MACAOINTHEMAKINGorEARLYSINO-AMERICANRELATIONS1754-IST4SI5INGHETheresearchforthismonographwascarriedoutwithsupportoftheAcademicResearchGrantfromtheCulturalAffairsBureauoftheMacaoSpecialAdministrativeRegionGovernment.

TOTHEMEMORYOFMYMOTHERPENGFUXING(1922-2014)EDUCATORANDREVOLUTIONARYWARVETERANIQ6W251Q0^5EftSICONTENTSAcknowledgements....................................................................................................vIntroduction...............................................................................................................iChapter1:MacaoandtheCantonTrade.....................................................121.TheCantonSystem:FrameworkofImperialChina’sForeignTrade................132.MacaoasanAdjimctoftheCantonMarket..........................................................22Chapter2:TheEmpressofChinaandtheInitialContact.....................381.ForeignTradePolicyoftheEarlyAmericanRepublic.......................................392.TheVoyageoftheEmpressofChinaandtheEarlyCantonTrade....................413.MediumsofExchange:Tea,Silver,BillsofExchangeandOpium...................51Chapter3:TheEmergenceoftheAmericanCommunityinMacao....601.TheRiseofCommissionFirms..............................................................................612.TheOriginsoftheAmericanMissionaryEnterpriseinMacao..........................633.TheAmericanBusinessCommunityinMacao.....................................................80Chapter4:RussellandCompanyandAmerica’sChinaTrade............981.TheFirstEstablishment:FormationofSamuelRussellandCompany...........1002.TheSecondEstablishment:FoundingofRussellandCompany......................1063.TheThirdEstablishment:MergerandReorganization.......................................1084.ASymbioticRelationship:TheRussellsandtheHongMerchantHouqua.....1215.“AFair,HonorableandLegitimateTrade:”TheRussellsandtheOpiumBusiness.....126Chapter5:TheAmericanDiasporaCommunity’sResponsetotheOpiumWar......................................................................................1461.TheChinaTraders’AdvocacyforFreeTrade....................................................1472.TheMilitantMissionaries’VoiceforanAggressivePolicy..............................158

Chapter6:TheCushingMissionandtheTreatyofWangxia.............1661.LaunchingtheMissiontoMacao.........................................................................1672.TheChinaTradersandtheFormulationofChinaPolicy.................................1703.Cushing’sDiplomaticEndeavorsinMacao........................................................1774.CushingasaCriticalObserver............................................................................1905.ExtraterritorialityandEmpire:TheTreatyofWangxiaRevisited...................196Chapter7:America’sChinaTradeundertheTreatyPortSystem....2181.FromtheCanton-MacaoRegiontoHongKong...............................................2202.FromthePearlRiverDeltatotheYangtzeRiverValley..................................2263.TheEmergenceoftheAmericanCommunityinShanghai...............................2274.Merchant-ConsulsandGunboats..........................................................................2335.TheIllicitBusiness:TheOpiumTradeandtheCoolieTrade............................2406.CommissionBusinessandNewBranchesofBusiness.....................................2447.TheDeclineofTraditionalFamilyFirmsandtheEndoftheOldChinaTrade......248Conclusion.................................................................................................................262Bibliography.............................................................................................................268Index............................................................................................................................297ivACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThisprojectwasfirstconceivedwhileIwastravelinginthePearlRiverDeltaRegionwithastudytourgroupfromtheCityUniversityofNewYork(CUNY)HonorsCollegeinJanuary2006.Atthelaststopofthetourprogram,wearrivedinMacao.AttheTempleoftheGoddessofMercy^wherethefirstSino-Americantreatywassigned,Dr.GlennShiveoftheHongKong-AmericaCenter,whoorganizedthetourprogramandinvitedmetogivelecturestotheCUNYstudents,suggestedthatIwriteabouttheTreatyofWangxiafromaMacaoperspective.Thisideaimmediatelyinterestedme.HelateralsorecommendedmetoapplyforaresearchgrantfromtheCulturalAffairsBureauofMacaoandsuggestedthatIpresentapaperataconferenceheldattheUniversityofHongKongonSino-AmericanrelationsandAmericanstudies.MyfirstpaperonMacaoandtheUS-Chinarelationswaswellreceivedattheconference.IamparticularlygratefultoProf.LynnT.WhiteIIIofPrincetonUniversityandProfWangXinyang3EMoftheHongKongUniversityofScienceandTechnologyfortheircommentsonmypaperwhichwassubsequentlypublishedintheconferenceproceedingseditedbyProfPriscillaRoberts.‘IwasalsofortunatetobeawardedanAcademicResearchGrantbytheCulturalAffairsBureauofMacao,whichkickedoffthepresentproject.AlargepartofthematerialthatmakesupthebookwaspresentedatconferencesandinvitedlecturesattheCulturalAffairsBureauofMacao,theMacaoInter-UniversitiesInstitute(nowtheUniversityofSaintJoseph),theUniversityofMacau,theUniversityofHongKong,SunYat-senUniversityandHuaqiaoUniversity.Thosewhoheardthesepresentationsandmadehelpfulsuggestionsaretoonumeroustolisthere.IparticularlywouldliketothankMs.MarieMacLeodoftheCulturalAffairsBureauofMacao,Prof.IvoCameirodeSousaoftheUniversityofSaintJoseph,ProfKendallJohnson\MACAOINTHEMAKINGOFEARLYSINO-AMERICANRELATIONS1784-1844