PreâmbuloConferênc ia in te rnac iona l sobre a cu ltu ra ch inesa e desenvo lv im en to dem og rá f ico ( reg ião A s i á t i c o ) , o rgan izada c o n ju n tam en te pelo In s t i t u to de C u l tu ra Ch inesa , In s t i tu to de C iênc ias Sociais Ch inesas-D epa r tam en to de D e m o g ra f ia , In s t i t u to de troca de cu lturas ch inesa , I n s t i t u to de C iênc ias Sociais de M acau e U n ive rs idade de M acau an t ig a U n iv e r s idade de A s ia-O r ien ta l , e C en tro de E s tudos de M a c a u . R ea l izada em 5 a 7 de Jane iro de 1991. Os textos e discursos upresentados pelos pa r t ic ipan tes fo ram com p ilados no t r ab a l ho des ignado “ Popu la ção e C u l tu ra- tex to s ” c o n tr ib u in do para a com preensão deste fen óm eno ch inês , sendo um a op o r tu n id ade nunca antes v isto .Os pa r t ic ipan tes p rovêm de E u ro p a , A m é r ic a do N o r te , A s ia , P o r tu g a l , F rança , J a p ã o , C h in a , T a iw a n , n u m tota l de 53 pessoas, dos quais 37 são estudiosos, vários deles de renom e in te rnac iona l e levando o níve l c ien t íf ica dos traba lhos da c o n fe rê n c ia .Q u a l a razão porque despertou ta n to interesse na pa r t ic ipação m u l t in a c io n a l nesta confe rênc ia? Is to é dev ido à im po r tâ n c ia da dem og ra f ia no desenvo lv im en to ac tua l e no fu tu ro , sendo um dos p rob lem as mais p ress ionan te s . S egundo dados estatísticos d iv u lg a dos pelo G ove rno ch inês , até J u n h o de 1990, a popu la ção u ltrapassa os 11 biliões de h a b i t a n te s . Este n úm e ro é rea lm en te im p re s s io n an te . T odos sabemos que o acrésc imo dem ográ f ico traz atrás de si graves p rob lem as sociais, sendo o mais im po r tan te o da a l im e n ta ç ã o . A popu la ção ac tiva e passiva de s iq u i l ib ra r ão . A popu la ção acarreta pressões à sociedade que torna in supor táve l o em prego , a l im en ta ç ão , educação , cu idados méd icos são todos p rob lem as que s u r g e m . H á a inda a a tender o p rob lem a de segurança soc ia l . Estes p rob lem as fo ram abordados pelo P res idente da Con fe rênc ia Professor L o H a m S in , na sessão de in a u g u ra ç ã o .Estes p rob lem as ex is tem ig u a lm en te na dem og ra f ia ch inesa , com o nos outros países do m u n d o . Estas as razões que despertam o interesse dos pa r t ic ipan tes .São vários os factores que in f lu e n c iam o a u m e n to d e m o g r á f i c o . O au to r en tende que a cu ltu ra é um destes factores m as não o mais im p o r ta n te ou i n f lu e n t e . O mais im po r tan te é o factor e c o n óm ic o . O ser h u m a n o , com o os outros an im a is , na sua v ivênc ia , tem que resolver o p rob lem a de a l im e n ta ç ão para sobrev iver , só depois surgem os p rob lem as de d e se n v o lv im e n to . A cu ltu ra é a base da cons trução económ ica , pe rtencendo ao cam po das id eo lo g ia s . A cu ltu ra é um p rodu to da c iv i l ização h u m a n a na sua v ivênc ia , sendo algo de depender do m a te r ia l ism o e que , por ou tro lado , cond ic iona a condu ta h u m an a nom eadam e n te , a geração h u m a n a - d e m o g r a f ia . Da í podem os com preender a im po r tân c ia da dem ogra f ia no desenvo lv im en to h u m a n o .A cu ltu ra in f luenc ia o desenvo lv im en to h u m a n o reflectindo-se essenc ia lmente nos 2 segu in tes pontos :1. In f lu enc ia a m en ta l id ade h u m a n a para a procr iação .2 . C ond ic ion a a po lít ica de popu la ção dos governan tes .
Sob efeitos ac im a referidos e, co n jug ando com os cond ic iona l ism os h is tór icos , podem de te rm inar a a lteração d e m o g rá f i c a . Na cu ltu ra ch inesa , in f luenc iada h is to r icam ente pelas dou tr inas dos governantes H o n C h i e M a n C h i , a po lít ica de popu la ção sempre se fundou no p r in c íp io de “ tan ta a t e r r a ’ tan tos os h o m e n s ” ,e no es t ím u lo ao casam ento na idade jovem e a procr iação no m á x im o poss íve l . A ideia de que a m a io r das ind ign idades em relaçào aos ascendentes é não ter f i lhos varãos para suceder na fam íl ia está enraizada na popu lação ch in e s a . Es ta ideia a inda hoje cond ic iona a m en ta l id ade chinesa sobre o p rob lem a da p ro c r ia ç ão . A o longo dos séculos, os governantes sem pre se preocuparam na garan t ia de perpe tuar o seu poder , a través da p ro c r ia ç áo . Esta ideia raiz é a razão f u n d a m en ta l para ju s t i f ica r a ac tua l explosão dem ográ f ica ch inesa .O terr i tó r io de M acau é cons t i tu ído por 6 K m 2, mas v is lum brase ig u a lm en te um po tencial p rob lem a de explosão d e m o g r á f i c a . A sua dens idade popu lac iona l é a m a io r do m u n d o . Nos ú l t im os anos, por m ot ivos vários, a popu la ção de M acau a u m e n t o u . Esta Con fe rênc ia , a realizar em M ac au , poderá co n t r ib u ir para o estudo e com preensão do prob lem a em causa sobre o terr i tó r io , p e rm i t in d o , m e lho r os diversos níveis da sua popu lação , reveste-se de m u ita im p o r t â n c i a .Nesta conferênc ia , os par t ic ipan tes ap resen tam 28 textos de alta qua l idade , perspect ivando o prob lem a em m ú l t ip lo s aspectos, o que é de e x a l t a r .A concretização desta C o n fe rê n c ia , con tou com apoios do pres idente da Associação Com erc ia l de M acau , D r . M a M a n K e i , o pres idente do In s t i t u to C u l tu r a l , o D r . S tan ley H o da S T D M e de apo iantes de diversos quad ran tes do t e r r i tó r io .O N o m e du na capa é escrito pelo P r o f . C h in g C h e u n g F a i .Aproveita-sea o p r tu n id ade de pub l icação desta com p ilação para agradecer às pessoas re fe r idas .Vice-redactor chefe da Com issão de Redacção da H ou K en gE d i to r desta com p ilação . M a H a k PengO u t . 1994.Tradutora - Carmen Cabral
目 錄前 言 ........................................................馬克平 IPreâmbulo ............................................................................................... MA HAK PENG Ⅱ: 論 文 :M a in D e m o g ra p h ic Charac te r is t ics ofthe M ac au P o p u la t io n ........................................................................ F ranc isco J . P . P roença 1中 國 生 育 降 低 的 社 會 經 濟 因 素 及 決 定 因 素 ...................................................................佐 藤 龍 三 郎 4T he P ro x im a te D e te rm in a n ts and Socio-economicFactors of F e r t i t i ty Dec l ine in C h in a ......................................................... R y u zab u ro Sato 5T he M y t h of the O ve rpopu la t io n S ynd rom e in C h in a :Som e Food for T h o u g h t ............................................................................. Jam es C . H s iu n g 19Changes in the E uropean F e r t i l i ty D u r in g theLast Years O r ig in a l i ty of Po r tug a l ................................. M ar ie Franço ise R oye r C ruz 25In te rna t io n a l ( A s ian Pac ifc R e g io n ) S em in a r onChinese C u lty re and P o pu la t io n G r o w th ............................................... M iche l Cart ie r 45In te rn a t io n a l S em in a r on Ch inese C u l tu re andPopu la t io n G r o w th in A s ian Pac if ic R eg io n ............................................... Jean Berlie 56“ 明 清 盛 世 ‘ 南 洋 質 易 世 界 ’ 中 的 一 群 巅 峰 ” .............................................................................謝 文 孫 70中 國 農 村 人 口 控 制 的 文 化 反 思 .....................................................................................................李 樹 卿 73澳 門 文 化 與 人 口 發 展 的 關 係 ..........................................................................................................陳 樹 榮 77論 人 口 老 齡 化 與 中 國 的 孝 文 化 .....................................................................................................胡 偉 略 79孔 孟 思 想 對 中 華 生 育 文 化 的 影 響 ................................................................................................ 張 開 敏 84中 國 主 體 文 化 的 禁 欲 主 義 與 集 體 無 意 識 的 繁 殖 失 控 ..................................... 劉 月 蓮 / 黄 曉 峰 89醫 學 文 化 與 中 國 人 口 .........................................................................................................................劉 禧 義 93: 賀 詞 :歡 迎 詞 ......................................................................................................................................................羅 涵 先 98開 展 多 渠 道 文 化 交 流 ,推 動 人 口 科 學 發 展 .............................................................................田 雪 原 99賀 詞 ......................................................................................................................................................馬 萬 祺 101致 詞 ...................................................................................................................................................... 馬 若 龍 105致 詞 ......................................................................................................................................................薛 壽 生 106Under-Secretary Fo r tran s i t io na l A f f a t r s , De livered at the In te rn a t io n a l S e m in a r on Ch inese C u l tu re andP o pu la io n G r o w th ................................................................................. D r . Joao de Deus R am os 107賀 詞 ......................................................................................................................................................林 慕 士 109閉 幕 詞 ......................................................................................................................................................田 雪 原 110閉 幕 詞 ......................................................................................................................................................黄 漢 强 112
MAIN DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICSOF THE MACAU POPULATIONFrancisco J . P . ProençaPOPULATION AGE AND SEX COMPOSITIONA t the end of 1989 the es t im a ted popu la t io n of M acau was 452300.By age group 2 5 .2 % are less th an 15 years o l d , 6 8 ,2 % are be tween 15 and 64 years old and 6 . 6 % are more th an 64 years o l d .T he 4ag ing index ’ ( ra t io of the old to the y o u ng ) was 26, 2 % and a ‘ dependency rate ’ ( m i d dle age pe rsons /young + old persons) of 466 per t h o u s a n d .In the same period , the n u m b e r of males was a lm os t equal to the n u m b e r of fem a le s . T he propor t io n of w o m en has increased in the last ten years because in 1980 the rat io m e n /w o m e n was 1. 045.PLACE OF BIRTHA cco rd in g to the E m p lo y m e n t Su rvey of N o vem be r 1989, 46, 8 % of the residents of M acau were born in C h in a , 4 3 ,5% were born in M ac au , 3 .5 % were born in H . K . , 1 ,2 % were born in P o r tug a l and 5 ,0 % were born e lsewhere , w h ic h m eans th a t of the tota l popu la t io n resident in M acau 56, 5 % were born outs ide M a c a u .A m o n g the residents w ho were not born in M ac au , 5% have been l iv ing less th a n 2 years, 8 . 7 % have been l iv ing for 2 to 4 years, 22, 2% have been l iv ing for 5 to 9 years and 6 4 .1 % have been l iv in g for 10 years or m o r e .NATIONALITYA cco rd in g to the same survey , 65, 3% had Ch inese n a t io n a l i ty , 30, 4% Portuguese n a t io na l i ty , 2 , 4 % B r it ish n a t io n a l i ty and 1 ,9 % had o ther n a t io n a l i t ie s .ETHNIC GROUPS AND SPOKEN LANGUAGEIn the H ea lth Su rvey conduc ted in A u g u s t 1990,there was a quest ion abou t the ances to rs . 95% of the respondents answered th a t they had on ly Ch inese ancestors ; 1 ,7 % answered tha t they had Portuguese and Ch inese ancestors ; 1 .5 % had on ly Po rtuguese ancestors and 1 .8 % had o ther ances to rs .In the survey to Dom es t ic E x p e n d i tu re conduc ted d u r in g 1987 and 1988 was asked w ha t was the m a in language spoken at h om e , w i t h the fo l low ing answers * Cantonese 9 0 % , P o r tuguese 2% and o ther languages 8% .FAMIL IEST he average size of the fam i ly , accord ing to the E m p lo y m e n t Survey of N ovem be r 89 was 3 ,72; the average size of each househo ld was 4 .1 7 .
EXPECTATION OF LIFE AT BIRTHT he expecta t ion of life at b i r th in 1988 for m en was 76, 7 years and 81,3 for w o m e n .T h is h igh rate was due to a low in f a n t i l i t y rate : 6 ,9 % in 1987; 9 . 4 % . in 1988 and 10, 3% . in 1989,and due to the h igh level of im m ig r a t io n in recent years the m a jo r i ty of the po pu la t ion are in age groups where the m o r ta l i ty rate is very low : 3 . 1 % in 1987, 3 . 3 % in 1988 and 3 .4 % in 1989.IM M IG R A T IO N AND EM IGRATIONT he com pos it ion of the popu la t io n w i t h more th a n 50 % of the popu la t io n born outs ide the terr i to ry reflects a h igh level of im m ig r a t io n , b u t there are also m an y residents tha t e m ig ra t ed or in tend to em igra te .T he im m ig ra t io n has three com ponen ts : the legal im m ig r a t io n is abou t 1500 a year, the workers tha t enter w i th a tem po rary w ork p e rm i t , abou t 10000 en tered d u r in g 1988 and 1989 and il legal im m ig r a t io n , 12800 il legal im m ig r a n t s were cap tured by the police in 1988 and 21300 in 1989. Last year the G o v e rn m e n t has legalized 27000 il legal im m ig r a n t s .T he em ig ra t io n is d i f f icu l t to q u an t i fy bu t some f igures can be presented . In 1989, 3651 a u thor iza t ions of residence were issued in H o n g K o n g to M acau : residents and in the same pe r iod a lm ost 1000 visas were issued to the three m a in des t ina t ions of em ig ran ts of M ac au , E . U . A . , Canada and A u s t r a l i a . T h is represents abou t 1 % of the M acau p o pu la t io n , a d d ing other des t ina t ions and em ig ra t io n w i th o u t visas, we have a very large rate of e m ig r a t i o n . (See pie — charts tha t f o l l o w . )
The Proximate Determinants and Socio-economic Factorsof Fertility Decline in ChinaFamily Planning Section, Department of Public Health Demography, The Institute of Public Health Ryuzaburo Sato M A C A U , Jan. 1991C h in a , the m ost popu la ted coun try in the w o r ld and whose popu la t io n shares abou t one f i f th of the w o r ld , has experienced a drastic fe r t i l i ty dec line especially d u r in g the 1970s. (T h e to ta l fe r t i l i ty rate of C h in a d ropped from h ighest level of 7 .5 in 1963 to lowest level of 2 . 2 in 1984. ) T h is paper presents the analyses of the tw o levels of fe r t i l i ty d e te rm in an ts of recent C h i n a : (1 ) the b io log ica l and behav io ra l factors ( th e p rox im a te d e te rm in an ts ) and (2 ) socio-economic f a c to rs .I . A s tudy on the p rox im a te de te rm in an ts of fe r t i l i ty decline in C h in a be tween 1971 and1981Dav is and B lak e1 c o n tr ib u ted to b io log ica l and behav io ra l app roach of fe r t i l i ty analysis and prov ided the concept of “ in te rm ed ia te fe r t i l i ty v a r ia b les” or “ p rox im a te d e te rm in a n t s ” of f e r t i l i t y . B ongaa r ts2 la ter developed the m ode l of fe r t i l i ty analysis and quan t i f ie d the effects of four p r in c ipa l in te rm ed ia te fe r t i l i ty variab les th a t is, m arr iage , con tracep t ion , induced abo r t io n , post-partum in fe c u n d a b i l i ty (w h ic h is usua l ly de te rm ined m a in ly by the d u ra t io n of b re a s t fe e d in g ) . In th is paper the Bongaar ts m ode l is app lied to the popu la t io n of the P e o p le ’ s R epub l ic of C h in a for the years 1971 and 1981, d u r in g w h ich the fe r t i l i ty rate d ropped rap id ly and subs tan t ia l p o pu la t io n con tro l policies were im p le m e n t e d .1. M e thod sT he Bongaar ts m ode l is s um m ar ize d as f o l lo w s ;31 )E s t im a t io n of the four ind ices of in te rm ed ia te variablesT he ind ices of the fou r p r in c ipa l b io-dem ograph ic fe r t i l i ty contro l factors and fe r t i l i ty level are de f ined as fo l low s ;C m : index of non-marr iage ( th a t represents fe r t i l i ty - inh ib i t ing effect of be ing in non-marita l s ta te)C c : index of con tracep t ion ( th a t represents fe r t i l i ty - inh ib i t ing effect of c o n t ra c e p t io n )C a : index of in duced abor t io n ( th a t represents fe r t i l i ty - inh ib i t in g effect of induced a b o r t io n ) Ci : index of p o s tp a r tum in fe c u n d a b i l i ty ( th a t represents fe r t i l i ty - inh ib i t in g effect of pos tpa r tu m in fe c u n da b i l i ty , tha t is m a in ly of breast-feed ing)T F R : to ta l fe r t i l i ty rate T M R : to ta l m ar i ta l fe r t i l i ty rateT F : to ta l fe cund i ty ( th e b io-dem ograph ic m a x im a l p ro bab i l i ty of fe r t i l i ty ) Bongaarts in d ic a t ed tha t bo th developed and deve lop ing countr ies have m ore or less the same level of tota l fe cund i ty rate : abou t 15 .3 b ir th s per w o m a n . In th is paper T F is assumed as 15 .3
T he indices C m , C c , C a , and C i can theore t ica l ly range from 0 to 1,and the com p lem en t of each index represents the p ropor t io na te reduc t ion in fe r t i l i ty a t t r ib u tab le to the d e t e r m in a n t . For exam p le , a Ca value of 0 .7 im p l ies tha t the effect of induced abor t io n is to reduce fe r t i l i ty by 3 0 % . T he lower the index value the greater the es t im a ted fe r t i l i ty r e d u c t io n . W h e n there is no fe r t i l i ty - inh ib i t ing effect of a g iven in te rm ed ia te var iab le , the correspond ing index equals one ; if the fe r t i l i ty in h ib i t io n is com p le te , the index equals zero. T he ind ices are de f ined as fo l low s;C m = T F R / T M R (1 )T F R = C m X Cc x C a X Ci X T F (2 )T he indices C c , C a , C i can be es t im a ted as fo l low s;Cc = 1 - 1 .08 X e x u (3 )Ca= T F R / ( T F R + 0 .4 x (1 + u ) + T A ) (4 )C i = 20 / ( 1 8 .5 + i) (5 )where e: average use effectiveness of con tracep t ionu : con tracep t ive prevalence rate ( p ropo r t io n of cu rren t ly m arr ied w o m en of repro duc t ive age curren t ly us ing any con tracep t ion in c lu d in g s te r i l i z a t io n )T A : to ta l induced abor t io n rate ( th e average n u m b e r of in duced abort ions per w om an at the end of the reproduc tive period if in duced abor t io n rates rem a in at preva ling levels th ro u g h o u t the reproduc tive pe r iod , ex c lud ing induced abort ions to u n m a r ried w o m e n )i : m ean du ra t io n of p o s tp a r tum in fe cu n da b i l i ty ( in m o n th s )I f age-specific induced abort ion rates are not ava i lab le , T A can be ap p rox im a ted as,T A = ( N A / N W R ) X 35 ( 6)where N A : n u m b e r of induced abort ions in the year ( e x c lu d in g in duced abort ions to u nm a rr ied w o m e n )N W R : n u m b e r of w o m en of rep roduc tive age A n d , if a d irect est imate of i is not ava i lab le , it is possible to es t im a t ie an app rox im a te v a lue from the du ra t io n us ing the fo l low ing equa t ion :i = 1 .753 X exp (0 .1396 x B - 0 .00 187 2 x B 2) (7 )where B : m ean du ra t io n of p o s tp a r tum breast-feeding ( in m o n th s )2) D ecom pos it ionP f = ( T F R 2 / T F R 1 ) - 1, P m = ( C m 2 / C m l ) - 1, Pc = ( C c 2 / C c l ) - 1,P a = ( C a 2 / C a l ) _ l , P i = ( C i 2 / C i l ) - 1, P r = ( T F 2 / T F 1 ) - 1,P f = P m + Pc + Pa + Pi + P r + I ( 8 )2. D a ta1) M a r r ia ge : T he value of T F R and T M R are ava ilab le from 1964 to 1981 .42) C on tracep t io n ( in c lu d in g s te r i l i z a t io n ) : T he con tracep t ive prevalence rates are reported from 1981 to 1987 .5 T he level of con tracep t ive preva lence of 6 4 .4 % for 1981 is as usual as de veloped countr ies , how ever, as Ban is te r in d ic a te d , 6 Ch inese da ta on contracept ive prevalence m ay be exaggerated because in C h in a the p ro m o t io n of fam i ly p la n n in g has been heav ily en co u rage d .3 ) In d uced abo r t io n : T he annua l tota l n u m b e r of in duced abo r t io n in C h in a is available
f rom 1971 .7 T here is no in fo rm a t io n abou t the age of the w o m en w ho pe rfo rm ed induced a b o r t io n . N o w T A is es t im a ted by us ing f o r m u l a ( 6 ) . N W R for 1981 was ca lcu la ted us ing the1982 census da ta and the 1981 life tab le as 242 m i l l i o n . N W R for 1971 was es t im a ted as a p ro po r t ion of 1982 f igure based on 1964 census da ta of 189 m i l l io n w o m en of reproduc tive a g e .A cco rd in g to B a n is te r ’ s reference6 to Ch inese l i te ra tu re , one hosp ita l in T ia n j in reported th a t 9% of the abort ions pe rfo rm ed there in 1977 were for u n m a r r ie d w o m e n ; th is f igure rose to 14% in 1978 and 16% in the f irst ha lf of 1979. These are the on ly data ava ilab le in case of induced abo r t io ns for u n m a r r ie d w o m en in C h in a , in d ic a t in g a rap id ly increased trend of i n duced abort ions for u nm a rr ied w o m en in the late 1970s. S uppos ing th a t in 1981 N A is 84% of the o f f ic ia l ly reported f igure of in duced abo r t io n and in 1971 all the o f f ic ia l ly reported induced abort ions were for m arr ied w o m e n , N A is o b ta ined as 7 .31 m i l l io n in 1981 and 3 .91 m i l l io n in 1971. T he cond it io n in the o the r rates of C h in a m ay be d i f fe ren t f rom T ia n j in , bu t data are not ava ilab le to es t imate the d i f fe re n ce .4) P o s tp a r tu m in fe cu n da b i l i ty (b reas t- feed ing ): Breast-feeding has an in h ib i to ry effect on ovu la t ion and thus increases the b ir th in te rva l and reduces na tu ra l f e r t i l i t y . N o n a t iona l data of the le n g th of the p o s tp a r tu m breast-feeding are ava ilab le in C h i n a . M e re ly a few local data are reported . A survey in a ru ra l d is tr ic t ( s u b u rb of B e i j in g ) reported th a t the m ean le ng th of the po s tp a r tum breast-feeding was 18. 55 m o n th s in 1971 and 13. 16 m o n th s in 1981,8 and a retrospective survey in a ru ra l d is tr ic t ( s u b u rb of S h a n g h a i ) reported th a t the m ean leng th of the p o s tp a r tu m breast-feeding was 16 to 17 m o n th s for the w o m en of the age group 40-50, w h i le 11 to 12 m o n th s of the age g rup 20-25.9 A l t h o u g h the da ta are l im i te d , those show a tendency th a t the le ng th of the p o s tp a r tu m breast-feeding has been sho r te n ing g radua l ly in recent C h i n a .3. Resu lts1) E s t im a t io n of the ind ices of in te rm ed ia te variab les : T he procedure of e s t im a t ion of Cc for the year of 1981 was described in T ab le 1, and T ab le 2 presents the es t im a ted value of the in te rm ed ia te variables ca lcu la ted by us ing the fo rm u lae (1 ) to ( 7 ) . Here the average le ng th of the po s tp a r tum breast-feedng was taken as 18. 55 m o n th s in 1971 and 13 .16 m o n th s in 1981.In T ab le 2, for 1981 the es t im a ted T F R of 1 . 9 2 , co m pu ted by a pp ly in g fo rm u la ( 2 ) , is abou t 28% smaller th a n the observed T F R of 2 .6 5 . A s m en t io ne d , the con tracep t ive preva lence rate ( u ) m ay be exaggerated in 1981. I f in 1981 the expected T F R is f ixed to the o b served T F R of 2 .6 5 and u is changeab le , Cc and Ca is reca lcu lated to 0 .467 and 0 .804 respect ive ly (2nd c o lu m n , in T ab le 2 ) . For 1971 the expected T F R is f ixed to the observed T F R of 5 .4 2 and u is changed under the cond it io ns th a t T F is 15 .3 . A s a result Cc and Ca in 1971 are ob ta ined as 0. 717 and 0. 936 respective ly (3rd c o lu m n , in T ab le 2 ) .2) D ecom pos it io n of fe r t i l i ty change be tw een 1971 and 1981 (T ab le 3 ) :T he reduc t ion of T F R from 5 .42 in 1971 to 2 .6 5 in 1981 were decomposed to the c o n tr ib u t ions of the fou r in te rm ed ia te variables by us ing the f o r m u l a ( 8 ) . A s a resu lt , the decrease in T F R of 2 .7 8 d u r in g the decade was es t im a ted to be co n tr ib u ted by re la t ive ly w ide practice of con tracep t ion ( 6 8 % ) ,be ing non m ar i ta l s tate (a lm o s t late m arr ia ge ) ( 4 9 % ) ,and increase of induced abor t io n ( 2 8 % ) , th o u g h sho r te n ing of the le ng th of p o s tp a r tu m breast-feedingshow ed nega t ive effect ( 一 3 2 % ) and rem a in in g in te rac t ion am o ng factors .
4 . D iscussion1) E v a lu a t io n of the results :C om pared w i t h the T F R of 2 .6 5 ac tua l ly observed from the da ta , the m odel est imate of T F R is 1 .92 for the year of 1981. T h is is es t im a ted from the assumed tota l fecund ity ( T F ) of 1 5 .3 b ir ths and the values of each index co m pu ted f rom the d a t a . T he d if ference of 0 .7 3 b ir ths be tween the observed and the es t im a ted , as po in ted out by B o n g a a r t s ,3 due to two types of errors, tha t is, ( 1 ) errors invo lved in the m esurem ents of the p rox im a te d e te rm inan ts and (2 ) errors in the spec if ica t ion of the m o d e l .(1 ) E rrors invo lved in the m easurem en ts of the p rox im a te d e te r m in a n t s :As already m en t io ne d , the index of ( C c ) of 0 .3 43 for the year of 1981 com pu ted from the off ic ia l ly pub lic ized da ta m ay be exaggerated because of excessive repo r t ing of contracept ive prevalence ( u ) . In the cond it ions th a t T F is assumed as 15. 3 and C m , C a ,and C i are not changed , Cc for the year 1981 was recom pu ted as 0. 467. T he true value is th ou g h t to be w i t h in the range be tween 0 .343 and 0. 457 (as for u, be tw een 64. 4% and 52 .3 % ).工 ca lcu la ted the contracept ive prevalence rate ( u ) for the year of 1971 as 2 7 .7 % backw ard f rom assumed T F ( 1 5 . 3 % ) and prev ious ly o b ta ined C m , C i , and T A . By the w ay T u a n l l est im a ted it as 27% from a qu ite d i f fe ren t source tha t is very close to our e s t im a t io n . Therefore our es t im a t ion is supposed to be reliable enough to assess the b io log ica l and behav iora l process of fe r t i l i ty decline in C h in a from 1971 to 1981, d u r in g w h ich m ost n o tew o r th y fert i l i ty change had occurred , even th o u g h some da ta are not c o m p le te .(2 ) E rrors in the spec if icat ion of the Bongaar ts m ode l :In the app l ica t ion of the Bongaarts m od e l , error can occur f rom the m ode l itself because the fo rm u lae to est imate the indices ( ex c lud ing C m ) are e m p i r ic a l . Bongaarts created and tested the m odel from m an y examp les of p o pu la t io n cons is t ing of h is tor ica l popu la t ion s and developed and deve lop ing countr ies (T ab le 4 ) , w h ic h d id not in c lude C h i n a . In the stud ies of B ongaar ts , in genera l , h is tor ica l p opu la t ion s and deve lop ing areas had h ig h C m , h igh Cc , low C i , and h ig h T F R , due to early and un iversa l m arr ia ge , low prevalence rate of con tra ceptive practice , and re la t ive ly longer d u ra t io n of breast-feeding. O n the o ther side deve loped areas had in general low C m , low Cc , h ig h C i , and low T F R , due to late m arr iage , h ig h prevalence rate of contracep t ives , and short d u ra t io n of breas t- feed ing . T F was cons id ered as constan t because a change in some index was com pensa ted by a change in o ther i n d e x . Fox exam p le , in deve lop ing countr ies low values of C i ( le n g th y post-postpartum infe- c u n d a b i l i t y ) tend to be offset by h ig h values of C m (ear ly and un iversa l m a r r ia g e ) .T he T F R and the es t imated C m , Cc , and Ca for C h in a in 1981 are as low as developed countr ies , bu t the es t im a ted C i is not so. T h e es t im a ted Ci for C h in a in 1981 is rather as low as deve lop ing co u n tr ie s . Such a very un ique po pu la t io n s i tua t ion m ay account for one of the reasons of the discrepancy be tween the es t im a ted and observed T F R .2) F e r t i l i ty decline and the p rox im a te d e te rm in an ts in C h in a :T h is s tudy dem ons tra ted tha t the d ram a t ic fe r t i l i ty dec line of C h in a was accom pan ied w i th co rrespond ing change in the p rox im a te d e te rm in an ts , tha t is to say, it was ach ieved by a c o m b in a t io n of the very s trong fe r t i l i ty - inh ib i t in g effects of late m a r r ia g e, con tracep t ion ,and in duced a b o r t io n . P ar t icu la r ly very low value of Cc has been realized due to w ide ly per
form ed s ter i l iza t ion and w ide use of I U D , bo th of w h ich have a lm os t com p le te contracept ive e f fec t iveness .T he re la t ionsh ip be tw een such changes in the p rox im a te d e te rm in an ts and C h i n a ’ s po pu la t ion policies is obv ious because the period be tw een 1971 and 1981 to w h ic h the m ode l was ap plied covers the period of the im p o r ta n t part of subs tan t ia l popu la t io n policies since 1969 and the ju s t b e g in n in g of the re inforced prov is ion of p o pu la t io n policies or “one-child po l icy ” since 1979. R a p id increase in the practice of con tracep t ion is p robab ly due to the noticeab le encour agem en t by the gove rnm en t to p rom o te the s ter i l iza t ion and inser t ions of I U D , especially in rural areas,as we ll as to ensrure su ff ic ien t supplies of p il l and c o n d o m . A n d it is also clear tha t com p le te ly l ibera lized co nd it io n tow ards in duced abo r t io n prov ided the basis of such a rap id fe r t i l i ty decline in C h i n a .W h e n the es t im a ted indices of the p rox im a te de te rm in an ts in C h in a are com pared w i th those in o the r countr ies and areas where da ta are ava i lab le (T ab le 4 ) , C h in a is characterized by coexistence of s trong fe r t i l i ty - inh ib i t ing effects of non-m arr iage , con tracep t ion , induced abort ion and re la t ive ly s trong fe r t i l i ty - inh ib i t in g effect of breas t- feed ing . I t s trong ly suggested tha t the fe r t i l i ty t ran s it io n in C h in a was realized by pow er fu l popu la t io n policies in the context of in su f f ic ien t socio-economic deve lopm en t to lead to the t r a n s i t io n .II . A s tudy of socio-economic factors c o n t r ib u t in g to fe r t i l i ty dec line in C h in a : an analys is ofthe reg iona l fe r t i l i ty and its related socio-economic factors d u r in g 1981-1982F e r t i l i ty , in genera l , is exp la ined w i t h regard to soc iological and econom ic reasons . H o w isthe re la t ionsh ip be tw een fe r t i l i ty dec line and socio-economic deve lopm en t or “m o d e rn iz a t io n ” in the P e o p le ’ s R e pu b l ic of C h in a ? A s sh o w n in F igu re 1,we can see a para lle l re la t ionsh ip of trend be tween fe r t i l i ty rate and some socio-economic ind ica to rs l ike p ropor t io n of ag r icu l tu ra l p o pu la t io n , n u m b e r of doctors , and in fa n t m o r t a l i t y . T o s tudy the re la t ion fu r th e r , the areal analys is is n e e d e d . In th is par t of the paper a cross n a t io na l areal analysis of fe r t i l i ty and its p robab le related socio-economic factors ( a ro u n d 1982, the year of the T h ir d N a t io n a l P o p u la t ion Census in C h i n a ) are ana lysed th ro u g h the m ult i-var ia te te c h n iq u e s . T he m u l t ip le regression and the p a th analys is have been app lied to the d a t a .1. D a taD a ta for 28 prov inces ( ex c lu d in g T a iw a n and T ib e t , for w h ich the da ta are not ava i lab le ) for the years of 1981 or 1982,are m a in ly based on o ff ic ia l ly pub l ished m a te r ia ls . T he in d ica tors exam ined are as fo l low s :1) T o ta l fe r t i l i ty rate ( T F R ). 2 ) P o pu la t io n d e n s i t y . 3 ) P ropo r t io n of m in o r i ty popu la t ion ( th a t inc ludes 55 na t iona l i t ies o the r th an H an n a t i o n a l i t y ) .4 ) P ropo r t io n of p r im a ry in dus tr ia l p o p u la t io n . 5 ) P ropo r t io n of u rban p o p u la t io n . 6 ) Per cap ita gross value of ag r icu l tu ra l and in du s tr ia l o u tp u t ( th a t is supposed as an ind ica to r of per cap ita i n c o m e ) . 7 ) P ropo r t io n of w o m en educated at ju n io r h ig h school level or a b o v e . 8 ) P ropo r t io n of w o m en w o rk e r s . 9 ) Per cap ita doctors ( doctors inc lude college-graduated phys ic ians , m id d le level phys ic ians , and prac t it ioners of trad i t io na l m e d ic in e ) . ~ 10) S ta n dard ized m o r ta l i ty rate . 11) In f a n t m o r ta l i ty rate .T he da ta of popu la t io n po licy , w h ic h is obv ious ly one of the most im p o r ta n t predictors of fe r t i l i ty in C h in a , are not av i lab le , therefore the in te rp re ta t io n of the results requires
c i r c u m sp e c t io n .2. Resu lts1) M a p p in g by prov ince (F ig u re 2 ) :F igu re 2. 1 shows a rem arkab le d if fe rence in the tota l fe r t i l i ty rates am o ng 28 provinces ( th e h ig h e s t , T F R of 4 .355 is in G u iz h o u w h ich is 3 .3 t imes h ighe r than the lowest T F R of1 .316 in S h a n g h a i ) . A com par ison be tween the level of T F R and 10 selected socio-economic variables showed a c o m m o n tendency tha t the fe r t i l i ty level was lowest and the deve lopm ent level was h ighest in n o r th eastern coastal areas w h i le the fe r t i l i ty level was h ighest and the deve lopm ent level was lowest in sou th western in la n d areas ( fo r exam p le , d is t r ib u t io n of p r i m ary in dus tr ia l popu la t io n and w o m en educated at ju n io r h ig h school level or above was i l lus tra ted in F igures 2 .2 and 2 . 3 ) . T he d is t r ib u t io n of m in o r i ty p o pu la t io n , however, was som ew ha t d if fe ren t from o the r socio-economic variables (F ig u re 2 . 4 ) .2 ) Co rre la t ion m a tr ix (T ab le 5 ) :S im p le corre lat ion showed the areal re la t ionsh ip be tween fe r t i l i ty and the selected socio-econom ic fa c to rs: the h ighe r the level of socio-economic deve lopm ent or the low er the p ropor t ion of m in o r i ty na t io na l i t ies , the lower the level of f e r t i l i t y . P a r t icu la r ly the p ropor t io n of m in o r i ty popu la t io n showed the h ighest corre la t ion ( r = 0. 764) w i th T F R , and the in fan t m o r ta l i ty rate ( r = 0 . 6 9 7 ) , the p ropor t io n of w o m en educated at ju n io r h ig h school level or above (r = - 0 .6 8 5 ) , the p ropor t io n of p r im a ry in dus tr ia l popu la t io n ( r = 0. 680 ) , and o ther variables showed h ig h corre lat ion w i t h T F R . A s 9 socio-economic variables o the r th an m in o r i ty popu la t ion m u tu a l ly correlated very h ig h ly , they were considered as a c o m m o n group of var iab les , tha t is, the ind ica to rs of socio-economic deve lopm en t or “m o d e rn iz a t io n ” . O n the con trary , the p ropor t io n of m in o r i ty po pu la t io n showed low corre lat ioon w i th the socio-eco- nom ic ind ica tors o ther th an s tandard ized m o r ta l i ty and in fa n t m o r ta l i ty , thus it was regarded to be an in dependen t variab le of o the r usual socio-economic variables l ike u rban iza t io n and in d u s t r ia l iz a t io n .3) T he m u l t ip le regression analysis :T he m u l t ip le stepw ise regression m e tho d was carried o u t , u s ing the T F R as the dependent var iab le , wh i le 8 socio-economic variables as the in dependen t v a r ia b les . P ropo r t io n of u rban popu la t ion and the s tandard ized m o r ta l i ty rate were exc luded from the in dependen t variables because the fo rm er showed very h ig h corre lat ion w i t h p ropo r t io n of p r im a ry in dus tr ia l p o p u la t ion (r = 0. 959) and the la tter also showed very h ig h corre lat ion w i t h the in fa n t m o r ta l i ty rate ( r = 0. 851 ) . T he same level of s ign if icance was assumed for inc lus ion and exclusion of var iables from the equat ion in th is s tudy ( F i n , F o u t = 2 . 0 ) .A t the f ina l stage, p roport ion of m in o r i ty p o pu la t io n , p ropo r t io n of w o m en educated at j u n ior h igh school level or above, and p ropor t io n of w o m en workers had been se lec ted . These three variables had the strongest p red ic t ing pow er (m u l t ip le corre lat ion coeff ic ient was 0 .9 3 , th a t is to say, these three variables exp la ined abou t 87% of v ar ia t ion of T F R ) . T he in fan t m o r ta l i ty rate w h ic h had h ig h corre la t ion w i th T F R ( r = 0. 697) was not selected in the step, due to its h ig h corre lat ion (r = 0 .8 07 ) w i th p ropo r t io n of m in o r i ty popu la t io n w h ich was the variab le of the h ighest corre lat ion w i t h T F R .4) T he p a th analysis (F ig u re 3 ) : T h is s tudy proposed a pa th m odel th a t shows the possible
causal re la t ionsh ip to fe r t i l i ty , of the p ropor t io n of m in o r i ty n a t io na l i t ie s , the p ropor t io n of p r im a ry in dus tr ia l p o p u la t io n , and the p ropo r t io n of w o m en educated at ju n io r h ig h school level or a b o v e .3. D iscussionT he h ig h corre la t ion be tw een socio-economic variab les and T F R tem p ts us to believe the causal re la t ionsh ip of socio-economic deve lopm en t to fe r t i l i ty dec line in C h i n a . H ow eve r , we m us t consider th a t no direct ind ica to rs of p o pu la t io n policies are used in th is cross na t iona l areal a n a ly s is .T he results of the m u l t ip le regression analysis and the p a th analysis con f irm ed tha t the p ro po r t ion of m in o r i ty po pu la t io n has the s trongest p red ic t ing p o w e r . T h is s tudy also revealed tha t the p ropor t io n of m in o r i ty po pu la t io n was an in dependen t var iab le of o the r usual socio-e- conom ic variables like u rban iza t io n and in d u s t r ia l i z a t io n . I t is un l ik e ly tha t the fecund ity of m in o r i ty na t iona l i t ies is m u ch d i f fe ren t from th a t of H an n a t io n a l i t y . W e m us t ra ther cons id er the d ife ren t cond it io ns of p o pu la t io n po licy th a t have cons tan t ly dem anded str icter n o rm of b ir th l im i t a t io n of H an n a t io n a l i ty than m ino r i t ie s , and of u rban residents th an rural r es iden ts . There fo re a cons iderable part of fe r t i l i ty reduc ing effect of the p ropor t io n of m i no r ity na t iona l i t ies and some part of the p ropo r t io n of p r im a ry in dus tr ia l popu la t io n could be regarded as re f lec tion of p opu la t io n po l ic ie s . F in a l ly th is cross sectional analysis proved the p red om in an t c o n tr ib u t io n of Ch inese po pu la t io n policies to the d ram a t ic fe r t i l i ty d e c l in e . H ow ever , it is unreasonab le to neglect any role tha t socio-economic deve lopm en t like im p rovem en t of w o m en educa t ion level had possib ly p layed in fe r t i l i ty decline in m odern C h i n a . In th is s tudy some of the s i tu a t io n suggested the role of socio-economic d e ve lopm en t , even if it was mere ly s u p p o r t iv e . It is m ore realistic to conc lude th a t the fe r t i l i ty decline in C h in a was probab ly accelerated by the co m b in a t io n of socio-economic deve lopm ent w i th popu la t ion po l ic ie s .References1) Dav is , K . , B lake , J . : Socia l s truc ture and f e r t i l i t y :A n ana ly t ic f r am e w o rk , E co no m ic D e ve lopm ent and C u l tu ra l C h a n g e , 4 (3 ) ;211-235, 1956.2 ) Bongaar ts , J . : A f ram ew o rk for ana ly z in g the p ro x im a te de te rm in an ts of fe r t i l i ty , P o p u la t ion and D eve lopm en t R e v ie w , 4 ( 1 ) ; 105-132,1978.3) Bongaar ts , J . , P o t te r , R . : F e r t i l i t y . B io logy , and B ehav io r , A c adem ic Press, 1983.4 ) Z h o n g g u o j ih u a shengyu n ia n j ia n b ian ji w e iy u a nh u i : Z h o n g g u o j ih u a shengyu n ian j ian 1986, (C h in e s e ) , p p . 433-450, R e n m in we isheng cubanshe ( B e i j i n g ) , 1987. ( C h i n a ’ s Y ea rb oo k of F a m i ly P la n n in g 1986)5 ) L ia n g , J im in : C h i n a ’ s fam i ly p ro g ram m e is ad v anc in g , Session 2 at the 21st In te rna t io n a l P o pu la t io n Conference , In te rn a t io n a l U n io n for the Sc ien t i f ic S tu d y of P o p u la t io n , pp . 31-41, 1989.6) Ban is te r , J . : C h i n a ’ s C h a n g in g P o p u la t io n , p p . 171-182,S tan fo rd U n ive rs i ty Press (C a l i f o r n i a ) , 1987.7 ) Z h o n g g u o we isheng n ian j ian b ian j i w e iy u a nh u i : Z h o n g g u o we isheng n ian j ian 1989, ( C h i n e s e ) , p . 590,R e n m in we isheng cubanshe (B e i j i n g ) , 1989.( C h i n a ’ s Y ea rb oo k of H ea lth 1989)
8) Q in g , F ang F a n g : Z h o n g j ia n shengyu b ian l ian g du i shengyu-lu de y in g x ian g , (C h in e s e ) , R e n k o u yu J in g j i , ( 2 ) i 32-38, 1983.(E ffec ts of in te rm ed ia te fe r t i l i ty variables on fe r t i l i ty ra te )9) H u , H u a n Y o n g : Z h o n g g u o R e n k o u ( S h an gha i F e n c e ) , (C h in e s e ) , p . 108, Z hongg uo ca izheng j in g j i chu b an shu ( B e i j i n g ) , 1987. (C h in a ’ s P o pu la t io n ; S h a n g h a i )10) L a in g , J . E . : E s t im a t in g of the effects of con tracep t ive use on fe r t i l i ty : techn iques and f in d ings f rom the 1974 P h i l ip p in e N a t io n a l A ccep to r Su rvey , S tud ies in F am i ly P l a n n i n g , 9 ( 6 ) ; 150-162, 1978.11) T u a n , C h i Hs ien : C h u u g o k u j in k o u no tenkan to te nbou , in P o pu la t io n In s t i t u te , N ih on U n iv e rsu ty : T enkan- K i no A j ia j in k o u , ( J a p a n e s e ) , p p . 3-18, J ichousya ( T o k y o ) , 1986. (T ran s i t io n and prospect of Ch inese p o p u la t io n )12) C h e n , W e i : A n analys is of m a jo r p rox im a te de te rm in an ts of our fe r t i l i ty , (C h in e s e ) , R e n k o u Y a n j i u (P o p u la t io n R e se a rch ) , ( 1 ) ; 16-22, 1989.13) W a n g , Shao X ia n et a l . : P ro x im a te d e te rm in an ts of fe r t i l i ty and po licy im p l ic a t io ns in B e i j in g , S tud ies in F a m i ly P la n n in g , 1 8 (4 ) ; 222-228, 1987.14 ) O ts u k a , T o m o m i : Nyuuyou j i- se izonkase tu no kensyou , Bongaarts-hou no tek iyou , ( J a p a n e s e ) , K e iza i syuus i, 57 ( 4 ) ; 21-34, 1988. ( V e r i f ic a t io n of ch i ld survival hypo thes is ; A p p l ic a t io n of the Bongaar ts m od el)15) A lm a n a c of C h i n a ’ s P o pu la t io n 1985, ( C h in e s e ) , p p . 964-966.16) A lm a n a c of C h i n a ’ s P o pu la t io n 1986, (C h in e s e ) , p . 443.17) Z h o n g g u o tong j i n ia n j ia n 1983, (C h in e s e ) , p . 122, 103, 543.18) Z h o n g g u o we isheng n ia n j ia n 1983, ( C h in e s e ) .19) Z h o n g g u o we isheng n ian j ian 1984, ( C h in e s e ) .20) J in g j i R ib a o , (C h in e s e ) , D e c . 13, 1983.21 ) 1982 P opu la t io n Census of C h in a , ( C h i n e s e ) , Z h o n g g u o tong j i c ubanshe , ( B e i j i n g ) , 1985.22) J ia n g , Z h e n g h u a : T he effect of socio-economic factors on C h in a fe r t i l i ty , (C h in e s e ) , R e n k o u Y a n j i u (P o p u la t io n R e se a rch ) , ( 3 ) ; 25-30, 1986.
F igure 3. P a th d ia g ram of factors a f fec t ing the to ta l fe r t i l i ty ra te ( 1981-1982)X i: TFRX 2: In fa n t m o r ta l i ty rateX 3: P ro p o r t io n of w om en educated at ju n io r h ig h school level or above X 4: P ro p o r t io n of p r im a ry in dus tr ia l popu la t io n Xs: P ro p o r t io n of m in o r i ty popu la t ion N O T E : T he f igures ind ica te p a th coeff ic ientsT ab le 1. Con tracep t ive preva lence , con tracep t ive use-effectiveness, and index of con tracep t ion for C h in a , 1981a) Laing10,modified by Bongaarts; for oral contraceptives (OCs) the original use-effectiveness is 0.9 , but OCs in Chinese statistics includes injection which is supposed to be less effective than O C s . Thererfore we regarded use-effec-tiveness of OCs in China as 0.80.
Table 2. Estimates of B ongaarts ’ indices for C h in a , 1981 and 1971a) O f f ic ia l ly pud lic ized value of u is used.b ) T F R is f ixed as the observed 2 .6 5 , then u is c h a n g e d .T ab le 3. D ecom pos it io n of the change in Ch inese T F R be tw een 1971 and 1981
Table 4. Bongaarts indices for various countries or areasa)Chen, W e i(1989),12 b ) W ang, e t . al(1987). 13 c)O tsuka( 1988).14 d )Bongaarts & Potter(1983).3NOTE : Figures in parentheses are approximate.T ab le 5. Co rre la t io n m a tr ix of var iab les , C h in a , 1981-1982Notes: Variable 1,8 ,10,11 in 1981. Variable 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 in 1982.Variable 6, 9 -calculated from the original source17.
Figure 1. Trend of fertility and some socio-economic indicators in China
Figure 2. T FR and some selected socio-economic indicators of China, by province
Figure 3. Path diagram of factors affecting the total fertility rate (1981 - 1982)X 1 :TFRX 2 : Infant mortality rateX 3 :Proportion of women educated at junior high school level or above X4:Proportion of primary industrial population X5:Proportion of m inority population Note : The figures indicate path coefficients
The Myth of the Overpopulation Syndrome in China : Some Food for ThoughtJames C . Hsiung New York UniversityT h e t e r m “ove rpopu la t io n s y n d ro m e ” used in the t it le denotes tw o c o m m o n ly held beliefs : ( a ) th a t Ch inese p opu la t io n g ro w th rates were a lways h ig h th ro u g h o u t h is to ry , possib ly h ighe r th a n those in o the r co u n t r ie s *» and ( b ) tha t th is huge popu la t io n p rob lem is traceable to C h i n a ’ s cu l tu ra l roots . W h i le c la im ing no pa r t icu la r expertise in th is sub ject , I do w ish , in th is very br ief “ th in k p ie c e ,” to quest ion w he th e r bo th assum p t ions are t r u e . I shall also a t tem p t to ou t l in e an a l te rna t ive v iew of the po pu la t io n p rob lem from a broad histor ica l pe rspec t ive .The Cultural ExplanationL e t ’ s start w i t h the second b e l ie f . I t is c o m m o n to assume th a t C h i n a ’ s huge po pu la t io n is due to its c u l t u r e . B u t , the troub le is th a t ne ithe r C o n fu c iu s ,nor M e nc iu s , nor any big-name masters I k n o w in Ch inese cu ltu ra l h is to ry , ever addressed the popou la t io n is sue . Advoca tes of the cu ltu ra l thesis m ay o b l ig in g ly p o in t to the C o n fu c ia n em phas is on f am i ly life , and then move on to suggest a l in k to the legend of “b i g ” Ch inese fa m i l ie s . I f in d th is a rg u m e n t to be not conv in c ing because it bo th ignores em p ir ica l evidence and erroneously assumes a m o n o l i th ic character of Ch inese c u l t u r e .T rue , in support of the cu ltu ra l thesis, one cou ld hark back to the C o n fu c ia n s tr ic tures on fil ia l p ie ty , m ore pa r t icu la r ly the one th a t m akes the “ lack of o f f s p r in g ” the card ina l breach of o n e ’ s f i l ia l p ie t y . A d d in g tenets to Ch inese cu ltu re , one cou ld even f in d a relig ious e n t h u siasm for po pu la t io n increases . T he ra t iona le was th a t , w i th the B u d d h is t be lief in re incarna t ion , p o pu la t io n increases were considered as evidence of an increase of good persons in the last gene ra t ion - for , all bad persons f rom the last genera t ion w ou ld f in d re incar na t io n in lesser creatures th a t h u m a n s . 1Bu t it is also true , w i t h in popu la r Ch inese cu ltu re , th a t there were so m a n y sexual i n h ib i t ions preva il ing since m ed ieva l t im es th a t , as one au th o r pu t i t , m ay have “ p layed an app re ciable role in the contro l of po pu la t io n g r o w t h . ”2 A c co rd in g to the ca lcu la t ions by the fam ous sociologist P an kuang- tan , on ly one h u n d red days in a year were believed to be “ausp ic ious for sexual r e la t io n s . ’,3 I t w ou ld be hard to conjecture th a t the practice of sexual abs t inence , as requ ired by th is cu l tu ra l be lie f , cou ld have led to ove r-popu la t io n .A n o th e r related po in t m i l i t a t i n g aga inst the cu ltu ra l thesis abou t ove rpopu la t ion is tha t abort ion is not k n o w n to have been p roh ib i ted by Ch inese cu ltu re . A com par ison w i th the Ca tho l ic an t i-abort ion doc tr ine w ou ld be in s t r u c t iv e . Regard less of its B ib l ica l o r ig in s , 4 the Ca tho l ic chu rch has a lways m a in ta in e d a doc tr ine c o nd em n ing a b o r t io n . In com para t ive l ig h t , it w ou ld be d i f f ic u l t to m a in ta in th a t a cu l tu re th a t accepts abor t io n ( i . e, the Chinese cu ltu re ) is responsib le for m ore popu la t io n increases th a n a cu ltu re tha t bans abo r t io n . In or-
der to m a in ta in the c la im , it w ou ld be necessary to u nde r take far m ore system atic com p a ra tive em p ir ica l studies th an have yet been m a d e .T h e “la rge” fam i ly in Ch inese h is to ry is l ikew ise a m y t h . A s D e rk Bodde notes, “the average Chinese fam i ly has t h ro u g h o u t h is to ry been p robab ly l i t t le if any larger th an its W es te rn coun te rpa r t ; a w ide ly accepted es t imate pu ts it at five or six persons : ”5 Bodde based his con clusion on an au tho r i ta t iv e , and in-dep th , s tu dy of the trad i t io na l Ch inese fam i ly and soc iety , by O lg a L a n g .6 A c co rd in g to L a n g , s im p le s tem fam il ies g reat ly and consistently o u tn u m be re d those of the “j o i n t ” or “ la rge ” t y p e . A n d , the “ la rge ” f am i ly was an upper-class p h e n o m e n o n . T h is f in d in g was corroborated in M y ro n C o h e n ’ s s tudy of fam il ies in rural T a i w an up u n t i l the 1960s. 7These m odern s tud ies , moreover , seem to suggest a p a t te rn con t inued since the H an t im es . F ro m 2 A . D . to 1393 A . D . , the per-household size in C h in a ranged be tw een 4 .2 and 5 .7 pe rsons .8 A s such , the typ ica l Ch inese househo ld was not any larger , and in fact a tr if le sm aller , th a n th a t in T o k u g a w a J a p a n . In F u j i to v i l lage , d u r in g 1775-1863, for exam p le , a Japanese househo ld averaged from 5 to 5 .4 pe rsons .9 Even in present-day C h in a , accord ing to th an 1990 census s tat is t ics , an average Ch inese househo ld has no m ore th a n 3 .9 6 pe rsons .10 T h u s , the sm all househo ld ( a ro und 4 or 5 p e rso ns ) has been a pa t te rn s tre tched over a m i l le n iu m , f rom 2 A . D . on . I t is not ju s t a new p h e n o m e n o n .F u r th e rm o re , before T h o m as R . M a l t h u s expounded his popu la t io n theo ry ca ll ing for p o p u la t io n con tro l , Ch inese scholars were k n o w n to ho ld s im i la r v ie w s . O n e exam p le was H u n g L iang-chi (1746-1809). w ho was 20 years sen ior to M a l t h u s (1766-1834), called for po pu la t ion contro l percisely for the same reason : th a t the increase in the m eans of subsistence could not m a tc h the increase in p o p u la t io n . 11A n o th e r p h e no m en on w h ic h canno t be exp la ined by the cu ltu ra l thesis is the d isparit ies in the dem og raph ic g ro w th rates be tw een sou the rn and n o r the rn reg ions in C h in a . S ince bo th regions shared the same Ch inese cu ltu re , the d ispar it ies m us t be due to o the r reasons . In fac t , P ing-ti H o f inds th a t prosper ity in sou the rn provinces and the heavy bu rden of c o rve ’ e labor service in the n o r th were causes w h y po pu la t io n was increas ing faster in the sou th than in the n o r t h . 12 B o th were non-cu ltura l (e c o no m ic ? ) reasons.T h u s , there is good reason for us to pause and re th in k abou t the a lleged cu ltu ra l causes of Ch inese ove rpopu la t ion a n d , m oreover , to reappraise our im agery of the “la rge ” Ch inese f a m ily in t r ad i t io na l t im es . I t is h ab i tu a l for the post-1949 genera t ion to b lam e eve ry th ing “b a d ” on t r a d i t io n . W h a te ve r m er i t th is b lam e- trad it ion reflex m ay have in o the r areas, the p o p u la t ion issue is no t one of these a reas .Populati ion Growth RatesT he second part of the m y th is related to the alleged h ig h rates of popu la t io n g ro w th . I t goes w i t h o u t say ing tha t w he the r a p a t te rn of g ro w th rates was unusua l ly h ig h is a relative quest ion - relat ive to w h a t happened e lsewhere . T o come up w i t h a de f in i t ive answer we no doub t w ou ld need to look at com para t ive d a t a . In th is respect, I am doub ly hand icapped by not hav ing these da ta readily ava i lab le to m e and by be ing severely constra ined by the con fe r
ence d e a d l in e . B u t , ra the r th a n o f fe r ing a n y th in g de f in it ive per se, th is “ th in k p ie ce” is m ere ly m ean t to id e n t i fy the p rob lem s for fu r the r research . In th a t sp ir i t , I shall ven ture in to a discussio in of w h e th e r Ch inese popu la t io n g ro w th rates were indeed unusua l ly h ig h , using the da ta I have on h a n d .O n e piece of in fo rm a t io n w h ic h can prov ide a basis for com par ison is tha t of Braz i l ’ s p o pu la t io n , w h ic h grew from 10 m i l l io n in 1872 to 120 m i l l io n by 1980. In 108 years, the net g ro w th was 110 m i l l io n , s ho w ing a s tra igh t ( ra the r th an ex ponen t ia l ) annua l ized g ro w th rate of 10. 1 % .13O n the o the r h a n d , be tw een the years 1650 and 1850,the popu la t io n of C h in a increased three t im e s . f rom 143 m i l l io n to 430 m i l l i o n . T h e average annua l g ro w th was 1 .4 m i l l io n , at a s t ra igh t annua l ized rate of close to 1 % g r o w t h . 14 A t the prov inc ia l level, the prov ince of C h e k ia n g had a p opu la t io n of 80 m i l l io n in 1368,w h ic h increased to 220 m i l l io n by 1600, regis te r ing an increase of 120 m i l l io n in 232 ye a rs . A l t h o u g h the abso lu tenum er ica l increase was rough lya A t was com parab le to B r a z i l ’ s in 1872-1980noted above, the annua l ized g ro w th rate was m u ch low er , at on ly 0 .0 6 % s t r a ig h t15, as opposed to B r a z i l ’ s 1 0 .1 % annua l in crease .E ven d u r in g a period of “ rap id g r o w th ” in C h in a , d u r in g 1779 th ro u g h 1794,the average rate of increase was 0 .8 7 per cen t , as com pared w i t h 0. 63 per cent for the en tire period of 1779-1850 and 0. 51 per cent for 1822-1850.16 Excep t for the 1779-1794 f igu re , the o ther g ro w th rates were cons is ten t ly low er th an the ava i lab le average rate of 0 .771 per cent for the p opu la t ion of p re indus tr ia l East E u rope in the years o f 1800-1850.17T ake the off ic ia l Ch inese census f igu re of 582 m i l l io n for 1953, and com pare it w i th the to tal of 430 m i l l io n for 1850. W e arrive at a c um u la t iv e increase of 152 m i l l i o n . A t an annua l i n crease of 1 .47 m i l l io n , the average g ro w th rate was 0 .1 3 % s t r a ig h t . 18 T he 1990 census shows th a t m a in la n d C h i n a ’ s p o p u la t io n n ow stands at an o v e rw h e lm in g 1 .113 b i l l i o n . 19 I n the 37 years since 1953,C h in a had an annua l p o p u la t io n increase of 14 .3 m i l l i o n . C a lcu la ted on tha t basis, the annua l g ro w th rate ( s t r a ig h t ) was 2 . 4 % , w h ic h is several t imes h ighe r th an any of the ava ilab le rates for the years be tw een 1368 and 1952. T he nex t obv ious quest ion is w h y and how so!Ear l ie r I have argued tha t the cu ltu ra l exp lana t ion for Ch inese ove rpopu la t ion is not a very p laus ib le o n e . I f one stil l w an ts to pursue the cu ltu ra l l ine of in q u ir y , then the obv ious next t h in g to do is to id en t i fy w h a t cu l tu ra l changes there have been w h ic h w il l account for such a m arked j u m p in the po pu la t io n g ro w th rate be tw een 1953 and 1990. I t is beyond the ken of th is paper to look in to the l inks be tw een Ch inese cu ltu re u nde r C o m m u n is m and the question of o v e rp o p u la t io n . I on ly w ish , how eve r , to note in th is connec t ion th a t , if there is a n y th in g to the cu ltu ra l thesis , the ava ilab le stat is t ics dem ons tra te th a t the ove rpopu la t ion prob lem d id not become real u n t i l the C o m m u n is t period a n d , even th en , on ly after 1953. A g a i n ,in v iew of the above cons idera t ions , a t te m p ts by the post-1949 genera t i ion to b lam e the p rob lem of present-day ove rpopu la la t ion on the p re-Com m un is t t rad i t io n have a shaky case at best.An Alternative View on Overpopuation CausesIn con tras t , I t h in k , socio-economic factors m ay offer a m ore conv in c ing exp lana t ion to
C h i n a ’ s popu la t io n quest ion . T he section be low offers on ly a cursory v iew of some of these fac to rs .In the f irst p lace, Ch inese society has its ag rar ian o r i g i n s . Besides, it was W h a t K ar l A . W it t fo g g e l calls a “ hyrau l ic s o c ie ty ,” one th a t depended heav ily on the collective m an age m en t of ir r iga t iona l wa te r and on concen tra t ion of in tens ive labor w o rk in g on the l a n d . 20T h th e need for in tens ive labor in var iab ly he lped to keep the fam i ly m em bers s tay ing toge ther , because the fam i ly , in th is agrar ian econom y , was not jus t a genetic u n i t , bu t also a p roduct ive u n i t . T he s itu a t ion m ay have been responsib le for certa in practices more directly l in kab le to fe r t i l i ty increases : early m arr ia ge ; concub inage ( albeit l im i te d to the better-off f am i l ie s ) ; and the preference for sons. T he last m en t io ned led to tw o consequences - ( a ) Ch i ld-bear ing w ou ld not stop u n t i l the f am i ly had at least a son , desp ite the arr iva l of the firs t , second, or som etim es even more daugh te rs ; and ( b ) m a r ry in g off daugh te rs young or as soon as they reached the elig ib le a g e . A s Ban is te r show s , the wage system under C o m m u nist rule has on ly accen tuated the preference for sons and the necessity of m a r ry in g off daugh te rs e a r ly .21 O f the tw o , the first deve lopm ent ( c o n t in u in g ch ild-bearing u n t i l the a r r ival of a s o n ) w ou ld lead to expans ion of the househo ld size Í and the second ( m a rry ing y o u ng ) w ou ld fuel fe r t i l i ty h ik e s .A n o th e r socio-economic reason for Ch inese fam i ly m em bers to st ick together was th a t , in the absence of in s t i tu t io na l ized in surance , the f am i ly was in effect an u l t im a te insurance un it u n to i t s e l f . T he larger the f am i ly , the b igger the resources tha t cou ld be pooled together in cop ing w i th m ed ica l , old-age, and em ergency costs. These cons idera t ions , th e re fo re, p rov id ed pow er fu l incetives for larger fam il ie s , c ircum stances p e r m i t t i n g .22T he abo l is hm en t of p r im o ge n i tu re in early Ch inese h is to ry has been s tud ied by scholars be fore . Joseph Levenson even saw an t i- p r im ogen itu re as a d irect cause of p roperty d if fus ion an d , hence , a pow er fu l im p e d im e n t to the deve lopm en t of cap ita l ism in C h i n a .23 Anti- p r im o ge n i tu re , how ever, cou ld also be a c o n t r ib u t in g fac to r to the emergence of “la rge” f a m ilies am o ng the upper c lass . Ins tead of passing on the f a m i l y ’ s assets to the first born son , as in m ed ieva l E u rope and J a p a n , the Ch inese fam i ly equa l ly d iv ided its treasures am o ng its ch i ld ren ( in some reg ions, they in c luded d a u g h te r s ) . W i t h the resu ltan t p roperty “ p ro li fe ra t i o n ” also came the pro li fe ra t ion of the fang , or con juga l u n its , unde r the general um bre l la of the c h i a . T he la t te r , t h o u g h usual ly trans la ted as “ f a m i l y ,” was really an econom ic u n it or, in O lg a L a n g ’ s w ords , “ a u n i t a cons is t ing o fm em bers related to each o the r by b lo o d , m arr iage , or a dop t ion and hav ing a c o m m o n budge t and c o m m o n p ro p e r ty,’24In h e ren t in th is p he no m en on were tw o lessons to be d r a w n . F irs t , it exp la ins w hy the so- called “la rge” fam il ies were con f ined on ly to the upper c lass . Second , and more im p o r t a n t , the “ la rge ” size of some of the upper-class fam il ie s cou ld be m is le a d in g , if we consider the fact tha t ( a ) the chia was not a usual fam i ly , bu t a g ro u p in g toge the r of various subun its for econom ic reasons ( i . e . , for self-sufic iency) ia n d ( b ) the f a n g , or con juga l u n i t , was p robab ly a m ore app ropr ia teequ iva len t of the “ f a m i ly ” a n d , there fore , a be tter measure of the Ch inese fam i ly s ize . T o these I w ou ld add ano the r lesson, nam e ly : since the f am i ly p roper ty could not be in de f in i te ly red is tr ibu ted across genera t ions , even the large size of an upper-class f a m i ly had its ow n tem po ra l l im i t s .
ConclusionA s we have seen, the cu ltu ra l thesis for C h i n a ’ s popu la t io n p rob lem has on ly l im ite d value, because : ( a ) t r a d i t io n a l Ch inese cu ltu re was p lu ra l is t ic enough th a t its d ispara te com ponen ts m ay counsel fe r t i l i ty and b i r th contro l at the same t im e ; ( b ) the thesis canno t exp la in the s tr ik ing h is tor ica l d ispar it ies in g ro w th be tw een no rh te rn and sou the rn reg ions ; and ( c ) it leaves out socio-economic factors , w h ic h e ither b ro u gh t m ore decisive pressures for fam i ly g ro w th or p rov ide a m ore conv in c ing exp lana t ion for f am i ly g ro w th patte rns in C h in a .In the pages above , I have also questiones the va l id i ty o f the c o m m o n im agery of the “ la rge” Ch inese fam i ly and of the a lleged h ig h g ro w th rates of Ch inese popu la t io n in h is to r y . T here is no quest ion th a t the “l a rge ” f am i ly type was l im ite d to the upper class b e fo re . A n d , ava ilab le s ta t is t ics ind ica te th a t the ove rpopu la t ion p rob lem was probab ly over-exaggerted, the post-1953 period be ing an apparen t e x c e p t io n . T he expans ion d u r in g the 37 years be tween the 1953 census and the 1990 census was unpara l le led in Ch inese h is to r y . T he cu ltu ra l theo ry , there fore , w ou ld be hard pu t to exp la in th is d ram a t ic departu re from past pa t te rns . O n e w ou ld have to fish for the crucia l cu l tu ra l changes under C o m m u n is m th a t m ig h t supp ly a clue. F a i l in g th a t , one w ou ld then have to exam ine re levant changes in the socio-economic do m a in for an adequa te e x p la n a t io n . I t m ig h t ju s t be th a t bo th cu ltu ra l and socio-economic causes w il l have to be com b ined in any a t te m p t to exp l ica te the genesis of the post-1953 overpopu la t io n p r o b le m . I t m ay tu rn o u t , t h o u g h , th a t to f in d cu ltu ra l exp lana t ions w ou ld be more d i f f ic u l t t h a n to f in d socio-economic ones, for the con tem porary as well as for h is tor ia l p e r io d s .I s tarted out by em ph as iz in g the “ th in k p iece” na tu re of th is paper , w h ich is to id en t i fy new research d irect ions ra the r th a n to o ffer a n y th in g d e f in i t iv e . In the same sp ir i t , I w ou ld ven ture to suggest some possible factors (aga in socio-economic in n a tu re ) th a t m ig h t provide an answer for the p he no m en a l rise of po pu la t io n in the post-1953 period , such as: ( a ) the wage sys tem , especially the labor po in t system used after the 1950s, w h ic h had a built- in i n centive for b igger househo ld s i ( b ) im p ro v e m e n t in m ode rn m ed ic ine , a c coun t ing for longer life expec tancy ; (c ) the three decades of re la t ive “peace” ( i . e . , adsence of civil w a r s ) , perhaps w i t h the excep t ion of the C u l tu r a l R e v o lu t io n period ; and ( d ) the im proved efficacy of the repo r t ing s y s te m .Do not over look the last tw o factors . A va i la b le da ta suggest tha t in periods of civil war (such as the T a ip in g revo lts ) in the pas t , C h in a usua l ly suffered enorm ous popu la t io n losses. D u r in g the T a ip in g war a lone p o p u la t io n ) , losses in the eleven provinces affected ranged from 40 .2 to 83 .9 per c e n t ! 25 H ouseho ld under-reg is tra t ion , on the o the r h a n d , was ano the r frequent p rob lem in past dynast ies , w h ic h m ay have been associated w i th tax evasion m o t iv e s .26 O b v io u s ly , under m odern C o m m u n is t con tro l , and w i th the im p roved c o m m u n ic a tions n e tw o rk , such evasions w ou ld be d i f f ic u l t . T he be tter repo r t ing system very well accoun t , at least in p a r t , for the d ram a t ic increase in popu la t io n g ro w th d u r in g the C o m m u nist period , especially after 1953.I f an in q u iry in to these suggested areas shou ld yield an answer to our quest ion , the in h e r ent m e thodo log ica l lesson for us is tha t the cu ltu ra l theo ry de f in ite ly has to be com p lem en ted
by socio-economic and po li t ica l d e s id e ra ta .NOTES1. W o l f r a m E b e r h a d , G u i l t and S in in T ra d i t io n a l C h in a ( Be rke ley , C A : U n iv e rs i ty of C a l i fo rn ia Press, 1967 ) , P . 4 3 f .2. I b i d . , P . 81.3. Pan K uang- tan , H s in g hsin-li-hsueh [ Phys io logy of Sex ] ( S h a n g h a i : C o m m e rc ia l , 1948 ) , P . 325.4. So far as I k n o w , no more B ib l ica l in ju n c t io n th an the “ T h o u sha lt not k i l l ” c o m m a n d m en t can be traced back to the O ld T e s t a m e n t . T he N ew T es tam en t and the H eb rew B ib le are silent on the subject of v o lu n ta ry a b o r t io n .5. De rk Bodde , C h i n a ’ s C u l tu r a l T ra d i t io n ( N e w Y o r k : H o l t , R in e h a r t , & W in s to n , 1966, P . 44.6 . O lg a L a n g , Ch inese F am i ly and Soc iety (N e w H a v e n : Y a le U n ive rs i ty Press, 1946).7. M y ro n C o n h e n , “ D eve lopm en ta l Process in the Ch inese Dom es t ic G r o u p , ” in M aur ice F r ie d m a n , e d . , F a m i ly and K in s h ip in Ch inese Soc ie ty ( S ta n fo r d , C A : S tan fo rd U n ive rs i ty press, 1970), p p . 22-36.8 . J u d i t h Ban is te r , C h i n a ’ s C h a n g in g P o pu la t io n ( S ta n fo rd , C A : S tan fo rd U n ive rs i ty P ress, 1987 ), p. 4.9. Susan B . H an le y , “ F a m i ly and F e r t i l i ty in F ou r T ok u g aw a V i l la g e s ,” in S u s a n . B . H an le y and A r t h u r P . W o l f , e d s .,F a m i ly and P o p u la t io n in East A s ian H is to ry (S tan fo rd , C A : S tan fo rd U n iv e rs i ty Press, 1985), p . 205.10. R e n m in R ib a o [P e op le ’ s D a i ly] (overseas e d i t i o n ) , O c tob e r , 31 1990, p. 1.11. C f . H u n g L iang-ch i, C huan-sh ih ko wen-chi, cited in P ing-ti H o , S tud ies on the P o p u la t ion of C h i n a , 1368-1953 (C a m b r id g e , M a s s . : H a rv a rd U n iv e rs i ty Press, 1959 ), p . 271f.12. H o , I b i d . , p . 264.13. Pe ter M c D o n o u g h , Po li t ics of P o p u la t io n in Brazi l ( A u s t i n , T x : U n iv e rs i ty of Texas Press, 1981 ) , p . 3.14. P ing-ti H o , S tud ie s , X i , and pass im .15. S tevan H arre l l , “T he R ic h G e t M ore C h i ld re n : S t r a t i f ic a t io n , and P o pu la t io n in Three C he ck in g L ineages , 1550-1850,” in H an le y and W o l f , F a m i ly and P o p u la t io n , p . 82.16. H o , S tud ies , p . 270.17. S ir A lexande r Ca rr-Saunders, W o r ld P o p u la t io n , Past G r o w th and Present T rends (O x fo r d U n ive rs i ty Press, 1937), p . 21.18. J u d i t h B an is te r, C h i n a ’ s C h a n g in g P o p u la t io n , p . 4.19. R e n m in R ib ao [P eop le ’ s D a i ly] (overseas e d i t io n ) , O c tobe r 31, 1990, p. 1. T he 1.113 b i l l ion f igure is after sub trac t ions for the p o pu la t io n of T a iw a n , H o n g k o n g , and M acao .20. K a r l W it t f o g e l , O r ie n ta l Despo t ism (N e w H aven : Y a le U n iv e rs i ty Press, 1957).21. Ban is te r , C h i n a ’ s C h a n g in g P o p u la t io n , p . 122 f .22. H an yv-shan, “ M o ld in g F o r c e s ,” in H . F . M c N a i r , e d . ,C h in a (Berke ley : U n ive rs i ty of C a l i fo rn ia Press, 1946) , p . 7; c ited in D e rk Bodde , C h i n a ’ s C u l tu r a l T ra d i t io n , p . 4 5 f .23. Joseph Levenson [and F ranz S c h u r m a n n ], C h in a : A n In te rp re t ive H is to ry (Berke ley , C A : U n iv e rs i ty of C a l i fo rn ia Press, 1969), p p . 69-75.24. O lg a L an g , Ch inese F a m i ly & S o c ie ty , p . 13.25. See table of popu la t io n losses in H o , S t u d ie s . p . 241.26. I b i d . , p . 50-53; 2 5 9 f .
CHANGES IN THE EUROPEAN FERTILITY DURING THE LAST YEARS ORIGINALITY OF PORTUGALP a p e r p r e s e n t e d b y M a r i e F r a n ç o i s e R o y e r C r u z a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e m i n a r o n C h i n e s e C u l t u r e a n d P o p u l a t i o n G r o w t h ( A s i a n P a c i f i c R e g i o n ) M a c a u , 5 t h - 7 t h J a n u a r y 1 9 9 1 .I -IN EUROPET h is s tudy on the evo lu t ion of the fe r t i l i ty in P o r tug a l is p laced in a broader con text of the deep changes observed in all the po pu la t io n a l dynam ics in E u r o p e . These trans fo rm a t ions were so w ide and so recent - since the b e g in n in g of th is cen tu ry - tha t a s i tu a t ion of d e m o graph ic rea li ty , never before exp lo red , was g e n e ra te d .In order to s um m ar ize th is ex trao rd ina ry s i tu a t io n of contrast be tween the b e g in n in g and end of the 20 th cen tu ry , I w ou ld call your a t te n t io n to the fo l low ing *-by the end of the 19th cen tu ry , the average life expectancy was a ro und 40/50 years, it isn ow 70/80 ye a rs .-for 1000 ch i ld ren born alive , be tw een 100 a nd 200 w o u ld never reach one year of age;p resent ly , ju s t a round 1 0 % of the ch i ld ren die d u r in g th is period of t i m e .-previously, w o m en had an average of 4 ch i ld ren and present ly they have 1 .5 or 2.T he s itu a t ion in E u rope at the t im e - th a t is in 1900 - was far f rom be ing hom ogeneous * w h a t existed was a d ivers ity of s i tua t ions - f rom coun try to coun try , even f rom reg ion to reg ion re f lec t ing d i f fe ren t cu l tu res , d i f fe ren t a t t i tudes tow ard l ife , in a context of d ivers if ied deve lopm en t , w i t h in the same c o u n t r y .T h is was m ag n i f ic e n t ly i l lu s tra ted by Professor A ns ley C o a le ’ s team from P r in ce to n : and I w i l l p e rm it m yse lf to present some m aps done by t h e m . T he f irst one w i l l be the values of Ig by provinces of E u rope in 1900 (F ig 1 ) .W e have in th is m ap , at a reg iona l level in E u rope , the Ig in d ica to r , characteris t ic of the leg it im a te fe r t i l i ty - w h ic h po in ts ou t - in a certa in s i tu a t ion of n u p t ia l i t y - in w ha t measure the fe r t i l i ty of the couples is close to the m a x im u m lag i t im a te fe r t i l i ty recorded un t i l now ( th is is - the fe r t i l i ty of the m arr ied H u t te r i te w o m e n ) .-the closer to 0 the Ig value is, the low er the leg i t im a te fe r t i l i ty is, show n on th is m ap by the red a reas .-the closer to 1 the Ig value is, the h ighe r the leg i t im a te fe r t i l i ty is, sh o w n on th is m ap by the b lue areas.O n e of the f irst th in g s we no t ice , is the F rench te rr i to ry , m os t ly red : the decrease in fe r t i l i ty was a tready very not iceab le in 1990: m a n y “ d e p a r tm e n ts ” present f igures be low 0 .2 5 - w h ich m ean one quar te r of the H u t te r i te s le g i t im a te f e r t i l i t y .Bu t we also notice the Barcelona area, R o m e in I ta ly and B e lg iu m . . .O n the rest of the c o n t in e n t , fe r t i l i ty is cons iderab ly h ig h : in pa r t icu la r in the N o r th of P o r tu g a l , N o r th of S p a in , Ire land , and the N o r th and East parts of E u r o p e .
T he invest iga tors of th is P r in ce ton team-who have carried on a w ide group of stud ies on the pheno m en on of the fe r t i l i ty decrease, po in t ou t the ‘‘tw o p a th s ” tha t since the b e g inn in g of the decrease ver if ied in all he countr ies could be chosen by the d i f fe ren t people to contro l b i r th :-the f irst p a th be ing the contro l of n u p t ia l i t y ; it cou ld on ly be m an ifes ted in a con text of str ict eth ics of sexual behav io r-wh ich were on ly pe rm it te d w i t h in m arr iage : there fore , a late marriage-for w o m en as we ll as frequen t celibacies were the guaran tee for a low na t io na l f e r t i l i t y .-the second p a th be ing the use - in a large scale - of con tracep t ion , by m arr ied and u n m a r ried w o m e n » th is choice m ean t a certa in rejection of the str ict t rad i t io na l eth ic of W es te rn C h r i s t i a n i t y .For these reasons, we have an in terest in s tu dy in g th is p he no m en on of n u p t ia l i t y ; and here we have the second m ap p resen t ing the values of Im by prov ince of E u rope , in 1900 ( F ig . 2 ) .T he P r in ce ton team has also chosen a com para t ive in d ica to r of n u p t ia l i t y : Im (o f C o a le ) tha t pe rm its the charac te r iza t ion-w ith l i t t le data-of the t im e tab le and the in tens ity of the phe no m en on a l to g e th e r .W e can visualize the s itu a t ion of the w ho le E u rope :-the more red the reg ion , the low er the Im-th is is the la ter the m arr iage (a nd less f r e q u e n t ) .-on the con tra ry , in the b lue areas the Im reaches h ig h values, w h ic h means tha t in these reg ions, a lm os t all w o m en get m arr ied and they get m arr ied e a r ly .A n d , in 1900, in E u rope , these ex trem e s itua t ions sre represented , very clearly on the r ight-th is in the east-the m ap is a lm os t com p le te ly blue (S o u th of R uss ia , B u lg a r ia , R o m a n i an … ): on the left - th is is in the west-the m ap is r e d … in a pa r t icu la r ly accen tua ted w ay in the bastions of C a th o l i c i s m : in S co t la nd , in the A u s tr ia n A lp s , and in Ire land where we m ay see an Im ind ica to r be low 0 .300 (less tan 3 in every 10 w o m en po ten t ia l ly ferti le got m a r r ie d ) .W e w i l l not go in to fu r th e r de ta i l in th is paper---but we can a f f i rm that-before the ex ten sion of the dem og raph ic tran s it io n to all E u ropean countr ies-that is, before the th ir t ies - the d ivers ity of s i tua t ions in space, was ex trem e . . T h is was due , in p a r t , to the “ deca lage” in the spurt or the trans it ion process (before 1830 in F rance , fo l low ed by B e lg iu m , fo l low ed by the rest of E u rope year after year, by Ire land and by the E u ropean Russ ia w here , jus t in 1922,a g lobal decrease of 10% in the Ig value was reg is te red ) . T he d i f fe ren t op t ions fac ing the l im i t a t io n of b ir th s s tarted to appear , a c com pany ing econom ic and social factors , inserted in a con text fu l l of cu l tu ra l and ideo logic aspects-such as re l ig ion , the trad it io ns of social l ife , b u t c h ang in g w i t h the g ro w in g la ic iza t ion , w i t h the educa t ion of g ir ls , w i t h the change of the w o m e n ’ s role in society … evo lu t ion w h ich is very d i f f ic u l t to app rehend g loba l ly , and w h ich can on ly t h in k abou t and measure pa r t ia l ly .In the nex t f ig u re- F ig . 3-we can observe the evo lu t ion of the Ig in d ica to r un t i l the eighties for m ost E u ropean countr ies (A ls o by J . Coale and c o l la b o ra to r s ) .F ro m 1860 to 1980, all at the curves are d e s c e n d in g . T h is was foreseen from the descript ion of the t rans it io n p r o c e s s . . . a n d . . . the s itu a t ion is progressive ly becom ing more hom ogeneous i a lm os t all I g ’ s in 1980 are be tween 0 .200 and 0 .2 50 ( f ro m 20 to 25% of the H u t te r i te s le g i t im a te f e r t i l i t y ) , in c lu d in g F rance ( w i t h its behav io r rem arkab ly d if fe ren t from
Sources : Anslcy Coalc and Susan Colts Watkins :"Thc Dcclinc of Fcrtitily in Europe" Princcton University Press, Princcton, New Jersey 1986
the o thers! ) bu t three countr ies keep the d is tance : Ire land ( I g close to 0 . 4 5 0 ) , Spa in and P o r tug a l ( f igures above 0 .3 5 0 ) .A s we can see, in 1980,P or tug a l was st i l l a l i t t le ou ts ide E u rope , bu t eve ry th ing seems to in dicate th a t the decrease of the Ig in P o r tug a l and in the o the r tw o “de layed” countr ies , is go ing to pe rs is t .L o o k in g to the recent and last evo lu t ion of fe r t i l i ty in E u rop e , on the fo l low ing m ap - F i g . 4 - (ex trac ted f rom the W o r ld P o pu la t io n D a ta Shee t-Popu la t ion Reference B u re a u ) , w h ich presents in the E u ropean C oun tr ie s , the T o ta l F e r t i l i ty R a te and the general fe r t i l i ty rates du r in g the period from 1960 to 1986, we observe ex trem e ly low values pred ic ted for 1986. T o tal F e r t i l i ty Ra tes never before reached : 1 .3 in G e rm a n y , 1 .4 in D e n m a rk and L u x e m b o u r g . 1 .5 in most of the countr ies of W es te rn E u rope and values under the fa t id ic cape of 2 .1 in all the countr ies in S ou th of E u rope , except A lb a n y and Y ugo s la v ia .N one of the countr ies of W es te rn , N o r th e rn or S ou th e rn E u rope are in cond it io n to replace the ir generat ions - except, once m ore , the countr ies a lready m en t io ne d , as well as I re land , Ice land ( b u t whose ind ica to rs show a recent va r ia t ion th a t does not leave too m a n y hopes tha t th is s i tua t ion w il l be m a i n t a i n e d ) .In the m ea n t im e P o r tuga l is not s trange to th is s i t u a t i o n ::: It has entered E u rope - as m y fe l lowcit izens l ike to say w h e n they ta lk abou t the in teg ra t io n in E . E . C . !
E U R O P ENORTHERND e n m a rkF in la ndIce landIre landN o rw aySw edenU n i t e d K in g d o mWESTERN E.A us tr iaB e lg iumFranceF . R . G e rm a n y L u x e m b o u rg N e the r lands S w itze r la ndEASTERN E.Bu lga r iaCzechoslovak iaD . R . G e rm a n yH u n g a ryPo landR o m a n iaSOUTHERN E.A lb an iaGreeceIta lyM a l taPo r tug a lSpa inY ugoslaviaSources : P O P U L A T I O N R E F E R E N C E B U R E A U , W o r ld popu la t io n da ta sheet, W a s h in g to n , 1976/86
I- IN PORTUGALH o w d id th is m e tam orphos is of P o r tug a l occur? Som e g raphs w il l i l lus tra te the character is tics of th is recent e v o lu t io n .T he first one w i l l present the “N a tu r a l M o v e m e n t ” in P o r tu g a l f rom 1960 to 1989 ( F ig . 5: 5A and 5 B ) .In few years, P o r tu g a l , at the same t im e th a t it k new a period of econom ic “s p u r t ” and got ou t of the le tha rgy of the last years of d ic ta to rsh ip , has also suffered a dem og raph ic revo lu t ion and faced rap id and o r ig ina l m u t a t io n s .I t is enough to take a look at the evo lu t ive g raph of b i r t h /d e a th vo lum e to verify these trans fo rm a t ions ( n o tw i t h s t a n d in g the fact th a t these ind ica to rs are the s im p le r and the more c ru d e ) . A na tu ra l posit ive g r o w th is st i l l m a in ta in e d by the P ro tuguese p o p u la t io n . Fo r how long w i l l stil l last? T he n u m b e r of deaths seems a lm os t s ta t iona ry bu t the ca lcu lus of the in d i cators of m o r ta l i ty show a s itu a t ion of low m o r ta l i ty , a s l igh t increase in life expestancy (we notice here the rap id decrease of in fa n t m o r ta l i ty w h ic h has co n tr ib u ted to th is f a c t . ) (seeF i g . 6)H ow ever , in g ro w in g p o pu la t io n , w i t h the n u m b e r of w o m en be tw een 15 and 50 years old increas ing from year to year, the ver i f ica t ion of a decrease in the b ir th n u m b e r is a s ign of a deep change in the fe r t i l i ty m o d e l .I n th is d iag ram of F ranc isco M u n o x Perez - F ig . 7 f rom I . N . E . D . (Par is )-p resen t ing a l to ge ther the evo lu t ion of the T o ta l F e r t i l i ty R a te f rom 1950 to 1985 in several countr ies in E u rope , we m ay observe th a t in P o r tu g a l , the T F R was 3 .0 9 in 1950, 3 .07 in 1965 ( fe r t i l i ty is already s l ig h t ly low , bu t it has not nearly evo luted in these 15 years) and from th a t t im e o n , we verify a decrease w h ic h is stressed m ore and m ore ( th e present es t im a ted value of the ind ica to r is a round 1 .5 c h i l d r e n / w o m a n ) .W e th in k it w ou ld be in te res t ing to com p le te th is g loba l descr ip t ion w i t h o ther ind icators and pa r t icu la r ly the d is t r ib u t io n of live bo rn by b ir th order . I t was on ly possible to k no w this order w i t h in m arr iage , therefore we had to in c lude i l le g i t im a te b ir th s .T he results were pa r t icu la r ly in te re s t ing (see F i g . 8 :8A and 8B ) : in fact , if we fo l low the descendent curve or b ir ths from 1970 to the p re se n t , we can see-the g ro w in g p ropor t io n of f irst born ch i ld ren ,-the increase un t i l 1981 and then decrease of second born ch i ld ren after th is year,-the s l igh t bu t constan t decrease of th ird born c h i ld r e n …-and in w h a t concerns the fou r th born ch i ld ren there is a lm os t no need to ta lk abou t i t : they d isappear progressively ( i n 1989 on ly 8000 ch i ld ren ( 6% ) in the who le coun try were born in a f am i ly of 3 or more c h i l d r e n ! ) .-In w h a t concerns the i l leg it im a te b ir th s f igures are cons tan t ly increas ing ( i t was m u l t i plied by tw o d u r in g the last 12 years and it represents present ly 14, 6% of the b ir ths : that is, a ch i ld in every 7 is born of parents w h o are not m a r r ie d ) .O th e r t ran s fo rm a t io ns are t a k in g place in th is accelerated process of the decrease in fe r t i l i ty W e have in F ig .9 the d is t r ib u t io n of the fe r t i l i ty rates by age group of Portugese W o m e n in 1960, 70, 75, 80, 86.
Sources : Francisco Munoz Perez : "Le déclin dc la fécondité dans lc Sud de l'Europc", in Population n®6, 1987, 911 -942.
-From 1960 to 1980, the decrease of the rate is obv ious in the 35-39, 40-44 and 45-49 agegroups . T h is po in ts ou t a n a r row ing of the ferti le period character is t ic of a popu la t io n where the m odern contraceptives are m ore and m ore fam i l ia r . It precisely characterizes a change in the a t t i tu de of w om en tow ards the ir o f f s p r in g " . t h e y no longer accept the ch i ld ren “ tha t God w an ts to send t h e m ” , b u t they p lan the ir co m ing d u r in g a shorter period of t im e : in the be g in n in g of the ir ferti le l i f e .A n d th is a t t i tu d e is responsidle for the decrease in the num e rous fam il ies th a t we have a lready seen !-From 1980 to 1986 the change seemed m ore radical-in all ages, p a r t icu la r ly in the ages where fe r t i l i ty is m a x im u m (20 to 35 years o ld ) th e rates have decreasad . . .I t does not seem realistic to us the in te rp re ta t io n of such change as a m od if ic a t io n in the t im in g of fe r t i l i ty : tha t is, these ind ica to rs are on ly period analysis ind ica to rs and we m ay hypothes ize tha t w o m en w ho were at the t im e be tw een 20 and 35 years old s im p ly decided to delay the b ir th of the ir ch i ld ren ( th is w i l l result in the decrease of the ind ica to rs ) and consequen t ly in the fu tu re , the ind ica to rs w i l l increase a g a in .I t m ay be par t ia l ly correct - bu t it is m ore p robab le th a t there is a real decrease in fe r t i l i ty : a refusal to have ch i ld ren in all age g r o u p s .In order to con f irm these da ta we w i l l take a look at a recent v ar ia t ion of w o m e n ’ s age average, at b i r th of the ir ch i ld ren (n o m a t te r w h a t o rd e r ) , and at b i r th of the first ch i ld .T h is in fo rm a t io n on the fo rm er behav io r of the Po r tuguese w o m en are prov ided by D r . M u n o z P e re z ’ s ca lcu lus , w h o s tud ied the p h e n o m e n o n in the genera t ions of Po rtuguese w o m en (a nd not on ly w i t h period analys is in d ica to rs ) and they po in t ou t the fo l low ing :F e r t i l i t y i n d i c a t i o n s i n f i v e g r o u p s o f g e n e r a t i o n s o f P o r t u g u e s e w o m e n .Sources:Francis。 M unoz: ‘‘Le déclin de la fécondité dans le Sud de 1’Europe”,in Population N o .6, 1987, 911- 942.G enera t ions A verage age P e rm a n e n t Com p le tedat 1st m arr iage Ce libacy F e r t i l i ty1921 - 25 24,7 13,5% 2 ,911926 - 30 24 ,8 11,5% 2 ,801931 - 35 24 ,7 9 ,5 % 2 ,711936 - 40 24,4 8 ,0 % 2 ,631941 - 46 23 ,9 7 , 0 % 2 ,401946 - 50 23 ,2 6 , 0 % 2 ,20
These women-present ly at the end of the ir fert i le life-were ge t t in g m arr ied more and more early and in greater p r o p o r t io n . C o ns ide r ing the tw o last groups of genera t ions , and k no w in g tha t the ir fe r t i l i ty was m a x im u m , respective ly , be tween 1961 and 1975 for the f irst , and between 1965 and 1980 for the second, we are characte r is ing the same w o m en w ho tr ied to have the ir ch i ld ren in a short t im e span , and w h o had a very contro lled fe r t i l i ty after 35 years of age. T he ir com p le ted fe r t i l i ty n o tw i th s ta n d in g the fact of be ing low er th a n the ir predecessors is stil l above the l im ia r of 2 .1 c h i l d r e n . T he average age at b i r th of any ch i ld for these successive generat ions of w o m en has been decreasing ( f r o m 2 9 .8 years old in the first group to 27 .2 for the younger o n e ) . These facts con f irm our first i d e a .Bu t the period analysis ind ica to rs po in t ou t a rup tu re in these trends after 1980/81:-the fall of the con ju n c tu ra l T F R , and m ore i l leg it im a te b ir th s as we have seen before, -the decrease in the n u p t ia l i t y rates and the rise in the divorce rate(see F i g . 10)Beside th is , at the reg iona l scale, we observe a great and incred ib le d ivers ity of s ituat ionss , i l lus tra ted by these m aps represen t ing at the d is tr ic ta l level, in the past and in the present, some of the ind ica to rs above m en t io ned w h ic h seem in te re s t ing to us.O n the m aps of F ig : 11 :11A and 11B,we can see the T o ta l F e r t i l l i ty R a te in the distr icts of P o r tug a l co n t inen ta l since 1930 to 1980 :-the darker is the d is t r ic t , the greater is the value of T F R -the w h i te r , the lower is the value of T F R ;-completely w h i te , T F R is under 2 .1 T w o conc lus ions look pe r t ine n t :1 ) the m aps are ge t t in g clearer and clearer ti l l the s itu a t ion in 1980.2 ) we realize tha t the n a t io na l average does not m ean too m u ch in the case of P o r tu g a l .For ins tance , consider tha t in th is sm a ll c o un t ry , in 1980,the to ta l fe r t i l i ty rate goes from3 .0 in V i la Rea l ( N o r t h ) to 1 .9 in L isbon ( L i t t o r a l / C e n t e r ) . W e are conv inced of an even greater contrast today (1990 ) . . . b u t we do not have accurate pro je t ions o f the female po pu la t ion at a d is tr ic t level n ow , 10 years after the last census, and we can not ca lculate the last real v a lu e s .A lre ady in 1950, we had a T F R of 5 .0 in Braga ( L i t t o r a l /N o r t h ) an 1 .9 in L isbon , at the same t im e !Neverthe less, the m aps concern ing the fo l low ing periods show a certa in trend to hom ogene ity : T o ta l F e r t i l i ty rates are ge t t in g lower e v e ryw he re .A n o th e r in d ica to r really in te res t ing to s tudy at a reg iona l level, is the P ropo r t io n of i l le g i t i m ate b ir th in P o r tu g a l : we have in F igu re 12, four m aps represen t ing the s itua t ion in a very recent per iod : since 1970 to 1989:-the da rke r is the d is tr ic t , the greater is the p ro p o r t io n ;-the w h i te r , the lower is the p ropor t io n ;-completely w h i te , p ropor t ioon is be low 6 . 5 % .W e can easily see the m aps ge t t in g darker and da rker from S ou th to N o r th .In 1989, i l le g i t im a te b ir th p ropor t io n was over 1 6 .5 % in most of the d is tr ic ts , over 28% in tw o of th em (S e tub a l and Faro in the S o u t h ) ; bu t stil l be low 6% in Braga ( L i t t o r a l / N o r t h ) . W e are fac ing a s i tu a t ion of s trong he te rogene ity in the con t inen ta l Po rtuguese territory-
s itu a t ion th a t looks no t to be ch a n g in g , as we can deduce from the next f igure ( F i g . 13 ) , where is presented the evo lu t ion of th is p ropor t io n of i l le g i t im a te b ir th s since 1970, in four d istr ic ts :-Faro and Beja ( in the S o u th ) where th is p ropo r t io n is and rem a ins m a x im u m .-Guarda ( In te r i o r /C e n te r ) a n d Braga ( L i t t o r a l /N o r t h ) where it is and rem a ins m in im u m !I WHAT ABOUT “ CULTURAL FACTORS” INFLUENCING THIS FERTILITY FVOLUTION?W h a t can we conc lude . . . w i l l there be a revo lu t ion go ing on ?Every t h in g ind ica tes th a t w h a t is be ing observed in the rest of E u rope is go ing to happen in P o r tu g a l , n o tw i th s ta n d in g the fact th a t E u rope is so d ivers if ied in w h a t concerns cu ltu re , language , levels of social and econom ic d e ve lop m en t , bu t also in w h a t concerns po li t ica l systems, leg is la t ion (p a r t ic u la r ly regard ing m arr iage , d ivorce , free access to con tracep t ion , s te r i l iza t ion , a b o r t io n ) , and even the system of ta x e s .In w h a t concerns fe r t i l i ty and n u p t ia l i t y the process of change in P o r tug a l ( th e t im in g , the cha in or events ) was not obv ious ly the same as in any o the r c o u n t r y . W e stil l observe eno r m ous d if fe rences . . . W e are stil l far f rom hav ing 43% of i l le g i t im a te b ir th s as there is in D e n m a rk , or f rom the 50% of u n m a r r ie d f i f ty … year … old w o m en in S w e d e n . . . B u t in six years ou r T F R has surpassed the lowest E u rop e an values and we reached 1. 5 ch i lden per w om en in 1989.T he experts keep repea t ing i t : “ A l l W es te rn E u rope is deeply settled d o w n -and p robab ly in a p e rm anen t w ay - in a s i tu a t io n of low fe r t i l i ty ” sum m ar ize s Professor Ca lo t of I . N . E . D . at a conference on “ T he E u rope an C h i ld and h is /h e r f u t u r e ” he ld in M o naco (1 9 8 9 ) . T he them e of th is conference is a w itness of the concern ex is tent in E u rope over the fu tu re of so m an y countr ies w i t h o u t ch i ld ren .T ry in g to exp la in w h a t b ro u gh t such s itua t ion s , Professor Ca lo t stresses the fact th a t certa in evo lu t ions are c o m m o n to our societies :-For instance the deve lopm en t in scho lar educa t ion of g ir ls has caused a change in w o m e n ’ s a t t i tudes tow ards l i f e . T h e y became m ore spon taneous , au tho rs of the ir de s t iny , less s ub m issive to t rad i t io n - even to r e l ig io n .-Also the genera l iza t ion of w o m e n ’ s professional a c t iv i ty (ou ts ide of the house ) has generated an increase of the psycho log ica l and econom ic cost for ra is ing a ch i ld (w e can m ake here a reference to all the artic les and stud ies on “ the b i r th of the th ird c h i ld ” recently w r i t te n in d if fe ren t countr ies of E u r o p e ) .-On the o the r h a n d , the com p le te con tro l of fe r t i l i ty p e rm it te d by the m ode rn contracept ion ava i lab le to everybody and the l ibe ra l iza t ion of abo r t io n con tr ib u ted to reinforce in w o m en the fee ling th a t they can p lan the ir l iv e s . . A s a consequence,* the fact of hav ing a ch i ld is now a posit ive decis ion and no t an event th a t “occurs” andhas to be accep ted ; as a coro l lary , the non-desired fe r t i l i ty d isappeared c o m p le te ly ;* s im u l ta neo us ly , the desire to have ch i ld ren is dec rea s in g .-Probably th is new s itu a t ion of to ta l fe r t i l i ty con tro l has also p layed a part in the new a t t i tude of young people tow ard m arr iage (as an exam p le , we can m e n t io n the fact tha t the p ro po r t ion of m arr iages in consequence of a p regnancy is n ow l o w e r ) . B u t it was also necessary
th a t the co h ab ita t io n of young couples became to lerated by society and then th a t society p ro vide the m eans ( a p a r tm e n ts , rend ing contrac ts for non-married perssons, e t c ) . B u t th is is not a l l . . . a new leg is la t ion appeared for non-marr ied couples s im i la r to the ex is tent one for m arr ied couples in the areas of he a l th , ch i ld p ro te c t io n , t a x e s . . .Lou is Rousse l in his recent book “ La fam il le in ce r ta in e ” ,analyses in dep th the h is to ry of F rench p o pu la t io n , the h is tory of f am i ly in F rance , and looks far b e h in d in t im e for the roots of th is change of a t t i tu d e in soc ie ty ; and I am sure th a t we m ay recognize our socied in m any aspects of the dep ic ted e v o lu t io n .In the b e g in n in g of dem orgaph ic trans it io n a first rad ica l change occurred in m e n ’ s life : the m o r ta l i ty decreased; at an in d iv id u a l level we can describe w h a t happened in these te rm s :T he h is tor ica l con text in w h ic h generat ions rap id ly fo l low ed one ano the r and in w h ich a m an at the age of 25, was com p le te ly in dependen t and lu ck i ly he w o u ld die w h e n his son reached the age of 2 5 ,has progressive ly d is appea red .A n d ano the r s i tu a t ion became c o m m o n : an in d iv id u a l became conscious th a t at the age of 25 he stil l had a life expec tancy of 35 years, and th a t the benef its of his inves tm en ts w o u ld be his , before be long ing to his o f f s p r in g .“ T h is w ay , the b io log ica l cond it io ns for in d iv id u a l ism were created [. . . ] th a t is, at the same t im e , em erged the m eans to f ig h t aga ins t dbea th a new ph i lo sophy of l ife-which is no more a d e s t in y . ,’Consequen t ly , the t r ad i t io na l fo rm s of in her i tance transm iss ion had to change , and po lit ics as well as law were a f fe c te d .A n d in our societies, a doub le invers ion m ov e m e n t occurred :-the in d iv id u a l became the center of the events w h i le society found its new leg it im acy in p ro tec t ing the l ibe r ty of the c it izens , and has as its m a in ob ject ive the in d iv idu a l happ iness of its m em bers .T h is w ay , f am i ly has lost its fo rm er in s t i tu t io n a l role as the on ly guaran tee of g roup su r vival and started to be unders tood as “ the p resum ed place for h app iness” … n o tw i th s ta n d in g the f rag i l i t ty of the concept of h ap p in esss .T he choice of a spouse on the basis of a fee ling of love w h ic h is now considered the n o rm , is in par t a result to th is new po pu la t t io n a l d y nam ic w h ich replaced the fo rm er dem ograph ic s y s te m .These great waves th a t have changed the E u rope an societies have also changed m en and w o m e n ’ s a t t i tudes tow ards l i fe :M a rr iage ?C h i ld re n ?T he in d iv id u a l is k in g .T h is new fo rm of re la t ion be tw een ind iv id u a ls w h ic h I tr ied to sum m ar ize here, is present in the Portuguese so c ie ty . . .T h is analysis of the events proposed by G . Ca lo t and Lou is Roussel gives us m a n y rich clues for re fect ion , bu t we shou ld consider th em t a k in g in to accoun t the un ique h is to ry of our c o u n t r y . O n ly th ro u g h the deep know ledge of the h u m a n h is to ry of each small part of the Po rtuguese te rr i to ry w il l we be able to unde rs tand the m ea n in g and o r ig in a l i ty of the d e m o
graph ic behav iors observed in t h e m .BibliographyA ns ley J . C o a le and Susan Co tts W a t k i n s , “ T he Dec l ine of F e r t i l i ty in E u r o p e ” , Pr in ce ton U n ive rs i ty Press, P r in ce ton , N ew Jersey , 1986.P a tr ick F e s ty , “ La fécond ité des pays occ iden taux de 1870 a 1970” ,T ravaux et Doc im en ts de I ,I N E D n ° 85, Presses Un ivers i ta ires de F rance , Paris 1979.P a tr ick festy and A r m a n d Saez, “ Les perspecives dém ograph ique s des pays de 1’ Europe M ér idona le et de l ’ I r la n d e ” ,Conse il be 1’ E u r o p e ,Etudes D ém o g rap h iq u e s n ° 8,Strasbourg 1979.M as s im o L iv i- B a c c i , “ A cen tu ry of Poruguese f e r t i l i t y ” , Pr in ce ton U n ive rs i ty Press, P r in ce ton , N e w Je rsey,1971Franc isco M u n o z Pe re z , “ Le déc l in de la E écond ité dans le S ud de 1 ’ E u r o p e M, in P o pu la t io n , I N E D , n ° 6 1987.J . M an u e l N a z a r e t h , “ C o n ju n c tu ra dem og rá f ic a da popu la ção por tuguesa no período de 1970-80: aspectos g loba is . ” in A n á l is e S o c ia l . vol X X , 1984-2° & 3 ° .J . M an u e l N a z a r e t h , “ A dem ogra f ia por tuguesa do século X X : p r in ic ipa is l inhas de evo lução e t ran s fo rm ação ”, in A n á l is e Soc ia l, vol X X I 1985-3°, 4 Q & 5° .Lou is R ousse l and Pa tr ick F e s ty , “ L ’ évo lu t ion récente des a t t i tudes et des com por tem en ts á l ’ égard de la fam il le dand les états m em gres du Conse il de l ’ E u r o p e ” ,Conse il de 1 ’ E u rope , Eudes D ém ograph ique s n ° 4, S trasbou rg 1979.Lou is R o u s s e l,“ La fam il le incerrta ine-essai” ,E d i t io n s O d i le J a c o b ,Paris 1989.A n t ó n io S a n t i n i ,“P rob lem areas of fe r t i l i ty , in c lu d in g a b o r t io n ” ,S em in a r on d e m o g rap h ic p rob lem areas in E u rope , C o un i l of E u rope , S trasbourg 1986Joseph S c h m id uLe contexte des tendances récentes de la F écond ité dans les E ta ts Mem- bres du Conse il de l ’ E u r o p e ”, pub lica t ion s du Conse il de l ’ E u r o p e , S trasbourg 1984.“A b o u t fe r t i l i ty in in dus tr ia l ized coun tr ie s” , in Espace P o pu la t io n Sociétés , U n iv e rs i té des Sciences et T echn iques de L I L L e , 1989/n ° 2.A c ts of t the In te rn a t io n a l Congress “ T he E u ropean C h i ld and his fu tu re , D em ograph ic and socio-medical aspects” ,in M o nac o , M a rc h 1989D a t a a n d S ou res : In s t i t u to N ac iona l de E s ta t ís t ica ( I . N . E . ) , P opu la t io n and Social c o n d i t io n s /A cc o u n ts surveys and stat is t ics E U R O S S T A T , W o r ld P o pu la t io n D a ta Sheet of the P o ru la t io n reference b u r e a u .ans obv ious ly . . . P O P I N T H E S A U R U S , P o pu la t io n M u l t i l in g u a l Thesaurus of the C I C R E D ,
INTERNATIONAL (ASIAN PACIFC REGION) SEMINAR ON CHINESE CULTURE AND POPULATION GROWTHSettlement patterns in China The decline of the Yangzi basin Michel Cartier, Ehess,ParisGeographers and travellers were the first to discover the prevalencce of an uneven d is t r ib u t ion of the po pu la t io n in m a n y countr ies of the A s ia n Pac if ic reg ion . A m a jo r contrast be tween densely popu la ted ( A s i a ’ s teem ing masses ! ) and sparsely popu la ted areas is stil l the d o m in an t dem og raph ic fea ture in countr ies as d i f fe ren t as J a p a n , K orea , V ie t n a m , Indones ia and C h in a . C o n tra ry to the c o m m o n o p in i o n , th is character is t ic is by no m eans the mere produc t of the recent “ po pu la t io n ex p lo s ion ” ,bu t a cu ltu ra l legacy f rom a d is tan t p a s t . N o m a t te r how far back one goes, dem og raph ic da ta at our d isposal show th a t A s ia n countr ies were characterized in the past by a very uneven d is t r ib u t io n of the ir p o p u la t io n s . T h u s , n u m erous f igures derived f rom various Ch inese censuses of the im pe r ia l pe riod , f rom the begin- nong of the C h r is t ia n era o n w a rd , tes t i fy to the p h e n o m e n o n . In Indones ia , early d e m o graph ic eva lua t ions d a t in g f rom the pre-colonial period as well as the f igures ga thered by Ra ffes for the b e g in n in g of the n ine teen th cen tu ry clearly dem ons tra te t h a t ,at a t im e w hen the Indones ian arch inpe lago was sti l l very sparsely sett led , abou t tw o th irde of the to ta l p o p u la t ion were a lready concen tra ted on the is land of J a v a .A l t h o u g h docum en ts en ab l ing us to reconstruc t the h is to ry of the Ch inese po pu la t io n far exceed those re la t ing to the d e m og raph ic trends in o the r A s ia n countr ies - w i t h the well k n o w n except ion perhaps of T o k u g a w a Japan- , Ch inese h is tor ica l d e m og raphy is stil l in its in fan cy . I t is t rue th a t a consensus has a lready emerged am o ng h is to r ians concern ing the g e n eral curve of the Ch inese po pu la t io n w h ic h is seen as cons is t ing basica lly in a succession of “ P la te a u x ” of a ro und 60, 120,200 and 400 m i l l io n in h a b i t a n ts , a s i tu a t ion a l low ing for the existence of m in o r f lu c tu a t io n s . H is to r ian s shou ld , how ever , be especially cau tious in re ly ing on f igures and census re tw ins t r a n sm it te d th ro u g h s tandard histories since those docum en ts are very often biased and d i f f icu l t to in te rp re t w i th o u t carefu l a n a ly s is .A n u m b e r of au tho rs have a t te m p te d to exp la in the pecu l iar i t ies of the Ch inese de-mo- graph ic h is to ry by reference to specif it ies of C h i n a ’ s social or econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t . O n e is tem p te d , for in s tance , to accoun t for the ex istence of the fou r successive popu la t ion “p la te au x ” “by in v o k in g a process of gradua l “ f i l l in g up “ of ava i lab le Ch inese space th ro u g h a series of h u m a n (as well as p l a n t ) m ig ra t io n a (B ing-ti H o ) . M o re soph is t ica ted exp lana t ions try to estab lish a posit ive corre lat ion be tween the deve lopm en t of in tens ive ag r icu l tu re and the increas ing p o p u la t io n dens it ies , since more peasants were needed in order to m ax im ize land u t i l iz a t io n ( D . P e r k in s ) . M o re recen t ly , M a in la n d h is to r ians have stressed the im p o r tance of a co m b in a t io n of in tens ive ag r icu l tu re and h a n d ic ra f t , im p ly in g the g radua l e l im in a
t ion of a n im a l h usband ry ( W u C h e n g m in g , L i B o z h o n g ) . F in a l ly , we shou ld m en t io n the i n te rp re ta t ion based on the l inear nega t ive corre la t ion be tw een the to ta l p opu la t io n and the am o un t of arable land at the ir disposal w orked out by K an g C hao (Z h a o G a n g ) . These reconstruct ions are, of course, of great in terest to h is to r ians bu t nevertheless are less th an con v in c ing to dem ographers in a sm uch they treat C h in a as a s ing le area and appear to rest on a weak stat is t ica l f o u n d a t i o n . A m ore e laborate in te rp re ta t io n of the who le pa t te rn of g ro w th of the Ch inese popu la t io n and econom y was proposed a few years ago by W . S k in n e r in a series of artic les and c o m m u n ic a t io n s w h ich have aroused considerable in terest am o ng W estern and Japanese h is to r ia n s . W . S k in n e r proposes to accoun t for the cyclical aspect of Ch inese dem og raph ic g ro w th and uneven popu la t io n d is t r ib u t io n in the l ig h t of a theory describ ing the fo rm a t ion of a small n u m b e r of in dependen t “ m ac ro reg io n s ” ( be tter te rm ed m arke t a re as ) , each of w h ich consisted of a densely popu la ted “ c o r e ” and a less developed “ p e r ip h e ry ” . T he pecu l iar cyclica l pa t te rn of Ch inese dem og raph ic g ro w th over centuries shou ld be v iewed as p rede te rm ined by a specific s truc tu re , n am e ly the d iv is ion of the Chinese te rr i to ry in to a series of low “ bas in s” iso lated by m o u n ta in ranges , each fu n c t io n in g as the center of an in dependen t ( p o t e n t i a l ) m a rke t a re a . A c co rd in g ly , the dem og raph ic ( a n d econom ic ) evo lu t ion of the Ch inese em p ire shou ld be env is ioned as the sum of a n u m b e r of in d e penden t reg iona l , evo lou t ions possib ly assum ing d i f fe ren t r h y t h m s . I t is im p o r ta n t to keep in m in d the fact th a t in W . S k in n e r ’ s v iew , po pu la t io n g ro w th w ou ld f irst occur in the “cores” and then be d if fused in to the ir respective “pe r iphe r ies” . O n the o ther h a n d , whenever a ucri- s is” occurs, the popu la t io n appears to “ re trac t” in to the “core” ,the “p e r ip h e ry ” be ing first to suffer a dem og raph ic co l lapse . W e need not agree on every po in t w i t h W . S k in n e r and his A m e r ic a n colleagues, w h o based the ir d em ons tra t io n on a selection of p opu la t io n da ta and e- conom ic ind ica to rs f rom various periods, some of th em obv ious ly la ck ing in c r e d ib i l i t y . M y a im in w r i t in g th is paper is to call the a t te n t io n of m y colleagues to the p rem ode rn evo lut ion of tw o of Sk inners*s ten “m ac ro reg ion s” -the so-called M id d le and L ow e r Yangzi- in the l igh t of n ine teen th and tw e n t ie th cen tu ry dem og raph ic da ta genera l ly over looked by h is to r ians .T he Y an g z i valley const itu tes the m a in avenue th ro u g h Cen tra l C h in a and helps to un ify three “cores’,,accord ing to S k in n e r ’ s te rm ino lo gy : the S ich uan basin (U p p e r Y a n g z i ) , the H u g u a n g (H u b e i and H u n a n ) depression (M id d le Y a n g z i ) and the J ia n g n a n low la nd (L o w e r Y a n g z i ) . B e g in n in g w i th the Tang-Song period , fo l low ing the in t ro d u c t io n of ir r iga t ion and rice t r an sp lan ta t io n techn iques , th is large area exper ienced a rap id ag r icu l tu ra l deve lopm ent and began to accom m oda te a very large p ropor t io n of the Ch inese p o p u la t io n . T he J ia n g n an reg ion , w h ic h corresponds to the low er reaches of the va l ley , was k n o w n , f rom the M in g d y nasty o n w a rd , as the r ichest and econom ica l ly the most advanced area in C h i n a . As a na tura l consequence, its popu la t io n grew rap id ly a n d , by the first h a lf of the n ine teen th cen tu ry , popu la t io n dens ity was ex trao rd ina r i ly h ig h ( i n some prefectures over 400 in h ab i ta n ts per square k m ) . H is to r ians have not failed to notice the fact th a t the Y a n g z i velley was to become the m a in scene of the T a ip in g rebell ion and th a t it was especially severely h it by the Q in g reconquest and subsequent po li t ica l rep ress ion . A c co rd in g to the results of the 1953 census, fou r of the five provinces w h ic h had not yet fu l ly recovered the popu la t io n levels of the n ine teen th cen tury- J iangx i , H u b e i , A n h u i , Z he j ia ng and Fu jian-be long to th is area.
W h e n we add J ia ng su w i t h S h an gha i to the first four prov inces , the dem og raph ic curve canbe recconstructed as f o l lo w s : 117 m i l l io n in h ab i ta n ts in 1786; 170 m i l l io n around 1850; 123 m i l l io n in 1911. A r o u n d 1930,the popu la t ion of the five prov inces , in c lu d in g S h a n g h a i , did not exceed 135 m i l l i o n . A t any rate , the 1953 census gives a to ta l of 153 m i l l io n , the peak lev el of the m id-n ine teen th cen tu ry be ing a t ta ined on ly in 1965-1968.T ab le : P opu la t io n deve lopm en t 1786-1979P opu la t io n re turns for the n ine teen th cen tu ry ed ited in the gazetteers or reproduced in the off ic ia l docum en ts of the centra l g ove rnm en t shou ld cer ta in ly not be taken at face value since we do not k n o w how the data themse lves were ac tua l ly co l le c ted . O n the o the r h a n d , it is clear tha t in three instances-Zhejiang , A n h u i and J iangx i- the levels of popu la t io n registered in 1953 and in 1786 are very close, w h ich im p l ies an im p o r ta n t de m pg raph ic setback at a t im e w hen the to ta l Ch inese po pu la t io n is k n o w n to have risen s ig n i f ic an t ly , f rom less than 300 m il l io n to 540 m i l l i o n .I t is by no m eans easy to reconstruct the dem og raph ic evo lu t ion of the above m en t ioned p rov inces . T w o d if fe ren t pa t te rns e m e rg e . I n the first case ( J ia n g s u , Z he j ia ng and A n h u i ) , characterized by very am p le f lu c tua t io ns grew by abou t 27% be tw een 1786 and 1820 and con t inued to expand un t i l the crisis years of m id-cen tury (be tw een 1850 and 1860,w ith declines rang ing from 10 % to 31 % ) . T he m ovem en t con t inued to the close of the n ine teen th c e n t u r y . T herea fte r , recovery was especially rap id in J i a n g s u ,now coupled w i th the S h a n g hai m e tropo l i ta n area, the largest Ch inese c i t y . In Z he j ia ng and A n h u i , however, the peak level of the pre-crisis period was not reached un t i l thee mid-sixties of the present c e n tu r y . T he second pa t te rn ( J ia n g x i and H u b e i ) is som ew ha t s im p le r . A f te r a m ore or less d ram at ic increase at the end of the e igh te en th and b e g in n in g of the n ine teen th cen tu ry , p opu la t ion wasSources: Zhao W e n l in and X ie S h u ju n , Z h o n g g u o rekou sh i, 1988. 1933-6: H u H u a n y o n g , Z h o n g g u o renkoy fenbu (h ighes t l e v e l ) . 1953-79: Z h o n g h u a r e n m in go ng heg uo renkou tong j i zil iao h u ib ia n , 1949-1985,1988. ( A lo s see d iag ram s on , next p a g e . )
a lm ost stable t h ro u g h o u t most of the late im pe r ia l period (e n d in g in 1911) . In fact , levels registered abou t 1930 were de f in i te ly low er an d , jus t as was the case for Z he j ia ng and A n h u i , it took more th an th ir ty years to c l im b back to the peak levels of the n ine teen th c e n tu r y .H o w far do these da ta reflect the ac tua l dem og raph ic curve? N o conclus ive answer can be g iven at th is p o i n t . I n m a n y ins tances , fo l low ing a procedure described in a recent artic le by W . S k in n e r , local off ic ia ls d id no more th a n au to m a t ic a l ly add a small a d d i t io nna l n u m b e r to the f igure for the preced ing y e a r . In a d d i t io n , some u n im p o r ta n t f lu c tua t io ns apparen t ly correspond to the om iss ion of a few d is tr ic ts w h ic h fa iled to report on t im e . A t any rate , one is s truck by the fact th a t bo th H ube i and J ia n g x i prov inces , the tw o central provinces less a f fected by the T a ip in g rebe l l ion , co n t inue to report a m ore or less stab le popu la t io n un t i l the wake of the 1911 R ev o lu t io n , reach ing a m a x im u m around the tu rn of the cen tu ry (1896 for J ia n g x i , 1898 for H u b e i ) , whereas the three o the r prov inces , in c luded in the T a ip in g K in g dom an d , accord ing ly , de f in i te ly beyond the reach of the P e k in g ad m in is t r a t io n , show a sharp decline abou t the t im e of the T a ip in g conquest (1855 for A n h u i , 1856 for J ia n g su , 1860 for Z h e j i a n g ) , b u t start to recover once the Q in g g o v e rn nm en t is aga in in c o n t r o l . T h u s , one is left w i th the im press ion th a t , exact ly like the ir predecessors d u r in g the M in g dynas ty or in the early Q in g period n ine teen th cen tu ry bureaucra ts were satisf ied w i th copy ing the latest ava ilab le da ta or a dd ing a sm a ll n u m b e r of in h ab i t a n ts in order to dem ons tra te the ir uadminis- tra t ive a b i l i t y ” .1. A l t h o u g h taken for as a basis for the recons truc t ion of the Ch inese dem og raph ic s itua t ion around 1820 ( a n d cons tan t ly quo ted as such by m a n y Ch inese h is to r ia n s ) , the local returns edited in the Da Q in g Y i t o n g z h i do not ac tua l ly corrrespond to a specific y e a r . In the case of the five provincess under rev iew , aggregate f igures m ay be diversely ass igned to various dates ra ng ing from around 1780 ( J ia n g su to the start of the n ine teen th cen tu ry ( A u h u i and H u b e i ) , to 1813 ( J i a n g x i ) , to 1820 ( z h e j ia n g ) . A c co rd in g ly , they m ay be used on ly as an a p p ro x im a t ion for the d is t r ib u t io n of the popu la t io n w i t h in the l im its of these provinces around the tu rn of the c e n t u r y . I t is im p o r ta n t to notice if they by no m eans represent the dem ograph ic peak , these f igures are nevertheless de f in ite ly super ior to those for 1953 in three provinces ( J i a n g x i , A n h u i , and Z h e j ia n g ) :2. F igures for the 1930s reproduced in H u H u a n y o n g ’ s book , and quo ted in the Z hongg uo renkou series, are no m ore th a n ad m in is t ra t iv e e v a lu a t io n s . T hey m ay , or m ay no t , correspond to the ac tua l s i t u a t i o n . O n the o the r h a n d , we shall notice a ra ther h ig h degree of con sistency be tween these da ta and the f igures collected in the 1953 census . T he tw o series are especially close in the cases of H u b e i , J ia n g x i , and Z h e j i a n g . T here is, on the c o n t r a r y ,a m arked d iscrepancy for A n h u i and J i a n g s u .3. the ad m in is t ra t iv e reorgan isa t ion w h ic h took place after the fo u n d in g of the P e o p le ’ s R e pub l ic m akes it som ew ha t d i f f ic u l t to com pare the prev ious series w i t h those of the three censuses taken respective ly in 1953, 1964 and 1982 now av a i la b le . I t is im p o r ta n t to notice that in four of the provinces under e x am in a t io n the peak f igu re for the n ine teen th cen tu ry was e- quated on ly in 1964-1969, in spite of the rap id po pu la t io n g ro w th registered d u r ing the post- 1949 p e r io d . C om p le te recupera t ion was not ach ieved u n t i l 1964 in the case of H u b e i , 1966 in Z h e j ia ng , 1968 in J ia n g x i and f in a l ly 1969 in A n h u i (w h ic h was very bad ly h it in the m e a n
t im e by the G rea t Leap F o r w a r d ) .P o pu la t io n f igures for the f irst par t of the tw e n t ie th cen tu ry are de f in te ly lower th an those for the n ine teen th ce n tu ry . I t is nevertheless im p o r ta n t to keep in m in d th a t ne ithe r the o f f i cials of the last phase of the Q in g em p ire nor the new adm in is t ra to rs govern ing C h in a in the nam e of the R e p u b l ic a n N a n k in g rég im e were in a pos it ion to take a census and th a t they had to rely ch ie f ly on “a d m in is t r a t iv e ” estimates l ike those of the old “b ao j ia ” r e g is t r a t io n . U n d e r these cond it io ns , it w ou ld certa in ly be erroneous to assign the 1911 decline to a sudden de te r iora t ion of cond it io ns at the close of the Q in g d y n a s ty . H is to r ian s are p robab ly r ig h t in con s ider ing it a sequel to the T a ip in g rebe l l ion , w h ic h affected especially the low er par t of the Y an g z i va lley , or of the so-called “ n ine teen th cen tu ry cr is is” , w h ich came as a result of a more general “ecological cr is is” .G iv e n the quest ionab le qua l i ty of our da ta , it is therefore qu ite im poss ib le to w r ite a re l iable h is to ry of the po pu la t io n of these provinces us ing on ly the off ica l f ig u re s . ( A qu ick look at the h is tor ica l chapters of the prov in ica l m onog raphs recently ed ited in the “Ch inese popu- l a t io n ” (Z h o n g g u o re n k ou ) series w ou ld easily conv ince us th a t Ch inese dem og raphers are not especially in terested in so lv ing th is p ro b lem , bu t are satisf ied w i th a g loba l p resenta tion of recent dem og raph ic d e v e lo p m e n ts . ) O n the o the r h a n d , it is not w i th o u t in terest to a t te m p t to a t tack the p rob lem from the po in t of v iew of the c h ang in g geograph ic d is t r ib u t io n of the p o p u la t ion at the subprov inc ia l le v e l .T hree sets of fugures w i l l be used in the fo l low ing pages: the Da Q in g Y i t o n g z h i da ta for the s itu a t ion a ro und 1800, various head counts and estimates from the R epu b l ic a n period , and the 1953 census as a more solid basis for the recent recons truc t ion of the dem og raph ic t re n d . O n e shou ld first m ake the fo l low ing p o in t s :In spite of the fact th a t it is som e t im es d i f f ic u l t to m a tch im pe r ia l and R ep u b l ic a n sub- p rov inc ia l un its w i th the present a d m in is t ra t iv e d iv is ions , the fo l low ing tab le offers three sets of f igures com p iled on the basis of the data correspond ing to the perfectures (1820) or to the d istr ic ts (R e p u b l ic a n period and 1953 census) in order to m ake com par isons po ss ib le .T ab le 2 : Subp rov in c ia l d is t r ib u t io n , “ 1820,’-1953 Prefectures “ 1820” in h a b / k m 2 “ 1930” 1953 in h a b / k m 2 1953/1820H ube iCoreW u c h a n g / H a n k o u 6509 394 3107 4264 258 0 .65H a n y a n g 3577 248 2933 3126 223 0 .90A n lu 3325 251 2353 1868 141 0 .56J in g h o u 3020 209 2715 3074 213 1 .02H u a n g z h o u 3435 204 3559 4169 247 1 .19S u b t o t a l I 19886 14667 16591 0 .83Per iphe ryD e ’ an 1987 166 1841 1888 157 0 .95J in g m e n 808 87 985 821 88 1 .02
X ia n g y a n g 1829 98 2311 2875 155 1 .57Y u n y a n g 587 23 1538 1622 63 2 .76Y ic h a n g 733 36 1354 1504 75 2 .05S h in a n 919 50 1768 1637 89 1 .78S ub to ta l II 6863 9770 10347 1.51T o ta l 26734 148 24464 26912 149 1.01J ia ng x iCoreN a n ch an g 4623 270 2601 2681 147 0 .58N a n k a n g 1276 265 618 621 120 0 .49J iu j ia n g 1064 208 818 706 138 0 .66L in j ia n g 1270 326 853 657 168 0 .52S ub to ta l I 8233 4890 4665 0 .57Per iphe ryR ao zhou 1773 141 1667 1322 105 0 .74G u a n g x in 1455 120 1647 1689 141 1 .17J ia n ch an g 1455 180 551 453 566 0 .31F u zh o u 1531 142 1268 1080 100 0 .70R u iz h o u 1018 226 872 579 129 0 .57S u b to ta l II 7222 6005 5123 0 .71Per iphe ryY u a n z h o u 768 88 1249 1327 152 1 .73J i ’ an 2969 216 2137 1682 122 0 .57G an zh o u 2414 107 1997 2011 88 0 .83N a n ’ an 619 82 745 699 93 1 .13N in g d u 824 119 782 617 89 0 .75S ub to ta l E 7594 6910 6336 0 .83T o ta l 23060 165 17282 16124 115 0 .70A n h u iPe r iphe ryH u iz h o u 2474 257 891 1109 116 0 .45N in g g o u 3433 326 1228 1420 135 0 .41C h izhou 2754 316 855 973 122 0 .35T a ip in g 1479 410 866 1157 321 0 .78S u b to ta l I 10140 3840 4659 0 .46Per iphe ryA n q in g 1760 130 2993 3216 236 1 .83L u zh o u 3547 562 4297 5770 — 915 1 .63C h u zh o u 599 153 469 628 161 1 .05
H ezhou 428 178 515 696 290 1 .63G u an g d e 551 167 321 406 123 0 .74S ug to ta l II 6885 8595 10716 1 .56P a r t ly Core pa r t ly P e r iphe ryH u ia V a l le y 11325 282 9699 15128 439 1 .33S u b to ta l Dl 11325 9699 15128 1 .33T o ta l 28353 278 22134 30344 297 1 .07Z he j ia ngCoreH an g zh o u 3189 606 1886 2127 406 0 .67J ia x in g 2805 719 1378 1549 395 0 .55H u z h o u 2566 476 1355 1393 238 0 .50S hao x ing 5389 579 3752 3806 4111 0 .71Per iphe ryY a n z h o u 1457 162 684 873 97 0 .60Sob to ta l I 15406 9055 9748 0 .63Per iphe ryN in g b o 2354 523 2185 2305 512 0 .98T a izhou 2763 236 2122 2638 224 0 .95J in h u a 2549 369 2226 2273 328 0 .89Q u z h o u 151 18 1057 1157 138 7 .66W e n z h o u 1933 195 2337 3219 324 1 .66C h u zh o u 1150 77 1335 1337 89 1 .16S ub to ta l II 10900 11262 12929 1 .19T o ta l 26306 292 18310 22667 251 0 .86J ia n g n a nCoreJ i a n g n in g / N a n j i n g 1874 2260 3449 478 1 .84Z hen j ia n g 2194 522 1354 324 0 .62C h a n g zh o u 3896 448 4501 515 1 .15S uzhou 5473 1073 3742 730 0 .68S u b to ta l I 13437 13046 0 .97Songjiang/Shanghai 2631 626 8188 1947 3 .11S u b to ta l II 2631 8188 3 .11T o ta l 16068 21234 1 .32S ou rce s : F o r “ 1820” :L ia n g F a n g z h o n g ,Z h o n g g u o l ida i h u k o u , t ia n d i , t ia n fu tong j i , 1980. (P rov in c ia to ta ls d if fe r s l ig h t ly w i th the f igures g iven in L in g F a n g z h o n g . ) For “ 1930” ,H u
H u a n y o n g and m onog raphs of the Z h o n g g u o renkou ser ies . F igures for 1953 are reckonedfrom the tab le pub l ished in Z h o n g h u a ren m in g o ngheguo renkou tong j i z il iao h u ig ia n , 1949- 1985, B e i j in g , Z h o n g g u o ca izheng j in g j i chugan she , 1988. F igures l isted in S u b to ta l I for H u b e i , J ia n g x i and Z he j ia ng , as well as the who le of J ia n g n a n and par t of the H u a i V a l ley , rough ly correspond to areas described as “ cores” in R obe r t F . D e rnberge r and R ober t M . H a r tw e l l , the co te rm ina l characterist ics of Po l i t ica l U n i t s and E co no m ic R eg ions in C h in a , C en te r for Ch inese S tud ies , T h e U n iv e rs i ty of M ic h ig a n , 1983.C o n c l u d in g r e m a r k s1. O ve ra l l , the to ta l p o pu la t io n of 1953 (120 m i l l i o n ) is a lm os t exactly the same as tha t recorded in the Da Q in g y i to ng zh i : A t the same t im e , the subprov inc ia l d is t r ib u t io n has been d ram a t ic a l ly a l te re d . T he m a in fea ture is a leve l l ing of p o pu la t io n d ens i t ie s . In sharp contrast to the in i ta l s i tu a t ion characterized by a concen tra t ion of near ly tw o th ird s of the in h ab i ta n ts (74 m i l l i o n ) in areas w i t h a popu la t io n dens ity of over 250 per s q . k m , the 1953 census show s , on the w ho le , a m u ch more even d i s t r ib u t i o n . T he n u m b e r of people l iv ing in con gested areas w i t h a dens ity super ior to 2250 per s q . k m , has fa l len to 64 m il l io ns in spite of the g ro w th of three large cities ( S h a n g h a i , N a n j in g and W u h a n n u m b e r in g abou t 10 m il l io n p e o p le ) . Per ipher ic reg ions still sparsely settled in the early n ine teen th cen tu ry a lready con ta ined a subs tan t ia l p ropor t io n of the to ta l p o pu la t io n by the m idd le of the present c e n tu r y .2. T he S k in n e r m ode l does appear no t to be app licab le to the dem og raph ic evo lu t ion of the provinces under s t u d y . T he dem og raph ic decline d id not effect f irst the “ pe r iphe r ie s” and then the “cores” . M o reove r , at the t im e of the 1953 census, the who le area was stil l at the stage of “ recovery” ,w h ic h shou ld have corresponded to a repopu la t io n of these same “cores” . O n the con tra ry , near ly all the areas so classified such as the M id d le Y a n g z i basin (W u c h a n g , A n lu and J i n g z h o u ) ,the centra l part of the J ia n g x i prov ince ( a ro u n d N a n ch an g , N a n k a n g and L i n j i a n g ) , rura l sou the rn J ia ng su and the no r the rn part of the Zhe j iang province ( H a n g z h o u , J ia x in g and H u z h o u ) , had not yet recovered the ir in i t ia l level of p o pu la t io n , whereas m a n y prefectures classified as “ p e r ip h e ry ” ( the western fr inges of H u b e i , sou thw es tern J ia n g x i , centra l A n h u i , as well as the sou the rn par t of Z h e j ia n g ) , o b v iously left un to uched by the crisis, reg istered im p o r ta n t dem og raph ic g a in s .3. I t is possible to estab lish a general corre la t ion be tween the in i t ia l dens ity and the subsequent evo lu t ion of every pre fecture . A reas w i th an in i t ia l h ig h dens ity usua l ly lost a s ig n i f i cant p ropo r t io n of the ir in h a b i t a n ts , whereas sparsely popu la ted peripheries w i th o u t except ion register im p o r ta n t g a in s . H ow eve r , we m us t keep in m in d the m arked contrast between tw o m acroreg ions : densities exceed ing 200 in h ab i t a n ts per square k i lom e te r were exceptiona l in the M id d le Y a n g z i bas in ; the L ow er yangz i was m ore heav ily popu la ted w i th several p refectures well over the 400 in h ab i ta n ts per square k i lom e te r m a rk as early as the tu rn of the e igh teen th c e n t u r y . T h u s , w h e n we take in to cons idera t ion the o r ig ina l “ m ean d e n s i ty ” of each p rov ince , it is clear th a t the l ine d iv id in g perfectures su f fe r ing a sharp decline from those w h ich register a net dem ograp ic ga in d iffers w id e ly . I t cou ld be pu t at a round 200 in h a b /s q k m in H ube i and J i a n g x i . I t is more d i f f ic u l t to assess the eastern par t of the region ( A n h u i , Z he j ia ng and the r ig h t b a nk of the Y an g z i in the J ia ng su p ro v in c e ) in terms of
d e n s i t y . P o p u la t io n falls s ig n i f ic an t ly in m ost prefectures of Z he j ia ng , w he the r in i t ia l lydensely popu la ted or n o t ; on the o the r h an d , we note a s t r ik in g contrast be tween the s o u th ern part of A n h u i , w h ic h experienced a dem og raph ic co llapse, and the no r the rn prefectures- the H u a i valley-where the popu la t io n dens ity even tua l ly psses the f rom level of the h ig h t con gested l o w la n d s .4. M a p p in g these dem og raph ic changes m akes it clear th a t dens ity is not the on ly factor to be taken in to c o n s ib e ra t io n . T w o areas are especially hard h it d u r in g the n ine teen th cen tu ry crisis, n am e ly the eastern par t of the M id d le Y an g z i bas in ( W u c h a n g prefecture and the nor theas te r t ip of the n e ig hbo u r in g H u n a n p rov ince ) and a broad reg ion ex te nd ing a long the sou the rn bank of the L ow e r Y a n g z i , f rom the Poyang p la in , a round N a n c h a n g ( J i a n g x i ) , to the sou thern part of the J ia ng su and in c lu d in g m ost of the Z he j ia ng , w i t h the four m o u n t a in ous prefectures of S ou th A n h u i ( H u iz h o u , N in g g u o , C h iz h o u and T a i p i n g ) . W i t h i n the J iangsu p rov ince , a com par ison is m ade m ore d i f f ic u l t by the presence of the tw o large cities of S h an gha i and N a n j in g , w h ic h in the m e a n t im e a t trac ted m il l io ns of n e w c o m e rs . O n the o ther h an d , less u rban ized areas such as the S u zhou and Z h en j ia n g prefectures are de f in ite ly on the d e c l in e .5. O ve rpop u la t io n is ce r ta in ly one of the lead ing factors in these local d i f fe rences . In th is respect, it w ou ld be in te re s t ing to com pare the m ov e m e n t o f p o pu la t io n w i t h the am o u n t of land per cap ita o r ig ina ly ava ilab le in various a reas . U n fo r tu n a te ly , most of the acreage f ig ures in the off ic ia l l i te ra tu re are of l i t t le value since they ac tua l ly refer to tax a t ion un its and de f in i te ly do not correspond to a com p le te reg is tra t ion of the land under c u l t iv a t io n . O n the prefectura l level, the in i t ia l p o pu la t io n dens i ty , the per cap ita acreage and the subsequent de m og raph ic evo lu t ion appear to be on ly loosely co r re la ted . It is neverthe less s ign i f ican t tha t the am o u n t of land ava ilab le tends to be smaller (be tw een one and tw o m u per i n h a b i t a n t ) in most of the prefectures , w he th e r “core” or “ p e r ip h e ry ” ,su ffe r ing a d e c l in e . T he near d e m o graph ic collapse of m an y prefectures of the M id d le and L ow er Y an g z i “ cores” has p robab ly m ore to do w i t h the de te r io ra t ion of the ecosystem-the so-called hyd rau l ic crisis of the low lands-than w i th a s im p le econom ic cycle, or even the aftereffects of the T a ip in g r e v o lu t io n . In fac t , we can see in th is p he no m en on a c o n f irm a t io n of the dem og raph ic f rag i l i ty of the m ore densely popu la ted a reas . I t w ou ld be in te re s t ing to invest iga te the reasons w hy “pe r iphe r ies” cou ld enjoy far greater s tab i l i ty an d , in some cases . register u n in te r ru p te d p o p u la t ion g ro w th for c en tu r ie s .M ich e l C a r t ie r , Paris
INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR ON CHINESE CULTURE AND POPULATION GROWTH IN ASIAN PACIFIC REGIONM A C A U , JA N U A R Y 5-7,1991“C H I N E S E C U L T U R E A N D D E M O G R A P H I C T R E N D S IN T H A I L A N D A N D M A L A Y S I A : A N E X P L O R A T O R Y S T U D Y . ”Jean Berlie CHCPI * ①PARIS.I t is well accepted th a t n um bers and rates of b ir ths and deaths and even m arr iages depend on po l i t ica l , social and econom ic cond it io n s , on cu ltu ra l va lues, on t rad it io ns and customs (S c hu bn e l l 1984, 4 ) . I am not a d em og raphe r , so I w i l l try to d raw a m ore cu ltu ra l th an dem og raph ic com par ison be tw een the M a lays ian Ch inese and the S ino-Tha i of T h a i l a n d . T he quest ion of the size of th is p opu la t io n w i l l be exam ined in para lle l w i t h the w e ig h t of the C h i nese cu ltu re , ra ther th a n the d irect in f luence of th is H a n cu ltu re on d e m o g r a p h y .I t is es t im a ted th a t m ore th an five m i l l io n Ch inese live in T h a i la n d , near ly 10 per cent of the p o p u la t io n . In M a la y s ia , a lm os t 35 per cent of the po pu la t io n is C h in e s e .1. M A L A Y S I A1. H is to r ica l and cu ltu ra l c o n t e x t .T he Ch inese m ov e m e n t to the sou th and tow ard the “S ou th e rn Seas” (N a n y a n g ) w en t on for 2000 years . T h is trend has been in all periods a cu ltu ra l m o v e m e n t of m en and ideas:一 T he Ch inese B u d d h is t m o n k Fa X ia n (F a H s ie n ) on his tr ip w en t to In d ia and re turned to C h in a (399-415) and sailed a long the S tra it of M a lacca .- Z heng H e (C h e n g H o ) (1371-1435) the fam ous yunnanese M u s l im , n am ed in reality M a , sailed in tens ive ly in the “ S ou th e rn S eas” d u r in g the years 1405-33 and landed in the M a la y P e n in s u la . B u t the f irst k n o w n Ch inese v is ito r in th is pen insu la was W a n g D ay u an , a trader w ho reached T re ng g a nu (T e r a n g g a n u ) (m a p 1) in 1349.T he first Ch inese im m ig ra n ts , O r a n g C h in a , in M a la y , came in the f i f te e n th cen tu ry , in Malacca ( M e l a k a ) . T hey became the B aba , c o m b in in g the best e lem ents of the ir Chinese and M a la y cu ltu ra l he r itage . T hey m arr ied M a la y w o m e n , called in the ir M a la y pato is , N yonya (m a b yb a H o k k ie n w o r d ) . I t is said th a t in three generat ions these Ch inese were trans fo rm ed in to B aba , san ta i senba ( H o k k i e n ) . N o w adays there are on ly ten thousand Baba a- m on g 250 ,000 Ch inese in the state of M a la c c a .A n im p o r ta n t quest ion is: w h y , in pa r t icu la r in the n in e te e n th cen tu ry , d id m erchan ts , peasants and w o rk m e n d id leave the ir na t ive place in sou the rn C h in a to r isk the ir lives after great ha rdsh ips on ju n k s for a d ream in trop ica l A s ia ?T he m ost obv ious answ er is pressure of p o p u la t io n . O n e of the reasons in voked for such a① ( * ) I owe much to Doctor G ary Ngai who friendly helped me to attend th is conference. I am most gratefu l to Professor Pierre B. Lafort, director of the Centre of History and Cultures of the Indochinese Peninsula (C H C P I) for his m oral and scientific support.T h is study is a w ork ing paper, not to be quoted in the present cond itions.
fact is floods and f a m in e s . I n 1655, d u r in g the second ha lf of the seventeenth cen tu ry , for such reasons, a large n u m b e r of people f rom F u j ia n and G u a n g d o n g provinces m ig ra ted to the “Co lden K hersonese” ,In f a c t,the m a in reason for th is m ovem en t is popu la t io n exp los ion , in par t icu la r d u r ing the n ine teen th c e n t u r y . T h is fact associated w i th socio-politico d is turbances caused the departu re of an im po r ta n t n u m b e r of K e jia ( H a k k a ) be tween 1855 and 1870,from G u a n g d o n g p ro v in c e .U p to 1845,at the adven t of the s te a m s h ip ,the Ch inese ju n k s , f rom F u j i a n , G u a n g d o n g , G u an g x i and H a in a n , were p ly in g w i t h the m on soo n . T he t r ip , one w ay , genera lly required tw o m o n th s .1. 2 Popu la t io n .S ta r t in g from the h istor ica l po in t of v iew , I w i l l try now to describe the present s itua t ion of the Chinese popu la t ion in M a la y s ia .M a lays ia , in dependen t in 1957, was established in 1963, in c lu d in g Pen in su la r M a lays ia ( fo rm er ly M a l a y a ) , S ingapore , Sabah and S a r a w a k . In 1965, S ingapore separated from M a la y s ia .In 1980,the revised census of p opu la t ion of Sabah was 1 ,0 1 1 ,000 and inc luded 16 per cent of H u a q i a o . In S a raw ak , 30 per cent ou t of 1,307,600 were Ch inese and am o ng them one th ird were F u j ia n ren ( H o k k i e n ) . In th is paper we w i l l concen tra te the s tudy on ly on P e n in sular M a lays ia i . e . , Joho re ( J o h o r ) , K e d ah , K e la n ta n M alacca ( M e l a k a ) ,N egr i S em b i lan ( Neger i S e m b i l a n ) , P a h an g , P e nang ( P i n a n g ) , P e rak , Perlis , Se langor and T rengganu (m a p 1 ) . C ons ide r ing the Ch inese po pu la t io n am o ng the M a la y soc iety , it is on ly before the tu rn of the tw e n t ie th cen tu ry tha t the Ch inese for the first t im e reached the level of 30 per cent of the to ta l p o p u la t io n .S ince tha t t im e , one th ird of the in h ab i t a n ts of the P en in su la are C h in e s e . T h is im p o r tan t group is trad i t io na l ly associated w i t h trade and bus iness; n o w , more th an s ix ty per cent of the pr iva te com pan ies and pa r tnersh ips , o the r th an ag r icu l tu re , are possessed by M a lays ian C h in e s e .T he trend of popu la t io n size is show n in T ab le 1. O u t of a revised census of popu la t ion of 3 ,862,000 in 1980,on ly 5 per cent of the M a lays ian H u aq iao live in the N o r theas t , the K o ta Bha ru R eg ion a l S y s t e m . T h o u g h num e rous in cities, the Ch inese are a M in o r i t y in M a la y s ia . T he on ly im p o r ta n t tow n where they are d o m in a n t is G eo rge tow n on the is land of P e n a n g . T here , in 1970, out of a po pu la t io n of tw o m i l l io n s , a lm ost one m i l l io n were M a lays ian C h in e s e .T he popu la t io n g ro w th of th is is land is pa r t icu la r ly impress ive a n d , w i th the construct ion of a br idge , g ro w th is even h ighe r n o w .T h is deve lopm ent of a w ilderness by m ig r a n t Ch inese is associated w i th the ir legendary h a rd w o rk in g s p i r i t .In 1840,out of a popu la t io n of 40 ,000 , 9700 came from sou the rn C h i n a . In 1858, therewere 24, 000 Ch inese out of 58 ,000 in h a b i t a n t s . 1870 was the t im e of m a jo r in f lu x of Chinese m ig r a n t s . Before the F irs t W o r ld W a r ,in 1911,am o ng 3 ,090,000 is landers, 1,200,000 were C h in e s e . S o ,the annua l rate of popu la t io n g ro w th was 2 per cent d u r in g the h u nd red years 1870-1970. Be tw een 1950 and 1960, the annua l rate of increase was 3 per cent ( 2 . 8 % for all
the P en in su la r M a la y s ia ) . T h is rate dec lined g radua l ly to 2 per cent d u r in g the decade of 1970-1980 ( 2 . 2 % for Pen in su la r M a lays ia in g ene ra l ) .T A B L E 1C H I N E S E P O P U L A T I O N ( ’ 000) IN P E N I N S U L A R M A L A Y S I A , 1921-1980S O U R C E : V ic to r Purce l l (1980, 223-226). T he f igure of the Ch inese popu la t ion was 1, 778,000 in 1941. T he p opu la t io n of S in gapore , Sabah-Sarawak is not in c luded h e re .T he f igures for 1970 and 1980 are taken f rom A n n T an Boon (1984, 70-72). O th e r sources give a percentage of 35 % for the Ch inese , the ir n u m b e r was 4 ,760,000 am o ng a tota l p o p u la t ion - - Pen in su la r M a lays ia , S ab ah , S a raw ak - - of 13,600,000 in 1985 ( Y u 1986,33-35).T A B L E 2P R O J E C T E D P O P U L A T I O N ( ’ 0 0 0 ) ,P E N I N S U L A R M A L A Y S I A , 2000-2075It seems tha t M a lays ia w i l l try to m a in ta in its annua l popu la t io n g ro w th rate of 2 per c e n t . I f we assume a neg l ig ib le in te rn a t io na l m ig r a t io n , m y po pu la t io n est imates for Pen insu la r M a lays ia are e igh teen m i l l io n for 2000 and twenty-seven m i l l io n for 2075. I f fhe 33 per cent of Ch inese po pu la t io n is m a in ta in e d , I es t im a te tha t six m i l l io n and n ine m i l l io n of H uaq iao w ill live in M a lays ia be tween 2000 and 2075 (T ab le 2 ) .T he decrease in the annua l popu la t io n g ro w th rate of the M a la ys ian Ch inese is a f a c t . T hey have the h ighest percentage of con tracep t ive usage and a h ighe r educat ion on average than the o the r g r o u p s : M a lays and I n d i a n s . W e have no com para t ive stud ies abou t the d if fe ren t ia l level of educa t ion be tw een m en and w o m e n , and th is is u n fo r t u n a t e .A n o th e r im p o r ta n t dem og raph ic factor of the Ch inese in M a lays ia is the d is t r ib u t io n of popu la t io n by s e x . D u r in g the n ine teen th (1820) ce n tu ry , th is sex rat io was e ight males to every fem a le , b ecom ing eleven males to every female in 1850, becom ing three in 1860.T h is n u m b e r of males per female was not no rm a l ized before the end of the Second W o r ld W a r : 5 /1 in 1911, 2 /1 in 1931. In 1957,for the first t im e the n u m b e r of females per 1, 000 males was 930. It has not been perm iss ib le since the s ix teen th cen tu ry to m arry M a la y w o m en except for those w ho convert to I s l a m . In past centur ies , the Baba d id m arry M a la y brides
but th is t im e is over. I est imate tha t on ly tw o to five per thousand H uaq iao in M a lays ia are M u s l im s n o w a d a y s .I t is not possible to avo id a short s tudy of m o r ta l i ty to show the g ro w th and deve lopm ent of d e m o g r a p h y . T he Ch inese are also inc luded in the overall hea lth s tatus and am e lio ra t ion of m ed ica l and hea lth faci l it ies th o u g h Ch inese hea lth care and cu ltu ra l techn ique are pe cu l ia r . T he general crude death rate dropped from 9. 5 per thou sand in 1960 to 5. 5 per thousand in 1980,and d u r ing the same period the in fan t m o r ta l i ty d ropped from 69 per thousand to 25 per t h o u s a n d :U rb an iz a t io n and m ode rn iza t io n of the Ch inese associated w i th the ir ow n m ed ic ine dropped the ir crude b i r th rate f rom 30 per thou sand in 1970 to 25 per thousand in 1980. In M a lays ia , it is the lowest rate am o ng all e thn ic g r o u p s . I t shou ld be com pared to the M a la y C B R of 33 per thousand in 1980 (T a n 1984, 88 ).T he Ch inese m ed ica l p rac t it ioners a lways en joyed the conf idence of the ir c o m p a t r io ts . In 1827,accord ing to T . W a r d , there were six Ch inese doctors in the c ity of M alacca for a pop u la t ion of 4, 000 B a b a . Bu t at th a t t im e M a la r ia and cholera caused heavy m o r t a l i t y . I t is possible tha t the im m u n i t y acqu ired in trop ica l hot c l im ate by the Cantonese was one for the reasons of the ir superior res is tance . Bu t w ha t of the o ther Ch inese l iv ing in M a lays ia ? I w i l l try to analyse th is quest ion us ing the ir o w n sociological c o n te x t .1 .3 Socio-cultural s e t t i n g .T he o r ig in of the M a lays ian Ch inese is S o u th C h i n a . T he coastl ine of the province of G u a n g d o n g is the longest one , so it is not surp r is ing to have not on ly a great n u m b e r of C a n tonese w ho came from th is prov ince bu t also C haozhou ( T ie c h iu ) and K eg ia ( H a k k a ) . Because th is conference is he ld in M ac au , it is in te res t ing to note tha t in the n ine teen th cen tury m an y Ch inese im M a laya were classified “ M ac ao s ” because the port of em ig ra t io n of those Can tonese , G u a n g x ir e n , H a k k a , Ha inanese and som e t im es C h ao zh o u , was M acau ( B ly the 1969, 4 4 ) . A f te r 1842, H o n g K o n g became the m a in po in t of departu re tow ard M a lay P e n in s u la . T he F u j ia n re n ( H o k k i e n ) were often called “ C h i n c h e w ” because m an y of them came fo rm Q u a n z h o u , no r th of A m o y (n o w X i a m e n ) .T he popu la t ion of Ch inese by specific c o m m u n i ty (Purce l l 1980, 224) is g iven in T ab le 3.T A B L E 3C H I N E S E B Y S P E C I F I C C O M M U N I T Y , 1957In fact , th is c lass if icat ion is not accurate because of var ious factors at the t im e of census
in te rv ie w s . A n y w a y , it is true tha t those w h o speak the same d ia lec t , and come from the same reg ion , g roup toge the r soc ia lly , m a in ly in d ia lect o rgan iza t ions and c o m m u n i ty te m p le s .In 1957, 32 per cent of the Ch inese were listed as Fu j ia r ren ( H o k k i e n ) , 22 per cent as Kejia ( H a k k a ) , 22 per cent also as Cantonese , 12 per cent as C haozhou (T e o c h iu ) and 5 per cent as H a in a n e s e . T he annua l po pu la t io n g ro w th was 3 . 7 % for the H o k k ie n and the T eoch iu . A f te r the Second W o r ld W a r ,th is rate was h ighe r th an the 2% rate of the o the r c o m m u n i t ie s , I should stress aga in th a t th is c lass if icat ion is not a c c u ra te . To see the evo lu t ion up to 1970, I have on ly the percentage of the d is tr ic t of W e lles ley in 1947 and 1970 (N o n in i 1989, 82 ).T he T ab le 4 shows tha t in th is nor theas te rn d is tr ic t of the Pen in su la the F u j ia n ren are not the most n um erous as we k n o w to be the case in P en in su la r M a lays ia and in S a r a w a k .In th is d is tr ic t , in fron t of the Is land fo P e nan g , the C haozhou (T e o c h iu ) , as in T h a i la n d , are the most im p o r ta n t in n u m b e r and in prest ige . A c co rd in g to the 1970’ s census survey , a l most 47% of the Ch inese are C ha o zh o u , and the ir n u m b e r s l ig h t ly increased in 23 years . There is also an apparen t increase of F u j i a n r e n .T A B L E 4C H I N E S E P E R C E N T A G E O F P O P U L A T I O N B Y C O M M U N I T Y , W E L L E S L E Y , 1947,1970A s in T h a i la n d , there is stil l a s trong reg iona l character connec ted w i th the h is tory of these dia lect groups of S ou th e rn C h i n a .T he dialect o rgan iza t ions are part of the Ch inese cu ltu re , b u t it is t im e now to say a word of th is H a n cu ltu re , the p roduc t of in n u m e rab le processes of contact be tween a great num be r of e thn ic g roups of C h in a accord ing to W o l f r a m E b e r h a r d . Bu t we shou ld keep in m in d tha t the a im is to app ly th is short and very schem at ic overv iew to the Ch inese of M a lays ia and eventua l ly to the S in o - T h a i .T he fam i ly is st i l l the very keystone of the so c ie ty . It seems tha t there is a t ran s fo rm a t ion w i th a preservat ion of the trad i t io na l id e a s . A n im p o r ta n t po in t is tha t the M a la y society is an Is lam ic o n e . T h e M a lays ian Ch inese , even if they are are not M u s l im , - - one to five per thousand are adherents of Is lam - - do ad jus t themse lves to the state re l ig ion in the ir everyday l iv e s . D u r in g the m o n th of R a m a d a n they are ob l iged to close the w ind ow s and ha lf close the doors of the ir res taurants — - the Cantonese are t r ad i t io na l ly propr ie tors 一 - d u r ing thed a y t im e . Bu t at h om e , in the fam i ly , they are a l low ed to eat Ch inese food at any t im e du r ing
th is t im e of f a s t in g .F am i ly is the place where the Ch inese dia lect is c o m m o n ly used.T he Ch inese cu ltu re , p ro v id in g no rm a t iv e o r ie n ta t io n , emphas izes fam i ly respons ib il i t ies .I am not a specialist to l in k th is w i th the C o n fu c ia n A na le c ts , L u n yu , bu t it seems tha t in the m odern generally-nuclear-fam ilies, the “d e r iv ed” C on fu c ian pr inc ip les are im p o r ta n t : f i l ial p ie ty to o n e ’ s parents , respect to senior by gene ra t io n , educa t ion of the sons.T he idea to create Ch inese in dependen t schools started in the n ine tee th c e n t u r y . A f te r 1917, gu o yu , was adop ted in all pub l ic schools in M a la y a . By 1938,there were 966 p r im ary and 36 secondary schools developed en t ire ly from the Ch inese f inanc ia l resources (T a n L io k 1988, 61) : A cco rd in g to V ic to r Purce l l (1980, 276 )34,800 boys and 14, 500 girls were in aided Ch inese schools in 1938.For com par ison , the en ro lm en t in Independen t-P r iva te Ch inese schools was 36,000 in 1982. In 1970,due to the change in educa t ion po licy , en ro lm en t d ropped . I do not have the en ro lm en t by sex since W o r ld W a r 0 . T h is is u n fo r tu n a te because the educa t ion of girls is more im p o r ta n t for p opu la t io n deve lopm en t th an the educa t ion of b o y s . Persona l ly , I do hope tha t a ba lance be tween M a la ys ian po li t ica l and Ch inese cu ltu ra l norm s w il l be set in th is new de cad e .T he m odern Ch inese c o m m u n i ty in M a lays ia m a in ta in a d is t inc t ive characte r, cu ltu ra l ly and e d u c a t io n a l ly . T h is is reflected by a d if fe ren t popu la t ion g r o w t h . Bu t cons ider ing for ex am p le the d i f fe ren t ia l M a la y /C h in e s e crude b i r th rate , is it because of the ir “Ch ineseness” or because they live in a more m odern cu ltu ra l e n v iro nm e n t , in cit ies, tha t the Ch inese b ir th rate is d i f fe ren t? T he Baba are closer to the M a la y th a n the o the r M a la y s ia n Ch inese because they speak M a la y at hom e I have w e ,in the T h a i soc iety , an equ iva lence of cross cu ltu ra l in f luence?2. T H A I L A N D2 .1 H is to r ica l ba ckg roundT he Ch inese are called k hon c i in by the T h a i . B u t at w ha t t im e d id the ir re la t ionsh ip s tart? T he p rob lem is more com p l ica ted in T h a i la n d th a n in M a lays ia because there is s trong h is to r ical ev idence - - not discussed here - - th a t one im p o r ta n t o r ig in of the T h a i people is S ou th C h i n a .B u t th is h is tor ica l fact does not m ean th a t , for exam p le , the ancestors of the L aw a - - called W a in C h in a - - and o ther more or less ass im ila ted e thn ic groups were not present m an y centur ies before w i t h in the boundar ies of present - day T h a i l a n d .George W i l l i a m S k in n e r (1957, 1-2) s tated th a t Ch inese traders were established in the m arke ts and the ports of the G u l f of S iam and in the I s th m u s of K ra in the th ir te en th c e n t u r y . For the e ight hund red years of T h a i l a n d ’ s h is tory the Ch inese have been bound up w i th the econom y of the coun try .A f te r the fall of the N a n zh a o k in g d o m in 1253, the ove r land trade as well as the m ar i t im e com m erce be tw een C h in a and S iam decl ined ( Y u a n dynas ty , 1279-1368). T he re la t ionsh ip ( g u a n x i ) be tw een Y u n n a n by la n d , and G u a n g d o n g by sea, w i t h S iam lessened at tha t t im e . F rom a social po in t of v iew , for the f irst in te rva l , in the b e g in n in g of the f i f teen th cen tury , o ffspr ings of Ch inese fa the r and T h a i m o th e r , l u k c i i n , were reco rded . T h is is in re la t ion
w ith the seven exped it ions in the “A s ian P ac i f ic ” R eg ion of Z h en g H e w h o landed three t imes in S iam in 1407,1409 and 1413. S iam in the same period (1403-1424) sent tw en ty- tw o tax-ex- em pted m iss ions to C h i n a .A l t h o u g h th is shows the especially good re la t ionsh ip be tw een S iam and C h in a , the first im po r tan t n u m b e r of Ch inese im m ig ra n ts , accord ing to the M in g s h i , was at the end of the s ix teen th cen tu ry w he n tw o thousand Fu j ian ren estab lished themselves in P a t t a n i .2 .2 P opu la t io nIn P a t ta n i , in the S ou th of T h a i la n d ( m ap 2 ) , accord ing to D u tc h sources, the Ch inese o u tn u m b e re d the M a lay-T ha i popu la t io n by the early seventeenth c e n t u r y .N o w ad ay s , T h a i la n d covers 514,000 square k i lo m e te r s . T he 1980 census shows a p o pu la t ion of 4 4 .3 m i l l i o n . A n es t im a ted p opu la t io n of 5 .5 m i l l io n is Ch inese in 1990. In p ro ject ion , the ir popu la t io n stabilises at abou t 6 .4 m i l l io n f rom 2000 (T ab le 5 ) . A c co rd in g to Y u Y ip in g (1 9 8 6 ,3 3 ),there were 4 ,500,000 Ch inese in 1985.T A B L E 5T H A I L A N D : T O T A L P O P U L A T IO N ( ’ 000) A N D C H IN E S E P O P U L A T IO N , 1947-2000In com par ison w i th M a la y s ia , there are more Ch inese na t iona ls considered as aliens in T h a i l a n d . T hey are n ow o lder and o ld e r . In 1960 they were 410 ,000 ; we could es t imate tha t they are now less than three h u n d red t h o u s a n d . A c co rd in g to the T h a i law , the ir progeny born in the k in g d o m are au to m a t ic a l ly c it izens of T h a i l a n d . Som e au tho rs called them H ua ren in M a n d a r in , to m ake a d is t in c t io n w i t h the o rd in a ry nam e of the overseas Ch inese : H u a q i a o . T h is last des igna t ion seems in fact equ iva len t to H u a or H ua ren : There are ex trem e ly w ide-rang ing es t im a t ions (33% of Ch inese in 1890 f rom G . R a u t ie r ) . I t is not possible to s tu dy the evo lu t ion of the Ch inese po pu la t io n f rom one census to a n o t h e r . T h is is because, f irs t , the S ino-Tha i H u aq iao , unless they are not T h a i c it izens , are inc luded in the to ta l p o pu la t io n size, and second , in fact they have a doub le id e n t i ty . T h is ass im ila t ion in the
T ha i id en t i ty started long a g o . T he es t im a t ion of six m i l l io n at the tu rn of the next cen tury could also be n ine m i l l io n of S ino-Tha i p e rsons . A n y w a y , we could es t imate tha t the ir annua l g ro w th rate is p resent ly under 2 per c e n t . A lso , T h a i l a n d ’ s m o r ta l i ty level has been dec l in ing regu lar ly after W o r ld W a r T w o ,but aga in we have no f igures for the Ch inese .T he d is t r ib u t io n of the non-Tha i Ch inese was 1. 9 males to 1 female in 1937 and in 1960. A f te r the Second W o r ld W a r th is sex rat io d ropped to 1 .4 . D u r in g the tw e n t ie th cen tu ry , in 1920 Ch inese w o m en began to arrive from C h i n a . In f re q u en t ly today a br ide is b ro ugh t from C h i n a . E qu a l iz a t io n of the sex ra t io genera l ly happens in the second genera t ion w i th C h in e s e /T h a i m arr iage , the Ch inese hu sband m ade the m a in a d ju s tm e n t .V ic to r Purce l l t h o u g h t th a t ha lf the Ch inese in T h a i la n d l ive in B a ng k o k and in the Cen tra l R e g io n . In the second part of the seventeenth cen tu ry around ten thousand of th em settled in and around A y u th a y a , accord ing to the e s t im a t ion o f de la L o u b e r e .In tha t cen tu ry , in c lu d in g the st i l l second m a jo r concen tra t ion in the sou th of the coun try , they fo rm ed as m u ch as 1 per cent of the to ta l popu la t io n of S i a m . In the e igh teen th cen tury T h o n b u r i , western part of present-day B a n g k o k , got a large Ch inese s e t t le m e n t . I n 1980, 32 per cent of the to ta l popu la t io n live in the C en tra l R e g i o n . I f the es t im a t ions m ade at the beg in n in g of the cen tu ry are st i l l good , s ix ty per cent of the Ch inese popu la t io n is l iv in g in the Cen tra l P la in , th a t is to say, m ore th a n tw o m i l l i o n .T he C haozhou (T e o c h i u ) is the d o m in a n t d ia lec t-com m un ity in B a n g k o k . I t is now very d i f f icu l t to have the exact percentage of each c o m m u n i t y . O n the basis of S k in n e r ’ s es timate (1957, 211-212) we could have present ly the fo l low ing speech group d is t r ib u t io n :C haozhou (T e o c h iu ) : 50-55 per cent,K e jia ( H a k k a ) : 10-15 per cent,H a inanese : 10-12 per cen t ,Cantonese : 8-10 per cent,F u j ia n ren ( H o k k ie n ) 5-8 per c e n t .So m a n y of th em have a fu l l k now ledge on ly in T h a i tha t it is more realistic to call them S in o - T h a i .2 .3 S ino-Tha i cu l tu ra l pa tte rnsF o l low ing the ana lys is , prov ided in an essay on the Ch inese in In dones ia , th is parag raph is an a t te m p t to s tudy the cu lture of the Ch inese c o m m u n i ty of T h a i la n d th ro u g h d if fe ren t p a t terns ra ther th an the direct app roach of the re la t ionsh ip be tw een cu ltu re and d e m og raphy :1. T he trad i t io na l cu l tu ra l pa t te rn is based on the deep s truc ture of Ch inese c iv i l iza t ion where expans ion was done th ro u g h the m e d iu m of the w r i t te n characters in p a r t i c u la r .2. T he “ in teg ra t io n is t ” pa t te rn is well represented by the Y unn an e se in no r thern T h a i la n d I3. T he ass im i la t ion pa t te rn operates ins ide the T h a i cu l tu ra l s y s te m .O f course it is not possible to s im p ly reduce in to three m odels the cu ltu re of the Ch inese in T h a i la n d bu t at least it can he lp us to unde rs tand be tter the present s i t u a t i o n .T he M a lays ian “ p lu ra l is t ic ” pa t te rn is not app licab le to T h a i society, as the S iamese C h i nese represent on ly ten per cent of the to ta l popu la t io n and the ir doub le iden t it ies are more b lended th an in any Sou theas t A s ian - - or A s ian Pac if ic - - c o u n t r y .
T he m a in ten ance of cu l tu ra l pa t te rns , accord ing to W e b s te r ’ s d ic t io na ry , is achieved th ro u g h “ the act of deve lop ing the in te l lec tua l and m ora l facu lt ies especially by e d u c a t io n ” . V o l ta ire regarded Ch inese cu ltu re as a t r i u m p h of reason over supers t i t ion .Bu t th a t does not m ean th a t the G o d of the E a r th is not w o rsh ipped by the Ch inese in B a ng k o k as we ll as in H o n g K o n g .In bo th cit ies, ou ts ide Ch inese houses, one w i l l f in d sm a ll red-painted plates inscr ibed :M e n k o u tu d i Ca ishen (T h e d o o r w a y ’ s G o d of the E a r th - a n d - W e a l th ) .T ra d i t io n in da i ly life is seen in hous ing , Chinese-style c lo thes and Ch inese food . T he a t ta c h m e n t to im po r te d goods and food from C h in a is now also s ig n i f i c a n t .M o re in te re s t ing is the fact th a t in B a n g k o k , at the end of the year or for the Ch inese N ew Y ea r , C haozhou d ram as are p e r fo rm e d . B u t let us re tu rn to m ore “classical” trad it io ns .T he fam i ly and the a t t a c h m e n t to k in sh ip pa t te rns is m a rked by close ties w i t h the relatives and clans in S ou th C h i n a . B u t after the Second W o r ld W a r th is pa r t of the social fabric of trad i t io na l Ch inese society was cons iderab ly reduced . I t was no longe r possible to speak of H uaq iao j i q ia o ju an , “ the overseas Ch inese and the ir re la t ives” . In N o vem be r 3 ,195,8 ,an O- verseas Ch inese A f fa i r s C o m m it te e in Be i j ing issued a s ta tem en t accus ing T h a i au tho r it ie s of “ground less persecut ion aga ins t Ch inese n a t io n a ls ” . T he rem ittances to suppor t fam i ly m e m bers and relatives in C h in a was at a s tands t i l l up to Ju ly 1,1975,w he n C h in a and T h a i la n d reestab lished the ir d ip lom a t ic r e la t io n s .T he Ch inese elaborate f am i ly system recom m ends H a ta m an m arry a Ch inese w o m a n g e n era lly of the same dia lect g r o u p . W e have a lready seen th a t on ly in 1920 d id brides begin brides beg in to arr ive f rom C h i n a . I n the 1970s, R ic h a rd B asham (1989, 3 ) us ing T ha i stud ies , fo und th a t 60% of the m ore educated and 76% of the “ less” educated S ino-Tha i i n te rm arry w i t h S iam ese-Ch inese ; m ost of the t im e a S ino-Tha i w o m a n marr ies a Ch inese m an of the second or th ird g e n e ra t io n . In a sm a ll to w n of southeast T h a i la n d , C r is t ina B lanc S zan ton ( in : T he Ch inese in Sou theas t A s ia p ub l ished in S ingapore in 1983, p , 113) found th a t in s ix ty per cent of the m arr iages , S ino-Tha i m en do m arry S ino-Tha i w o m e n . In th is s tu dy , less th a n tw e n ty per cent of the S iamese Ch inese w o m en m arr ied T h a i m en .T he pa tr i l ineage and the oppos it ion be tw een yang , the m ascu l ine p r in c ip le , and y in , the fem in in e p r in c ip le , kep t in the Baba ’ s p h i lo sophy - - even in cook ing - - was d i f f ic u l t to m a in ta in in T h a i la n d because it took centur ies for the T h a i to have a f am i ly n am e and because the T h a i k in sh ip system is essentia l ly a b i la tera l one .E ven m ore im p o r ta n t and closely related to the c u ltu re , educa t ion has been well recognized as a tool to m a in t a in Ch inese i d e n t i t y . A f t e r the Second W o r ld W a r , in 1946,freedom of ed uca t ion had been taken aw ay f rom the C h in e s e . T he ch i ld ren unde r f if teen years of age were forced to receive S iamese e d u c a t io n . W h e re is the t r ad i t io n a l p a t te rn ? T he f irst and second genera t ion estab lished groups of so l idar i ty bu t the th ird gene ra t io n , except a very sm all part educated in Ch inese schools, was encouraged to hasten its ass im i la t ion process in to T ha i so c ie ty . E ven n o w , accord ing to an art ic le by O u y a n g P an pub l ished in the G u a n g d o n g O v e r seas Ch inese rev iew ( 1 .1 9 9 0 ) ,in a school of B a n g k o k n am ed P u z h i there are on ly 1, 500 C h i nese s tuden ts in 1989 to be com pared w i t h the 2, 500 learners in 1960.T he ass im i la t io n of the Ch inese in T h a i la n d th ro u g h T h a i educa t ion pa tte rns is certa in ly a
fact , bu t before s tu dy in g the S ino-Tha i in the ir ass im i la t ion p a t te rn , there is in T h a i la n d an in te rm ed ia ry process.J u ne D reyer , in the b e g in n in g of her C h i n a ’ s F o r ty M i l l io n s (19 76 ) , gave a de f in it io n of i n teg ra t ion as “ the process w he reby e thn ic g roups come to sh if t the ir loya lties , expectat ions , and po li t ica l ac t iv it ies tow ard a new center , whose in s t i tu t io n s assume ju r id ic t io n over, and respons i i l i ty for , said g r o u p s . ”I t h in k th a t th is is the cu ltu ra l pos it ion o f the Y u nn an e se in T h a i l a n d . T he ir “ m in o r i t y ” s tatus ins ide a M in o r i t y is s im i la r to th a t o f the B aba , because the ir popu la t io n is not im p o r tan t com pared to the o ther C h inese : C h a o zh o u , K e j ia , Cantonese , H a inanese and F u j i a n r e n . Bu t the Baba speak be tter M a la y th a n the o the r Ch inese , and contrary to t h e m , the Yun- nanese of T h a i la n d , called H a w by the T h a i , are not S ino-Tha i l ike the o the r d ia lect groups . T hey have not a fu l l k now ledge of the T h a i language l ike the B a ng k o k C hao zho u , bu t tha t does not m ean th a t in C h ia n g m a i some M u s l im Ch inese whose ancestors m ig ra ted last c e n tu ry are no t “T h a ia s s im i la te d ” .Som e an th ropo log is ts , l ike A n n M a x w e l l H i l l , classified these Y u nn an e se of T h a i la n d w i th M ino r i t ie s l ike L isu and Y a o - M ia o . B u t in fac t , these Y u nn an e se are the “ rea l” Ch inese of T h a i l a n d . Because of the ir sm a ll se t t lem ents in m a rke t tow ns of N o r th T h a i la n d , far from the S ino-Tha i im p o r ta n t middle-class and elite of b ig tow ns , they are fo rgo tten in the general stud ies of the H u aq iao in T h a i l a n d .These Y u nn an e se are the representatives or m ore exactly the descendants of the history- m a k in g traders w ho plied the anc ien t over land trade route be tw een C h in a , B u rm a and T h a i l a n d .These Y u nn an e se do no t par t ic ipa te so m u ch to the p in a w n g T h a i social system bu t have the ir ow n Ch inese g uanx i of b l o o d , the ir ow n “ f a m i l y ” re la t ionsh ip called J i a l i r e n .T h e th ird p a t te rn , ass im i la t io n , to n g h u a , in p in y in , is m a in ly ach ieved ins ide the p in aw ng k in sh ip and re la t ionsh ip s y s te m .T he elite Ch inese im m ig ra n ts in early S iam were ennob led and g iven off ic ia l posit ions as early as the f i f te e n th cen tu ry . T he o rd in a ry ass im i la t ion pa t te rn of the S ino-Tha i laym en i n c luded and stil l inc ludes th em in to the T h a i socio-cultural system (Ber l ie 1 9 9 0 ,7 ) . T h is old p in a w n g po li t ica l and cu ltu ra l s truc tu re is stil l fo u n d from A ssam in In d ia to the no r th of V ie tn a m am o ng A h o m and T a i D a m , and organ izes the fo l low ing societies: the S han of M y a n m a r ( B u r m a ) , the L ao and the Dai-Lue of X is h u a n g b a n n a . I n T h a i la n d to be T h a i is a lso pa r t ic ipa te in th is k in sh ip and re la t ionsh ip system bu t genera l ly it m eans speak on ly - - or m ost of the t im e - - the S iamese off ic ia l language and to be a T heravada B u d d h i s t . M a n y S ino-Tha i canno t speak Ch inese , even the ir ow n d ia le c t . T here are, accord ing to Chinese sources, less th a n tw o h u n d red Ch inese schools in T h a i la n d , to be com pared w i th more than one thousand in s t i tu t io n s for the teach ing of M a lays ian H u a q i a o .B u t the “Ch ineseness” of the S ino-Tha i does no t m ean th a t they are not in a key pos it ion in T h a i so c ie ty . S ince 1932, e igh t p r im e m in is te rs have been S in o - T h a i . O n e fo u r th of the m em bers of the N a t io n a l Leg is la t ive A ssem b ly are of Ch inese descent (C h e n 1990, 238) . T he im pac t of Ch inese cu lture in T h a i la n d can be ju dg ed by the fact tha t am o ng e ight of the most d is t in gu ished in te l lec tua ls , chosen f rom 150 lead ing persona lit ies of T h a i la n d , three of them
were S ino-Tha i (P h i l l ip s 1975, 348-351). H ow eve r , as in all h u m a n soc iety , there is a range of b e h a v io u r . R ic h a rd C o u g h l in (1960, 87) no ted th a t in the 1950s, the Chaozhou playboys nam ed A-sia, d id l i t t le and spent the ir t im e in the pu rsu it of p leasure , g a m b l in g and d r iv ing fast c a rs . T h is has a l in gu is t ic in f luence because m a n y of the C haozhou expressions tend to become absorbed in the s lang T h a i spoken in B a n g k o k .L anguage and educa t ion are re la ted , the level of educa t ion received by S ino-Tha i has g rad ua l ly im p ro v ed , and th is trend has been p ar t icu la r ly no tab le since W o r ld W a r D . T h is im p rovem en t has occurred regardless of the language in w h ic h they are e d u c a te d . Before the F irs t W o r ld W a r ,the Ch inese w o m en in T h a i la n d were i l l i t e r a te . Those of the second, th ird and fou r th generat ions are w e ll-educa ted . T he B u d dh is t S ino-Tha i w o m en had p layed an im po r tan t role in the ass im i la t ion of the Ch inese in to T h a i s o c ie ty .T he c o m m o n re l ig ion of m a n y S ino-Tha i and T h a i is B u d d h i s m . A cco rd in g to T a m b ia h , bo th M ah ay an a - - Ch inese B u d d h is m - - and T heravada developed c o m m o n concept ions of b h o d h is a t t v a . E ven if am o ng S ino-Tha i there is a weaker concep t ion of the com ing B u d d h a , th is process of u nde rs tan d in g the same belief is a start tow a rd a new cu ltu ra l syn thes is , a capac ity to have the same c o m m i tm e n t to a w ay of l i f e .For a S ino-Tha i, there is no in c o m p a t ib i l i t y be tween g a in in g m er i t and im po s in g oneself ka rm ic cond it io ns in a T h a i w ay and to conduc t business us ing the Ch inese gu anx i p a t t e r n .O n e of the m odels of th is type of re la t ionsh ip is the com p lex j u n k opera t ion o rgan iza t ion w i t h the operato r , the traders , the clerks, the crew an d , on the o the r h a n d , the ad m in is t r a t io n , the Y a m e n ( Saras in V ir a p h o l , T r ib u te and P r o f i t s . S ino-Siamese T rade 1652-1853, 1977, p . 127) . A n o th e r exam p le of th is Ch inese guanx i socio-economic system is given by the n e tw o rk l i n k in g the peasants w i t h the sm a ll cities sellers in present-day G u a n g dong province ( Jo h n so n 1990, 1 ) . In T h a i la n d the best exam p le of g uangx i re la t ionsh ip is g iven by the B a n g k o k Ch inese C h a m b e r of C om m erce ( S k in n e r 1967, 111, 207 ) .S k in n e r no ted th a t 7% of his elite S in o - T h a i ’ s m othe rs were e thn ic T h a i . T h is percentage , t h o u g h not im p o r t a n t , shows nevertheless th a t the p in a w n g k in sh ip system is stil l present in the S ino-Siamese soc ie ty .A n O ve rv iewT he overseas Ch inese of T h a i la n d and M a lays ia are ce r ta in ly less trad i t io na l t h a n before. T hey live in u rban areas so there is a dec line in the im po r tance of r i tu a l and c e re m o n y . O n the o ther h an d they have a decrease in the a n nu a l p o p u la t io n g ro w th r a t e . I t is d i f f ic u l t to say if there is any re la t ionsh ip be tw een bo th “cu ltu ra l f a t ig u e ” . Bu t it is a fact th a t in T h a i la n d the Ch inese M in o r i t y is fac ing a doub le p rob lem : a long-term s tab il iza t ion to its popu la t ion and a doub le id e n t i ty d i le m m a . T h is ass im i la t ion th ro u g h educa t ion and socio-cultural s y m biosis can lead to a com p le te ass im i la t ion in to the T h a i soc iety in the 21st c e n tu r y . B u t the guanx i re la t ionsh ip th ro u g h c o m m u n i ty o rgan iza t ion s and Ch inese business associations w ill c o u n te r a c t .In M a la ys ia , the M a la y go tong-royong or to long-m eno long system of assistance between bro thers and cousins a d ik be rad ik , has not a t trac ted the M a la y s ia n Ch inese as a socio-cultural sys tem , f irst because it is an Is lam ic M a la y pa t te rn of society and second because it works m a in ly in the rura l soc ie ty . T he Ch inese live m a in ly in to w ns . T he cu ltu ra l pa t te rn of the
M alays ian Ch inese is m ore c o m m u n a l 一 - even if we have differences be tw een the three m a ind ialect groups F u j ia n re n , K e j ia and C a n to n e s e .These co m m en ts are l im ite d bu t the processes of change focused on tw o pa t te rns , theM a lays ian in teg ra t io n and the T ha i a s s im i la t io n .REFERENCESB A S H A M , R ic h a r d .1989 “A s s im i la t io n of M ino r i t ie s in T h a i soc ie ty” . W o r k in g Paper . Sydney , U n ive rs i ty of S ydney , l i p .B E R L I E , Je an .1990 “Z h o n g g u o yu M a la ix iy a x iangcun b i j ia o ” ( “Sho r t C om par ison be tween T w o V i l lages of C h in a and M a la y s ia ” . Conference on Sou theas t A s ia (A s ia n Pac if ic R e g io n ) . G u i l i n , O c tobe r 20-24, 7p.B L Y T H E , W i l f r e d .1969 T he Im p ac t of Ch inese Secret Societies in M a la y a . A H is to r ica l S t u d y . L o n d o n /K u a la L u m p u r , O x fo rd U n iv e rs i ty Press, x iv + 566p. +4 m aps .C H E N H an shen g ( e d . )1984 H u a g o n g chuguo sh il iao h u ib ia n (C o l le c t io n of H is to r ica l M a te r ia ls abou t the O-verseas Ch inese W o rk e r s ) . B e i j i n g . Z h o n g h u a S h u ju , u o l .5 , 5 + 36 9 p .C H E N J i a n m i n .1990 “ T he Changes of the Ch inese Soc ie ty in T h a i la n d after the Second W o r ld W a r ” .I n : Proceed ings of the 4 th In te rn a t io n a l Conference on T h a i S tu d ie s . M a y 11-13, v o l . l , K u n m in g , 237-245.C L A M M E R , J o h n R .1980 S tra its Ch inese Soc ie ty , S tud ies in the Soc io logy of the Baba C o m m u n i t ie s ofM a lays ia and S in g a p o re . S in gapore , S ingapore U n iv e rs i ty Press, v + 168p .C O U G H L I N , R ic h a rd J .1960 D oub le Id e n t i ty : T h e Ch inese in M o d e rn T h a i l a n d . H o n g K o n g , H o n g K o n g U n i vers ity Press, x ii i + 222p .H u ap ia o H u aq iao yan j iu (Research on the Overseas C h i n e s e ) .1988 G u a n g z h o u , In s t i t u te of Overseas Ch inese S tud ie s , J in a n U n iv e rs i ty , 5 + 280p.J O H N S O N , G r a h a m E .1990 “ F a m i ly S trateg ies and E co no m ic T ra n s fo rm a t io n in R u r a l C h in a : Som e Ev idencefrom the Pearl R iv e r De lta R e g io n ” . Ch inese U n iv e rs i ty H o n g K o n g , U S C , 5 3 p .N O N I N I , D ona ld M .1989 T he Ch inese C o m m u n i t y of a W as t M a la y s ia n M a rk e t T o w n : A S tu d y in Po li t ica l E c o n o m y . T hes is , S tan fo rd U n ive rs i ty ( 1 9 8 3 ), A n n A r b o r , M i c . , U M I , x ii i + 39 0 p .P enpo rn T I R A S A W A T .1984 “ T h a i l a n d ” . I n : S C H U B N E L L H e r m a n n . P o pu la t io n Policies In As ianC o u n t r ie s . . . H o n g K o n g , H K U , 98-117.
P H I L L I P S , H erbe r t P .1975 “ T he C u l tu re of S iamese In te l le c tu a ls ” . I n : S K I N N E R George ( e d . ) . C hangeand Pers istence in T h a i S o c ie ty . I t h a c a / L o n d o n , Corne ll U P , 324-357.P U R C E L L , V ic to r .1980 (19 5 1 ) T he Ch inese in Sou theas t A s i a . L o n d o n /K u a la L u m p u r , O x fo rd U n ive rs i ty Press, xv i + 62 3 p . + 2 m a p s .S C H U B N E L L , H e r m a n n ( e d . ) .1984 P o p u la t io n Polic ies in A s ian C o u n t r ie s . C o n te m p o ra ry T arge ts , Measures and E f f e c t s . H o n g K o n g , T h e D rager F o u n d a t io n /C e n t r e of A s ia n S tud ies H K U , x iv + 618p.S H E N J iy a o .1985 D o n g n an y a — H a iw a i g u x ia n g (Sou theas t A s ia 一 T he N a t ive P lace of the O v e r seas C h i n e s e ) . B e i j in g , Z h o n g g u o youy i chuban gongs i, 15 + 119p .S K I N N E R , George W i l l i a m .1957 Ch inese Soc ie ty in T h a l ia n d : A n A n a ly t ic a l H is t o r y . I th ac a , N . Y . , Corne ll U n i vers ity Press, xv ii + 459p .1967(1985) Leadersh ip and Pow er in the Ch inese C o m m u n i t y of T h a i la n d . I t h a c a ,N . Y . , xv ii + 36 3 p .T A N Boon A n n .1984 “ M a la y s i a ” . I n : S C H U B N E L L H e r m a n n . P o pu la t io n Polic ies in A s ianC oun tr ie s . . : H o n g K o n g , H K U , 68-97.T A N Chee B eng .1988 T he Baba of M e la k a C u l tu re and Id e n t i ty of a Ch inese P e ranakan C o m m u n i t y inM a la y s ia . P a ta l in g J a y a ,P e la nd u k P u b l ic a t io n s , xx i + 297p.T A N L io k Ee .1988 “Ch inese In d epe nd en t Schoo ls in W es t M a lays ia : V a ry in g Responses to C h a n g in gD e m a n d s ” . I n : C U S H M A N Jen n i fe r and W A N G G u n g w u ( e d s . ) . C h a n g in g I- dent i t ies of the Sou theas t A s ia n Ch inese since W o r ld W a r II . H o n g K o n g * H o n g K o n g U n iv e rs i ty Press, 61-74.Y E N C h in g - h w a n g .1986 A Socia l H is to ry of the Ch inese in S ingapore and M a la y a 1800-1911. S in gapo re / N e w Y o r k , O x fo rd U n iv e rs i ty Press, xv i + 43 3 p .Y U Y ip in g .1986 “H u aq ia o g a i l u n ” ( “Genera l O p in io n on the Overseas C h ine se ” ). W o r k in g Paper .G u a n g z h o u , In s t i t u te of Overseas Ch inese , J in a n U n iv e rs i ty , 47p.
DISCURSO DO DR.MA MAN KEI,PRESIDENTE DA ASSOCIAÇÃO DE COMÉRCIO DE MACAU, NA CERIMONIA DE ABERTURA DO SEMINÁRIO INTERNACIONAL SOBRE CULTURA CHINESA E CRESCIMENTO POPULACIONAL( 5 d e J a n e i r o d e 1 9 9 1 )S u a E x c e l ê n c i a , D r . J o ã o d e D e u s R a m o s ,S e c r e t a r i o - A d j u n t o p a r a o s A s s u n t o s d a T r a n s i ç ã o ,P ro f . Lo Han-Xian, Presidente deste Seminário,A c a d é m i c o s d a C h i n a e d o e s t r a n g e i r o , p a r t i c i p a n t e s n o s e m i n á r i o S e n h o r e s c o n v i d a d o s , m i n h a s s e n h o r a s e m e u s s e n h o r e sInaugura-se hoje o Seminário Internacional sobre Cultura Chinesa e Crescimento Populacional (região da Ásia-Pacífico). Sendo a China o país mais populoso do m u n d o , é n a t u r a l q u e o s s e u s p r o b l e m a s p o p u l a c i o n a i s s e t e n h a m t r a n s f o t m a d o num assunto de interesse m und ia l .A C h i n a , c o m u m a h i s t ó r i a d e m i l h a r e s d e a n o s , t e m u m a c u l t u r a r i c a e c h e i a de tradições. O ponto de vista da China em matéria de população tem-se alterado nos últimos séculos e mesmo nas últimas décadas. Hoje existe na China um rigoroso controle de natalidade. Esperamos que, através deste seminário, estudiosos d e d i f e r e n t e s p a r t e s d o m u n d o , p o s s a m a p r e s e n t a r e d i s c u t i r a s s u a s i d e i a s , r e f l e c t i r e m s o b r e a s r e l a ç õ e s e n t r e c u l t u r a e c r e s e i m e n t o p o p u l a c i o n a l , t e n t a n d o e n c o n t r a r a m e l h o r s o l u ç ã o p a r a e s t e p r o b l e m a .M a c a u é u m p e q u e n o t e r r i t ó r i o c o m u m a g r a n d e d e n s i d a d e p o p u l a c i o n a l e e m a n o s r e c e n t e s a s u a p o p u l a ç ã o t e m c r e s c i d o p o r m u i t a s r a z õ e s . P o r i s s o M a c a u e n f r e n t a v á r i o s p r o b l e m a s c o m o r e s u í t a d o d e s s a h i p e r - p o p u l a ç ã o , p o r e x e m p l o , c o m o r e s o l v e r o s p r o b l e m a s l i g a d o s c o m a p o p u l a ç ã o e m i d a d e e s c o l a r , c o m o s c u i d a d o s d e s a ú d e , c o m a m e l h o r i a d o s b e n e f í c i o s s o c ia i s , c o m o e m p r e g o , e t c . E s t e s p r o b l e m a s t e r ã o q u e s e r r e s o l v i d o s , c o n j u n t a m e n t e p e l o g o v e r n o d e M a c a u e p e l o s d i v e r s o s s e c t o r e s d a s u a p o p u l a ç ã o .P o r t u d o i s t o a c r e d i t a m o s q u e e s t e s e m i n á r i o q u e h o j e s e i n i c i a t e m g r a n d e s i g n i f i c a d o .D e s e j a m o s o m a i o r s u c e s s o p a r a o s t r a b a l h o s d o s e m i n á r i o .O b r i g a d o .
SPEECH OF DR MA MAN KEI, PRESIDENT OF THE MACAU CHINESE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, AT THE OPENING CERMONY OF THE INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR ON CHINESE CULTURE AND POPULATION GROWTH( J a n u a r y 5 , 1 9 9 1 )H i s E x c e l l e n c y , D r J o ã o d e D e u s R a m o s , U n d e r - S e c r e t a r y f o r T r a n s i t i o n A f f a i r s ,P r o f . L o H a n - X i a n , C h a i r m a n o f t h i s s e m i n a r ,S c h o l a r s f r o m C h i n a a n d a b r o a d p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h i s s e m i n a r ,D e a r g u e s t s , l a d i e s a n d g e n t l e m e n ,T o d a y is t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e m i n a r o n C h i n e s e C u l t u r e a n d P o p u l a t i o n G r o w t h ( A s i a n P a c i f i c R e g i o n ) . C h i n a is t h e m o s t p o p u l a t e d c o u n t r y i n t h e w o r l d , a n d is t h e r e f o r e q u i t e n a t u r a l t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r o b l e m i n C h i n a h a s b e c o m e a n i s s u e o f w o r l d w i d e i n t e r e s t .C h i n a , w i t h a h i s t o r y o f t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s , h a s a r i c h c u l t u r e a n d f i n e t r a d i t i o n . T h e C h i n e s e v i e w o n p o p u l a t i o n , h o w e v e r , h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t c e n t u r i e s o r e v e n i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e s . N o w a d a y s , t h e r e is a s t r i c t b r i t h c o n t r o l i n C h i n a . W e h o p e t h a t t h r o u g h t h i s s e m i n a r , s h o l a r s f r o m d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l k c o u l d p r e s e n t t h e i r v a l u a b l e i d e a s , m a k i n g a j o i n t s t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n c u l t u r e a n d p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , t r y i n g t o f i n d o u t t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s s u e .M a c a u is a s m a l l t e r r i t o r y w i t h a h i g h d e n s i t y o f p o p u l a t i o n , a n d i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a s f u r t h e r s w e l l e d f o r m a n y r e a s o n s . T h e r e f o r e M a c a u a l s o f a c e s a l o t o f p r o b l e m s a s a r e s u l t o f o v e r p o p u l a t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , h o w t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m o f e d u c a t i o n f o r s c h o o l - a g e d c h i l d r e n , h o w t o r a i s e t h e q u a l i t y o f m e d i c a l c a r e , h o w t o i m p r o v e a n d p o p u l a r i z e s o c i a l w e l f a r e a n m d i n s u r a n c e , h o w t o p r o v i d e m o r e j o b s f o r t h e r e s i d e n t s , e t c . T h e s e a r e p r o b l e m s t h a t h a v e t o b e s o l v e d b y j o i n t e f f o r t s f r o m t h e M a c a u G o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e M a c a u p e o p l e f r o m v a r i o u s s e c t o r s .T h a t ’s w h y w e b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s s e m i n a r t o b e h e l d i n M a c a u h a s a g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e .W i s h i n g y o u r s e m i n a r e v e r y s u c c e s s .T h a n k y o u .
E x m Q S e m h o r S e c r e t á r i o A d j u n t o p a r a o s A s s u n t o s d a T r a n s i ç a o E x m Q S e n h o r p r o f e s s o r L o H a n - X i a nC a r o s p a r t i c i p a n t e s e c o n v i d a d o s , m i n h a s s e n h o r a s e m e u s s e n h o r e s .C o m e ç a h o j e o 1 Q S e m i n á r i o I n t e r n a c i o n a l s o b r e C u l t u r a C h i n e s a e C r e s c i m e n t o P o p u l a c i o n a l , o r g a n i z a d o p e l a A s s o c i a ç ã o d e C i ê n c i a s S o c i a i s d e M a c a u .M a c a u s e n d o , s i m u l t a n e a m e n t e , u m a p l a t a f o r m a p r e f e r e n c i a l d e e n c o n t r o d e c u l t u r a s , a c i d a d e c o m a m a i o r d e n s i d a d e p o p u l a t i o n a l d o m u n d o e i n s e r i d a n u m a d a s á r e a s m a i s p o p u l o s a s d o p l a n e t a , é c e r t a m e n t e o l o c a l i n d i c a d o p a r a tal e n c o n t r o .O s p r o b l e m a s r e s u l t a n t e s d o a u m e n t o d e m o g r á f i c o e o s s u a s r e l a ç õ e s c o m a p l a n i f i c a ç ã o e d e s e n v o l v i m e n t o c u l t u r a l , n o q u e r e s p e i t a a q u e s t õ e s d e s o c i o l o g i a u r b a n a , d e p a t r i m ó n i o c o n s t r u í d o , d e h á b i t o s d e l e i t u r a e f r u i ç ã o e s t é t i c o - c u l t u r a l , s ó p a r a c i t a r a l g u n s , s ã o t e m a s m u i t o c o m p l e x o s e r i c o s q u e d e s d e j á d e v e m c o n t i n u a r a s e r d e b a t i d o s e a p r o f u n d a d o s .E , p o i s , m o v i d o p o r e s s e s e p í r i t o q u e o I C M e n t e n d e u d a r o s e u a p o i o a o 1 Q S e m i n á r i o I n t e r n a c i o n a l s o b r e C u l t u r a C h i n e s a e C r e s c i m e n t o P o p u l a c i o n a l e m b o a h o r a o r g a n i z a d o p e l a A s s o c i a ç ã o d e C i ê n c i a s S o c i a i s d e M a c a u q u e t e m v i n d o a r e v e l a r - s e c o m e s c l a r e c i m e n t o e d i n ê m i c a .A o t e r m i n a r , r e s t a - m e f e l i c i t a r o s o r g a n i z a d r e s p e l a i n i c i a t i v a e s a u d a r t o d o s o s p r e s e n t e s , n a s e p e r a n ç a d e q u e d e s t e e n c o n t r o p o s s a m a s i r , s e n ã o s o l u ç õ e s , p e l o m e n o s l i n h a s g e r a i s d e e n t e n d i m e n t o .E m n o m e d o I n s t i t u t o C u l t u r a l d e M a c a u e n o m e u q u e r o a u g u r a r l h e s o sm a i o r e s s u c e s s o s p e s s o a i s a s s i m c o m o p a r a a s j o r n a d a s q u e o r a s e i n i c i a m .O b r i g a d oC a r l o s M a r r e i r o sP r e s i d e n t e d o I n s t i t u t o C u l t u r a l d e M a c a u
MESSAGE OF DR JO AO DE DEUS RAMOS,UNDER-SECRETARY FOR TRANSITIONAL AFFATRS, DELIVERED AT THE INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR ON CHINESE CULTURE AND POPULAION GROWTH( M a c a u , J a n u a r y 5 , 1 9 9 1 )P r o f . L o H a n - x i a n ,O r g a n i z e r s a n d p a r t i c i p a n t s o f t h i s s e m i n a r , L a d i e s a n d G e n t l e m e n ,I t ’s t h e s e c o n d o c c a s i o n w i t h i n a f e w w e e k s t i m e , t h a t m y s e l f , i n n a m e o f t h e A c t i n g G o v e r n o r o f M a c a u , D r . M u r t e i r a N a b o , h a v e h a d t h e h o n o u r o f a d d r e s - s o n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e m i n a r s h e l d i n M a c a u .W e a r e p l e a s e d t o w e l c o m e s c h o l a r s f r o m a n y p a r t o f t h e w o r l d t o c o m e t o M a c a u e x c h a n g i n g t h e i r v i e w s a n d e x p e r i e n c e i n a p l a c e w h e r e f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h h a s b e e n g u a r a n t e e d a n d h o p e f u l l y c o u l d l a s t f o r e v e r .W e a r e a l s o p r o u d o f h o s t i n g a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e m i n a r o f t h i s k i n d , a s M a c a u i n h i s t o r y w a s t h e e a r l i e s t m e e t i n g p o i n t b e t w e e n E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , a n d u n t i l t o d a y is still a v a l i d f o r u m i n t h e A s i a - P a c i f i c R e g i o n .I n t h i s s e m i n a r , y o u w i l l b e d i s c u s s i n g a n i m p o r t a n t u s b j e c t o f w o r l d - w i d e i n t e r e s t - C h i n e s e c u l t u r e a n d d e m o g r a p h i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e A s i a - P a c i f i c R e g i o n . I t ’s a u s b j e c t t h a t n o t o n l y c o v e r s t h e C h i n e s e c o m m u n i t y w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f m o r e t h a n l / 5 t h o f t h e w o r l d ’s i n h a b i t a n t s , b u t a l s o m i g h t i n t e r e s t o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t h a v e s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s .A p a r t f r o m m a k i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s , y o u r s e m i n a r w i l l f o c u s o n t h e c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s a n d v a l u e s i n a n a l y s i n g t h e d e m o g r a p h i c g r o w t h i n C h i n a a n d t h e A s i a - P a c i f i c R e g i o n . W e h o p e t h a t b y m a k i n g a n a l y s i s f r o m b o t h t h e e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s , y o u w i l l g e t a m o r e p r o f o u n d i n s i g h t o f t h e p r o b l e m , w h i c h is s o i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e w h o l e r e g i o n .P o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l is a s u b j e c t w h i c h c o n c r n s n o t o m l y b i g c o u n t r i e s l i k e C h i n a , b u t a l s o s m a l l t e r r i t o r i e s l i k e M a c a u . It h a s m u c h t o d o w i t h t h e q u a l i t y o f life, a s t h e b a s i s o f p r o s p e r i t y i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e w o r l d .W i s h i n g y o u all s u c c e s s i n m a k i n g y o u r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a c a d e m i c r e s e a r c h a n d p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e r e g i o n .T h a n k y o u .
S r . P r o f . L o H a n - X i a nS r s . O r g a n i z a d o r e s e P a r t i c i p a n t e s n e s t e S e m i n á r i o ,M i n h a s S e n h o r a s e M e u s S e n h o r e s ,E a s e g u n d a v e z n o e s p a ç o d e a l g u m a s s e m a n a s a p e n m a s q u e , e m n o m e d e S u a Excelência o Encarregado do Governo, D r . Murteira Nabo, tenho a honra de me dirigir a um seminário internacional a ter lugar em M acau .É c o m g r a n d e s a t i s f a ç ã o q u e d a m o s a s b o a s - v i n d a s a i n t e l e c t u a i s d e t o d o s o s c a n t o s d o m u n d o v i n d o s a M a c a u p a r a u m a t r o c a d e o p i n i õ e s e d e e x p e r i ê n c i a s n u m l o c a l e m q u e a l i b e r d a d e d e e x p r e s s ã o s e m p r e f o i d e f e n d i d a e c e r t a m e n t e o s e r á n o f u t u r o .E t a m b é m m o t i v o d e o r g u l h o p a r a n ó s a c o l h e r u m s e m i n á r i o d e s t a n a t u r e z a , t e n d o e m c o n t a q u e M a c a u é m a i s a n t i g o l o c a l d e i n t e r c â m b i o c u l t u r a l e n t r e O c i d e n t e e O r i e n t e , e é a i n d a h o j e s i g n i f i c a t i v a e n c r u z i l h a d a n a R e g i ã o d a A s i a - P a c í f i c o .M i n h a s S e n h o r a s e M e u s S e n h o r e s ,N e s t e s e m i n á r i o s e r á d i s c u t i d a u m a q u e s t ã o i m p o r t a n t e e d e r e l e v o á e s c a l a mundial - a cultura chinesa e o desenvolvimento demográfico na região da Asia- pacífico. Questão que se refere não só à comunidade chinesa que conta com mais de lA da população mundial, mas que pode interessar também outras comunidades c o m p r o b l e m a s s e m e l h a n t e s .P a r a a l é m d a t r a d i c i o n a l a n á l i s e s ó c i o - e c o n ó m i c a , o s e m i n á r i o d e b r u ç a r - s e - á s o b r e a s p e c t o s e v a l o r e s c u l t u r a i s d o c r e s c i m e n t o d e m o g r á f i c o n a C h i n a e n a r e g i ã o d a Á s i a - P a c í f i c o .E s p e r a m o s q u e a a n á l i s e f e i t a p e l o p r i s m a d a e c o n o m i a e d a c u l t u r a p r o p o r i c o n e u m m a i o r a p r o f u n d a m e n t o d o p r o b l e m a , t ã o i m p o r t a n t e p a r a o d e s e n v o l v i m e n t o de t o d a a r e g i ã o .O c o n t r o l o d e m o g r á f i c o é m a t é r i a q u e p r e c o u p a n ã o s ó p a í s e s d e g r a n d e d i m e n s ã o , c o m o a C h i n a m a s t a m b é m t e r r i t ó r i o s c o m e x í g u a á r e a , c o m o é o c a s o d e M a c a u .T e m m u i t o a v e r c o m a q u a l i d a d e d e v i d a , e é c o n d i c i o n a n t e d a p r o s p e r i d a d e n e s t a z o n a d o g l o b o .M i n h a s S e n h r a s e M e u s S e n h o r e s ,F o r m u l o v o t o s p a r a o s m a i o r e s s u c e s s o s d a v o s s a p a r t i c i p a ç ã o n e s t e s e m i n á r i o , a s s i m c o n t r i b u i n d o p a r a a i n v e s t i g a ç ã o a c a d é m i c a e p a r a a p r o s p e r i d a d e d a r e g i ã o .