況、不同表現形式。有些志在壓垮其他企業並進而以澳門為大本營建構全球博彩王國的國際大亨,會否在經濟上得手後進一步擴大其政治、文化影響力,澳門官民恐怕都要打醒精神、拭目以待:如果置基本法原則性規定於不顧、置本地整體利益於不顧,甚至制造事端意慾借機干預澳門特區內部事務,那絕對是不明智的,恐怕也是絕對做不到的。因為不僅澳門社會這一關過不了,中央政府也不會袖手旁觀。澳門是個功能不減的傳統中外交流中心,澳門居民對寬容、友善、和諧的理解是充分而深刻的。對尊重澳門特區政府、尊重澳門居民基本權益的外來投資者,他們的合理合法經營所得是會受保護的。澳門雖小,但市場容量龐大,微型經濟大有作為;居民數量不多,但心地善良,氣量頗大。當然,澳門人也是有頭腦、有智慧的一群,凡是同現代文明背道而馳、有霸權味道、對澳門特區及其廣大居民基本權益構成侵犯時,絕不會等閒視之。因為擴大博彩業開放的主旨是引入公平競爭、加速發展、提升社會福祉,因為基本法所設定的 “本地整體利益”是條不可超逾的底線,所有澳門博彩市場競爭的參與者都應有一個服務澳門的大前提,即不可單向地期望變澳門為自己的搖錢樹,或把澳門變作為意慾控制東方世界的墊腳石。總之,博彩業快速發展引發一些暫時性亂象,如果有人估錯形勢,伺機蠢蠢欲動,妄圖改變回歸業已8年實施“一國兩制”的社會現實,那也不能得逞。 最後,面對發展可能伴生的諸多變數,本人謹建議: ①及時做好全面評估,權衡得失,提升監管能力與監督力度; ② 進一步完善相關法律法規,嚴格界定正副賭牌權利義務,消 除灰色地帶; ③ 建立科學可靠的危機預警機制,安排足夠力量進行分析研 究,嚴防市場過熱,嚴防發展泡沫化;
創造良好的經營環境。 ② 信息技術在博彩業監管中的廣泛應用。隨着信息科技的進步,網絡賭博和洗黑錢等高科技犯罪日益困擾博彩業的監管當局。網絡賭博的隱蔽性強、傳播速度較快 ,涉及的賭資常常多達數十億,其造成的危害實在難以估計。監管部門必須加強網絡監管,打壓非法賭博的網絡生存空間。此外,還必須切斷賭資的流動渠道。網絡賭博的支付方式一般依靠信用卡支付、電子匯款、轉賬、使用虛擬貨幣、支票支付等方式。為了預防博彩業成為高科技犯罪的溫床,監管當局需要掌握尖端的網絡信息科技,從技術上解決難以獲得網絡賭博證據的難題,為打擊網絡賭博和洗黑錢等高科技犯罪提供強有力的技術保障。 ③ 非政府組織在社會公益事業的重要作用。從國外博彩業的發展經驗來看,政府會設置多個非政府組織負責監督博彩稅收的使用,用於教育、醫療、城市重建或者指定的公益事業。如果政府善於發揮非政府組織的力量,就能夠從微觀層面上解決基礎建設和公益事業投入不足的問題,進而能夠改善居民的生活質量。 近年來,博彩業的發展更多地呈現出國際化、技術化、反壟斷和與旅遊業共同發展的趨勢,針對新環境下較嚴重的網上博彩、洗錢和偷稅漏稅、對社區安全的負面影響等問題,政府更需要加強這些方面的監管。政府還可以通過尋求國際合作、國際間信息和資源分享、某些形式的共同立法和監管,來促進博彩業的正常健康發展。
Macao Casino Labor Force Shortage andProposed S olutionsG u Z h en g *1. IntroductionIn 2006 , with it s gam ing revenue to ta ling $6 .9 b illion 1, M acaoovertook the Las Vegas Strip as the No. 1 gaming destination in the world .A ccording to gaming operators and analysts , Macao ' s gaming growthmomentum w ill remain strong in the years to co me . Commenting onthe prospect of Macao market, She ldon Adelson, Ch airman and Chie fExecutive Officer of Las Vegas Sands Corp ., predicted that backed upby the opening of A sia ' s largest casino , the Venetian Macao-Resort-Hote l, a long w ith several other new mega casino resorts soon to belaunched on the Cotai Strip in Macao, Macao will continue to beat theLas Vegas Str ip in the years to come .2 Gaming analysts have proj ectedthat the destination ' s gaming revenue w ill r ise to $ 12- 13 b illio n by20 10 3. Proj ecting for a longer time frame, Mellen and Okada estimatedthat by 20 12, Macao gaming revenue would more than double that of2006, reaching $ 15.9 billion .4* Professor in College of Hotel Administration, University of Nevada, Las Vegas,U.S.A.
Th e strong gro wth m om entum of the M acao g aming industry,h ow ever , i s fac ing a b ig ch a llenge in te rm s of labor force . With apopulation of half million and a labor force of 275,500 by the end of20065, it has been difficult for M acao to meet the casino industry ' shuman resources demand . Serious labor shortage has occurred after thegrand opening of Sands M acao in 2004 . O n M arch 3 1, 2005 , M acauD aily reported that 7 104 casino positions were unfilled by the end of2004 .6 Despite various training programs sponsored by the Governmentand casino companies, casino labor shortage continues to be a ser iousissue for the industry. By the end of 2006 , M acao casino s had 563 1unfilled j ob v acanc ie s7, eq uivalent to 15 percent of the indu stry ' sexisting 36,4 12 employees.Labor force shortage has been a bottleneck for Macao which reliesheavily on the gaming industry as the “D agon Head” of its economicdevelopment and will become more problematic when new mega casinoresor ts open up in the fu ture . F ind ing suffic ient labor for its casinoindustry is a long-term strategic issue for the industry and the MacaoGovernment as well. To resolve th is issue, one must first of all have ac lear vision of ho w severe the problem w ould be in term s o f laborquantity needed in the fu ture . The purpo se of this study is to forecastthe labor needs for the Macao casino industry for the six years from2008 through 20 12 based on proj ected future gaming revenues. Casinolabor force need s b ased on d ifferent casino revenue d iversif icationscenarios will be estimated . Strategies for coping w ith labor shortagewill be proposed. The findings and suggestions derived from this studyshould assist decision makers in the industry and Government in their
strateg ic planning for Macao gam ing deve lopment .2. Macao Gaming Revenue Proj ection : 2007-2012Gaming revenues are generated by casino employees. Therefore ,an accurate proj ection of future gam ing revenues will provide a goodestimate of casino labor needs in the years to come. This study proj ectsthe labor needs for the Macao casino industry based on the Macao gamingrevenue proj ection report made by Mellen and Okada8, two hospitalityanalysts of HVS International, a renowned U .S . based g lobal consultingorg an izat io n foc u sed o n the ho te l re staurant , g am in g and le i sureindustries . Their gaming revenue proj ection was made b ased o n theplanned gaming capac ity in Macao from 2007 to 20 12 . T he forecastassumes that Macao w ill fo llow the gro wth pattern of Las Vegas andgaming revenue w ill be typ ica lly supp ly driven in a manner that LasVegas gaming developers and operators have c laimed : We build it andthey w ill come . Their forecast of gaming revenue w as based o n theyield of a gaming device or table , the number of gaming units availableand th e n u mbe r o f v i sito r d ay s in the pe r io d . To the be st o f o urknow ledge , th is is the only ava ilable report that h as forecasted thegaming revenue growth in Macao for a five-year long period in a soundand high ly ana lytical m anner. Table 1 presents the gaming re ve nueproj ection made by the report.
Table 1 Macao Gaming Employees Based on Revenue ForecastThe report ' s proj ect ion w as m ade in late 2006 .9 A s w e can seefrom Tab le 1, the proj ected gaming revenue of $6 .7 b illion for 2006was very clo se to the achieved M acao gaming revenue in 2006, $6 .9b illion . I ts 20 10 gaming revenue proj ection , $ 13 .9 b illion , is onlyslightly above the number proj ected by Wall Street analyst Stutz 10, $ 12-13 billion . In Table 1, the forecast for 2007 is $8.6 billion . According toG am ing Inspect ion and Coord inat ion Bureau of the M acao Spec ialA dm inistrat ive Regio n , Macao ' s gaming revenue in the f ir st threequarters of 2007 totaled $7.29 billion .11 Evidently, the proj ected gamingrevenue for 2007 in Table 1 is likely to be passed .In o ur op inio n , th e proj ec ted n um ber s in Tab le 1 repre sent are lative ly conservative estimate of the gaming revenues in Macao forthe six years and can be easily reached or passed . There are two maj orreaso n s th at suppor t o ur assump t ion . F irst , the M e llen and O kadaforecast 12 was based on gaming supply or the planned gaming capacitygrowth in Macao without considering the demand side . However, thereis a solid growing gaming demand in the Macao market that is likely toYear HVS Forecasted Gaming Revenue ($ )2006 6 ,77 1,5 3 1,2252007 8,552,002,7862008 10,650,392,0752009 12 ,839 ,526 ,76820 10 13,877,523,74620 11 14 ,860 ,274 ,97720 12 15,9 15,183,365
make th is supp ly-based forecast an underest imate o f future gamingrevenues. The grow ing demand is due to the bright eco nomy grow thprospect in A sia, espec ially in China . Secondly, as a result of the fasteconomy growth in the region, the Macao market w ill continue to bedominated by risk-taking players. Friedm an and Savage posit that inthe transition from being less wealthy to wealthy, people ' s risk attitudemay switch from risk-averse to risk-taking . 13 The fast economy growthin A sia is not only adding more people who can afford to gamble butalso making people more risk-taking in gaming actions. Therefore , theMellen and Okada proj ection of Macao gaming revenue 14 is more like lyto be a conservative, rather than aggressive , forecast of Macao gamingrevenues in the years to come.3. Labor Productivity: Macao vs. the Las VegasStr ipT h e g am in g lab o r n ee d is c lo se ly r e la te d to g am ing lab o rproductiv ity. For g iven amount of gaming revenue , the higher is thelabor pro d uc t iv ity , th e sm al le r th e re q u ired lab o r fo rc e . B e fo reestim ating the need s fo r cas ino lab or in the fu ture in M ac ao , anexamination of its current gaming labor productivity is needed . Table 2presents Macao casino labor productivity measured in terms of gamingrevenue per casino employee since 2004 . While the gaming revenueswere published by Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau of theMacao Spec ial Ad ministrative Reg ion 15 , gaming employee numberswere der ived from the website of the Statistics Bureau of the Macao
Special Administrative Region . Gaming revenue per employee statisticsof 2003 or earlier were not listed because numbers of gaming employeesof 2003 or earlier were not available . To obtain the gaming revenue peremployee, the average number of gaming employees during a year wasderived by taking the average of gaming employees at the end of twoconsecutive years . Using the average employees to d iv ide the annualgaming revenue , per employee gam ing revenue for each of the threeyears from 2004 to 2006 was derived .Table 2 Macao Casino Gaming Employee ProductivityTable 2 shows that over the three years from 2004 to 2006, gamingrevenue per employee in Macao kept dec lined . There are two plausiblereasons for the decline . F irst, Macao casino labor productivity may havedecreased d ue to many new ly h ired employees in the M acao casinoindustry in recent years . Second, gaming revenue from VIP operationshas been declining relative to revenue from mass gaming market, whichis more labor-intensive . Mass gaming operations needs more dealersthan VIP operations for the same amount of gaming revenue and hencethe lower per employee gaming revenues.The 2006 gam ing revenue per employee in Macao was slightlylower than that of the Las Vegas Strip . Table 3 demonstrates the gamingYear Gaming Revenue ($ ) Gaming Employee Gaming Revenue per Employee ($)2004 5 ,0 23,375 ,000 18,00 5 278 ,9992005 5 ,590 ,6 25 ,000 23,693 235,96 12006 6,875,000,000 3 1,266 2 19,887
revenue per employee of Las Vegas Strip casinos since 1990 . The datawere derived from Nevada Gaming Abstract (1990-2006) published byNevada Gaming Control Board . 16 Unlike M acao casinos, which havelitt le no n-g am ing reve nue s, L as Veg as Str ip casino s ' no n-gam ingdepartments are main revenue generators . Therefore , th is study usedcasino department employees to derive the gaming revenue per employeefor Las Vegas to make the numbers comparable to those of Macao .Tab le 3 L as Vegas Str ip Casin o G am in g E m p loyee P r od u ct ivitySource : Nevada Gaming Abstract ( 19 9 0 - 2 0 0 6 )Contrary to the trend in Macao , per employee gaming revenue onthe Str ip demonstrates a steady ris ing trend over the t ime , increasingYear Gaming Revenue ($ )Gaming Employee Gaming Revenue Per Employee ($ )1990 2,27 8,66 6,0 97 2 1,868 104 ,20 1199 1 2,6 16,868,246 20,283 129 ,0 18199 2 2,530 ,9 32,046 19,598 129,142199 3 2,6 80 ,865 ,77 1 18 ,94 0 14 1,54 51994 3,18 8,994 ,040 23,779 134 ,1101995 3,5 16,053,825 23,100 15 2 .2 101996 3,629 ,74 5 ,193 23,366 155,3431997 3,650,458,259 23,056 15 8,3301998 3,7 17 ,773 ,05 7 22,583 164,6271999 4 ,128,14 3,954 25,593 16 1,3002000 4 ,683,729 ,4 7 1 25 ,4 7 1 183,885200 1 4 ,6 15 ,644 ,944 26,602 173,507200 2 4 ,24 7,74 9 ,17 2 24,204 175 ,49 82003 4,490,623,007 23,076 194 ,60 12004 4,909,99 1,047 23,636 207,7342005 5,283,122,106 25,932 20 3 ,7 302006 6,040,935,450 27,248 22 1,70 2
from $ 104 ,20 1 in 1990 to $22 1,702 in 2006 . W hile this r ising trendmay indicate improved gaming labor efficiency on the Str ip over theyears, increased VIP operations may have also have contributed to thetrend . The increased private salons in the Str ip casinos in recent yearsare evidence of the Strip casinos ' efforts in luring more h igh rollers,especially from A sia for their VIP operations.17 It is interesting to notethat Macao ' s gaming revenue per employee in 2006, $2 19,887 was veryclose to that of the Strip , $22 1,702, probably a sign of growing similaritybe tween th e tw o destination s . W hile L as Vegas derive s its gamingrevenue predominantly from the mass market, Macao has the VIP marketas it s m a in revenue so urce . V IP m arke t operation s are less labor-intensive than mass market operations. Macao, however, had lower peremployee gaming revenue than Las Vegas. This may suggest lower laborproductivity of Macao gaming labor force in .comparison to their LasVe g as co u n te rp ar t s . T h e la rg e n u m b e r o f ne w ly h i re d an d le s sexperienced employees in the Macao casino industry may have draggeddown its overall labor productivity.4. Labor Need Est imates Based on Exist ingRevenue StructureTo proj ect M acao casino lab or force needed in the future , p eremployee gam ing revenue o f 200 6 w as used to d iv ide the gam ingrevenue forecasted by M ellen and Okada 18 for each year from 2007through 20 12 . The resulting number represents the estimated labor forceneeds under the assumption that Macao casino revenue structure w ill
remain the same as in 2006 . In other words, the casino revenue structureis assumed to be almost exclusively composed of gaming revenues whichare mainly from V IP operations. Table 4 shows the estimated labor needsfor 2007-20 12 based on the assumptions.Ta ble 4 M aca o G am in g E m p loyees Based on R even u e F or ecastT he estimated gam ing labor force for 20 12 is 7 2 ,379 based o nMacao ' s 2006 gaming labor productivity. In other words, if the Macaocasino ind ustry is to maintain its V IP-operation focused and gamingdom inated casino revenue structure as it was in 2006 , its 20 12 laborforce wo uld be mo re than d o ub le it s aver age emp loyees in 200 6 ,3 1,266.5. Labor Need Estimates Based on Diver sifiedRevenue StructuresIf Macao is to develop itself into a well diversified gaming destinationlike L as Vegas, w hich h ad gaming re ven ue amo unting to only 40 .4percent of its total casino re venue in 2006 , then the future need forYear HVS Forecasted Gaming Revenue Gaming Employee Needed200620072008200920 1020 1120 12—6 ,77 1,5 3 1,2258,552,002,786 38,89310 ,650 ,39 2 ,0 75 4 8 ,4 3612,839,526,768 58,39 113,877,523,746 6 3 , 11214 ,860 ,274 ,977 6 7 ,5 8 115,9 15, 183,365 72,379
labor force w ould be even greater. Since 1990 , Las Vegas has beendiversifying its casino revenues and the proportions of gaming revenueand gaming employees in casino operations have been declining steadily(see Table 5). In 1990, gaming revenue was 58% of casino revenues andgaming employees were 32% of total casino employees. By 2006, thegam ing revenue dec lined to 4 0 .4 % of casino re venues and gamingemployees accounted for only 24 . 1 % of casino employees.Tab le 5 L as Vegas St r ip C asino R even u e C om p osit ion vs .La b or F or ce Str u ct u r eSource: Nevada Gaming Abstract ( 1990-2006)Yea r CasinoRevenue ($ ) GamingRevenue ($ )GamingRev. (%) TotalEmployeeGamingEmployee GamingEmployee (% )1990199 1199219931994199519961997199819992000200 1200220032004200520063,939,33 1,858 2,278,666,097 57.8 68 ,375 2 1,868 32 .04 ,53 1,867 ,84 2 2,6 16,868,246 57 .7 64 ,397 20 ,283 3 1.54,463,692,494 2,530,932,046 56.7 62 ,264 19 ,598 3 1.54 ,707 ,202,656 2 ,680 ,865 ,77 1 57 .0 60,2 15 18 ,940 3 1.55,777,872,257 3 , 188 ,994 ,040 55.2 76 ,838 23,779 30.96 ,537,678 ,305 3,5 16 ,053 ,825 53.8 76 ,862 23 , 100 30 . 16 ,866 ,354 ,28 1 3 ,629 ,745 , 193 52 .9 80,232 23,366 29 .17 ,087 ,266 , 194 3,650,458,259 5 1.3 82,379 23 ,056 28 .07,39 7,825 ,633 3 ,7 17 ,773 ,057 50.3 8 1,650 22 ,583 27 .78,585,449,542 4,128,143,954 4 8 . 1 98,949 25,593 25.910 , 195 ,669 ,758 4 ,683 ,729 ,47 1 4 5 .9 98,572 25 ,47 1 25 .810,569,540,490 4 ,6 15 ,644 ,944 4 3 .7 100 ,365 26,602 26.59 ,882 ,060 ,697 4 ,247 ,749 , 172 43.0 94 , 110 24 ,204 25 .710,448,686,493 4,490,623,007 4 3 .0 97,790 23,076 23.6日,70 8,49 8,70 8 4 ,909 ,99 1,04 7 4 1.9 98,071 23,636 24 . 112 ,906 ,004 ,493 5 ,283, 122 , 106 40 .9 109 ,636 25,932 23 .714 ,397 ,0 14 ,69 8 6,040,935,450 40 .4 112 ,909 27 ,248 24 . 1
If Macao is to raise its gaming revenue and in the meantime diversifyinto other non-gaming operations in a scale similar to that of Las Vegas,then Macao will face even greater labor needs in the future . To proj ectcasino emp lo yee s nee de d u nd er d if fe r e nt c asino d ive r s if ic a t io nscenar io s, th is study estab lished a regre ssion model to e stimate therelationship between gaming employee percentage and gaming revenuepercentage on the Las Veg as Str ip . The regression h ad the g am ingrevenue percentage as the independent variab le and gaming employeepercentage as the dependent var iable and resulted in a model as: Y = 0+ 0 .56 X . (Adj usted R2 = 0 .94 , F = 15,5 15.27). The X coefficient, 0 .56,implies that in Las Vegas, for every o ne percentage point of gam ingrevenue among casino revenues, there requires only 0 .56% of gamingemp lo yee s among c asino emp loy ee s . T he lo wer req u ired g am ingemp lo yee p e rcen tage ind ica te s th a t gam ing em p loy ee s are m o reproductive in revenue generation . If the Macao casino industry is tofo llow the Las Vegas Str ip as its model , then the same re lationsh ipbetween gaming revenue and gaming employee should be applicable toMacao.Assuming Macao to be a well d iversified casino destination with agaming revenue percentage of 40 .4% of its casino revenue, j ust like theLas Vegas Strip, then its 2007 proj ected gaming employees (38,893, seeTable 4) would be 22.6% (40.4 % x 0 .56) of its casino employees and theentire labor force for the casino industry would be 17 1,909. Assuming asame 40 .4 % gaming revenue percentage in casino revenue for 200 8through 20 12, the casino labor force needed would be 2 14,090, 258,095,278,96 1, 298,7 16 and 3 19,92 1, respectively (see Table 6).
Table 6 Macao Casino Labor Needs for Different DiversificationScenariosTab le 6 also presents casino employees needed under d ifferentcasino revenue structure scenario s w ith gam ing revenue at 50 % and75% for 2007-20 12. As can be seen from the table, the more diversifiedare the casino revenues, the greater the need for casino labor force .6. How Many More Will Be Needed?To provide an estimate of how many new casino employees wouldhave to be added in compar ison to M acao casino labor force in 2006,the 2006 average casino employees, 3 1,266, were subtracted from casinoemployees proj ected under different casino diversification scenarios.Tab le 7 prov ide s new casino em ployee s th at w ould be needed fordifferent levels of casino revenue d iversification for the six years . Asthe table demonstrates, by 20 12, if the Macao casino industry maintainsits current gaming-dominated revenue structure, or gaming revenue at100 % , then 4 1, 113 more casino employees would be needed . On theother hand, if Macao casinos are to diversify to the same degree of theYea r Gaming Rev. at 40 .4% Gaming Rev. at 50% Gaming Rev. at 75%200 72008200 920 1020 1120 1217 1,909 138,903 92,6022 14 ,090 172,985 115,323258,095 208,54 1 139,027278,96 1 2 25 ,4 00 150 ,26729 8 ,7 16 24 1,362 160,908319,92 1 25 8 ,496 172 ,33 1
Las Vegas Strip, with gaming revenue totaling 40 .4 % of casino revenues,then Macao would need to add another 288,655 employees to its casinoindustry by 20 12.Ta ble 7 Ad d it ion a l C asin o E m p loyees Need ed for 2 0 0 7 - 2 0 1 2In 2006 the entire labor force in Macao, including employed andunemployed, were 275,500 .19 The new casino labor force required forsupporting a well diversified casino industry would be greater than theentire Macao labor force in 2006 . It is impossib le that Macao ' s internallabor force would grow to a leve l that can meet the industry ' s labordemand by 20 12 . To d e ve lo p it s cas ino ind u stry, e spec ia l a w e lld iversified casino industry, Macao will have to import labors in a largescale and imported workers are likely to dominate the casino labor forcein Macao in the future .7. Recommended SolutionsThe simplest and easiest solution to casino labor shortage is toYear2 0 0 6 CasinoEm ployees Increasefrom 2006(G=100%) Increasefr om 2 0 0 6(G =7 5 % ) Increasefrom 2 0 0 6(G =5 0 % ) Increasefrom 2006(G=40 .4 %)20072008200920 1020 1120 1231,266 7 ,627 6 1,336 107,637 14 0 ,64 33 1,266 17 , 170 84 ,0 57 14 1,7 19 182,8243 1,266 27 , 125 107 ,76 1 17 7 ,275 226,8293 1,266 3 1,846 119 ,00 1 194 , 134 24 7 ,6953 1,266 36,3 15 129,642 2 10,096 26 7 ,4 503 1,266 4 1, 113 14 1,065 227,230 288,655
import workers and this has been the case in the past . Accord ing toMaca o Da ily20, imported workers in Macao reached 75,000 by the endof June 2007 . It is expected that by 20 10, the ratio of imported to localworkers will reach 1:1. While importing worker is a quick and convenientway for so lving labor shortage , excessive reliance on imported laborsmay cause soc ial ten sions and cultural confl ic ts between locals andimmigrants . In particular, the large fl ows of short-term workers in andout M acao could aggravate the soc ial and environ mental problemsa lready caused by large fl o w s of gamb ling tour ist s , such as trafficcongestion, crimes and pollutions. Some Macao scholars have expressedconcerns over the increasing proportion of imported labor in Macao.21O verly re lying on imported labor may not be in the best interests of theMacao .Based on the findings of above analysis , this study would like topropo se so me a lternative w ays for the M acao casino industry in it sendeavor to so lve labor shortage . First of all, the severe labor shortageis caused by the extremely rap id gro wth of the casino industry andtherefore , it is necessary for Macao to reexamine the appropriateness ofthe speed of the gaming growth . While rapidly growing casino revenuec an be ne f it M ac a o in te r m s o f g re a te r t a x re ve n ue s , m o re j o bopportunities, and h igher ind ividua l incomes, dec ision makers mustconsider the social costs associated with large fl ows of gambling touristsand temporary workers . A nother issue that need s to be addressed iswhether there are sufficient soc ial resources, such as human resources,and environmental resources, such as land, to support such a h igh speedof gam ing deve lopment . Since Macao is already exper iencing severe
labor shortage and the issue w ill become more ser ious in the future ,this study would suggest that Macao should adopt a contro lled gamingdeve lop ment policy. For Macao , a hea lthy gam ing gro wth is moreimportant than a rapid gaming growth. To implement a contro lled gaminggrowth policy, the Govern ment will need not o nly to limit its issuanceof gaming licenses but also to get involved in the p lanning of the gamingcapac ity.Second, the decision makers must have a clear idea about how theMacao casino industry should be diversified . Casino diversification hasthe benefits of enlarging casino revenues pool and making the revenuemore stable . The downside is that a d iversified casino industry requiresa lot more workers than a gaming alone casino industry. It would beidea l for Macao to become a Las Vegas type destination w ith welld iversified casino revenues. However, Macao cannot afford to copy theLas Vegas model to reach the same degree of d iversification simplybecause of its labor force constraint . The Macao casino industry . mustmake a tough dec ision regarding how and to what degree to d iversify.G iven the labor constraint in Macao, a less d iversified casino revenuestructure leaning towards higher gaming revenue dominance is probablya realistic so lution .T hird , VIP operations are less-labor intensive than mass gamingoperations. In the past, Macao gaming revenue has been mainly derivedfrom VIP operations. It seems that, g iven the labor constraint, lettingthe less labor-intensive VIP operations be the main revenue source issuitable for Macao. Maintaining the traditional VIP operation-dominatedbusiness model in Macao should help ease the severity of labor shortage .
Finally, raising the labor productivity of Macao casino employeescan he lp mitigate the labor shortage prob lem . A s revea led ear lier,Macao ' s gaming labor productivity was found inferior to that of the LasVegas Strip . The declining labor productivity since 2004 is very likelyd ue to large number of new hires in the industry in recent years . A sfo und by G u and S iu in the ir s tud y o n M acao cas ino s ' labor forcequality22, the o verall assessment of the customer satisfaction in Macaocasinos was below satisfactory level. The low customer rating of casinoemploy ee performance was due to not only poor interpersonal skillssuch as smile and readiness to he lp but also technical skills in terms ofgaming profic iency and smoothness . To raise the labor productivity,the Macao casino industry should step up employee training to improvethe labor force quality in terms of both interpersonal and technical skills.Raising the efficiency and productivity of its labor force is an importantway for Macao casinos to cope with labor shortage .8. ConclusionsBased on proj ected gaming revenue , by 20 12, workers needed forthe Macao casino industry w ill be more than double its current laborforce if the industry maintains its current V IP operation-focused andgaming dom inated revenue structure . If the industry is to fo llow thewell diversified Las Vegas model, then the new labor force needed wouldexceed the entire current labor force in Macao . The future o f Macaogaming development is facing a tough challenge in labor supply.To solve the labor shortage and in the meantime avoid overly relying
on imported workers, Macao must first of all adopt a contro lled or se lf-co nstra ined g am ing grow th po licy . H ere , bo th the ind ustry ' s se lf -d iscip line and the G overnment ' s guidance and involvement would beneeded . To cope w ith labor shortage , it is also advisable for Macao todiversify its casino operations to a degree less than the Las Vegas Stripand maintain its VIP operation-dominated feature . Finally, the qualityof the casino labor force sho uld b e enhanced not o nly to ra ise thecusto mer satisfac tion , but a lso to inc rease the labor eff ic iency andproductivity .Notes:1 Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau of the Macao Special AdministrativeRegion Statistics, http://www.dicj .gov.mo.2 “The Venetian Macao-Resort-Hotel Opens to Attract Visitors Worldwide,” in MacaoDaily, August 29, 2007, http://www. macaodaily.com.3Stutz, H., Gambling beyond Nevada: Macau 's Gaming Win Swells(2007), http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2007/Jan-24- Wed-2007/business/ 12148633.html.4Mellen, S. R. and Okada, S. S., HVS International Global Hospitality Report:Forecasting Ma rket-wide Gaming Revenue (win) f or the Macau Specia lAdministrative Region(Mineola, NY: HVS International, November 2006).5Statistics Bureau of the Macao Special Administrative Region, Labor Force Demandand Wages Estimates (November 10, 2007), http://www.dsec.gov.mo.6 Gaming employee shortage reached seven thousands. Details see Macao Daily, March31, 2005, http://www.macaodaily.com.7Gaming employees reach 36,000. Details see Macao Daily, March 30, 2007, http://www.macaodaily.com.8 Mellen, S. R. and Okada, S. S., HVS International Global Hospitality Report:
Forecasting Ma rket-wide Gaming Revenue (win) f or the Macau Specia lAdministrative Region(Mineola, NY: HVS International, November 2006).9 Ibid.10 Stutz, H., Gambling beyond Nevada: Macau 's Gaming Win Swells(2007), http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2007/Jan-24- Wed-2007/business/ 12148633.html.1Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau of the Macao Special AdministrativeRegion Statistics, http://www.dicj .gov.mo.12 Mellen, S. R. and Okada, S. S., HVS International Global Hospitality Report:Forecasting Market-wide Gaming Revenue (win) f or the Macau SpecialAdministrative Region(Mineola, NY: HVS International, November 2006).13Friedman, M., and Savage, L. J., “The Utility Analysis of Choices Involving Risk,”in Journal of Political Economy, August, 1948.14 Mellen, S. R. and Okada, S. S., HVS International Global Hospitality Report:Forecasting Market-wide Gaming Revenue (win) f or the Macau Specia lAdministrative Region(Mineola, NY: HVS International, November 2006).15 Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau of the Macao Special AdministrativeRegion Statistics, http://www.dicj .gov.mo.16 Nevada State Gaming Control Board, Nevada Gaming Abstract (1990-2006)(LasVegas, NV: Author).17 “Private Gaming Salons OK'd,” in Las Vegas Review Journal, January 28, 2005,http://www.lvrj .com.18Mellen, S. R. and Okada, S. S., HVS International Global Hospitality Report:Forecasting Market-wide Gaming Revenue (win) f or the Macau Specia lAdministrative Region(Mineola, NY: HVS International, November 2006).19 Statistics Bureau of the Macao Special Administrative Region, Labor Force Demandand Wages Estimates (November 10, 2007), http://www.dsec.gov.mo.20 Seventy-five thousand imported workers, one-sixth of labor force. Details see MacaoDaily, August 21, 2007, http://www.macaodaily.com.21 “Macao Foreign and Local Workers One to One by 2010,” in Macao Daily, July 5,2007, http://www.macaodaily.com.22 Gu, Z. and Siu, R., The Macao Casino Industry Labor Force Quality - AnInvestigation f rom the Customer Service Perspective(Unpublished manuscript),2007.
提供的服務表示滿意。 (三) 服務成效 ①資料顯示香港為問題賭徒所設的治療/ 輔導服務員朝着正確的方向運作,同時亦符合民政事務局與彼等簽約時對服務質量的整體要求; ② 超過90%接受服務人士,無論是服務對象本身或他們的家人,對兩間中心所提供服務之質與量均表示滿意; ③ 在完結的個案當中,接近70%是達到治療目標; ④ 兩間中心均能夠做到: a. 為賭徒和他們的家人提供適當及有效的輔導和治療; b.協助發展本土化和專業的方法來輔導問題/ 病態賭博行為; c. 在香港建立了一個處理問題賭博的網絡; d.收集有關數據,協助進一步了解香港的賭博問題; e. 面向大眾,教育和提醒他們免於淪為問題或病態賭徒。 ⑤ 服務最顯著效益在於: a. 接受服務者能夠控制他們對賭博的慾求; b.接受服務者醒覺到要為他們的賭博行為及所帶來的後果負 責; c. 接受服務者改善了他/ 她們的生活技巧和與家人關係得到改 善。 ⑥在接受服務6個月後,求助者感覺到有效益地方,以優先次序列出為: a. 對自己的賭博行為和它所帶來的後果,有更深入的認知; b.對自己賭博的慾求,有較佳的控制力; c. 解決財務上的問題;
d.解決家庭關係的問題。 ⑦ 兩個輔導中心的主要服務對象的描繪如下: 30 —50歲的中年男士為多,中、小學教育程度,超過60%在服務性行業工作,超過80%財務上有困難及欠債,超過60%顯示個人情緒問題,及大約50%家庭及婚姻關係呈現不和諧。 (四) 研究局限 ①這是香港同類型研究的首次,所以缺乏有關的本土數據作參考比較; ② 不是所有接受服務者都願意參與此項調查研究; ③ 缺乏追蹤性的數據來進一步評估服務使用者在接受輔導後所產生較長期,更深層的正面變化,與成效和持久性的關係。 三 、 從香港的經驗談起 ①文獻顯示部分賭徒不需要協助而自動放棄或減少賭博,這引申在華人社會裹,長久存在社交性賭博(social gambling)、偶發性賭博(occasional gambling)及過份賭博(excessive gambling)有時含糊不清(blur)的討論; ② 淪為問題/ 病態賭徒之原因錯綜複雜;與文化背景、次文化群處境;社會制度;以及個人心理及社交狀況的影響互為表裹,交互影響。迄今,處理問題/ 病態賭博於東、西方均沒有靈丹妙藥稱為最有效的治療模式; ③ 完全戒絕賭博似是不可能的事。正面的治療目標,應該是幫助賭徒清楚認識自己的責任,從而令他們即使仍然賭博,也能夠有
—華潘 :《拉斯維加斯的中國賭客》 ,載於 《華東資訊日報》 , 2002年6 月18 日。9 明眼的讀者可能會在這一段的分析中發現一個 “套套邏輯”(tautology):你既可 以用規模效益來解釋賭場為甚麼不需要 “按質論價” ,也可以反過來 ,用賭場 不需要按質論價來解釋為甚麼賭場的供應增量(新建豪華賭場)會產生規模效 益 。就是說 :因為賭場價格一律 ,所以 ,新建豪華賭場能吸引來大量賭客 ;因 為新建豪華賭場能吸引來大量賭客 ,所以 ,豪華賭場可以實行與低檔賭一律的 價格 。這確是個套套邏輯 ,然而是個有價值的套套邏輯 ,靠這個套套邏輯 ,我 們可以正確地理解賭業的供應價格形成的特殊機理 。10 這裹 ,為分析之便 ,用酒店業來代表除賭業以外的一般服務業 。實際上 ,除賭 業外 ,任何服務業的質量需求價格彈性都很高 ,所以 ,在豪華MEGA RESORT 裹 ,不僅是住宿 ,零售 、餐飲等也都很貴 。11 這裹說的 “有足夠的市場” ,不僅是指產品或服務市場要足夠大 ,競爭要足夠 充分 ,而且還指市場體系要足夠健全 。以博彩市場為例 , “有足夠的市場” 不僅是指博彩市場本身要足夠大 ,競爭要足夠充分 ,同時還指 ,地產市場 、勞 動市場 、金融市場 、知識產權市場等所有要素市場都是完備的 。12 Arrow, Kenneth J., “An Extension of the Basic Theorems of Classical Welfare Economics,” in Neyman (ed.), Proceedings of the Second Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability(Berkeley:University of California Press, 1951).參 考 文 獻 :1. Wuyi Wang and William Eadington, “VIP Room Contractual System of Macao's Traditional Casino Industry,” in the Atlantic Journal, USA, forthcoming, 2007.2. Eugene Christiansen and Julie Brinkerhoff-jacobs, “The Relationship of Gaming to Entertainment,” in William Eadington and Judy Cornelius (ed.), Gambling Public Policies and the Social Sciences, 1997.3. Eadington, William R., “The Economics of Casino Gambling,” in Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol.13, No.3, 1999, pp. 173-192.,
4. 王五一 : 《政策支撐型與市場 自立型 :兩類賭城之比較 》 , 載於 《澳門理 工學報 》 , 第 2 期 , 2005 年 。5. James Fallows, “Macau's Big Gamble,” in the Atlantic Journal, September 2007.6. Jim Kilby and Jim Fox & Anthony Lucas, Casino Operations Management, 2nd Edition (John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2005).7. Arrow, Kenneth J., “An Extension of the Basic Theorems of Classical Welfare Economics,” in Neyman (ed.),Proceedings of the Second Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951).
四 、 基於 D D D模型的澳門博彩經營權開放後的 競爭戰略 基於上面的競爭力結構的動態分析,針對澳門存在的一些經濟社會問題,以DDD模型為框架,本文建議澳門特區以下的競爭戰略: (一) 地區要素 ①爭取澳門在橫琴島土地的最佳使用,這是澳門競爭優勢得以持續提升的最好途徑,若然橫琴島可以最大限度地為澳門使用,澳門產業多元化戰略也得以順利進行,而橫琴島與珠海市的財富也會因為外資的進入而倍增; ② 加強城市規劃,注意舊區重整與新城規劃之間的銜接與協調,確實保護世界文化遺產,廣泛諮詢市民意見,避免城市規劃向利益集團傾斜,杜絕城市規劃中的設租尋租行為; ③ 加緊交通與通訊基礎設施、醫療衛生設施的建設工作,基礎設施要與周邊城市的有效連接,降低城際交易成本; ④ 運用公共財政重新配置土地、房屋資源,規定新發展的經屋應永久保持其經屋性質,防止經屋資源流入市場作為投機工具而影響市場秩序; ⑤ 增加公開競投批地的方式,減少以協商的方式取得土地,取消長期以來推行的 “低地價高樓價”的政策,在土地批租市場上,引入完善的市場競爭機制。 (二) 地區需求 繼續落實與完善 “自由行”政策,推及到內陸地區,繼續落實
與完善低成本航空政策以及其他的航海、陸路政策,加強城市品牌宣傳,吸引更多的區外遊客尤其是商務旅客到澳門消費,提高對澳門服務的區際需求。 (三) 地區經營特點 澳門不能完全的複製拉斯維加斯模式,限於澳門有限的土地與人力資源,澳門博彩業更應該通過創新參與國際市場的競爭:企業基於利潤追求而設定生產規模,而政府應該基於社會福利來設定生產規模,有效控制博彩業發展規模。 (四) 地區相關支持產業 ① 澳門產業應該適度多元化以平衡風險與收益,多元化首先應從博彩業內部做起 ,逐漸改變博彩產品的博彩性質,轉向家庭旅遊。 ② 澳門製造業鏈條可遷移到跨境工業區與橫琴島,會展業、旅遊業、物流與通訊業、金融業可與珠海、深圳、香港等周邊的城市合作,共同發展。 (五) 地區勞動力 ① 制定不同期間的外勞政策,長期應以 “優化素質”為主軸,構建知識型、信息化社會;中期應以產業結構調整為導向,輸入外勞協助經濟轉型;短期則可按市場供求適當調節; ② 根據各行業、各企業具體情況定出不同的輸入外勞標準,不應一刀切;建議制定標準要聽取多方面專家的意見,尤其是尊重行業協會(如澳門會議展覽業協會等)的意見; ③ 簡化現時申請輸入外勞的繁瑣手續,縮短等候審批時間;制
① 建立一個具備科學標準、包含多層次的處理方式的公務員問責制度,把澳門特區政府建成責任政府; ② 改革政府的治理方式:精簡機構 ,壓縮政府規模 ;下放權力,鼓勵社會自治,實行多中心治理;實施官員輪換交流制度等; ③ 實行更加嚴密的政府審計,增加政府透明度;開發多種諮詢渠道,廣徵民意、體恤民情; ④ 適當增聘區外草擬法律的人士,給澳門法律注入新元素;進一步加強中文立法;鼓勵民間的法律研究,以建立澳門本地法律學說,法律草擬工作若得到社會全程參與,法規生效後將具更廣泛、真實的權威。註釋 :1 Thain, D. H., “The War without Bullets,” in Business Quarterly(Summer), 1990, pp. 13-19.2 Dunning, J. H., “The Role of Foreign Direct Investment in Upgrading China' s Competitiveness,” in Journal of International Business and Economy, Vol. 4, 2003, pp. 1-13 ; Rugman and D'Cruz, A. M. Rugman and J. R. D'Cruz, “The Double Diamond Model of International Competitiveness: the Canadian Experience,” in Management International Review, Special 33, 1993, pp. 17-39.3 Cho and Moon, D. S. Cho and H. C. Moon, “From Adam Smith to Michael Porter,” in World Scientif ic, Singapore, 2000.4 D. S. Cho, H. C. Moon and M. Y. Kim, “Competitive Strategy to Enhance National Competitiveness,” in Proceedings in Academy of International Business 2006 Annual Meeting (Beij ing, China, June 2006).5 Cho, D.-S. et. al., “Characterizing International Competitiveness in International Business Research: A MASI Approach to National Competitiveness,” in Research
in International Business and Finance Business Finance, doi:10.1016/j .ribaf., 2007.6 邁克爾 ·波特 :《國家競爭優勢》 ,華夏出版社 , 2002 年 。
Economic Impact of Gaming Expansionon Tourism in MacaoChoy Weng Tong and Tam Pui Sun*1. IntroductionAn enclave along the southern coast of China , Macao has revertedto Ch ina afte r 44 2 years under the Portug uese ad min istrat io n , andbecome a Special Administrative Region (SA R) of China on December20, 1999. Though a small city with a land area of 28.6 square kilometersand a population of 5 13 thousand , Macao played host to 22 .0 millionvisitors in 20 06 . Acco rd ing to the stat ist ic s o f the World To urismOrg anizatio n , M acao i s am o ng the w or ld ' s to p e merg ing to ur i smdestinations. In 2006, she ranked fifth in the number of tourist arrivals(w ith overnight stays) and sixth in to ur ism rece ipts in the region ofAsia and the Pacific . She has also received the Future Award 2007, forbeing regarded as the most promising future tourism destination in Asiaby the German trave l trade companies of GoA sia.The unique centuries-old b lend of the eastern and western cultureshas long been a treasured piece of tourism resource of Macao, and “TheHer itage Centre of M acao” was inscribed on UNESCO ' s prestig ious* Lecturers in Faculty of Business Administration , University of Macau
World Heritage L ist in 2005 . In addition , M acao is the only Chineseterritory where gaming is legalized, and the history of her gaming activitythat can be d ated back to the n ineteenth century. She has thus beendubbed the “M onte Carlo of the Orient”. With the liberalization of thegaming sector from a monopoly to an oligopoly structure in 2002, Macaois evolving into the “Las Vegas of A sia”, and the casino gaming revenueof Macao now surpasses that of the Las Vegas Strip, making M acao thehighest vo lume gaming centre in the world . The boom of the tourismand gaming industry has been benefited substantially by the introductionof the Ind ividual Visit Scheme (IVS) in 200 3, which currently allowsMainland residents from forty-nine cities to visit Macao and Hong Kongin their individual capacity.The tourism and gaming industry is now the “dragon head” industryof Macao . Each of the travel and tourism sector and the gaming sectoris current ly e stimated to d irec tly contr ib ute m ore than 30 % of theeconomy' s GDP, based on the statistics of the World Travel and TourismCouncil and the Statistic s and Census Bureau . Findings of th is papersuggest that gaming has o verall expansionary effect s on tour ism , sothat gaming is seen as conducive in transforming Macao into a holisticleisure tourism destination .T he rest of the paper is organized as fo llows . Section 2 gives ano verview o f the econo m ic sig nificance of the to ur ism and gam ingindustry in the Macao economy. Section 3 compares the situation ofMacao w ith that of Las Vegas and A ustralia . Sec tion 4 analyzes thep e r c e p t io n o f M ac ao ' s to u r i sm se c t o r o n th e to u r i sm - g am in grelationship . Section 5 conc ludes w ith policy recommendations based
on findings of the paper.2. Over view of Macao' s Tour ism and GamingIndustryMacao ' s eco no my is trad it io na lly supported by the ind u str ialstruc ture w ith fo ur p illar indu str ie s , namely the expor t-proce ssingindustry, the co nstruc tio n and re al e state indu stry, the f inance andinsurance indu stry and the to ur ism and g aming ind ustry. With theopening up of China , Macao ' s manufactur ing base has been relocatedto the Pearl River Delta of the Mainland . This relocation combined withthe phase-out of the textile quota system has led to the development ofMacao into a predominantly service-oriented economy today. Table 1sho ws that the produc tio n-based G ross Dome stic Produc t (G D P ) ofMacao grew by 12 .6 % between 2000 and 200 5 . This G D P gro wth ismainly due to the growth of the tertiary sector at a rate of 12 .2%, sincethe tertiary sector contributes around 90% of the total GDP.T he te r tiary sec tor o f M acao co m prise s four main gro up s : 1)wholesa le , re tail, repa ir, hote ls and restaurants ; 2) transport, storageand communications ; 3) f inanc ial intermediation , rea l estate , rent ingand business activities; 4) public administration , other community, socialand personal services and gaming. Among them, the tourism and gamingindu stry is the main stay. Be tween 2000 and 2005, gaming made up27 .9 % to 38.8% of the production-based G DP, and grew at a rate of17.6%. As regards travel and tourism, which include traditional providerssuch as airlines, hotels and car rental companies, their direct contribution
to G DP ranges from 25.3% to 34 .0 % between 2000 and 2006, and theirgrowth rate is 18 .3% during this period .Table 1 Gross Domestic Products and Selected Components atCurrent PricesNotes : G DP is G D P at current prices , based o n the e xpend iture approach . G DPP isG DP at current prices , based on the production approach .Sources : Stat ist ics and Census Bureau ; World Trave l & Tourism CouncilTwo observations are noteworthy . First , both the trave l and tourismand g aming sec to rs g re w at a faste r rate than the ir respective G DPmeasures . Thus , these two dynamic sectors are seen as the core drivingforces beh ind the overa ll eco nom ic grow th of the eco nomy . Second ,YearItemGDPp (MOP mn)Tertiary sector(MOP mn)Tertiary sector /GDPp (% )Gaming (MOP mn)Gaming / GDPp (%)GDP (MOP million)Travel & Tourism(MOP mn)Travel & Tourism / GDP (% )2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 20 06AverageAnnualGrowthRate(% )20 00-20052000-200640,431 40,151 44,030 50,438 62,539 73,160 12.636,521 36,986 40,813 46,124 57,261 64,929 12290.3 92.1 92.7 91.5 91.6 88.811,263 12,127 14,062 18,479 24,270 25,347 17.627.9 30.2 31.9 36.6 38.8 34.748,972 49,704 54,819 63,566 82,966 92,951 114,364 13.7 15.212,385 14,390 17,0 17 20,148 28,169 30,532 33,915 19.8 18.325.3 29.0 31.0 31.7 34.0 33.0 30.2—————
the 19 .8% growth rate of the trave l and tourism sector is h igher thanthe 17.6% growth rate of the gaming sector during 2000 and 2005. Thisconnotes that expansion of the gaming sector has expansionary effectson the tourism sector. To better assess the possible expansionary effects,the situat ion s of the gaming and to ur ism sectors are compared andcontrasted .Subseq uent to the end o f the 4 0-year casino games of fortunemonopoly of Sociedade de Turismo e Diversoes de Macao (STDM ) in2002, the Macao SAR granted three concessions and sub-concessionsto Sociedade de Jogos de Macao (SJM ), G alaxy Casino, Wynn Resorts(Macao), MGM Grand Paradise , Venetian Macao and Melco PBL Jogos(Macao). Table 2 depicts the various indicators for the gaming sector inth is new oligopoly structure . Between 2002 and 2006, the number ofcasinos increases from 11 to 17, representing a growth by 11.5% . Therates of growth in the number of gaming tables and slot machines, whichare c lose to 70%, are phenomenal.The gross gaming revenue generated from games of fortune, whichmade up nearly all of the total gross gaming revenue 1 , grew at a rate of26 .4 % . Under the current gam ing law, the gam ing tax o n g ames o ffortune is 35% of the gross gaming revenue . This tax serves as a maj orsource of revenue for the Macao SAR . As shown in Table 2 , the gamingsector as a whole contributes more than half of the total public revenue .In addition , each gam es of for tune operato r has to contr ibute 2 .4 %( 1.4 % for SJM ) of the gross gam ing revenue to a fund earmarked foractivities which include deve loping urban construction and promotingtourism . With the proceeds from the gaming sector, the Macao SAR is
Table 2 Indicators of the Gaming SectorSources : Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau ; Statistics and Census Bureauable to finance the requisite capital investment that he lps to transformMacao into a holistic leisure and entertainment resort. The transformationhas been enhanced by the co nstruct io n of theme hote ls , conferencefac ilities and other tourism infrastructure undertaken by the games offortune operators . Thus, from Table 3 , it can seen that the gro wth ofcapital investment by d irect trave l and tourism service providers andgovern ment agencies to provide fac ilities, equipment and infrastructureto v isitors is spectacular during 2002 and 2006, with a growth rate of60 . 1%.YearI temNo . of CasinosNo . of Gaming TablesNo . of Slot MachinesGross Gaming Revenue Total (MOP mn)Games of Fortune(MOP mn)Public Revenue Total (MOP mn)Gaming sector(MOP mn)Gaming sector /Total (% )20 02 2 003 2004 2005 200 6Aver age AnnualG rowthRate (% )11 11 13 15 17 11.5339 4 24 1092 1388 2762 68.9808 8 14 2254 34 2 1 654 6 68 .723 ,4 96 30,3 15 4 3,5 11 47,234 5 7,52 1 25 . 122 ,180 28,672 4 1,37 8 46 ,04 7 56,623 26.415 ,227 18,37 1 23,864 28,20 1 37 ,189 25.07 766 10 ,579 15 ,237 17 ,3 19 20 ,74 8 27 .85 1.0 57 .6 63 .8 6 1.4 55.8
Table 3 Indicators of the Tourism SectorSources : World Trave l & Tourism Council ; Statistics and Census Bureau ; MacaoGovernment Tourist OfficeYearItemCapital Investment(MOP mn)No. of Visitor Arrivals(thousands)Mainland China(thousands)Hong Kong SAR(thousands)Taiwan, China(thousands)Visitor Spending percapita (MOP)Mainland ChinaHong Kong SARTaiwan, ChinaAv. length of stay ofvisitors (days)Hotel OccupancyRate (%)No. of Hotel RoomsAvailable3 Star or Higher (%)2 Star or Lower (% )No. of MICE Events2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006AverageAnnualGrowthRate (% )02- 06 00 - 064503 3858 4811 7393 11,085 20,223 31,619 60.1 38.49162 10,279 11,531 11,888 16,673 18,711 21,998 17.5 15.72275 3006 4240 5742 9530 10,463 11,986 29.7 31.94955 5196 5101 4623 5051 5615 6941 8.0 5.81311 1452 1533 1023 1287 1483 1438 ﹣0.16 1.61367 1389 1454 1518 1633 1523 1610 2.6 2.82401 2648 2655 2847 2991 3078 3215 4.9 5.0934 937 957 947 969 898 955 ﹣0.0 0.4942 932 984 1266 1310 1336 1494 11.0 8.01.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.157.6 60.7 67.1 64.3 75.6 70.9 72.2 1.8 3.89201 9030 8954 9185 9168 10,832 12,978 9.7 5.983.9 83.6 84.8 84.9 84.7 87.2 89.416.1 16.4 15.2 15.1 15.3 12.8 10.6252 266 239 278 305 360—
T h e d e ve lo p m e n t o f t h e to u r i sm se c to r c an b e g a u g e d b yscrutinizing a number of indicators . The number of tourist arrivals grewat a rate of 15 .7 % for 2000-2006 . The growth rate even registered at17.5% for 2002-2006 . This can be attributed to the liberalization of thegaming sector, thus drawing more tourists especially from Hong Kongin the recent few years along with the opening of new casinos . M oreimpo rtantly, w ith the introduc tio n of IV S , the number of Mainlandvisitors increased substantially. From 2004 onwards, more than half ofthe visitors are drawn from the M ainland . It can be noted that only afew percents of the tourists came from outside the Greater China area.A hindrance for Macao in attracting outside tourists is the lack of directairline access.Between 2002 and 2006, visitor spending on items such as food,accommodation , entertainment and shopping per capita rose only by2.6 %. W h ile spending by tourists from Mainland China and Taiwan,China grew at rates of 4 .9% and 11% respectively, spending by HongKong tourists remained rather static . This indicate that the substitutioneffec t , w hich i s the rep laceme nt of spend ing on o ther activ it ie s bygaming dollars with the expansion of gaming, may be valid for the HongKo ng tour ists . Detailed custo mer need s analysis m ay the refore benecessary in order to devise strategies to boost the non-gaming spendingof these tourists . It is also noteworthy that Mainland tour ists are thebiggest spenders. This h ighlights the importance of tourism policy co-ord ination w ith the Mainland government authoritie s, especially whenrestrictions have been effectively implemented on applications for exitendorsement recently.
It can be observed that the average length of stay of visitors droppedfro m 1.3 days in 2000 to 1. 1 days in 2006 . F urthermore , the hote loccupancy rate grew at 3 .8% for 2000-2006, but only at 1.8% for 2002-2006 . Th us, i t seem s th at new to ur ists tend to be d ay-tr ippers . Thenumber of hotel rooms available is seen to rise more rapid ly with theopening of new casino-hote ls . However, the r ise is mainly d ue to anincrease in three-star or higher hotel rooms. Existing two-star or lowerhote ls are not ge nerally w e ll-mainta ined . T he e vide nce co mb inedsig n if ie s th at , a long w ith the d e ve lop ment o f w or ld -c lass luxuryaccommodation, pro vision of low-cost, high-q uality accommodationmay a lso be necessary in order to tap the less upmarket sector of theinternational market.The sharp increase in hotel rooms and the construction of exhibitionand conference fac ilities by games of fortune operators have helped tostimulate the meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions (M ICE)component o f the to ur ism sector. The number of M ICE events he ldincreases by 1.4 times from 200 1 to 2006. According to the Pacific AsiaTrave l A ssoc iation , Macao has the ability to become a strong M ICEdestination for Hong Kong, South China or even international markets .As emphasized by the Macao SA R Government in the Policy Address200 8, th is M ICE component is seen as a potential growth engine thathe lps to crea te b usiness oppor tunities for sm all-and -medium sizedenterprises and therefore enhance the industrial structure of the economyas a whole .
3. C om p a r ison of M aca o, L as Vegas andAustraliaIn th is section , some of the maj or tour ism and gaming indicatorsof Macao are compared with those of Las Vegas and A ustralia. The aimis to assess the strengths and weaknesses of Macao ' s gaming and tourismindustry relative to those of other places which have world-class casinos.These p laces are also those from where d irect investment in Macao ' sgaming sector is drawn.F igu r e 1 Visitor Volu m eSources: The Centre for Business and Economic Research, University of Nevada;Australian Gaming Council; Statistics and Census BureauFigure 1 compares the number of visitors to Macao, Las Vegas andAustralia.2- The upward trend is the most evident for Macao, particularlyfrom 2003 onwards. With an upsurge in the number of visitors, the risein casino gam ing revenue of Macao has bee n remarkable .3 It can beseen fro m F igure 2 that M acao ' s casino gaming revenue was h igherthan that for A ustralia in every year considered and began to exceedthat of Las Vegas Strip w ith the opening of Sands Macao in 2004 andmillion40353025201510 5 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006Las VegasMacauAustralia
Wynn Macao in 2006 . The rate of grow th of M acao ' s casino gamingrevenue has also been spectacular. Between 2002 and 2006, Macao ' sgrowth rate was 26 .4 % while that of Las Vegas Str ip , Las Vegas andAustralia was only 9 .2%, 5 .6 % and 3 .1% respectively.4T he cu rre nt n o n -g am in g re ve nu e o n item s such as foo d andbeverage, entertainment and accommodation of casinos in Macao is smallre lat ive to the g aming reve nue . H ow ever, for Las Veg as Str ip andAustralia, engagement in non-gaming activities helps to generate morethan half and around 20 % of the to tal revenue respective ly. F ig ure 3co ntrasts the non-gam ing re ve nue o f casino s in the se tw o p lace s .Consider ing the per iod 2002-2006, the rate of growth of non-gamingrevenue w as 12 . 1% and 5 .7 % respec t ive ly for Las Vegas Str ip andAustralia . This rate for each p lace was h igher than the correspondinggrowth rate of gaming revenue .F igu r e 2 C asin o G am in g R even u eSources: The Centre for Business and Economic Research, University of Nevada;Centre for Gaming Research, University of Nevada; Australian Casino IndustryEconomic Report; Statistics and Census BureauUS$ million10,00080006000400020000 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006Las VegasAustraliaLas Vegas StripMacao
F igu r e 3 C asin o Non -gam in g R even u eSources: Centre for Gaming Research, University of Nevada;Australian Casino Industry Economic ReportF igu r e 4 Visitor Sp en d in g p er cap itaSources: The Centre for Business and Economic Research, University of Nevada;Statistics and Census BureauVisitor spending per capita for Las Vegas and Macao are shown inFigure 4 . Growth in spending has been small for both p laces, but thevisitor spending for Las Vegas was more than four times that for Macao.From F igure 5 , i t can be seen that while the hotel occupancy rate forLas Vegas was higher than 80%, that for Macao was at maximum around75% for per iod considered .US$ million80006000400020000 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006Las Vegas StripAustraliaUS$1000 80060040020002000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006Las VegasMacao
F igu r e 5 H otel O ccu p ancy R a teSources: The Centre for Business and Economic Research, University of Nevada;Statistics and Census BureauFrom the above comparison, it can be seen that Macao is now opento an invaluable source of tourists w ith the introduction of IVS, whichis no t e nj o ye d b y th e o the r c o m p e t i to r s . In the in it ia l s tag e o fliberalization of the gaming sector, the gaming activities of Macao havebeen much more rigorous than those of the co unterparts . However, ingeneral, tourist expenditure in Macao stays at a low leve l and the lengthof stay of tourists is re lative ly short .As evidenced by the amount and gro wth in non-gaming revenuefor Las Vegas Strip and Australia, casino visitors are seen to increasinglyregard casino visits as total leisure activities including gaming, shopping,dining and entertainment. Thus, it can be suggested that with more robustdevelopment of the gaming sector, a long with the strengthening of non-gam ing infrastructures such as theme parks and shopp ing centres, aswell as the hosting of international large-scale events , it is feasib le forMacao to deve lop into a holistic leisure and entertainment internationalcenter, part icu la rly w ith the Macao ' s uniq ue c ultura l bac kg ro und .Nonetheless, the Macao SAR government should try to co-ordinate andOccupancy rate (%)908580757065605550 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006Las VegasMacau
balance the deve lopment of the tourism and gaming industry in such aw ay that non-gaming activ ities are not a ll undertaken in-house in thecasinos . C asino deve lopment should serve as a cata lyst rather than areplacement of the deve lopment of other sectors in the industry.4. Per cep t ion of Macao ' s Tour ism Sector onGaming Expansion4.1 Survey MethodologyTo investigate the perception of tourism sector o n the growth ofgaming sector, the survey se lected the trave l agency as the representativeseg me nt for tourism sector. A list of 128 travel agenc ies is obtainedfrom Macao Government Tourist Office - the department in charge o fissu ing lice nses of trave l agenc ies.5 Inte rviewers v isited the trave lage nc ie s to co nd uc t face -to-face q uest io nna ire sur vey t it led T heImpacts of Gaming Growth on Macao Trave l Agencies” between 13 d -27th Oct 2007 and a total of 97 completed questionnaires are collected .4.2 Survey resultsO n the e ve nt that has mo re s ig nificant e ffec t on trave l age ncysegment, the maj ority of trave l agencies choose IVS (“Individual VisitorScheme” ) over “Gaming liberalization” .Regard ing the ne t impact o f gaming growth o n trave l agenc ies,economic theories suggest that gaming growth results in increase gamingexpenditure and income and thus generate positive impact ; on the otherhand, the increased gaming expenditure may be spending diverted from
other tour ist spending and thu s generates negative impac t on o thertourism segment . The respondents be lieve that the impact of gaminggrowth has been , by and large , positive . The maj ority (73.2%) chose“increase” on the question “How the growth of gaming sector affectedyour business in the last 3 years since liberalization?”(F igure 6) . O nly1.03% chose “decrease” and 11.34 % chose “remain unchanged” . Thisrefl ects that the travel agency segment believe that the gaming growthhas positive e ffect on the sector overall . A mong various trave l agencybusiness segments, the “reservation of local hotels and coaches” standso ut amo ng o thers , w ith 26 .8 % cho se “sub stant ia lly incre ase” and5 3 .6 1% cho se “ increase” . In o ther segm ents , ro ugh ly h alf of theresponses (excluding N A) chose “increase” .The agencies were also asked to rate the importance of factors inexpanding their future cliente le (5=very important, 1=not important atall)(Figure 7), “cu lt u r a l h er itage” is rated as the maj or priority (meanof 4 . 14), especially by agencies w ith tour group originated from abroad(4 .5) . M I CE 6 (3 .96) is ranked second , and gam in g ranks th ird (3 .84)and shopping last (2 .85)(Figure 8) .There is d isparity of rat ing among respondents . A genc ies w ithinbound tour group primarily orig inated from abroad rated “cu lt u r a lh e r it a ge” and “M I C E ” re lat ive ly h igh er th an agenc ies w ith tourprimarily from M ainland . On the o ther hand, agencies with inboundtour group prim arily originated from Mainland rated gam in g slightlyhigher than agencies with tour prim arily from abroad (Figure 8).Similar d isparity of rating among agenc ies was fo und as in theprevious question . A gencies w ith tour group mainly orig inated from
abroad ranked “cultural heritage”. “hotel” and “food & beverage” higherthan those w ith tour originated from Mainland ; on the other hand, thosew ith to ur o r ig inated main ly f ro m M a in land rank ed “g am ing” and“shopping” h igher than those with orig in as foreign (Figure 10 ).F igu r e 6 H ow th e gr owth of gam b lin g sector a ffected you rb u sin ess in th e last 3 yea r s sin ce lib er a liza t ion?Figu r e 7 T h e im p or tance of t h e each of t h e followin g factor s inexpand in g you r fu t u r e clien te le (5= ver y im por tan t , 1 = leastim p or tan t )Substantially IncreaseIncreaseRemain UnchangeDecreaseSubtantially Decrease Not Applicable/ Don't Kno wbusiness of MICE tour groupreservation of local hotels and coachesbusiness of ticketing and hotel reservation abroadbusiness of outbound tour groupbusiness of inbound tour groupoverall business Gambling ShoppingCultural Heritage MICE0 1 2 3 4 5
F igu r e 8 T h e im p or t an ce of t h e each of t h e followin g factor s inexp an d in g you r fu t u r e clien tele (5= ver y im p or tan t , 1 = leastim p or tan t )F igu r e 9 T h e im p or tan ce of th e each of th e followin g factor s asth e k ey sellin g p oin t of in b ou n d tou r gr ou p (5= ver y im p or tan t , 1= least im por tan t ) Gambling ShoppingCultural Heritage MICEoveralltour main origin=Mainlandtour main origin=foreigntour main origin=NA Gambling Shopping Cultural Heritage HotelFood and Beverage0 1 2 3 4 5
F igu r e 10 T h e im por tance of th e each of t h e followin g factor s ast h e k ey selling p oin t of in b ou n d tou r gr ou p (5= ver y im p or tant ,1 = least )5. Conclusion : Policy Recommendations5.1 Enhance Diversification into Holistic LeisureDestination① T he comparat ive study of Sec tion 3 show s that current visitorsp en d in g p er cap ita in M aca o is fa r lower than visitor spending percapita in Las Vegas, even though aggregate gam ing revenue in Macaohas surpassed that of Las Vegas.② Wh ile v isito r vo lume to Macao is exper ie nc ing spectaculargro wth7, it is a lso important to boost to ur ist spend ing per capita tocapture the full benefits of such growth.③3 T h e e xp er ie nce o f L as Veg as de mo n st r ate s the re is g re atpotentials in non-gaming services as a source of tourist spending growth: Gambling Shopping Cultural Heritage HotelFood and Beverage0 1 2 3 4 5overall tour origin=Mainland tour origin=foreign
Up to half of casino revenues in Las Vegas can be generated by ancillary,non-gam ing services. Currently, the grow th of non-gaming revenuegrowth exceeds gaming revenue .The success of Las Vegas also exhibits that pro viding gen u in elyh olist ic leisu r e exp er ien ce is th e key to d r ivin g exten d ed stays an dr ep ea t visits . In Macao the length of stay of visitors was only 1.22 in2006, compared to 3 .6 nights in Vegas.8 In the endeavor to transformMacao into holistic leisure tourism destination, there are a few importantelements in public policy mak ing :5.2 Complementarities between Gaming Segment andother Tourism Segment in the Building of Holistic LeisureDestinationT he fu ture v isito r gro w th i s m a inly d r ive n by v is ito rs f ro mMainland . The casino operators also aim to draw the maj or ity of theirnew customers from the emerging middle c lass in mainland China .To expand their mass market, some casino operators are developinglarge -scale resort and amenities such as ne w convention center andinnovative entertainment to be integrated with their casino, broadeningthemselves into a multi-purpose family-oriented gaming-entertainmentcomplex. However, there may also be an important role for the o thertourism segments to p lay in th is development of non-gaming servicessector in Macao.Other than the gaming, Macao is also endowed with other tourist-generating forces. The survey in Section 4 shows the travel agenciesranked cultural heritage as the most important driving force to expand
cliente le and attract tour group, especially to foreign tourists .The integration of these key tourist-generating forces with gamingwill enhance Macao tourism sector in the transformation of Macao intoa g lobal leisure and entertainment tourist destination .While the large casino-complex may dominate the mass market onthe high-end, the other tourism segment may also capture some of thedemand growth by targeting the lower-end of the mass market.B y mak ing u se o f the co mp lementar it ies be tween gam ing andexisting to urism endow ment, the tour ism seg ment can market to themass market these existing to ur ism endow ments (cultura l heritage ,trad itional food , guided loca l tours etc .), in co mbination w ith casinoexperience in order to provide tourists an integrated cultural and leisureexperience package and thus capture the growth of mass market . Forexample, local hospitality operators such as local restaurants, bars, andsm all-scale budget lodging can complement and extend the range ofcultura l and leisure facilit ies that the Macao offers , thereby sustainingthe continued growth of the tourism and leisure sector of economy. Ifsuch gro wth potentials of mass market can be shared by the tourismsegments other than casinos, it helps to promote a more balanced growthwith in tourism sector .5.3 Government as Coordinator between Gaming andTourism SegmentsIn this integration of existing tourism resources with gaming sector,the government has a vita l ro le . W hile M acao G overnment TourismOffice is d iligent in promoting Macao ' s tourism to the world , especially
the cultural heritage and spec ial events, currently there is a lack of co-ordination between the gaming sector and the other tourism sector suchas travel agencies.For local hospitality operators which are predominate ly SM Es, itis d ifficult to group together and negotiate co-operation with gamingoperator s . T hu s, the M G TO m ay ac t as fac ilita tor to b r ing abo utconcerted efforts of the gaming and tourism sectors to bundle gaming,cultura l her itage and M IC E in to a s ing le dest inatio n p ackage . T heintegration of these key tourist-generating forces will enhance M acaotourism sector into a holistic leisure destination and help to extend thelength of stay of visitors .The growth of mass market also implies an accelerated demand onthe c ity ' s a lready st ra ined infrast ruc ture o f t ran spo r t and h um anresources. Thus, government should take a more forward-looking viewin urb an planning and de vice a more coherent and co mprehe nsiveinfrastructure network, in coordination with casino operators and othertourism segments.5.4 Getting the Overall Product Mix RightCurrently, there is a lack of comprehensive consumer needs surveysand forecasts of future trends to guide tourism policy formulation :① In d ive rsi fy in g ser v ice s in to to no n -g am ing to p r o vid e agen u in ely h olis t ic leisu r e exp er ien ce , kno wing the preferences ofChinese mass market he lp to know which non-gam ing to deve lop inorder get t h e over a ll p r od u ct m ix r igh t .② Many new casinos under construction in Macao are large-scale
integrated resorts. While some are focusing on the traditional Las Vegasofferings of lavish theme hotels, glitzy shows and spectacular fountains,others are yet to decide what facilities or activities to offer.③ Importing the Las Vegas experience into Macao is likely to be arecipe for success. However, an understanding of where Chinese tastesdo appear to d iffer could be an important extra ingredient . (e .g . whileslot machine represent 70 % of earn ings in Las Vegas, 90% of revenuescomes from table games in Macao).④ A m aj or ch alle nge for operators is to co nvert a sig nificantproportion of th ese sh or t -stay d ay t r ip p er s in to lon ger sta y visitor s .⑤5 Government should deve lop systematic comprehensive surveyson tour ist behavior and their leisure preferences, such as factors thatattrac t lo nger stay or repeat v isits to M acao - whether it is casinoexperience, luxury or d iscount shopping or Las Vegas-style shows thatappeal to Chinese mass market visitors, the budget visitors plan to spendon hotel etc . This will be useful for industry to develop tourism productmix that fit the taste of tourists. The government-led survey also avoidsduplication of private effort in collection and dissemination of suchinformation .5.5 Strengthening External Tourism CooperationTaking advantage of her World Heritage sites as well as gaming ,le isure and ente r ta in me nt fac il it ie s , M acao can sustain a fl o w o finternational visitors especially from the key source markets includingthe M ain land , H ong Ko ng and Ta iw an thro ugh more w ork s in thefollowing areas:
① N egotiatio n with the M ainland G o ver nment on m easures tofacilitate IVS. These include, for example , the recent proposal of usingone single exit endorsement by Mainland residents to visit both Macaoand Hong Kong, and the simplification of immigrant procedures at theborders.② Launching of multi-destination marketing programs in the Pan-Pearl River Delta Region . For example , Macao may be benefited fromthe access to more varied international tourist source markets in hercollaboration with Hong Kong . A s a cross-strait transit point betweenFuj ian and Taiwan, China , collaboration with the former may he lp toattract tourists from the latter to visit Macao as a side trip .③ Promoting M acao as a tour ism dest inat io n fo r the EuropeanUnion and Por tug uese -sp eaking cou ntr ies . M acao , by u tiliz ing herexisting culture and trade ties with these countries, may further enhanceher tourism ties with them so as to diversify her tourist source marketsto outside the A sian region .④ Development of external transportation network to mob ilizevisitors to travel to Macao. For example, construction of infrastructuressuch as the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao bridge and signing of direct fl ightagreements w ith more destination s w ould greatly red uce the trave ldistance between Macao and the rest the world and therefore encouragemore visitors to come to Macao .
Notes:1O ther than c as ino game s , gam ing ac t iv it ie s in Mac ao inc lude ho rse -rac ing ,greyhound-racing , pacap io lottery, instant lottery and sports be tting .2 Fo r be t te r com par ison , v is ito r vo lume fo r A ustra lia i s casino visito r vo lume ,includ ing bo th interstate and inte rnational visitors .3 Cas ino gam ing revenue for Macao is the gaming revenue from games o f fortunediscussed in Section 2.4 The growth rate for Australia is ca lcu lated using values in Australian do llars.5Accord ing to the re sponse from MGT O on 4 O ct 200 7, the re a re currently 129licensed trave l agenc ies in Macao , with 57 subsid iaries and service counter.6 M ICE stands for Meeting, Incentive , Convention and Exh ib ition .7The Macao government is forecasting 42 million visitors by the end of the decade,compared to 22 m illion in 2006 .8 In 2006 , more than half of the visitors (5 1.4 %) to Macao do not stay overn ight . TheLas Vegas visitor survey shows that virtually all (99 .7%) visitors to Las Vegas stayedovern ight in 2006 , with average length of stay 3 .6 nights.References:1. Arthur Andersen & Co., Economic Impacts of Casino Gaming in the United States,Volume 2: Micro Study, 1997.2. Deloitte-Touche, L., Economic and Other Impacts of a Land-Based Entertainment,Casino and Hotel Facility, 1992.3. Eadington, W. R., “Contributions of Casino Style Gambling to Local Economies,”in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, March 1998,pp. 556-565.4. Fenich, G. G., & Hashimoto, K., “Perceptions of Cannibalization: What Is theReal Effect of Casinos on Restaurants?” in Gaming Law Review, 00008(00004),2004, pp. 247-260.5. GLS Research, Las Vegas Visitor Prof ile - Calendar Year 2006 Annual Report,
Prepared for Las Vegas Convention And Visitors Authority, 2006.6. The official website of Macao Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau, http://www.dicj .gov.mo/EN/index.htm.7. MacCharles, A., & Oaten, S., “Macao' s Great Gamble,” 2007, http://www.4hoteliers.com/.8. Siu, R. C. S., “Formal Rules, Informal Constraints, and Industrial Evolution -The Case of the Junket Operator Regulation and the Transition of Macao' s CasinoBusiness,” presented at the 13th International Conference on Gambling & Risk-Taking, Harrah' s Lake Tahoe, Nevada, USA, May 22-26 2006.9. World Travel and Tourism Council, Travel & Tourism Satellite Accounting: Macao,http://www.wttc.org/.
博彩業快速增長對澳門經濟及社會的影響The Rapid Growth of Casi no Industry and Its Impacts to the Macao Economy and Society主 編:楊允中責任編輯:連信森、鄧安琪封面設計:連信森出 版:澳門學者同盟印 刷:澳門嘉華印刷公司規 格:155毫米X230毫米出版日期:2008年2月印 量:1000本定 價:澳門幣80元ISBN 978-99937-897-4-1