埃略(Ramos Coel ho)輯:《國立檔案館中庋藏的有關葡萄牙航海及征服的數則文獻》(A 1 guns
31 《明史》,第7 7 6 8 頁。32 引自《鄭和下西洋》,北京:人民交通出版社,1 9 8 5年,第1 4 8 頁,註釋1 。33 含晗:《十六世紀前之中國與南洋(節選)》,載於王天有、萬明編:《鄭和研究百年論文選》,北京:北京大學出版社,2 0 0 4 年,第4 2 頁。34 《鄭和研究百年論文選》,第4 7 頁。35 童書業:《再論“鄭和下西洋”事件之貿易性質—— 代吳春晗先生答許道齡、李晉華二先生》,載於《鄭和研究 百年論文選》,第6 6 頁 。36 謝方校註:《西洋朝貢典錄校註》,北京:中華書局,20 00 年 ,第3 6 頁。37 戈雷亞(Gaspa r Cor r e i a):《印度傳奇》,波爾圖,1975年,第1 卷,第1 8 6 頁。38 中國 式帆 船 。39 曾接觸了大量檔案材料的王室編年史家巴羅斯核實了此説:“這個城堡實際上在南方的下面,他們稱其為 Co t aChina ,原因是在華人擁有胡椒貿易時,在那裏有一座城堡。當地人稱城堡為Cot a ,C h i na 是因為它是屬於華人的。其廢墟仍存,……”參見巴羅斯:《亞洲旬年史之三》,第2 4 7 頁。40 奧爾塔(Ga rc i a da Ort a):《印度香藥談》,里斯本:官印局-鑄幣局,1 9 8 7 年,卷1 ,第2 0 4 -2 0 5 頁。41 巴羅斯:《亞洲旬年史之四》,第2 8 4 頁。42 鄭永常:《評金國平〈葡萄牙史料所載鄭和下西洋史事探微〉》,載於陳信雄、陳玉女主編:《鄭和下西洋國際學術研討會論文集》,國立成功大學歷史系,2 0 0 3年,第4 01 -4 05 頁。學術乃天下公器,這早是學界公認的常識。不是,也不可能是某些人的采邑。中外史料,即便有錯誤,也永遠是史料。推翻史料的應該是其相反的史料,不能以今日個人的判斷來作為評判史料的依據而得出 是或否 的結論 。43 《西洋朝貢典錄校註》,第4 4 -4 5 頁。44 何平立:《鄭和下西洋與封祀鎭國之山》,載於《鄭和研究》,1 9 9 6 年,第2 期,第3 2 -3 3 頁。45 《鄭和研究百年論文選》,第4 9 頁。46 原文為s e r p e s ,義即蛇。葡萄牙人初抵東方不知龍為何物,遂 以蛇 稱之 。47 一島嶼名。古里國王兼雷批林國王。參見費爾南·羅佩斯 ·德 ·卡斯達聶達(Fernã o Lopes de Cas t a n h e d a):《葡萄牙人發現征服印度史》(H is t ó r i a do Desc obr i ment oe Conquis ta da Í ndi a),科英布拉:大學出版社,1928年,第2 卷,第7 9 6 頁。48 其全名為 Ma r t im A fonso de Souza (15 5 0-1 56 4 或1 5 7 1 ?)。葡萄牙貴族。1 5 3 3 年起,受命開發巴西。1 5 3 5 年9 月抵達葡印出任印度海總司令一職。1 5 3 6年,發 動了 對古 里王的 戰爭 。1 5 3 9 年返 回葡 萄牙 。1 5 4 1 年再次東來。1 5 4 2 -1 5 4 4 年間出任葡印總督。49 《葡萄牙人發現征服印度史》,第2 卷,第7 9 9 頁。50 古里國王稱號。梵文原意為“海”,在馬拉巴爾文中引伸作“海王”51 《印度傳奇》,第3 卷,第7 0 2 頁。52 參見巴羅斯:《亞洲旬年史之四》,里斯本,殖民地總局,1 9 4 6 年,第4 3 2 頁,註釋(a )。53 《鄭和下西洋與封祀鎭國之山》,第3 2 頁。54 《明史》,第8 4 4 1 、8 4 4 2 頁。55 同上註,第8 4 4 2 頁。56 《東西洋考》,第1 0 3 頁。57 到過渤泥的葡萄牙航海家加爾旺記載説“統治這些共和國( r e pú b l i c a s )的人手持紅仗,因此似乎應該是中國人。 此 處 不 僅 有 這些 國 , 還 有 其 他一 些 屬 於 繪 身 人(gentes pintadas)的國,據説也是華人(c hi ns)的聚落。”《論大發現(Tr at ado dos Descob r iment os )》,里斯本,阿爾法出版社,1 9 8 9 年,第5 3 頁。58 《明史》,第8 3 7 8 頁。59 A Treat ise on the Moluccas(c.1544),第333頁,註釋9。60 韓振華:《鄭和航海圖所載有關東南亞各國的地名考釋》,載於《中外關係歷史研究》,韓振華選集之一,香港大學亞洲研究中心,1 9 9 9 年,第4 1 4 -4 1 5 頁。61 W..H.C Smit h,The Por t uguese in Malaca dur i ng the DutchPer i od,in S t vdia ,(Li sboa ,Centro de Estudos H istó r icosUl tramari nos,n°7,1961),p.98.62 《古代葡萄牙海外史地名考——亞洲、大洋洲部分》,A-C卷,第9 7 頁。63 《亞洲旬年史之三》,第5 8 頁。64 鞏珍《西洋番國誌》,北京:中華書局,1 9 8 2 年,第15 頁。65 胡阿祥:《偉哉斯名 ——“中國”古今稱謂研究》,湖北教育出版社,2 0 0 0 年,第3 3 3 -3 4 4 頁。66 指出被葡人佔領的德那地等島嶼。67 華人 。68 一種葡萄牙古幣。69 一種南印度古幣。70 詳細內容,參見金國平、吳志良:《5 0 0 年前鄭和研究一瞥——兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析》北京 大 學 《世 界 文 明與 鄭 和 遠航 》 國 際學 術 研 討會(2 0 0 4 年7 月1 1-1 2 日)上發言稿。此文一簡本《五百年前葡萄牙對中國航海活動之研究》刊登於台灣《鄭和研究與活動簡訊》,2 0 0 4 年,第1 8 期,第4 1 -4 7 頁。71 連葡人都搜集到了這一情況,可見“得不償失説”確實是一 種時 説 。72 《亞洲旬年史之三》,第135-135v頁。
4位西方科學家的著作翻譯編繪而成。全書3卷,第一次系統地將西方機械技術、物理學基本知識介紹到中國來,敘述了重心、比重、浮力、杠杆、滑車、螺旋、斜面、地心等物理學知識;介紹了起重、引重、轉重等29種動力及轉換方法;給出了燈輪、曲柄等66種零件部和機械的術語;闡明瞭製作螺絲轉形規矩、轉鐵鉗等1 9工具的方法;創用了流體、飛輪、齒輪、重心、螺絲、機器、起重等一系列名詞,並沿用至今。38六 、西方製炮技術東漸據《明史》記載,“佛郎機”炮在明正德年間(1 506-1 521)已傳入廣東,且在當地成功地進行仿造。39 它比中國舊製火器的射程遠,殺傷力大,因此在明軍隊中逐步推廣使用。然而,明朝製造火器技術不夠高,有時連發炮熱;有時裝藥即噴,傷及己方士兵,誠如《明史》所言:“將士不善用,迄莫能制冠也。”40 1 553年(明嘉靖三十二年),葡萄牙人強行入居澳門。出於殖擴張的需要,葡萄鑄炮專家伯多祿·卜加勞(Mannel Tavares Bocar ro)在澳門西望洋山麓開設卜加勞鑄炮廠。這是在中國開辦的最早的專業鑄炮廠,也是葡人在澳門經營最早的製造廠。該廠技術精緻,工藝先進,鑄造出的大炮比其化各國生產的大炮安全性能好、射程遠、威力大、射中率高。當時被譽為“世界上最好的鑄炮工廠”。所鑄大炮,分銅炮、鐵炮兩種,銷路很好,日本、英國等都採購卜加勞火炮。1 620年,明朝廷購買4門;1 621 年,明朝廷又購買26門,並聘請葡萄牙炮手到北京訓練中國炮手。1 629年澳門葡人又捐獻炮1 0門。1 633年,明崇禎皇帝把在北京等地造炮的任務交給傳教士湯若望,湯氏在皇宮旁設立一所鑄炮廠,經多次實驗,於1 636年造出了大炮。廣東、福建等地在崇禎年間都已成功地仿造澳門大炮。在清代仿造規模更大,康熙皇帝曾下令傳教士南懷仁在北京負責督造大炮,年產量曾有數百門之多。澳門大炮和製炮技術傳入中國內地,提高了軍隊戰鬥力,促進了軍事技術的發展。同時,西方製炮理論及有關的軍事理論也有經澳門傳入中國內地的。1 603年,中國人趙士禎著《神器譜》,它是中國現存的最早一本記述西洋銃炮製造和使用的書籍。但成系統的、影響大的則是40年後(即1643年)刻印的《火攻挈要》(又名《則克錄》)。此書由湯若望與安徽人焦勖合著,3卷:前有火攻諸器圖40幅;上卷專論製造各種火器的方法;中卷講製造、貯藏火藥知識,火攻等原理;下卷談海戰、炮戰等原則,鑄統等注意事項。它從理論上闡述了各種火器構造、操作方法、火攻效果等,使中國火器製造和使用水平大大提高一步。七 、其他西方科學知識和技術的傳入(一)水利技術1603年(明萬歷三十一年),意大利傳教士熊三拻到澳門,在澳門聖保羅學院學習、工作三年後北上。1 61 2年由他與徐光啟編譯的《泰西水法》刊行。此書應徐光啟要求編譯,由熊氏口述,徐氏筆錄;徐氏同時對書稿進行了整理,即沒有簡單地直譯,而是依據中國水利的實際情況,選擇最合適的或確是先進的水利工具邊翻譯、邊實地製造,並把試驗和製造的過程、方法和結果記錄在書中。41 因此該書實用性非常強,非常切合中國的實際。全書6卷,介紹了很多種江河、井水提水器及其器具圖式,江、湖、水庫等蓄水方法,以及水質、水理、水法;其中第6卷全為器具圖。此書刻印前就受到人們的關注,它集歐洲水利工程的精華,第一次向中國系統地介紹了西方水利學。誠如人們評論的:“閲泰西水器及水庫之法,精巧奇絕”,“江河之水、井泉之水、雨雪之水,無可資為用,用力約而收效廣……中華之有此法,自今始”。42 它為西方水利學傳入中國之始,有力地促進了中國農田水利事業的發展。徐光啟《農政全書》水利部分,全錄此書。(二)導航燈塔燈塔源於古埃及的訊號峰火。最著名的燈塔是埃及亞歷山大港外法羅斯燈塔。43 中國古代亦有燈塔,但現存最為古老的則為位於澳門東望洋山山頂的松山燈塔(又稱東望洋山燈塔)。該燈塔始建於1 864年(清同治三年),1 865年9月24日啟用。燈塔高1 3米,可向澳門周圍海域循環照射達25海里。由澳門土生葡人加路士·羅渣(Car los Vi c ente deRocha)設計。44 它是中國和遠古現在仍在使用的最古老的海岸燈塔。(三)水泥製作1 553年葡萄牙人強行入居澳門後,在建造西洋
樓式中逐步引進了水泥。1 886年(清光緒十二年)初,中國商人以每年1 200兩白銀的租金向三巴仔聖若瑟修院租得澳門青洲島(現已與澳門半島相連,名稱青洲)一片土地,創辦青洲水泥廠,又稱青洲英泥廠。1 889年,英國商人參股接辦。該廠生產的水泥,質量頗佳,除供應澳門本地外,還銷往外地。20世紀30年代該廠遷至香港九龍,一直生產經營至今。45 據可靠資料,中國內地最早的水泥廠是1889年開辦的唐山細錦土廠 46 ,所以澳門的青洲水泥廠是中國開辦最早的水泥廠。八、結語西方科學技術知識傳入中國,始於很早的古代。但是,成規模的、對中國歷史產生影響的則是始自1 6世紀後期利瑪竇的西學東漸。這次西學東漸,後因清雍正皇帝的禁教和1 773年羅馬教皇解散耶穌會而一度中斷,此前為西學東漸的第一階段;1 9世紀初牛痘及其種痘術傳入,和英國新教傳教士馬禮遜(Robert Mor r ison,1782-1834)來華的西學東漸則為第二階段。第一階段與第二階段的西學東漸內容、途徑及其作用是很不相同的。(一)內容和作用上不同第一階段的西學東漸的內容多為“前近代西學”(指西方近代科學技術階段之前的知識和技術),第二階段的西學東漸內容才為西方的近代科學技術。以數學而言,第一階段傳入中國的多是初等數學內容知識,以解釋幾體和微積分誕生為標誌的近代數學內容知識在第二階段才有較為系統地傳入。以天文學而言,第一階段傳入中國的多為亞里士多德——托勒密地心説體系和第谷宇宙學説體系的知識;哥白尼日心説體系知識的大量和系統的傳入則在第二階段,至於使天文學從單純描述天體幾何關係階段進入到研究天體運動產生原因階段的、拉普拉斯(Pier r e Simon Laplace,1749-1827,法國)的天體力學(1 799-1825年出版《天體力學》1 6冊巨著),更是在西學東漸的第二個階段才傳入中國。以西醫而言,第一階段傳入的西醫醫術和著作很多都局限在朝廷內,在中國醫學界影響不是很大,在民眾中更是沒有甚麼影響;但在第二階段則大不大樣,不但在民眾中和社會上產生巨大影響;在醫學界已逐步與傳統的中醫並起並坐,而成為一門學問。47 以地理學而言,第一階段傳入的都是歐洲的古代地理學知識,包括地理大發現後近古時期的大量地理知識;而以德國洪堡(Alexander von Humboldt,1 769-1859)和李特爾(Carl R i t ter,1779-1859)為奠基人所開創的西方近代地理學知識 48 ,從第二階段才開始傳入中國。至於物理學、化學、地質學、生物學等知識在第一階段都是零星地從歐洲傳入中國;較系統的近代物理學、近代化學、近代地質學、近代生物學等知識從歐洲傳入中國,都在第二階段。因此,筆者一再認為把1 6世紀後期利瑪竇扺達澳門時間1 582年作為中國近代科技技術史的起點,是欠妥的49 ;而主張把西學東漸的第二階段的始點 ——1 805年牛痘及其種痘術傳入澳門的時間,作為中國近代科學技術史的起點。把1 805年作為中國近代科學技術史的起點,並不是所有學科的近代時期都始於1 805年。而是應該如筆者所主張的,各學科的分期應以本學科的發展脈絡劃分階段,體現本學科的特色,而不應該籠統地跟着社會歷史的分期或其他分期走,抹殺了本學科的差異。例如中國近代地理學史開始時間,筆者認為是在1 9世紀末20世紀初。50(二)途徑上不同西學東漸的第一階段重要基地是嶺南,嶺南尤是澳門當時不但為西方科技傳入中國的通道,而且還是內地引入西方科技人才的重要培訓基地和儲備基地;另一個重要基地則是北京。西學東漸第二階段的醫學等內容,基地仍在嶺南,主要在澳門、廣州和開埠後的香港。但其他更多西學傳入中國的基地,尤是1 840年以後則是北延到開埠後的上海,上海成為西學東漸第二階段的重要基地(北京依然是重要基地)。科學文化的交流是多方面的,始自1 6世紀後期的西學東漸內容也是多方面的,並不局限於科學技術,其人文社會科學知識的東漸,請見另篇《嶺南,西學東漸的基地〈人文篇〉》。文化的交流總是雙向的,在西方科學技術、人文社會科學知識東漸傳入中國的同時,中國科學技術和人文社會科學知識也大量地西傳到歐洲等地。誠如英國科學家李約瑟博士在20世紀50年代所説:“中國思想,其對歐洲貢獻之大,實遠逾吾人得知。在通盤檢查之後,恐怕歐洲從中國得到的助益,可以與西方人士傳入中國的1 7、1 8世紀歐洲科技相媲美。”51 例如,英
之事函告北京葡籍耶穌會索德超(Joseph-Bernand deAlmeida)請求支持。湯士選、索德超兩人獲悉情況後,立即向西洋堂務內務府大臣、工部侍郎蘇楞額稟呈,申述這是英國圖佔澳門的陰謀,其步驟與英在印度同出一轍。湯、索在申述中説:“(英國)素號譎詐,近數十年來,常懷吞食之志,往往外假經商之名,遂其私計……前於乾隆五十八年曾遣巨舶進貢,多所求假,不惟便其通商,且求海嶼一所,作久留計。幸蒙高宗純皇帝洞其隱曲,未遂其私,悵悵而去。渠因未得所求之故,終不撒手,每有窺伺(澳門)之意,……英吉利之凶狡,在西人無所不知。……”5 英國人對葡萄牙人的這種言行,十分惱怒,但後來由於英法兩國戰事的平息,英國兵艦也失去了繼續停留澳門的借口,只好離開澳門。但英國人為了消除中國政府的“誤解”,消除葡萄牙人的言行給他們帶來的不良影響,還在事後兩年即1804年由東印度公司致函兩廣總督倭什布及粵海關監督延豐,反覆申説他們此次來澳的目的,純粹是為了“保護澳門免遭法國侵佔,別無他意。”6 儘管英艦已經離開了澳門,但澳葡當局仍心有餘悸,唯恐英國人捲土重來,自己無力抵禦,於是再三懇求清朝“皇上預為保護”。第2次侵略澳門的活動發生在1808年。這次侵略活動造成的影響較大,它是由英、法、西等國之間的“半島戰爭”而引起的。1808年,法國拿破崙十萬大軍挺進伊比利亞半島,襲擊西班牙,於是爆發了“半島戰爭”。交戰各國盲目向各方面攻擊,葡萄牙本土淪亡,王室貴族在英艦救援下流亡巴西。於是,英國人又“舊病復發”,再次企圖侵佔澳門。1808年,英印總督閔多(Lord Minto)派遣海軍上將度路利(Wi l l iamo Brian Drury)率領戰艦1 0艘,海軍300人,遠征澳門。這次,英國人的侵略氣焰十分囂張,當英艦從印度出發時,東印度公司的董事會就狂妄地叫囂,只要從葡萄牙方面得到許可,我們就不必再顧慮中國政府的阻撓。當英艦來到澳門海面時,海軍上將度路利公然向中國官員表示,它所率領的艦隊此來澳門的目的是執行保護澳門、幫助中國政府剿滅海盜、防止法國人佔領澳門的使命,並上書兩廣總督:“今我國王發此戰船來澳,為幫助澳門西洋人。今稟知總督大人,本國兵船灣泊澳門,防備法蘭西來澳,以備禦敵。因澳門西洋人微弱,故此着些夷兵上岸,好幫扶西洋人……情願將此兵船代天朝效力。”7 不久,英軍在澳門強行登陸,以200人入三巴寺,1 00人入龍嵩廟,200人踞東望洋,1 00人踞西望洋,最後佔領媽閣廟等地,從而將澳門佔領。面對英國的侵略活動,駐澳葡萄牙人未作任何反抗。但中國政府認為澳門是中國領土而非葡萄牙屬地,葡萄牙無權“轉讓”澳門,英國也無權“保護澳門”,並警告英國人“即速撤兵開帆”,“若再有延挨不遵法度”,“當調集大兵前來圍捕”。8當時,兩廣總督吳熊光、廣東巡撫孫玉庭聞訊,即派廣州知府福明、副將張瑗前往曉諭,飭英軍退出澳門。但英人不僅不退出澳門,反而從印度調來援兵,對中國進行武力威脅。吳熊光下令所有英船即日撤離澳門,並禁止貿易,斷其買辦。度路利不從,反親率戰艦3艘,逕徑虎門,進泊黃埔港。後來,又帶領夷目1 0餘人,夷兵40多人,水手200多人,駕艇30餘隻,由黃埔至十三行停住,求見現兩廣總督。吳熊光拒不見,令其回黃埔候旨,同時上奏嘉慶帝。詣旨至粵,飭令英人“撤兵開帆,不可停留,倘有不遵,統兵剿辦。”9 於是,吳熊光檄調督、撫、提、鎮各標官兵2600人,派參將張紹緒、寶興,遊擊祁世和,守備李福泰等管帶,在黃埔及澳門駐紮防守。由於中國方面態度堅決,準備充分,英艦被迫從澳門撤走。它佔領澳門的企圖又一次失敗了。但澳門葡人則以60萬元,犒賞英軍。事件平息後,嘉慶帝將吳熊光革職,命永保為兩廣總督,韓崶為廣東巡撫,並嚴諭查核吳熊光有無辦理不善之處。後永保卒於赴任途中,改由百令代之。嘉慶十四年,百令赴粵。查實英兵確有覬覦澳門之情,奏劾吳熊光辦理延誤之罪。於是吳熊光被嘉慶帝流放伊犁。這次事件,使清政府對澳門的防範措施進一步加強。1 809年4月,清政府派遣廣東巡撫韓崶視察澳門防務。韓崶認為英國“最為強悍”,“難保其去不復來”,必須加強澳門防務,常備不懈。於是廣東政府決定增加關闡駐軍數量,又在澳門北部的蓮花峰和西北部的青州分別建造炮台。為防備英軍從嘉思欄炮台至西望洋炮台以南一帶爬越低矮的石牆佔領澳門。韓崶要求澳葡當局將石坎在原有的基礎上再增高4-5尺,並加築一條圍牆。葡人對此不勝喜悦,表示“當刻期興工”。10
英國人對澳門的這兩次侵襲,都以防止法國人入佔澳門為口實,這一方面反映了西方殖民國家在進行海外掠奪中的相互矛盾,更主要的還是英人“見西洋人不納貨税,獨得便宜,垂涎已久,今適值西洋微弱,即揚保護之名,伺圖佔據。”11 但始終未能如願 。第3次侵略澳門的活動發生在1 829年。直接導火索是“商欠”。所謂“商欠”是資本主義的英國對華早期侵略的一種形式。中國古代封建社會中沒有像近代一樣的金融信貸制度,一些資本薄弱的中國行商缺乏可以周轉的資金,在銷售了外國貨物之後,不能及時籌款歸還。而外國商人則樂於不收欠款,以高利息借給行商,幾年後一併結算,利上加利,商欠驚人,外商時常逼債。清朝廷雖再三下令嚴禁行商借債,但令出不行。1 829年,中國公行連年虧損終至倒閉,拖欠英商不少貨款,其中行商劉承澍的欠款就達1 00萬元。逗留澳門的英國東印度公司特別委員會主席布魯東(Wi l l i am Hen ry Chi c hel yPlowden)奉命向中國方面交涉,並派遣軍艦停泊於珠江口外,對清政府強逼要脅,要求修改有關貿易章程,聲稱如所求未遂,即不與中國貿易。兩廣總督李鴻賓看到雲集於澳門海面的大量軍艦,擔心英國人重演1 808年擁兵登岸、圖佔澳門的一幕,急忙與水師提督李增階進行軍事佈置。令駐防於澳門一帶的香山協提標中營、左營、大鵬營的官兵“不動聲色,整齊防備”12 ,隨時做好戰鬥準備,進入戰備狀態,使澳門一帶呈現出外鬆內緊的態勢。雙方一直相持到第2年春天,英國商人見清朝政府堅持不作重大讓步,只得同意商欠扺得入口貿易,使這場衝突以劍拔弩張而始,和氣生財而終,得以和平解決 。第4次侵略澳門的活動發生在1 830年。它肇始於英國人違背清政府制定的“外國婦女不准前來廣州”的規定。為了加強對外國商人的防範,清政府早在廣州設立海關,允許外國商人進入廣州進行貿易初期,就有外國婦女不准進入廣州,只能留住澳門的規定。但1 830年,新任英國東印度公司特別委員會主席盼師(Wi l l i am Baynes)卻公然違反這一規定,攜帶妻子及葡萄牙籍婢女到達廣州。廣東官府按照規定,要將“番婦”、“夷婢”驅逐回澳,盼師竟令水兵將大炮搬入廣州商館,準備同清朝軍隊對抗。兩廣總督李鴻賓等示以兵威,迫於壓力,盼師只得讓妻、婢返回澳門。事後,有官員將“英夷”、“動違禁令”,以及在澳中國居民“半通夷語”其中容易“藏奸”的情況向道光帝陳奏,道光帝據此下達了“逐款嚴密訪查”的密旨 13 ,接着又讓廣東官員進一步加強對外國商人的管束,並對以前“防範外夷”的章程進行了修訂。新章程規定,各國“夷商”一俟貨銷事竣,不論何時,“即行隨船回國,或前往澳門居住,不得無故潛留”,還規定,葡萄牙婦女在受僱於外國婦女後,只准在澳門居住,不得潛往廣州,如有違犯,就惟澳葡當局是問。14 由於有了這一紙欽令,在以後的十來年中,再也沒有發生過葡萄牙籍婦女進入廣州的事件。第5次侵略澳門的活動發生在1 834年。這次事件給澳門造成了軒然大波。1 833年,英國國會取消了東印度公司對華貿易的壟斷權,派遣律勞卑(Wi l l i amJohn Napier)為英國駐廣州商務總監督,行使以前東印度公司派出的“大班”的職責,處理英商在廣州的各種事務。1 834年7月,律勞卑抵達澳門,在將妻子、女兒安頓在澳門後,違反歷來既定的章程,擅自來到廣州,要求面見兩廣總督盧坤。盧坤以其與舊例不符,令行商們勸律勞卑離開廣州返回澳門。因為以往中英貿易從來都是由中國行商和英國東印度公司的大班相互交涉,政府從來不出面,更沒有英國官員進駐廣州直接與清政府交往的先例。對盧坤的要求,律勞卑斷然拒絕,堅持要見總督。為防止事態的擴大,盧坤決定通融折中,派廣州知府等三名中國官員前往律勞卑駐住的商館,詢問其身份和此行的目的。律勞卑態度蠻橫,不僅不説明來意,還不肯令通事轉傳言語,並公然指責前來會見他的中國官員。同時,律勞卑又命令2艘英國兵船闖進黃埔,企圖挾武以自重,威迫清政府就範。針對律勞卑的挑釁和囂張氣焰,盧坤忍無可忍,立即下令停止中英貿易,封鎖廣州與澳門之間的交通,並調兵遣將,加強澳門地區的防務。命令陽江總兵何岳鍾率領水師赴澳門附近洋面巡察,命令梧州協都司王錦帶兵300名赴澳門協同防守,命令香山協副將秦裕昌、署大鵬營參將鄧旋明與澳門同知等妥為預備,並率兵入澳幫助葡萄牙人防守炮台。中國軍隊的大規模行動,使澳門充滿驚愕、恐怖的氣
氛,呈現出一種臨戰狀態,戰爭的陰影籠罩在澳門的上空,戰爭如在弦之箭,一觸即發。面對這種態勢,原來被英國人僱傭的通事、買辦、僕役等惟恐被指為通敵的漢奸,全都逃避他去,英國人也因入澳的中國士兵闖進他們的住宅而大為驚恐。但澳葡當局卻不願讓中國軍隊入駐他們的居留地,於是就以“極為恭順”的態度向廣東官府表示,“情願自行防守,斷不肯任英夷佔據,自失世守之業”15 ,進入澳門的軍隊便旋即退出。英國人對澳葡當局的所作所為,大加讚賞,稱為是“十分恰當”的。16 後來律勞卑在清朝廷恢復貿易的條件下,撤走軍艦,自己返回澳門。不久,即病死於澳門。後來,有人借機上奏朝廷,要求將澳門的炮台、炮位拆禦銷毀,將“番梢”即外國士兵盡行驅逐回國。道光帝下旨令廣東文武大員確切查辦,經過仔細調查,盧坤與闔省文武大吏聯名入奏,認為前奏並非完全實情,並請求朝廷免予拆毀葡萄牙人修築於明代時期的炮台,免予驅逐在澳的葡萄牙士兵。道光帝應允了這一請求。這樣,居澳的葡萄牙人才未因這次事變受到更大的牽累。這次事件顯示出中英之間的矛盾已經十分尖鋭。第6次侵略澳門的活動發生在1 838年。當時,英國政府派遣東印度艦隊總司令馬他侖(Frede r i c kMai t land)少將率領2艘軍艦來華保護鴉片貿易。馬他侖於7月中旬抵達澳門後,立即要求面見廣東大吏。廣東官府根據“夷官”、“尤不得允留粵海”的制度,命令他立即離開澳門。對這一命令,馬他侖拒不服從,還率領3艘軍艦在穿鼻洋面向清政府示威。當時,兩廣總督鄧廷楨、廣東巡撫怡良、廣東水師提督關天培等一方面在廣州地區佈置兵力,加強防務。同時,鑒於馬他侖的妻子、婢女都留居澳門的情形,又劄令香山縣令、香山協副將馳往澳門,與澳門同知並力駐守,並秘密通知葡萄牙人“毋為英夷所惑,一體加以防護,以期有備無患”。17後來,馬他侖害怕清政府採取封港等措施,從而給英國商人帶來更大損失,沒敢挑起武裝衝突。如果説以前兩次對澳門的侵擾還有着抗擊法國的幌子的話,那麼,後來的4次侵擾活動則是直接針對中國政府,用武力公開對抗中國政府,破壞中國的主權,嚴重威脅中國的安全。綜觀1 9世紀40年代前期英國強佔澳門的6次主要侵略活動,我們可以看到:第一,隨着西方資本主義國家經濟實力和軍事實力的增強和通過與中國頻繁的經濟交往,對中國的經濟水平、社會制度、意識形態等方面情狀的瞭解,以英國為代表的西方資本主義國家急於用武力打開中國的大門,企圖把中國變為它們的商品市場和原料基地,變為它們的殖民地。這樣,澳門就成了這些西方殖民主義國家侵略中國的跳板。第二,英國殖民者對澳門的爭奪,是其殖民事業的組成部分。從明崇禎九年(西元1637年)起,英國就以侵佔澳門為目標之一,籌謀在中國沿海佔領一個海島開始,經過205年乃至261年(至租用“新界”)的侵奪,最後佔領了香港,而且也只是在其佔領香港後,對澳門的爭奪才告罷手。這是它加緊向東方擴張的必然結果。第三,英國等西方殖民主義國家圍繞着澳門所展開的激烈的“商業戰爭”和“殖民戰爭”,儘管各自互有勝負,但就總體而言,他們都是獲利者,而把災難、禍害留給了中國。因為澳門雖然仍被葡萄牙人佔領,但英國等國家卻從侵佔香港等事件中獲得了更大的利益,而這種利益對他們本國資本主義生產方式的勃興和發展起到了一定的促進作用。第四,英國等西方殖民主義者對澳門的侵略活動,政治上嚴重地損害了中國的主權和治權,經濟上隔斷了中國與南洋各國長期以來的傳統友好貿易,並影響了中國近代經濟的發展水平。第五,面對着英國企圖用武力打開中國的大門,變中國為它的殖民地的危急關頭,清政府仍然墨守成規,做着“天朝上國”的美夢,渾然不覺一場危機深重的災難即將來臨。最突出的表現就是對英國人的武力侵略僅作了一些戰略防禦的準備。清政府雖然十分警惕外國“夷人”的侵略活動,還一再制訂防範“外夷”的章程,但只注重限制外國商人在廣州的侵略活動,預防外國軍隊入侵中國城市,對英國人利用澳門為侵華戰爭做準備的動向沒有引起高度的重視,從而對英國人利用澳門所進行的一系列侵略活動沒有採取果斷的查禁措施。距英國人對澳門最後一次的主要侵略活動不到兩年,清政府就為嚴守這種“閉關鎖國”政策造成的鼠目寸光付出了慘痛的代價,中國民族也由此遭受了一場前所未有的深重災難。
基督教教會教育中西演變述略夏 泉、孟育東 *一 、前言教會教育是基督教傳播的產物。基督教自其誕生之日起就把傳播教義、爭取信徒作為重要目標, 教育正是它實現這一目標的重要手段。在歷史上, 基督教就非常注重公民的教育和道德,有論者稱基 督教是教育的宗教。如馬太福音第四章二十三節即 説耶穌“走遍加利利,在各會堂裏教訓人。”他又教訓門徒和群眾。在與門徒分別後,他吩咐道:“凡 我所吩咐你們的,都教訓他們(指萬民)遵守。”所以他死之後,門徒都遵照他的遺命在各地教訓百姓。1“無論哪個時代,基督教所到之處,它總是成為知識界的朋友和保護人。各知 識領域中絕大多數的傑 出人物都是它的信徒。”2 而教會學校是指基督宗教所屬的差(修)會設立的一批大、中、小學,它們所辦的教育稱之為基督教教會教育。教會教育在中西社會曾長期存在,對當時當地社會經濟的發展產生 過重要影響。本文擬就基督教教會教育在中西的發 展演變歷程以及共同特點,略作論述 。二、教會教育在歐洲教會教育最早產生於歐洲,這與基督教的誕生、傳播有直接關係。事實上,基督教(Ch r i s t i a n i t y)於1 世紀 中葉產 生在 羅馬帝 國東部 地區 的巴勒 斯坦 拿撒勒( Naza r e t h )的猶 太人團體 中,創 始人為 耶穌(J esus Chr is t ),原係猶太教(Juda i sm)的一個宗派3 ,392年被狄奧多西一世皇帝定為羅馬帝國的國教 。 廣 義 的 基 督 宗 教 涵蓋 信 奉 耶 穌 基 督 為 救 世主,以《聖經》為經典的所有教派,主要有天主 教(Cat hol i c)、東正教(Or t hodox)、新教(Prot es tant )等三大支派。在歷史上, 基督教有過三次大分裂 :5-6世紀,因基督的本性發生分歧,一性論派和聶斯脱利派從羅馬天主教會中脱離出來;1 054年東正教會與羅馬教會徹底決裂;1 6世紀又發生了路德派和改革派(加爾文派)與正統教會的分裂。三次分裂都產生了教義、權威和典禮不同的教會。476年,西羅馬帝國滅亡,歐洲開始步入封建社會。5世紀末至1 4世紀文藝復興前的這段歷史稱之為“黑暗的中世紀”。基督教的廣泛傳播與獨特作用,使基督教教會成為歐洲封 建主義的主要精神支柱 ,基督教教育也隨之逐漸發展壯大。歐洲封建統治 階級由僧侶封建主和世俗封建主兩大階層組成,為其服務的是教會教育和騎士教育,文化和教育全部為教會所壟斷,教學內容貫穿着神學精神,宗教滲 透到社會文化生活的每一個層面,哲學成了神學的婢女。509年,東羅馬帝國政府下令關閉世俗學校。隨着羅馬帝國分裂為東西兩部分,基督宗教也因爭奪教會的最高統治權於1 054年分裂為兩派:東部教會標榜其“正統性”,自稱正教,因地處東方,故又 稱“東正教”,後因在崇拜儀式上用希臘禮儀,所以又稱“希臘正教”;西部教會強調其“普世性”,自詡公教,因其以羅馬為中心,可稱為“羅馬公教”4 ,入華後又因中國信徒稱神為“天主”,故又稱天主教(取自《史記·封禪書》,稱神為“天主”)。1 1 79年,羅馬教皇亞歷山大三世為了壟斷教育事業,主持召開了第三次拉特蘭會議,要求所有教會大力興辦學校。中世紀的歐洲是基督教的一統天下,遂形成 了* 前 者 為 廣 州 暨 南 大 學 文 學 院 歷 史 學 博 士 , 後 者 為 暨 南 大 學中國 近 現 代 史專 業 2 0 0 3 級 碩 士 研 究 生
在歐洲黑暗的中世紀由基督教教會長期壟斷教育的局面。恩格斯在具體闡述歐洲中世紀早期文化教育情況時曾明確指出:“中世紀完全是從野蠻狀態發展而來的。它把古代文明、古代哲學、政治和法律一掃而光,以便一切都從頭做起。它從沒落了的古代世界接受的唯一事物就是基督教和一些殘破不全而且喪失文明的城市。其結果正如一切原始發展階段的情形一樣,僧侶們獲得了知識教育的壟斷地位,因而教育本身也滲透了神學的性質。”5西歐早期中世紀的教育除了宮廷學校、騎士教育外,基本上是宗教教育,基督教僧侶教育和教民教育是教育的主幹。早期的基督徒大多數在羅馬帝國的學校中受教育,但這種教育被基督徒認為有悖教義,因之,基督教教堂開始承擔起教育信徒及其子女的職責。基督教教會為培養僧侶和為社會服務的人才,同時向群眾宣傳宗教,舉辦了很多教育機構。早期教會學校隨之發展起來。至於其辦學的動機,正如有論者所指出的:天主教會“一再提到它為人類近代教育事業的發展,貢獻了學校和大學。但是當仔細分析這一時期的歷史時,我們可以發覺當時天主教會並不存在着這種發展教育事業的動機。它之所以要辦學校,其目的就是為了傳教,為了鞏固天主教會的統治。”6 一批早期的教會學校,如僧院學校、主教學校、教區學校相繼創設。為了知曉其沿革,現將上述三類教會學校的有關情況簡要敘述於次。僧院學校又稱“修道院學院”(monas t i cschool),大約興起於6世紀,到了9世紀,修道院辦學已蔚然成風。它是基督教教會最主要且水平較高的教育機構,係由僧院發展而來,附設於修道院內。它最初並非真正的教育機構,只是一種教徒集體修行的場所,進入中世紀後,其他教育形式基本上不復存在,它便承擔起教育的重要職能。僧院學校主要傳播基督教教義,教學內容富於宗教性,同時也進行簡單的基本知識教育,旨在培植學生具有僧侶所必備的“服從、貞潔、安貧”三種品質。學生一般1 0歲左右入學,學習年限大約為8年。學校大都設有圖書館(室)和閲覽室,教師由神職人員擔任。主教學校亦稱“座堂學校”(cathedral school),大約首先出現於7世紀的英格蘭,隨後蔓延至西歐各國。它是在基督教教會建立初期設立的教義學校,主要對洗禮入教的教民實施有關教義、教規的訓練。學校的水平較接近僧院學校。學校大都設於主教駐地,主教兼任學校的常任教師。學校設備較好,學科內容也較完備。以主教名義興辦的這類學校主要有歌詠學校、文法學校和神學學校等。但這類學校數量有限。教區學校亦稱“堂區學校”(parish school),出現時間相對較晚。它是對教民和一般世俗群眾進行教育的主要機構。設在牧師所在村落的小教堂或牧師家中。學校規摸較小,設備簡陋,學習內容主要是講授日常生活所需的基礎知識,如讀、寫、算和初步的宗教知識、唱經等。1 2世紀中葉,教皇要求所有堂區興辦學校,這類學校得到飛速發展,遂成為歐洲中世紀最普遍的教育形式。總體而言,上述三類教會學校因培養目標與生源物件不同,課程設置各有側重,但核心課程是“七藝”(seven li beral art s)。“七藝”作為基督教教育的主幹課程,主要指文法學、修辭學、辯證法(邏輯學)、算術、幾何學、天文學和音樂。“七藝”之名由意大利 威維爾修道 院院長卡西 奧多爾魯 斯(Cassiodorus,480-575)首先命名。作為與神學並列的世俗學問,它原是古希臘、羅馬學校中的主幹課程,教會學校因襲之,並賦予其宗教神學內涵,使每一門學科都具有明確的宗教功能。具體而言,“文法學”主要用於學習拉丁語並指導閲讀《聖經》,使人學會解釋詩人和歷史學家的作品;“修辭學”用以訓練傳教士與僧侶的辯才,是日常生活中有效利用世俗談話的藝術;“辯證法”是為了論證神學命題,使人能很好地思考、下定義、作解釋和區別真假;“算術”是為了計算基督教節日;“天文學”用以占卜星象,説明天穹中星體的法則;“幾何學”用以繪製教堂建築圖樣;“音樂”則為禮拜祈禱和舉行宗教儀式服務。如果撇開教會學校的宗教性不談,客觀地説,教會學校的“七藝”教育在一定程度上起到了普及基礎教育的積極作用。到了1 2-1 3世紀,教會教育發展面臨着新的挑戰。這是由於社會分工的加劇和商業的發展,加之國際間貿易交往的日趨頻繁,西歐新興城市大量興起,並獲得自治權。新生的市民階級成為推動社會向前發展的主要力量,提出了新的經濟、政治和文化要求,亟需建立新型的、由城市當局管理的世俗
歐洲鄭和研究一部力作金國平、吳志良 *Claud i n e Sa lmo n e Roder i c h P ta k , 《 鄭和 : 形 象 與 理 解 》 ( Zhe ng He : I m a g es &Perc ep t i o n s Bi l d e r & W a h r n ehm un ge n ) ,Harrasssow i t z Ve r l ag W iesbaden,2005, IS B N3-447-051 1 4-0600年前,鄭和率領龐大的明朝船隊浩蕩七下西洋,遍及亞、非30餘國和地區,譜寫了中國洲際遠航和世界文明史上輝煌燦 爛的一頁。為紀念這位 偉人,中國及世界許多地方 以各種不同的形勢隆重 舉辦慶祝下西洋600週年的活動,主要形式是出版書籍和舉辦研 討會、 展覽等 。本書列入普 塔克( Roder i ch P t a k )和何爾 曼(Thomas O Hö l lmann)主編的《南中國與南洋叢刊》第 1 5卷 。第一主編蘇爾夢(Claud i ne Salmon)是法國著名的東方學家 ,精通漢語 。第二主編普塔克(Roder ic h P tak,筆名葡萄鬼)也精通漢語。他 是當代歐洲著名 漢學家之一,專 長為中國歷史、經濟史及東 南亞研究等領域,也是 著作等身的中葡關係、澳門 歷史大家。他從事鄭和 研究已 逾 十載 , 1 98 4年 獲得 教 授資 格 的 論文 便 專 事《西洋記》研究 1 ; 1 995年,發表過漢語鄭和論文 2;1 9 9 6年 , 最 後審 定 、 出版 了 《星 槎 勝 覽》 英 文 版(Hsi ng-Ch’a Sheng-Lan:The Overal l Survey of the StarRa f t/Fei Hsin;t ranslated by J.V.G.Mi l l s;rev ised,annotated and edi ted by Roder ich Ptak,W iesbaden,Harrassowitz Ver lag ,1 996)。此英譯有大量註釋和書目,很有參考價值,對世界漢學和鄭和研究貢獻很大。至2004年,他發表了十餘篇很有份量的鄭和研究論文。3 從其發表的鄭和研究的論文質量與數量來看,他無愧當 今西方最有 成就的鄭和 研究專家, 代表了歐洲漢 學鄭和研究 的最高水準 。本書分為序言和論文兩個部分。序言(第9-35頁)由 兩位主 編共同 執筆 ,論文 共7篇 (法語 3篇 、德語3篇、英語1 篇), 分別由歐洲數國長期從事 相關領域 研究的 著名學 者撰寫 。從豐富的內容和大量的參考書目可以看出,兩位主編對中外 鄭和研究 的歷史及 現狀瞭若 指掌。中 國學者的有關論 文側重漢語 世界的情況 ,介紹西方 研究常常過於簡 單。本文則 展現了中外 鄭和研究的 全貌。它起到了橋 樑作用,使中國 學界瞭解西方學 界的研究情況 ,也使西 方學者掌 握漢語研 究的動態 ,因此,我們極力推薦將本 文譯成漢語發表。我們 相信,它是中外 鄭和研究接 軌的基礎工 程之一。關 於英國人孟席斯(Gav i n Menz i es)的《1 421年 —— 中國發現世界》(1 421 :The Year Ch i na Discovered t heWorl d )一書,兩位主編僅僅予以了簡單的涉及,並無任何評論,學 術態度之明確, 令人肅然起敬 。第一篇(第39-55頁)《預言之聲:關於鄭和航海的 1 6世 紀 前 半 葉 的 葡 萄 牙 史 料 》 ( La vo i x de laprophé t i e:Informat ions portugaises de la 1e moi t ié duXVIe sur l es voyages de Zheng He),由阿爾維斯(Jorge M.dos Santos Al ves)執筆。在我們有關研究的基礎上,本文 對葡萄牙史料進 行了新的爬梳, 獲得的了幾種新 史料。值得 一提的是, 作者提出了 一個很有意思的問題:在有關“錫蘭碑”的1 7世紀葡語* 前者為旅葡語言兼歷史學者,後者為澳門基金會行政委員會委員
目 擊史料中,使用的是“pad rõ es”(數塊石碑)。換言之,“錫蘭碑”可能不止目前出土的一塊。第二篇(第57-73頁)《鄭和——回族或中國穆斯林的英雄》(Zheng He,hé ros et hn ique des Hui oumusulmans chinois),由鄂法蘭(Franç o ise Aub in)撰寫。本文廣泛運用漢語史料及研究論文,比較全面地介紹了鄭和的生平,可能是以西方語言撰寫的最佳鄭和小傳。這些資料,對於中國學者來説不難獲得,但對不懂漢語的西方學者是一個很大的幫助。除了漢語史料外,還使用了我們不太熟悉的日本方面的研究論文。作者根據鄭和的家譜資料,詳細地介紹、分析了鄭和家族起源的幾種不同的説法、鄭和原來的姓名及皇帝賜姓的始末,對鄭和的出生地也有詳細的考證。最後,作者得出了鄭和是回族英雄的結論。值得注意的是,鄂法蘭將孟作定性為“醜聞多於成功”。關於鄭和死因史無記載。最近我們參考葡語史料,提出可能死於與古里王的衝突。4第三篇(第75-90頁)《鄭和及福建伊斯蘭教:近期中國史學中鄭和的穆斯林形象》(Zheng He und derlslam in Fujian:Das Bild Zheng Hes ais glä ubiger Mus limin der neueren chinesischen Gesch ichtsschrei bung),出自槀斯(Ralph Kauz)之筆。本文從鄭和的穆斯林背景入手,回顧了他與福建伊斯蘭教的關係,對泉州靈山《行香碑》作出詳細介紹。鄭和與福建關係這個課題,華人學者的研究不少。近來,這方面的研究又有所增加,發掘了一些方志中對鄭和下西洋的記載。5第四篇(第91-1 12頁)《鄭和在麥加:“三寶太監西洋記通俗演義”劄記》(Zheng He i n M ek ka:Anmerkungen zum Sanbao t a i j i an Xi yang ji tongsuyany i ),由普塔克寫成。在其1 984年教授論文的基礎上,作者對《三寶太監西洋記通俗演義》作了新的綜合敘述。在涉及該書結構的分析中,對有關伊斯蘭的內容著墨較多,敘述了鄭和遺人前往麥加朝聖的軼事。突出《三寶太監西洋記通俗演義》的伊斯蘭內容,可以説是一個與眾不同的研究視角,具有創新意義。此外,還涉及了天妃信仰與航海的關係。從本文大量徵引的漢語史料及研究書目來看,作者對中外鄭和研究的瞭解和掌握代表了歐洲研究的最高水準,為美國漢學所望塵未及。第五篇(第113-11 8頁)《三寶太監在印尼及“西洋記”的馬來語譯本》(Sanbao taij ian en Indoné sie etles t raduc t ions mala ises du Xi yangji ),由蘇爾夢編寫。作者及其已故丈夫Denys Lombard為法國著名的東南亞學者。她對東南亞華僑歷史也素有研究,作過許多田野調查。本文首先全面地介紹了印尼三寶壟的“三寶洞”,對有關碑文、牌匾作了詳細的考證和詮釋。其次,提供了多種《西洋紀》馬來語譯本的詳細資訊。版本之多的本身,便反映出鄭和下西洋的故事在東南亞歷久不衰,膾炙人口。第六篇(第1 37-154頁)《從蘇伊士運河到土魯番:彭鶴齡小説(1 91 0年)“三寶太監下西洋”中的鄭和形象》(ü ber den Suez-Kanal nach Turfan:Zum Bi ldZheng Hes in Peng Hel ings Roman Sanbao ta i j i an x iaXiyang(1910)的作者是特雷特(Clemens Trete r)。明清小説戲曲中,有關鄭和史事的作品很少,只有兩本小説和一本雜劇。它們是明代羅懋登的《三寶太監西洋記通俗演義》(小説)、佚名氏的《奉天命三保下西洋》(雜劇)和清代彭鶴齡的《三保太監下西洋》(小説)。普塔克對前二者有深入研究,本文的研究的對象是彭鶴齡的小説。第七篇(第1 55-176頁)《鄭和巨船:圖像或現實?》(The Co lossa l Shi ps of Zheng He:Image orRea l i t y?),由邱馳(Sa l ly K.Church)執寫。本文全面回顧了中外關於“寶船”尺寸研究的歷史與現狀。這個問題的最後解決可能還要取決於新史料的發掘或新實物的出土,否則將是一個西方人所説的“討論天使性別”的問題。正是因為“尺寸”之爭,爭得造不出鄭和下西洋的“寶船”,而減弱了600週年紀念的影響。這説明,社會科學並非“軟科學”,它可以對現實的政治、經濟產生正或負的作用。不論如何,此次造船計劃不果原因可以列舉許多,但無法確定“寶船”的尺寸可能是最重要的因素。總而言之,對目前的國內外鄭和研究而言,本書最大的價值在於註釋中大量出現的中外參考文獻。這些資料堪稱全面、前鋒,為進一步的深入研究提供了條件。本書集介紹與研究為一體,中外不同讀者群可各取所需,相得益彰。它充分反映了當今歐洲鄭和研究的水平和成果,是一部不可多得的好書。可以相信,它很快會成為鄭和研究書目的案頭必備之作。
當然,本論文集也存在一些問題,主要是技術而不是學術性的,例如某些 同音漢語詞的語誤植未 能得到校正,某些日本人姓 名與原書不符等微疵。 可能由於趕時間,未來得及作反查索引 。在本文結束時,我們想簡單比較一下歐洲漢學與美國漢學鄭和研 究的情況。歐洲 人腳踏實地,出 了本高水平的書, 美國人在美京搞 了一個《鄭和下 西洋意義探究》研討會。看過主要發言 6,給人的感覺是文不對題,討 論的要點是在鄭 和之前,華人扺 達美洲的時間和現存的“證據”,而不是扣題紀念鄭和下西洋,更不用説探討甚麼意義了。許多“發現”在學術界討論了不 知道多少年了, 並未如組織者散 發的新聞稿所云“開出碩果”。更令人驚詫萬分的是,居然要請孟席斯來“共襄其盛”! 中國人為何不請這位名噪一時的人 物參加任何紀念 鄭和的活動,這 難道不足以令人深思再三! ?一位在美國漢學界內名氣不小的主要演講 人列舉了普塔克 的三本載有鄭和 論文的集子 7,卻只字未提本書。這大概不是疏忽吧。在當今的資訊時 代,我們必須對 書目有最新的全 面的瞭解。由此,也反襯出 該書的學術嚴謹性和緊 跟學術 動態 的 重要 性 。最後,我們借用衛思韓( John E.Wi l l s,J r .)的一句話作為本 文的結尾: “慕尼克的 普塔克在這 個領域,以歐洲漢學縝密的 以文本為主導的傳統方 法繼續工作着。”8註釋 :1 Roderich Ptak,Cheng Hos Abent euer im Drama und RomanderMing-Zei t :Hs i a hs i -yang,eine Uber setzung undUntersuchung;Hsi-yangchi,ein Deutungsversuch,Stuttgar t,F.St ei ner,1986。簡介可見(德)普塔克著,張寬譯:《明代雜劇與小説中的鄭和下西洋》,載於《文學研究參考》,1 98 7 年,第4 期,第29 -30 頁及錢江:《德國漢學家帕 塔克與 中外關 係史研 究》, 《中國 史研究 動態》,1 9 9 7 年,第1 期,第2 4 -2 7 頁。2 昆明鄭和研究會編:《中國明初與葡屬印度公司海上貿易制度比較研究》,載於《鄭和·歷史與現實—— 首屆鄭和研究國際會議集萃》,雲南人民出版社,1 9 9 5年,第5 2 -7 0 頁。3 請見金國平、吳志良:《500年前鄭和研究一瞥—— 兼論葡萄牙史書對下西洋中止原因的分析》,載於《澳門研究》,2 0 0 5 年2 月,第2 6 期,第1 4 8 -1 4 9 頁。4 關於這個問題,請見同上註,第144-148頁。5 韓勝寶:《鄭和下西洋航海人才多為福建人》,下載於:http://www.chinanews.com.cn/news/2005/2005-05-19/26/575802.shtml 及韓勝寶:《福建明代造船足夠鄭和下西洋之用》,下載於:http://www.chinanews.com.cn/news/2005/2005-05-15/26/574174.sht ml6 ht t p: //www.marcopol ovoyages . com7 ht t p: //www. marcopol ovoyages . com8 John E. Wills, Jr. , " Where Is the Admi rai Taking Us ? Agendas for Zheng He Studies ", in ht t p: //w ww .marcopolovoyages.com
《澳門研究》稿約一、本刊係澳門基金會與澳門大學澳門研究中心聯合編輯出版的綜合性學術理論刊物。二、本刊以“研究澳門、服務社會”為宗旨,推動本澳學術研究與交流,力求發揮學術理論研究積極服務社會的基本功能。三、本刊為雙月刊,逢二、四、六、八、十、十二月出版。四、本刊優先發表下列主題的學術論文、學術信息:對澳門社會、經濟發展直接相關的研究成果;對澳門與鄰近或相關地區開展合作的研究成果;內地、港台及世界各地可供澳門參考的發展經驗介紹。五、本刊除發表本澳專家學者的有關論述外,歡迎境外專家學者惠賜有關論文,提供訊息及資料。六、本刊堅持學術自由原則,來稿可使用中文、葡文或英文撰寫,以3,000-8,000字為宜,文責自負,請勿一稿兩投或多投。七、稿件只接受通過電子郵件(本刊編輯部電子郵箱為:cms.in fo@umac.mo)以文字檔傳來或寄來軟盤,手寫稿件一律不收。文稿發表與否,三個月內均通知作者。文稿一經發表,即致薄酬。八、本刊編輯部對選用文稿有權進行必要的刪改和體例規範工作,倘作者有所保留,請在來稿中説明。附:稿件體例要求①文稿採用現代漢語規範標點符號(半型),引號用“ ”(不用直引號 ┏ ┛);逗號用,(置於中位,不用下落的逗號);書名號用《 》(不宜混用引號)。②稿採用新細明體,題目1 8點、大標題1 4點、次標題及內文1 2點;間隔為單行間距。③英文文稿字型用Times New Roman。④文稿內數字一律用阿拉伯數字(引用古籍例外),五位以上數字用進位號,如65,000;萬以上整數數字以萬、億為單位。⑤註釋文字及參考書目均置於文末。註釋不採用西方習慣,字型大小為1 0點,並分別以1 、2、3……數字來標示;參考書目字型大小為1 2點。體例規範如下:專著:(中文)作者姓名:《書名》,出版地:出版社,出版年,第?頁。(英文)Author,Ti t le of Book(Place of Publ icat i on:Publ i she r,date),pp.?.期刊:(中文)作者姓名:《文章題目》,載於《期刊名稱》,出版期號,出版年,第?頁。(英文)Authorofart ic le,“Ti tleofart i c l e,”Journa l Ti t l e,Vol.?,No.?(year),pp.?.