STORIES FROM THE WESTERN SEASFrederic "Jim" SilvaMOSAICOVOLUME XLI

Title Author Editor Support Collection Volume IllustrationsLayout Printer Print-runStories from the Western SeasFrederic "Jim" SilvaInstituto Internacional de MacauFundação MacauMosaicoNumber 41Fernando Chan (MacauLink)Lam Lai ManWelfare500 copiesAugust, 2016 ISBN 978-99937-45-95-2IIM - Instituto Internacional de MacauRua de Berlim, Edf. Magnificent Court, Venus Court, 2F (NAPE)MacauTel: (853)28751727 Fax: (853) 28751797E-mail: iim@iimacau.org.mo / bookshop@iimacau.org.mowebsite: www.iimacau.org.mo

- Dedication -To the younger members of the Macaense Community who had no previous exposure neither to the History of Portugal nor to that of the Great Discoveries which transplanted some of Portugal's roots in Macau. May they stand firm in their beliefs and true to the cultural values of their ancestors.August 2016, International Institute of Macau

ForewordIt is not intended that the full Portuguese story be told here. A complete and chronological history really belongs somewhere else. Instead, what is being attempted is a random and light dipping into some aspects of our Portuguese past. To relieve snippers of old tales-some well known and some not so well known.The Portuguese as a people have a rich background that goes back to the 12th century and even beyond. Perhaps a retelling of this past in small doses would be timely. It is a part of Macau’s heritage, that of the Luso descendants of the Far East.Those in Macau’s community who were brought up and educated in Macau must surely have some of this knowledge and feeling for Portugal’s past. For those Macaenses - born in Hong Kong or Shanghai or elsewhere, - there can sometimes be an appalling ignorance of our early Portuguese story for which this publication is mainly dedicated.This is an attempt to kindle interest in our now scattered Macaense community with hopes that it will awaken an awareness and pride in our Portuguese roots.

1) In the Beginning2) Johnny One versus Johnny One3) Adamastor4) Peter the Cruel5) The Spy who never came back – Pero da Covilhã6) The Discoveries7) King Sebastian and Sebastianism8) The Indian Giver9) Independence for BrazilSTORIES FROM THE WESTERN SEASP.14P.24P.30P.34P.40P.46P.56P.62P.68

In The Beginning

Portugal is one of the oldest nations of Europe. Its beginnings date from the Middle Ages from the year 1139. Germany only came into existence as the successor nation of the Holy Roman Empire after a Prussian victory in 1871 ended the Franco/Prussian war. Italy was made up of several city states and Kingdoms until they too were united around 1870. Portugal, however, goes back over 700 years earlier.Even neighboring Spain was to wait till 1492 when the last of the Moors were expelled from Granada, following the royal marriage of Ferdinand to Isabella. This union cemented a fractured land to become the Spanish Kingdom.The year 1139 is chosen as the birth of Portugal because it was then that the twenty odd years old rebellious Prince Afonso Henriques declared himself the first King of Portugal and renounced all further subservience to neighboring King Alfonso VIII of Castile.Afonso Henriques made these declarations when Europe was still in the grip of the Middle Ages. The age of feudalism was in its late stages, a time when Kings and commoners, vassals and serfs, Princes and knights were all still tied together by traditional contacts. Those were confused and unstable times and for mutual protection alliances outlined duties and obligations. A system of alliances was Europe’s response to the uncertainties of those times.14

Because of this young and resolute Founder-King, Portugal had from those early years a system of succession and leadership as well as defined borders that have largely endured until today.More about this first Kingdom and its formation later - Portugal can go back much further in antiquity to search for her roots.Yet earlierThere are indications that the Iberian Peninsula had been inhabited by hunting and fishing tribes that chose to live by river banks as early as 7000 B. C.Because of its location the peninsula was soon colonized by many peoples. Trading Greeks and Carthagenians established posts along the coasts. Today’s fishing port of Peniche was named for early Phoenicians settling there. Then successive waves of Celtic people migrated overland across the Pyrenees and intermarried with the indigenous Iberos. Hilltop fortress villages called “castros” that once belonged to these settlers are still a feature of northern Spain and Portugal.15

The Portuguese are especially proud of being descended from another fierce indigenous mountain tribe called Lusitanians. The ancient Roman name of a large area of the country was then called “Lusitania”. The Lusitanians were not easily overcome by the invading Romans. Instead they offered decades of resistance under their warrior chief, Viriato. He was to be Portugal’s first great national hero.However, by far the three most significant subsequent invaders were the Romans, the Visigoths (Western Goths), and the Moors.RomansThe rise of a militant and conquering Rome was felt all over the known world. The Iberian Peninsula was soon to be a Roman colony of note. Olissipo (Lisbon) and Ebora (Evora) were Roman centers of administration and culture. The Portuguese language later developed from the Latin of the Romans and Christianity also took hold in the colony as it did earlier in Rome. In the north the Roman customs city at the mouth of the Douro River, Portucale, was in time to give it s name to the whole nation.16

VisigothsThe decline of the Roman Empire was followed by the spread of marauding Germanic tribes from all across Europe. Central Europe spewed forth successive and unending hordes of fighting tribes who were themselves pressured by enemies from the east Vandals, Swabians and Alans settled in the northern Iberian Peninsula.But it was the large tribes of Visigoths in alliance with a declining Roman Empire that finally prevailed. Powerful Visigothic chieftains and their descendants converted to Christianity and became the focus of power and influence on the Iberian Peninsula.It was into this semi-stable situation that the Moors invaded. MOORSIn 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded from the south by a Moslem army from North Africa. In less than five years this army had captured nearly the whole peninsula and even marched into France before they were stopped. Visigothic Christian leaders were toppled one by one except in a small wedge of the peninsula in the kingdom of Asturias in the north.17

For over seven hundred years the Moslems stayed. Christians converted to Islam and a Moslem imprint was to be indelibly made on this land. The Iberian language, art and culture have been greatly influenced by this invasion and in the south especially Moslem architecture and irrigation systems were introduced.Re-conquestFrom the very beginning strong Christian resistance was seen. A long bloody period of re-conquest and recapture was made by individual Christian Visigothic nobles, now marching south from their mountainous northern strongholds.The advantage changed from side to side for a period of over two hundred years, especially so in northwestern Portugal and Spain where Christians and Moslems attacked and counter attacked across buffer zones that were ill defined.18

The First KingThis was the fluid and confused situation that existed when Portugal’s young first King came to power.Earlier King Alfonso VI of Leon called on his ally Raymond, Duke of Burgundy for help in the battle against the Moors. In gratitude for this help he gave the hand in marriage of his favorite daughter Teresa to the Duke’s brother – the crusader Knight Henry. As part of Teresa’s dowry he gave Henry title to the province of Portucalense. Henry and Teresa set up court in Guimarães and continued to render service and loyalty to King Alfonso as was expected and customary.After Henry died Teresa acted as Regent for their minor son Afonso Henriques. She also unpopularly took as consort and lover a Galician nobleman Fernando Peres. She lost further favor with her own nobles and barons when she later refused to acknowledge her nephew Afonso VII as the new King of Leon.19

Teresa’s ambitious son, now grown to manhood, gathered together the barons and nobles disenchanted by his mother’s rule. Together they staged an insurrection and bested her forces in battles and then expelled her to exile.This robust visionary young man, scarcely in his twenties, now assumed control of Portucalense. He invaded a dissenting neighbor, Galicia, and there defeated his mother’s lover Peres. He then made peace with his cousin Afonso VII of Leon because invading Moslems now threatened them both again.Afonso Henriques marched south to do battle with the Moslems. He was a brilliant military commander and recaptured more territory than any other Christian King. A victory against the Moslems at Ourique was decisive and helped to cement his claim to be Portugal’s leader. A claim to Kingship also signified his unwillingness to be subservient to any other and meant total independence from the Kingdom of Leon.With the help of passing fleets of English, Flemish and German crusaders bound for Jerusalem, he captured Lisbon after a seventeen week siege. He crossed the Tagus and recaptured the province of Alentejo.20

By 1249, under pressure from his heirs, the last of Moors were expelled from Portugal. Portugal was now the fulfilled and independent nation her first King had dreamed of.The Ever Present ThreatThe historical breakaway from Leon and the declaration of Kingship and independence would be a legacy to continue to plague Portugal down through the ages. Portugal’s future political and military efforts were now to prevent a reversal of that breakaway and preserve her independence.Wars were fought to keep Portugal separated from the Spanish fold. This did not always succeed, King Phillip II of Spain successfully claimed the crown of Portugal for sixty years when a legitimate Portuguese royal heir failed to materialize in 1580.21

JohnnyOne Versus Johnny One

There was yet another attempt by Spain to annex Portugal. Due to inheritance and dynastic complications royal heirs do not always emerge as clear claimants to a throne. To these difficulties were nearly always added some royal bastards in the wings, ever ready to contest a throne should more legitimate heirs prove unpopular or incompetent.King Ferdinand I of Portugal gave the hand of his only daughter, Beatrice, in marriage to the neighboring King of Castile - Juan I. Beatrice was then heiress to the Portuguese throne. On Ferdinand’s death in 1383 a regent acted for his daughter. His son-in-law, Juan I of Castile then claimed the Portuguese crown for his wife and himself hoping to re-unite the two Kingdoms under them.João I of Aviz, the illegitimate half brother of the late King would have no part of that. He and the nobles around him were now willing to fight for the continued independence of Portugal, in spite of any dynastic inheritance arrangements. A growing national spirit was not to be thwarted.Two armies confronted each other on the plateau of Aljubarrota – a place nine miles south of Batalha. Only seven days before João of Aviz had himself crowned King João I of Portugal.24

Juan I of Castile now faced João I of PortugalPortuguese forces were basically weaker and without cannon. They relied chiefly on knights and foot soldiers, but fortunately they were under the command of the militarily able King’s “Holy Constable” – Nuno Pereira. On the other side superior Castilian invading forces were well organized with cannons at the ready.In a fit of religious fervor and patriotism João I of Portugal vowed to erect a church in honor of the Virgin Mary if she would grant him victory in this battle. Castilian domination of Portugal was to be avoided at all costs.The battle began and soon the victorious Portuguese pursued a beaten enemy to beyond their own borders. The Battle of Aljubarrota was a landmark Portuguese victory and Portugal was not to be threatened again for the next two hundred years. João’s victory now confirmed the House of Aviz as Portugal’s reigning royalty. His son was Prince Henry the Navigator and this dynasty would initiate Portugal’s moment of glory and discovery.25

The beautiful monastery of Batalha, also known as Santa Maria da Vitoria was a fulfillment of the King’s promise. The yellow golden stones still gleam in the evening light today. The stained glass windows tell of the Virgin’s life; the Manueline tracery of carved stone and marble arcades are all tributes to the Church, the King and the country. The body of Portugal’s unknown soldier lies in this monastery. The soul of the nation lies here too.26

Adamastor

In the shallow coastal waters around Hong Kong – somewhere just north of Cheung Chau Island and South East of Lantau – lies a narrow channel known as the Adamastor Channel. Today this is a busy and narrow two way waterway with many local vessels such as fishing boats, barges and Hong Kong/Macau passenger hydrofoils constantly coming and going.For safety a white concrete light beacon had been built on a patch of shallow and dangerous rocks standing right in the channel. These are known as the Adamastor Rocks.Who or what is an Adamastor?In the 1920s or 1930s a little Portuguese gunboat on a routine voyage between Macau and Hong Kong for periodic servicing ran aground on these rocks – which did not have a warning post or light beacon then.The vessel, the NRP (Navio Republica Portuguesa) Adamastor had to be towed off for repairs without too much ado, but not before it gave its name forever to that channel and cluster of rocks.30

You ask again who or what is an Adamastor?Adamastor was a giant of ancient Portuguese myth and legend.It is the spirit of the evil wind. It is the mother of all Ventos Sujos. It was the mythical guardian of the Cape of Storms before this cape was renamed the Cape of Good Hope.Adamastor stood guard over this cape to prevent seaborne adventurers from going any further around the southern tip of Africa. In anger and power it would dash against the rocks and coast all who dared defy it. Superstitious Portuguese seamen believed this and were ever terrified of the consequences of venturing too far.It took the Portuguese adventurer Bartolomeu Dias to shatter this myth as he bested the wind and cape. Then it took Vasco da Gama to do the same again and open up a sea route to the Indies.31

Peter The Cruel

It must be flattering or else insulting to be a ruler of nations and men and then to have an added tittle bestowed for posterity by history.For instance, young King Alexander of Macedonia would probably be flattered by being labeled “Alexander the Great”. I am sure Suleiman the Magnificent, Peter the Great and Manuel the Fortunate would likewise find little to object to in their added new names.In Medieval France royal titles took on a more personal slant that was not always flattering. Frankish Kings were named Charles the Bald, Louis the Fat and Pepin the Short. At the other end of the line of descriptive royalty we had “Ivan the Terrible” of Russia. He must have done more than a couple of things wrong in his time. Then we have our own Portuguese, “Peter the Cruel”. History probably tainted Peter with a name he did not wholly deserve. 34

Perhaps Peter the Vengeful would have been more appropriate. Still, because of him, we have one of Portugal’s great and tragic love stories. In the transept of the church of the Santa Maria monastery at Alcobaça lies the tomb of Peter the Cruel directly facing the tomb of his lover Inês de Castro. Here on judgement day the two will rise to face each other and be united again for eternity. The love affair began when Peter was Crown Prince and heir to the Portuguese throne. His father Afonso IV was still King when Peter married Constança Manuel. Among Constança’s ladies in waiting was one Inês de Castro, a beautiful young noblewoman from an influential Spanish family. Prince Peter fell madly in love with her - much to the objection of his wife, the Portuguese court and his father the King. The romance continued after Constança died in childbirth and then Prince Peter lived openly with his mistress Inês who bore him three children. 35

Intrigue between the old King and his court swelled as they were ever vigilant to curtail any Spanish influence on Portuguese affairs. Inês was seen as just such a threat. Whilst Peter was away on a campaign the King and council seized Inês, falsely accused her, and condemned her to death for treason. She was then quickly put to death by the King’s Councilors.On his return the inconsolable Peter was set for revenge. He made war on his father and relentlessly pursued the three principal Councilors involved who had since fled the country. On capturing two of them he had their beating hearts extracted whilst they were still alive: one through the front of his chest and the other from his back - all the while Peter feasted to celebrate his triumph. On his ascension to the throne Peter declared the deceased Inês his legal wife and rightful queen. Then six years after her death, he exhumed her skeletal remains, propped up her corpse on a throne and forced his horror stricken courtiers to kiss her bony hand in homage. 36

This gruesome tale should have ended here, but it does not. To inject an element of current interest Dr. Jorge Forjaz’s genealogy volumes track and trace the direct descendants of the royal lovers, right up to today’s Macau and California and beyond. A grandson of the lovers, one Fernando de Eça took on the name of a town in Galicia which he inherited - Eça. He in turn sired 42 offspring, all with these tenuous royal connections. The 13th in this traceable line from King Peter the Cruel, one Antonio de Eça Lobo de Almada e Castro, proceeded to Macau in 1790 where he married Ana Carneiro. The line continued to propagate and be identified.The Eças of today are probably all descendents of this couple and heirs of this ancient tragedy.37

The Spy Who Never Came Back - Pero da Covilhã

In the true tales of high adventure the story of Marco Polo’s travels have been indelibly recorded in history. But few have ever heard of one Pero da Covilhã. And yet Pero da Covilhã’s travels and exploits can come a close second to those of Marco Polo. Perhaps one of the reasons for Covilhã’s relative obscurity was that he left no written record of his explorations and apart from his letter reporting to his King it was left to others to write of him. The time frame for both of these men’s adventures is separated by about two hundred years. Marco Polo’s journey was in the years around 1270, at the time when Kublai Khan was on the throne as Emperor of China. Covilhã’s travels took place somewhat later, around 1480. The age of Discovery was in full swing when King John II of Portugal entrusted two men, Pero da Covilhã and Afonso da Paiva, to go east to explore and discover on his behalf. Yes, you can even say - to spy. Unlike other ongoing discoveries this was not to be the usual expensive sea-borne expedition, but rather a surreptitious and unobtrusive overland trip. One reason why Covilhã was chosen was because of his knowledge of Arabic, which was then still commonly used in parts of Iberia. 40

The King’s instruction to the men was twofold. First, Christiandom was desperate to prevail over Islam and the explorers were told to make contact with a legendary King called Prester John of Africa and to seek a Christian alliance with him against Islam. Second, it would be useful to know the exact geographical location where many of the prized spices came from.Where did cinnamon originate? Cloves? Mace? Nutmeg? And Pepper? From where exactly did the Venetians and their Middle Eastern trading partners get their goods? The two men set off. They travelled through Barcelona, Naples and Rhodes. They made their way to Egypt, Alexandria and Cairo, and there they joined an Arab caravan to Aden. They went right to the extreme tip of the Saudi Arabian peninsula. It must have been high adventure as new and unknown worlds opened. At Aden the two men parted company. Paiva proceeded to Ethiopia where he was never heard from again. It was thought that he soon died there. Covilhã went on to India and landed at Calicut. It was in a subsequent letter to his King that he pointed to Calicut as a leading trading post on India’s west coast and it was this information that later guided Vasco da Gama to land there. 41

Covilhã made his way back to Cairo via Goa and Ormuz and there he made contact with emissaries of his King. He reported by letter on his travels thus far and in turn was instructed to carry on in his search for Prester John. Covilhã straddled the Red Sea. He reached Jeddah, Mecca and Medina before finally reaching Ethiopia, which legend indicated was the home of Prester John. Instead of a hoped for powerful Christian King and ally, what he found instead was yet another poor backward African nation practicing variant forms of Christian belief. Nevertheless Covilhã was well received and royally treated with land and honors. The only problem was that he was not ever allowed to leave. The years passed and in 1520 a Portuguese mission to Ethiopia came across Covilhã, still there after a stay of thirty years. What a re-union it must have been: to hear the voices and language of his countrymen after all this time; to hear of people and events that had taken place; to learn that a sea-borne landing had been made in Calicut. Perhaps finding out that his countrymen had gone even further east to Malacca and China; and that a new King was now on the throne. It must have been like awakening from a Rip Van Winkle sleep of years. 42

Covilhã in turn supplied his countrymen with information and news on his part of the world. He taught them words from the language and the customs of the people. They dubbed him “An honorable person of merit and credit”. The emissaries now offered to take Covilhã home with them but he refused the invitation. He knew that he would now be a stranger in his land of birth and would not fit in anymore. Moreover, he had a second wife and family in Ethiopia and complications would arise over his first wife and family in Portugal.Covilhã died a pioneer and respected Patriarch in his home in Africa. He was buried accompanied by the basic Christian rites - with somewhat different ceremonies from what would otherwise have been had they taken place in Portugal.43

The Discoveries

“E se mais mundo houvera, lá chegará”(“Had there been more of the World, they would have reached it”)………………….. CamõesIf there is one significant human endeavor that sets the Portuguese people apart from others it has to be the achievements of her band of early Discoverers. It was not the effort of any one leader, but rather a continuous and progressive team effort. Indeed we can name a dozen and more outstanding individuals in this connection, because Princes, Kings, Captains, and Viceroys all contributed. However, we must really look to those brave and adventurous ordinary seamen who suffered hardships and risks and really made it all possible. Prince Henry the Navigator, King Manuel the Fortunate, Bartolomeu Dias, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Cabral, Jorge Alvares, Diogo Cão, Afonso de Albuquerque and so many others are all names that still stir our imagination as we hark back to those days of old. 46

In the broad sense of time perhaps we can say that the Portuguese age of Discovery began with the interest and encouragement of Prince Henry the Navigator - around 1430. His studies in navigation and ship building; his financing of expeditions, his naval school at Sagres where information and techniques were gathered and perfected, these were just some of his many contributions. Henry was the third son of Portugal’s renaissance King John I who ushered in the new Aviz royal dynasty. In another broad sense in time we can also say that these voyages of discovery climaxed when Vasco da Gama made landfall in India in 1498. But it is in the voyages leading up to this and the subsequent voyages yet further afield that really complete the whole picture. Interest in Africa was first kindled by early successful military invasions of Morocco aimed against Moors and pirates alike. Call them crusades if you wish to stretch a point. A vast unknown continent further south beckoned and first efforts were made to sail down the coast of West Africa. The choice was made to probe by sea rather than by land. Fear of the unknown was gradually overcome by a calculating and cautious movement ever south. Each expedition built on the experiences of earlier journeys and in turn passed on information to those that followed. It helped that Portugal’s strategic geographic position at the extreme western edge of Europe jutted out into an unknown Atlantic. 47

The uninhabited Islands of Madeira and the Azores were early landfalls. Ships sailed south hugging the coast of Africa. The feared Cape Bojador, ever a barrier, was passed in 1434. Gambia, Senegal, the Cape Verde Islands were discovered. Sierra Leone was reached in 1460. There was a decided gap in explorations after the death of Prince Henry in 1460. Without Royal support, efforts to sail further south lessened, though contact and trade expanded within the already-discovered regions. It took the interest and patronage of a new King John II to rekindle efforts. The discovery of a sea route to the Indies now became the most important reason to press forward. Commander Diogo Cão made two successful expeditions for his King and reached Southwest Africa. Soon another expedition sailed under Commander Bartolomeu Dias, this time with orders to pass Diogo Cão’s furthest point and to find out if the tip of Southern Africa could indeed be rounded. This was done by Dias in 1488 and the southern end of the African land mass was passed and renamed the “Cape of Good Hope” after being called the “Cape of Storms” Another eight years were to pass before an expedition, now under Vasco da Gama, pressed on towards India. Heavier, rounder and more seaworthy ships called Naus helped to do this. 48

A new King and patron Manuel I “The Fortunate” took over on John Il’s death. Manuel continued to show interest in his predecessor’s ventures and it was under his rule that success after success was seen in the ensuing years. Vasco da Gama, fearless, loyal and brutal, rounded the Cape and sailed up the coast of East Africa. He picked up a local pilot and sailed across the Indian Ocean to land at Calicut in 1498. Sea contact with the Indies was made. He came home with only two of his original four ships intact, and a meagre cargo of spices and oriental luxuries. The truth was he had not carried much in the way of goods for exchange in the first place. The expedition took about two years to complete.Out of 170 men who sailed out only 55 returned. Scurvy took a great toll. Even Vasco da Gama’s brother Paulo, who captained one of the ships, died on the way home and was buried in the Azores. Nevertheless the route that was opened up and the promise it held for the future made for one of Portugal’s historic moments. What was it that made Portugal and the Portuguese the discoverers of a sea route to the Orient? What were the reasons that drove them on this small often besieged and relatively poor nation?49

The somewhat high-minded reason of seeking “Souls and Spices” was tarnished with other mixed motivations, such as the search for gold, slaves and allies. Still, the seeking out of souls for eternal salvation was a genuine factor. Padres often accompanied these trips and conversions of the heathen pagan were a strong missionary consideration. However, the breaking of the Venetian/Egyptian monopoly on Eastern spices was then probably the strongest reason for the journeys. It was the intention of the Portuguese to by-pass by a sea route the overland trading stranglehold these foreign merchants then enjoyed. It was hoped to divert to Portugal the immense profits this trade would bring. Furthermore, there was gold to be had from the coast of western Africa as well as ivory and sealskins and slaves. Seeking allies was also a reason for these journeys, more exactly, looking for The Ally of legend. A powerful Christian King “Prester John” was said to be in Africa. The Portuguese were ever enquiring of his existence and whereabouts so that he could be contacted as an Ally. Europe was then locked in a struggle between Christianity and Islam. Europe was besieged by Moors still ensconced on the Iberian Peninsula. 50

Moslem Ottoman Turks controlled the eastern Mediterranean. The finding of a strong Christian ally in Africa to stand up against a common moslem enemy was long a hope and a dream. Landfall in India was not the end purpose for the Discoveries. Still to the East lay Malacca, the Moluccas, China and Japan. King Manuel I was “fortunate” enough to have as his commander of the East and Viceroy of India the brilliant and daring Afonso de Albuquerque who slowly changed the dominant motivation for trade into the corresponding motive of Empire building. Settlements and fortresses, bases and seapower would forever extend Portugal’s influence. To the east Malacca was attacked and captured. This was a premier trading center where an exchange of spices and goods took place in great volume. From the new Malacca base the Portuguese made successful trade expeditions to the Indonesian Moluccas where cloves from Ternate and nutmeg and mace from the Bandas originated. From Malacca one Jorge Alvares sailed to land in the Pearl River estuary just outside of Canton. 51

The glory years soon came to an end. Trouble at home over Royal succession caused Portugal to revert to the Spanish crown in 1580. Increasing Dutch attacks along the extensive sea routes as well as successful Dutch invasions on Portuguese held bases made for uncertainty and losses. Still, history cannot deny what had been achieved by a small nation on the western tip of Europe. Portugal had singlehandedly introduced the Eastern world to the West.52

King Sebastian and Sebastianism

Portugal’s historical founding as a separate and independent nation commenced as a breakaway vassal of the then dominant neighboring Castile. Ever since then and throughout Portuguese history there was always the underlying threat that this split would one day be reversed. It was always feared that Castile or Spain, it’s successor, would eventually reclaim Portugal. That this did actually happen gave credence to that real fear. For sixty years, from 1580 to 1640, Portugal was indeed ruled by the Spanish crown. How this came about is the point of this story. King João Ill of Portugal sired ten sons, but only one survived into manhood to inherit his throne. Much store was laid on this young son, Crown Prince Sebastian. His survival into early manhood and his specialized training in the art of kingship was seen to be the salvation of the Portuguese nation. Under the tutelage of his celibate uncle, Cardinal Prince Regent Dom Henrique, he was educated by a court of fervent and uncompromising Jesuits. At the age of fourteen he became King. 56

King Sebastian had more than his share of eccentricities. He disliked women and would not hear of any talk on future marriage arrangements. He developed a craze for physical fitness and reveled in the past glories of Portuguese discoveries and crusades. He was intent on recovering the Moroccan strongholds given up by his grandfather and had the unquestioning belief that eternal salvation lay in the attacking and slaughter of Moors. He would bring glory to his reign. To this end he raised a huge army of 15,500 infantrymen and 1,500 cavalry, incorporating the cream of Portuguese manhood, as well as a large multinational crusading force from all over Europe. An ineptly planned and mismanaged invasion of Morocco culminated in the great battle of Alcacer-Quibir in 1578. It was an immense military disaster for the Portuguese. Half the invading army was killed and the other half captured. Only a hundred Portuguese managed to escape to tell the story. This battle marked a decline in Portugal’s fortunes which would last a long time. Portugal was left impoverished and leaderless. Politically it destroyed Portugal as an independent nation and led to eventual Spanish domination. 57

The Spanish takeover was because the young King vanished in the heat of battle and his royal lineage ended without a successor. An unidentified corpse was discovered but it did not carry the King’s armor or weapons. There were no actual witnesses to the King’s death and rumors began that the King had actually escaped and was hiding out in a cave on an island in the Atlantic. It was also said that the King was captured and languishing in a Moorish dungeon. It was also rumored that the King was alive as a tragic hero personally atoning his disgrace disguised as a wandering pilgrim. Many Portuguese wanted to believe that their King was still alive. They had hopes for a returning messianic King who would once again lead his nation to greatness. This impractical hope and the refusal to face reality became known as the very Portuguese trait of “Sebastianism”. The Portuguese crown now reverted to Sebastian’s uncle, the aged and sickly Cardinal Prince Dom Henrique. The desperate nation even wanted to appeal to the Pope to relieve the Cardinal from his sacred vows so that he could marry and hopefully father an heir to the throne. The Spaniards would have none of that.In 1580 Philip of Spain claimed the Portuguese throne and invaded the country to initiate sixty years of Spanish domination.58

The Indian Giver

Portugal and England often bask in each other’s reflection as they speak of being Europe’s oldest standing alliance. Of course, as with most alliances there is usually a junior partner and a senior partner. There is little doubt that throughout history Portugal took the junior role. The alliance was said to have begun formally in 1373 when English Prince John of Gaunt married the daughter of a deceased Castilian King. He then called for a treaty of peace and alliance with the neighboring King Fernando I of Portugal. The alliance was further cemented over time by two subsequent marriages between the respective Royal houses. João I of Aviz married an English princess, Phillipa of Lancaster, and their third son was Prince Henry the Navigator In 1662 Charles II of England, the newly restored King after Oliver Cromwell’s rule, took as his bride the very understanding Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza. Charles’ trysts with Nell Gwyn did nothing to shake the marital bond. 62

In more modern times, despite Portuguese neutrality, Winston Churchill again invoked the alliance and the Azores was used as a base for British and American forces during World War II. So far this is merely the background for the story yet to come. The marriage of the Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza and King Charles II of England was a cause for celebration and gift giving. As a dowry and wedding gift, the Portuguese Royal house included the territory of Tangiers in North Africa, trading privileges throughout the Portuguese empire, two million cruzados (the equivalent of five hundred thousand pounds). To further sweeten the deal they included the city of Bombay.The average Englishman then had no idea where Bombay was and the Earl of Clarendon, the British Lord Chancellor who negotiated this dowry, described Bombay as “An Island with towns and castles therein, which are within a very little distance from Brazil”. Of course nobody consulted any Indian on this gift. Granted, Bombay was then only a series of fishing villages on seven separate islands, yet to be connected. 63

Great festivities and rejoicing followed. But again that is not the end of this story. It seems that there was little Portuguese internal consultation on the overgenerous gift of Bombay. Though undeveloped and sparsely populated it was strategically located with great reclamation possibilities. The Portuguese Viceroy of Goa was furious that he was not consulted on this gift as he saw the potential of the area. He objected to the gift and objected to its implementation. When four hundred British troops under their commander Sir Abraham Shipman arrived to take possession of Bombay, they were stopped en route by the Portuguese at Goa. Despite negotiations and threats the British troops were detained for two and a half years on the Portuguese island of Angedive just off Goa. At the end of this period 280 British soldiers had died of malaria, including their commander, Sir Abraham, who was to have been Bombay’s first British Governor.64

Independence for Brazil -A Gentle Transition A Family Affair

Portugal’s colonial jewel, Brazil, was discovered by mistake. Fickle winds and faulty calculations caused an impressive Portuguese fleet of thirteen ships bound for India to land in Brazil in error. This land was immediately claimed for the Portuguese crown. Pedro Alvares Cabral in 1500 sailed too far west on a voyage bound for the Cape of Good Hope and India and made this unexpected and fortuitous Brazilian landfall instead. He sent one ship back to Portugal to announce the discovery and then pressed forward successfully towards India with the rest of his fleet. Portugal thus gained her biggest and richest colony by chance, especially when the Pope himself recognized Portuguese sovereignty over this land in the treaty of Tordesillas. This treaty effectively divided the unknown world between Spain and Portugal. What followed was a slow and gradual development of this colony. Unlike the Spaniards who usually made warlike and penetrating inland conquests in their colonies - ever searching for gold, the Portuguese were generally satisfied with establishing coastal trading settlements. 68

In time the combination of new immigrants, native Indians, African slaves and agriculture and trade brought a measure of prosperity and riches. Initially there was a thriving export of a valuable dyewood called Braza (hence Brazil), though later sugar plantations and refineries dominated the economy. Subsequent introduction of other agricultural products such as tobacco, cotton and cacao helped. Overall there was an unusually light touch by the Portuguese mother government. Powerful missionaries sought souls to save by penetrating inland to convert Indians and also to attend to the spiritual needs of an increasingly racially-mixed population.The discovery of gold and diamonds added more luster to this colony-- much to the delight of Portuguese and Brazilian merchants and the Royal Family of Portugal. Into this scene in the early 1800s a wind of change started to blow. In North America in 1776 thirteen British colonies had already banded together to fight off England to gain their independence. Other settlers of the new world now also wanted to be their own masters. Seventeen individual and separate Spanish colonies soon rose in bloody revolt. Change was in the air. Revolution spread throughout Spain’s new world Empire and like a set of falling dominoes the colonies started to fall away from Spain. 69

By 1825 it was all over. Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained Spanish. It took less than fifteen violent years for the other Spanish colonies to emerge as separate Republican nations. Brazil and Portugal did not follow this revolutionary trend. Instead there was later to be a more gentle transition and little bloodshed. The change had more to do with internal Portuguese Royal Family machinations than colonial insurrection. During this time Napoleon’s army invaded Portugal in the course of Europe’s Napoleonic wars. The Portuguese Royal Family together with two thousand courtiers and functionaries sailed away to safety from under the noses of the French invaders, taking with them the nation’s treasury of gold and jewels. The British fleet protected their Portuguese allies and escorted the Royal Family and entourage across the Atlantic to Brazil. For the next few years Rio de Janeiro became the seat of the Portuguese court and Empire. Rio assumed a co-equal status with Lisbon as the current seat of power, awaiting the French army's defeat and departure from their Napoleonic invasion of Portugal.70

By 1820 the French had left Portugal and it was time for King João of Portugal and of Brazil, to return to Lisbon. He left his young son Dom Pedro behind to be Regent of Brazil. Dom Pedro took over at a troubled time. There was political agitation to do away with Royalty and declare a Republic. There was antagonism between the Portuguese court and native Brazilians. There was even a movement to restore Brazil back to its original colonial status. Then there was also a wish to ship the young Regent back to Portugal. Dom Pedro acted forcibly and quickly. In 1822 he appointed respected Brazilian ministers, ended his subservience to Portugal and his father and declared Brazil’s independence as he crowned himself King Pedro I of Brazil.It was partly an internal Royal family affair and partly a peaceful colonial overthrow. By 1823 this bloodless revolution succeeded and in 1824 the United States of America recognized the new Government. This was followed in 1825 by former motherland Portugal also acknowledging the new nation. The monarchy continued under successor Pedro II, when Brazil was also declared a republic in 1889.71