1PastandPresentMacauMacauPastandPresentEditedbyLuísFilipeBarretoandWuZhiliangContributors:WuZhiliangLuísFilipeBarretoJamesK.ChinJuanGilElsaPenalvaElisabettaCollaNoëlGolversWillyVandeWalleUgoBaldiniMariagraziaRussoIsabelMurtaPinaLouShenghuaZhangXiaohuaVicentWai-KitHoTerezaSenaAlfredoGomesDiasLiChangsenCentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.MinistériodaEducaçãoeCiência

PastandPresentMacauLisboa,2015CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.MinistériodaEducaçãoeCiência

TitleMacau:PastandPresentPublishedbyCentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.RuadaJunqueira,301300-343Lisboa–Portugalwww.cccm.ptgeral@cccm.ptTel.(+351)213617570FundaçãoMacauAvenidadeAlmeidaRibeiro,61–75,CircleSquare,7.º–9.ºandaresMacauwww.fmac.org.moinfo@fm.org.moTel.(+853)28966777EditedbyLuísFilipeBarretoWuZhiliangAuthorsLuísFilipeBarretoWuZhiliangJamesK.ChinJuanGilElsaPenalvaElisabettaCollaNoëlGolversW.F.VandeWalleUgoBaldiniMariagraziaRussoIsabelMurtaPinaLouShenghuaZangXiaohuaVincentWai-kitHoTerezaSenaAlfredoGomesDiasLiChangsenProofreadingbyKennistranslationsGraphicdesignJoãoMachado(www.joaomachado.net)PrintingMaiadouroPrintrun800CopiesLisboa,2015ISBN:978-972-8586-43-0Depósitolegal:397889/15

5ForewordLuísFilipeBarreto/WuZhiliangp.9AbouttheAuthorsp.21PortugueseMacauandTokugawaJapanintheEarly17thCenturyasSeenfromtheJapaneseArchivalRecordTsukoIchiranJamesK.Chinp.25Unaminoría:losjaponesesenManilayenMacauJuanGilp.43Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(1600–1627)ElsaPenalvap.93The(In)VisibilityRhetoricandtheRelationshipBetweenBeijing,MacauandQianshanintheLocalGazetteersoftheXiangshanDistrictandintheBriefMonographofMacauElisabettaCollap.179TheCanton–MacauAreaasa‘lieuxdesavoir’:theWesternMissionaries’DetentionintheCantonJesuitResidence(1665–1671)andtheirWrittenandEditorialOutput(22/3/2013)NoëlGolversp.215DutchPerceptionsofMacauW.F.VandeWallep.235

6Scienza,missioni,destino:WenceslasPantaleonKirwitzerUgoBaldinip.283JesuítasitalianosemMacauMariagraziaRussop.352MacauintheTimeandWorkofÁlvaroSemedoIsabelMurtaPinap.385DiversifiedFormsandCommonwealinCenter:OntheDevelopmentofCharityinMacauLouShenghua,ZangXiaohuap.395TheArtsofIntegrationandRecreation:aCulinaryStudyofMacauVincentWai-kitHop.405ArchivesoftheSenado'sProcuraturaandtheCodificationandTranslationofChineseDocumentsTerezaSenap.429Macau:PastandPresentMigration–Issues,SourcesandMethodsAlfredoGomesDiasp.473TeachingPortugueseinChinaandMacau’sContributionLiChangsenp.487

9InOctober2012theMacauScientificandCulturalCentre,whichisapublicinstituteofPortugal’sMinistryofEducationandScience,or-ganisedtheInternationalColloquiumMacau:PastandPresentinLis-boninconjunctionwiththeMacauFoundationunderthetheMacauSpecialAdministrativeRegionofthePeople’sRepublicofChina.Overthreeworkingdays,morethanadozenresearcherspresentedpapersinEnglishandPortuguese.Theydebatedtopicsandproblems,dataandmethodsrelatedtothecityandregionofMacaufromtheperiodofitsinternationaloriginsinthe16thand17thcenturiestothepresentday.Analysesofhistoryandhistoricalsociologywerediscussedandcompared,aswerespecificcasestudiesandpanoramictypologiesoftheareaandgroups,sometouchingoninternationalaspectsandothersonmoreinternalfacetsoflifeintheCityandRegion.ThescientificgoalofthismeetingwastofurtherthedevelopmentofresearchaboutthepastandpresentofMacau,andtohavemoreandbetterknowledgeaboutthecurrent“stateofplay”ofwhathasbeenandisbeingachievedthroughresearchdirectedbyuniversitiesandresearchcentersinEuropeandAsiaandnotablyinPortugal,ChinaandMacau.TheorganisersoftheColloquium,cccm/MacauFoundation,seethisandothersimilarmeetingsasafruitfulinvestment,andasanothersteptowardsthedevelopmentofstudiesandhighereducationonMacau,andinitsmultiplefunctionsandcultural,social,politicalandeconomicdimensions.Itwasalsointendedasanincentiveforarchives,librariesandmuseumstobemoreandbetterorganised,sothattheypublishandspreadknowledgeaboutthesourcesandcollectionsofdocumentsandobjectsaboutMacau.Theover-ridinggoalofthiscolloquium,andoftheothersevenheldsince2007,istoarticulatetheknowledgeofthepastandthepresentmightbebetterpreparedtoseekoutthecenturies-oldpatternsandregularfeaturesofMacau,onesthatgodeeperthanjustoneorothereventorsituationinthe16thand17thcenturiesorinthe20thand21stForewordLuísFilipeBarreto/WuZhiliang

1110forewordcenturies.Itaimstopursuethisgoalthroughtypologicalcomparison,thediversityofdata,themultilingualpluralityofthedocumenta-tionandalsothepluralityoftheoreticalandmethodologicalresearchprogrames,andtodiscussandcometogetheronthedifferentwaysofmovingforwardontheresearchquestionofthepast,presentandfu-tureofMacauonmoresolidgroundandwithgreaterassurance.Thisvolumegatherstheessenceofthekeypapersoflate2012.ThesepagesalmostentirelyinEnglishbutintheiroriginallanguage(Portuguese,Spanish,Italian);thetextscontainwithverypowerfuldocumentalcomponentsandinformation(suchasthosebyJuanGil,ElsaPenalva,UgoBaldiniandMariagraziaRusso).Theyopenupnewhorizonswithdocumentsandmanuscriptshithertounseen.Transla-tionwouldunderminetheresearchdescribed.InthecaseofMacau,researchisalwaysmultilingual,meaningabroadarrayofEuropeanandAsianlanguagesthatstimulatethecomparativeworkofmultilin-gualteams.Indeed,thisvolumecomprisesarticlesinfourlanguages:English(9),Portuguese(2),Spanish(1)andItalian(1).Thedocumentalrelevanceofthepapersintheselanguages,theirimportanceasevidenceandcitationsunpublishedmanuscriptsfullyjustifiesthisincreasinglyfrequentmultilingualformat.Macauisamicro-island/peninsulawithmacrofunctionsofglobalconnectivityandofthecontrollableopeningupofcultural,economicandsocialgroupsandactivitiesfromtheSouthChinacoasttotherestoftheworld.ThistrendhasbeenaconstantoverthemanycenturiesfromthestartoftheMingperiodandthroughoutthe16thand17thcenturies.Itisaregularstructuralpatternthatisrepeatedtovaryingdegreesandbreadthbothinrelationtoconnectivityandtypesofcontrolledopening.ItwasstructuralrepetitionthroughouttheQingdynasty,intheperiodsoftheFirstRepublicandthePeople’sRepublicofChina,andpost-1999,aftertheemergenceoftheSpecialAdministrativeRegion.Attractingdiverseuniversesistheraisond’êtreandmeaningofthismicrocity-region.ItsoriginalandfundamentalpurposeasthegatewaytoGuangzhouandaninternationalportservingmultipleareasrangingfromtrade,finance,cultureandmigrationtotechnologymakeMacauaglobalhub,amicro-spaceofmultipleandnotinfrequentlycontradic-toryconvergencesandinterests.Firstandforemost,Macauisaplatformforattractingcapital,intel-lectandgoodsfromtheprovincesofGuangdongandFujian,andluísfilipebarreto/wuzhiliangahubforcombinedresourcesofthesetwocoastalprovincesofsouth-ernChinaforexchange,internationalfinance,maritimetradeandthefreeflowofpeopleandinformation/knowledgewithinandoutsideofChinaanditsmaritimesphereofNanyang.Thefarthest-reachingplatformofthisinternationaltradeofthecoastalprovincesofsouthernChinawasprovidedbythePortuguese.ThiscontributionnowbringstheIndianandAtlanticoceans,theirroutes,marketsandproductstotheregion.Thesearethesamemar-ketsandproductsthatconnectthejunksandChinesecommunitiesofsouthernChinatotheislandsandpeninsulasofSoutheastAsia.IntheMingperiod,themaritime-commercialintermediationofthePortugueseandtheconsolidationoftheirestablishedpositioninMacaucameaboutlargelyduetotheJapanfactor:Japanesesilver,ChineseandJapanesecapitalthatdrovetheCantonFairontheMacau–Nagasakiaxis,silks,porcelain,Chinesecurrencyandsoonflowedbetweenthe“sonsofHeaven”andthe“sonsoftheRisingSun”.TherelevanceoftheJapanesedimensiontotheknowledgeofMacaucomestousherethroughthestudybyJamesK.Chin(UniversityofHongKong)abouttheTsukoIchikanarchiveandJapanesedocumen-tationontherelationsbetweenMacauandTokugawaJapanintheearly18thcentury.TheJapanesemarketswerekeynotonlytoMacau’simportsandexportsbutalsotoitscharacterasaninternationalbordercity,andtheinterculturalrelationsbetweenEuropeandJapan.Macau’sincreasingusefulnesswasalsoduetoitsconnectionstoManilaandtheAmericanPacific.AMacau–Nagasaki–ManilaaxisspreadfromCantonandGuangdongprovincetoFujian,VietnamandtheislandsandportsofSoutheastAsia.ThestudybyJuanGil(RealAcademiaEspanhola)ontheJapaneseminorityinManilaandMacaucontinuestoshowustheimportanceoftheJapanesefactorintheorig-inalformationofMacau.Macau’sLuso–Chinesestatusattractsthemostdiverseofforcesandpeople,institutionsandinterests.Thenumerousbuildersanddecision-makersofMacau,inMacauitselfbutalsoinCantonandGoa,LisbonandBeijing,PataneandMalacca,HongKongandSingapore,JapanandFujian,etc.leftawealthofdocumentarysourcesinawiderangeoflanguages.BasedonmaterialwritteninChinese,ElisabettaColla(LisbonUniversity),LouShenghua(MacauPolytechnicInstitute),ZangXiaohua(MacauUniversityofScienceandTechnology),VincentHo--

1312foreword(MacauUniversity)andLiChangsen(MacauPolytechnicInstitute)bringusdifferentaspectsofMacaufromthe1600stothepresentday.ElisabettaCollapresentsastudyonMacaubasedontheChinesesourcesandperspectivesofthe16th,17thand18thcenturies,presentingChinesedocumentationofadifferentkind,periodicandamonograph,analysedindetailandputinthecontextofitsspaceandtime.WithVincentHo’sstudyaboutthecuisineofMacaubothintermsofitslongheritageanditsextensivehybridisationandmixtures,ween-terthecontemporaryworldofMacautoday.Macau’scuisineinthepastandthepresentexpressestheheritageandeverydaylifeofaninternationalintermediarycity–cityofmigra-tion,atemporaryshelter,aportofcallinwhichthethousandsoffoodproducts,waysofcooking,culinarytastesandpalatesfindanewhome.Macauisamulti-culinaryexperience,alivinglaboratoryofhybrideat-inganddrinking.Thisculinarydiversityistodayoneoftheaddedval-uesfortourisminMacau’sSpecialAdministrativeRegion.LouShenghuaandZhangXiaohuarevealkeyinstitutionalfeaturesofMacausociallifeinthe21stcentury,andthepathstakenbyMacau’sSpecialAdministrativeRegionintermsofwelfareservicesandsocialsolidarity.LiChangsensketchesboththecurrentandpastlandscapeoftheteachingofthePortugueselanguagethroughoutthePeople’sRepublicofChinaandinMacau.Macau’smultilingualismhasbeenaconstantstructuringfeature.Languagesareobjectivesocialrealities,systemsthatarepubliclyownedthroughcooperationandcompetition.TheteachingandlearningofthePortugueselanguageisoneofMacau’sstrategictreasures,whichisrevealedhereasitspresentandfuture.Fromthe16thcenturytothepresentday,MacauhasalsobeenaspaceofcooperationandcompetitionamongWesterners.IntheMingera,althoughLatin(Portuguese,SpanishandItalian)coopera-tionprevailed,therewasalsocompetition(aswellascooperation)betweenIberians,andbetweenMacauandManila.Moreover,therewasmilitaryandpoliticalconflictbetweentheDutchandPortuguesearoundtheMacau–NagasakiandMacau–Malacca–Bataviaroutes.TheEuropeanmaritimeandtradingempirestransferredtheiractivityandconflictstotheseasandcoastsofEastandSoutheastAsia.LatincooperationinMacauisaddressedbyUgoBaldini(PaduaUniversity),MariagraziaRusso(ViterboUniversity),NoëlGolversluísfilipebarreto/wuzhiliang(LouvainUniversity)respectivelyusingacasestudy,apanoramicin-ventoryandaninstitutionallandscape.ThecommonthreadrunningthroughthesethreestudiesistheissueanddifficultiesoftheJesuitMissioninChina,andMacau’sroleinthisinterculturalrelationship.IsabelMurtaPina(cccm)alsopresentsapaperonthissubject,withinformationaboutthelifeandworkofÁlvaroSemedoS.J.referringtoMacau.UgoBaldini’sstudyonWenceslasPantaleonKirwitzer(c.1587–1626)takesusonthepathofthehistoryofscienceandmissionaryac-tivitiestothefieldofinterculturalrelationsbetweenEuropeandMingChina.HeusesunpublisheddocumentationinLatinandItaliantore-buildlifeandjoinupEuropeanscience,theJesuitswithMingChina.Basesonasystematicsurvey,MariagraziaRussopresentsapano-ramaofItalianJesuitsinMacau,enhancedbyawealthoftypologicalinformationaboutthenatureandfunctionsoftheItalianspacesthatsuppliedtheItalianJesuitsinMacauandChina.NoëlGolverstellsofthemechanismsforprocessingandproducinginformationandknowledgeinChinausedbytheJesuitsintheCanton–Macaulinkinthe17thcentury.Manuscriptsandprintedmaterial,translationsandmeetingsappearasintegratedandrelatedpartsoftheJesuits’Missionproject.MacauisalsoaplaceofcompetitionandconflictsbetweenWest-erners,aplaceofthecrossingofinformationandcounter-informationaboutChinaandtherestofEastAsia,gatheredandchannelledbyEu-ropeancircuitswithdistinctandopposingpolitics,economiesandreli-gions.W.VandeWalle(LouvainUniversity)givesusadetailedpictureoftheDutchperspectiveofMacaubetweenthelate16thandlate17thcenturies.Atthetime,therivalrybetweentheDutchandthePortu-gueseinfluencedtheEuropeanpathsacrosstheseas,islandsandcoastsofChina,JapanandSoutheastAsia.ThevitalpulseofMacau,itspeopleandactivitiesalsocomestousthroughstudiesbasedessentiallyonthePortugueselanguage.ElsaPenalva(cham)producesoneofthemostsignificantcontributionsofthisvolumethroughknowledgeofpreviouslyunpublishedandmanu-scriptdocumentation.WenowhavemoreandbetterknowledgeaboutthreeofMacau’skeyfeaturesbetween1600and1627.Themerchants,Jesuitsandtranslator/interpretersofMacauarebroughttousthroughthespaceandactivitiesofeverydaylife.

1514forewordTerezaSena(MacauPolitechnicInstitute)andAlfredoGomesDias(EscolaSuperiordeEducaçãodeLisboa)alsoprovideinformationandreflectionsabouttwoconstantpatternsinMacau’ssocioculturalprocess.TranslationandMigrationaretwokeyfactorsinMacau’spastandpresent.MacauisanaturallymultilingualspaceduetothelegacyofmultiplediasporasfromChina,PortugalandotherAsianandEuro-peancountries.ThemigratoryflowstoandfromMacaufeedthemul-tiplicityoflanguagesinuseandexchange.OneofthepurposesandadvantagesofanInternationalColloquiumisalsotoshowthestateofplay,andtopubliclyexhibitthemesandissuesingrowth,andtopinpointotherareasthathavelimitedorin-adequateresearch.Fieldsstillinneedofdevelopmentarerevealedbythecurrentproliferationofresearch,andfutureinvestmentisrequiredinresearchprojectsthatcangeneratequantityandquality.TheseareasareinneedofmonitoringandstimulusnotonlyfromcccmandtheMacauFoundationbutalsofromuniversities,polytechnicsandre-searchcenters,particularlyinPortugalandChina.ThehistoricalanthropologyofeatinginMacau,acenturies–oldhistoryofcuisineintheinternationalcityfromhybridMacanesecook-ingtotheinternationalopeningsofthecuisineofCantonandFujiisaresearchprogrammethatrequiresfuturesupport,developmentandimplementation.Wearestillalongwayfromhavingsystematicdocu-mentalinventories,casestudiesonculinaryformsandfashions,onfoodstuffsandthemostusedcombinationsofvegetablesandseason-ingundoubtedlyfromEastAsiabutalsofromtheIndianandAtlanticOceans,theAmericas,AfricaandSoutheastAsia.MoreandbetterknowledgeaboutMacauinthepastandthepre-sentimpliesresearchandpublicationonthesocialhistoryoftheMa-canesediet.Whatdidthedifferentsocialgroupseatanddrink,fromtheeconomicandpoliticalelitestothelowest-skilledworkers,localtradesmenandmenandwomenfromdistinctcommunitiesinMacau?TowhatextentdoesMacau'scuisineexpressidentitymechanismsandthedifferencesbetweenEuropeansandAsians,mixed-racecom-munitiesandChineseprovincialgroups?Whatwasthefunctionofthegreatbanquetsgivenforforeignersandresidents?Thesearesomeofthequestionstoberaisedbycasestudyresearchwithaspecifictimeframeandalsobylongerlastingcomparativeandpano-ramicstudies.luísfilipebarreto/wuzhiliangTheStatuteofMacauinPortuguesedocumentationisaparticularlyimportantfieldthatwillpermitmoreandbetterresearchbyMasters,Doctorateandpost-doctoratescholars.WestillknowrelativelylittleabouttheStatuteofMacau;eitheraboutcertainaspectsofitsinternalinstitutionaloperationsoraboutthereasonforthewaysandmeansinwhichthecosmopolitanportcityatthemouthofCantonwasrepresentedandunderstoodinPortugal,ChinaandotherAsianandEuropeancountries.ThereissomeambivalenceintheStatuteofMacauinthe16thand17thcenturies,presentinganebulouscontradictorylandscapebothinthethepracticeofandthemanuscriptandprinteddocumentationre-cordsinPortugueseandChinese.IntheMingandearlyQingperiods,wefindaninformalsituationratherthananofficialprotocol,vis-à-visamicroborderopentothePortugueseandotherEuropeanandAsians;thisresultedfromaninternationalcontextofpossibilityandneed,op-portunityandcompetition,butitdidnothavetheconsistencyofanofficialstatuteandmuchlessonethathadbeenagreedonbythedy-nasticstatesofPortugalandChina.MacauisfundamentalintheframeworkofEurasianinternationalrelationsinthe16thand17thcenturies.TogetherwithManilaandNaga-saki,itwasoneofthestrongestpolesinEastAsiafortheeconomyandcultureonaninternational,globalandworldscale.Andyetthelocal,regionalandinternationalstatusofthis,opentomultiplenationalities,borderremainedinasituationoffluidityanduncertaintyoverthesecenturies,apractisedbutunstatedinformality.CouldthisreallyhavebeentheStatuteofMacauatthattimeorisitour21stcenturyknowl-edgeabouttheissuethatislacking?WillourknowledgeadvanceandunveildistinctionsandvaryingperspectivesabouttheStatuteofMacauinMacau,CantonandPekingaswellasinMacau,GoaandLisbon?Aspecialisedandfocusedstudy,informedandupdated,impliesachronologicalandtypologicalseriationofthePortuguesesources.Thisfirstexerciseimmediatelyrevealsanoscillationbetweenmanu-scriptmaterialsandprinteddocumentation,aswellasbetweentheplacesfromwhichtheyoriginated.TheformerbearwitnesstoMacauastheterritoryofthe“KingandKingdomofChina”,whereaforeigncommunityofmerchantsfromPortugalresidedandpaidrent(afo-ramento)forpremises,withaneducatedandlargelyecclesiasticelitethatcompliedwiththeessenceofChineselegalrequirements.Thisis

1716forewordthegeneralruleformanuscriptsourcesanddocumentsinMacau,Na-gasaki,Manila,Goa,Lisbon,Madrid,etc.(withsporadicandminorexceptionslikethatofGabrieldeMatosin1621).Incontrast,printedmaterialinEuropeinlanguagessuchasPortu-guese,Castilian,ItalianandLatin,begantocreateanotherstatuteofMacau,asweshallseelater,forexample,inPeregrinaçãobyFernãoMendesPinto,writtenorcompletedinAlmada(Portugal)betweencirca1568and1578andprintedinLisbon,1614;thisstates:“…atéaoanode1557queosMandarinsdeCantãoarequerimentodosmer-cadoresdaterranosderamesteportodeMacau…”.TwentyeditionsofthisworkwerepublishedinPortuguese,Spanish,French,EnglishandDutchinthe17thcentury.ItisoneoftheworksonAsiathatmadethegreatestinternationalimpactinEuropeandinEuropeancirclesinAsia.Otherworksalongthesamelines,statingthatMacauis“sódaNaçãoportuguesa”(ManueldeFariaeSousa,1630s)wereprintedinEurope,includingthatofÁlvaroSemedo–ImperiodelaChina,Madrid,1642.ThecontradictioninthedeclarationsabouttheStatuteofMacauinthe16thand17thcenturiesisnotsimplythedifferenceandoppositionbetweenthefactualandrealistichandwrittenstatements(inletters,instructions,officialdecrees,reportsandcompendiumsofpreciseandup-to-dateinformation)andtheconciseprintedstatementsthatservedasthepropagandaofChurchandState.Thedifferenceliesalsointhespacesinwhichthedeclarationsweremade.Thereisametamorphosisinthewords,evenifhandwritten,indeclarationsabouttheStatuteofMacauthatareproducedoutsideofEastAsia.The“subjectsoftheKingandKingdomofChina”,astheycalledthemselvesinthefirstquarterofthe17thcentury,emphasisedtheirautonomyanddistancefromCantonandBeijingandproclaimedgreaterinterdependencewithGoaandLisbon;weseethis,forexample,withtheMacaneseandFranciscanBrotherPaulodaTrindade(1570–1651)whoinConquistaEspiritualdoOriente,writteninGoabetween1630and1636(printedonlyin1962–1967),states:“…naChinatemosacidadedeMacauaqualoschinesesderamaosportuguesesparanelafazeremsuahab-itaçãoecomércio,dequeaeleslhesvemmuitoproveito…”ThepassagefromGoatoMadrid,frommanuscripttoprinteddocument,accentuatesthiskindofstatementabouttheStatuteofMacauevenfurther,asweseeinManuelFariaeSousa(1590–1649),probableco-authorwithÁlvaroSemedoofImperiodelaChina(fromluísfilipebarreto/wuzhilianganotherversionprintedinMadrid).Betweenaround1632and1639,ManuelFariaeSousawrotetheAsiaPortuguesa(printedin1674–1675),inwhichhestates:“…noslimitesdaChina,ailhadeMacau,basefirmíssimadamaisprósperacolunaportuguesanaquelesconfinsdomundo…”.ThegreaterthedistancefromMacau,Canton,Beijing,thelessMacauwasproclaimedasacitythatrespected“dasleisdeEl-ReidaChina”(AntónioBocarro,Goa,manuscriptconcludedin1635)andthemorefrequentlywefindstatementslikethatofManuelFariaeSousaandÁlvaroSemedo.Weknowmuchmoreinthe21stcenturythaneverbefore.Wecanseetheadvanceinacademicknowledgeabout,forinstance,thesym-bolicandexemplaryepisodeoftheIlhaVerde(1618–1621)whichwassorelevanttotheStatuteofMacau.Thestudiesandsourcespublished,ofwhichFontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoséculoxvii,byElsaPenalvaandMiguelRodriguesLourenço,Lisboa,cccm,2009,isjustoneexample,provideinformedandup-to-dateresearchthatallowstheIlhaVerdeepisodetobeaddressedandframedintheperiodofnolaterthan1614inaverydifferentwayfromwhathadpreviouslybeenpossible.Itisimperativethatinformedandup-to-dateresearchabouttheStatuteofMacaureferringonlytothe16thand17thcenturiesandPortuguesesourcesdistinguishesbetweenthehandwrittendocumen-tationproducedinMacauandAsiaandtheprinteddocumentationeditedinEurope.Followingtheseriationandcorrelationofbothdocumentalunits,themanuscriptsandprintedmattermustbecross-referencedasthoroughlyaspossiblewithsituationalcontextsnotonlyinChinaandAsiabutalsoinPortugalandEurope.TheStatuteofMacauwentthroughchangesinthedistantspaceofChina/MacauandattimeswhenChinawasweakenedinternallybysocial-politicaldisruptionsorexternallyby“western”imperialandindustrialadvances.TheChineserealitywiththeincorporationofthePortugueseandotherEuropeansandAsianswasclaimedtobethe“Portuguesereality”concededbyChinaduringtheMing/Qingtran-sition,duringtheOpiumWar,andduringtheperiodoftheunequaltreatiesinthe19thcentury.Sincethemid-20thcenturyandthegradualresurgenceofChinaontheinternationalstage,theproclaimedStatuteofMacauhastendedtocomeclosertowhatisactuallypractisedinbothMacauandLisbon.

1918forewordInvestigatingtheStatuteofMacaudoesnotsimplyentailobtainingandprovingtherationaleofwrittenevidence,but,aboveall,investigat-ingthepaceofcurrentsocialandpolitical,economicandculturallife.Muchremainstobedoneinthisarea,too.TheresearchhypothesistobetestedisthatlifeinMacauitselfbeatsatafasterpacethanthatofEastChina,andtheglobalandworldeconomy.Thegreaterthedevel-opmentandgrowthoftheeconomiesandsocietiesofChina,Japan,Vi-etnam,Korea,thePhilippines,etc,thegreatertheopportunitiesforthedevelopmentandgrowthofMacauanditscosmopolitan,internationalandintermediaryposition.ThiscolloquiumaboutMacau:PastandPresentnotonlyrevealspathsalreadywalkedandobjectivesachievedbutalsoothersinwhichtheprocessofbuildingknowledgeandcarryingandresearchonMa-caumustgoevenfurther.ThehandwrittenandprintedPortuguesedocumentationopensupnumerouswaysoffurtheringknowledgeabouttheinstitutionalandpoliticalstatuteofthecityandautonomousregion,itshybridcuisine,itsmultilingualism,itsmigratoryambivalenceinattractingpeoplefromthemostdiversepointsbutalsoinfosteringtheexitofitsnativecitizens.AndallthesetopicsandissuesarealsoreceptivetotreatmentanddevelopmentusingdocumentarysourcesinChineseandJapanese,SpanishandItalian,DutchandEnglish.Eachandeveryoneofthesepaperspublishedhereinmakeamean-ingfulcontributiontoknowledgeaboutMacaufromthe16thcenturytothepresentday.Theyrevealunknownworldsorlittleknownwrit-tensources,images,objectsandpracticesfromeverydaylife,orsym-bolicregional,nationalandinternationalrepresentations.Theeditorsofthiscolloquiumwouldyetagainliketothankallofthosepublishingtheirpapersinthisvolume.Pastandpresentgohandinhand.Everythinginthepresenttrans-ports,transmits,transformsthelegacyofthepast.Everythingthatcanbeknownaboutthepastreliesontheformofthesurvivingfrag-mentarytracesthatareconservedinthepresent.Withoutthisandthemergingofpastandpresent,itisanunknownthatwillneverbeknown;withoutabridgeitremainsstrangeanddistant.Therecanbenopresentwithoutthepast,buttherecanalsobenoknowledgeaboutthepastwithoutapresentthatmakesthispossibletoobtain.Itisthistensioninthedialoguebetweentimecycles,pastandpresent,thatistheorderofthedayandtheorderofknowledgeinour21stcenturyworld.luísfilipebarreto/wuzhiliangKnowingMacauandexperiencingMacauisatemporalrainbowarchingbetweenthepresentandthepast.Thiscollection,thefruitofcooperationbetweentheMacauCulturalandScientificCentreandtheMacauFoundation,strivestocreatethisrainbowthroughresearchandinformation.

21AbouttheAuthorsWuZhiliangPresidentoftheMacauFoundationandvisitingProfessorattheUniversityofMacau,theMacauUniversityofScienceandTechnology,NanjingUniversityandBeijingForeignStudiesUniversity.LuísFilipeBarretoPresidentoftheMacauScientificandCulturalCentre.FullProfessorofEarlyModernHistoryandDirectorofAsianStudiesattheUniversityofLisbon.JamesK.ChinResearchFellowattheCentreofAsianStudies,UniversityofHongKong.DistinguishedProfessorattheResearchSchoolofOverseasChineseatJinanUniversityandResearchProfessorattheInstituteofHistoricalResearch,ChinaAcademyofSocialSciences.JuanGilFullProfessorofLatinPhilologyattheUniversityofSevilleandmemberoftheSpanishRoyalAcademy.ElsaPenalvaInvitedresearcheratthecham/NewLisbonUniversityandatthecccm.ElisabettaCollaAssistantProfessorinAsianStudiesprogramattheSchoolofArtsandHumanities–UniversityofLisbon.NoëlGolversSeniorResearcherattheKatholiekeUniversiteitLeuvenandLecturerinLatinattheKatholiekeHogeschoolLeuven.

2322WillyVandeWalleFullprofessorandCoordinatorofJapanesestudiesattheKatholiekeUniversiteit,Leuven,whereheteachesJapaneseHistory,languageandliterature,aswellastheHistoryofPremodernChinaandClassicalChineseLiterature.HeiscurrentlychairmanoftheEuropeanAssociationofJapaneseresourcespecialists.In2006theJapanesegovernmenthonouredhimwiththeOrderoftheRisingSun,GoldRayswithNeckRibbon.UgoBaldiniFullProfessorofEarlyModernHistoryatPaduaUniversity,wherehedirectstheDepartmentofHistoricalandPoliticalStudies.MariagraziaRussoFullProfessorofPortugueseLanguageandLiteratureattheUniversityofViterbo.IsabelMurtaPinaAuxiliaryresearcheratthecccm.LouShenghuaProfessorandCoordinatorofPublicAdministrationProgramming/ManagementattheMacauPolytechnicInstituteandthePresidentoftheMacauNewVisionAssociation.ZhangXiaohuaAssistantProfessorattheMacauUniversityofScienceandTechnology.VicentWai-KitHoAssistantProfessorattheHistoryDepartmentoftheUniversityofMacau.TerezaSenaResearcherattheCentreofSino–WesternCulturalStudiesatMacauPolytechnicInstitute.abouttheauthorsAlfredoGomesDiasAssistantProfessoratSchoolofEducationofLisbon.LiChangsenProfessorCoordinatorofTranslationandComparativeStudiesatMacauPolytechnicInstitute.abouttheauthors

25ThefirstcontactbetweenJapanandEuropecouldbedatedbackto1543,whenasmallgroupofPortuguesetradersarrivedonboardaChinesejunkinTanegashima,anislandonthesouthernmosttipofKyushuattheentrancetoKagoshimaBay.RegulartraderelationsweregraduallyestablishedbetweenPortugueseMacauandTokugawaJapanwithoneortwoPortugueseNáosailingintotheroadsteadofNagasakiannuallyandmanyPortugueseandSpanishJesuitspreachingChristi-anityamonglocalresidents.Trade,religiousconversions,conflictsanddiplomaticnegotiationsbetweenPortugueseMacauandTokugawaJapancouldthusfrequentlybeobservedinthenextcentury.BasedoncontemporaryrecordssuchasJapanesediplomaticarchivalrecordscompiledinTsukoIchiran,andanumberofWesternaccountsgleanedandtranslatedbythelateProfessorC.R.Boxer,thisarticlere-exam-inesthebilateralrelationsbetweenPortugueseMacauandTokugawaJapanintheearly17thcenturywithafocusontheunfortunatearmedclashesofftheNagasakicoastin1610,inthehopeofsheddingnewlightontheinterestingdiplomaticnegotiationsinearlymodernmari-timeEastAsia.TheJapaneseArchivalRecordsTsukoIchiranUnpublishedarchivalsourcesarenodoubtimportantinthestudyofthebilateralrelationsbetweenPortugueseMacauandTokugawaJapanintheearly17thcentury,includingthePortuguesearchivalrecordskeptintheTorredoTomboofLisbon,andtheDutchvocre-cordsshelvedinTheHague.Printedarchivalrecords,contemporarywitnessesandnarratives,aswellasearlyresearchworksalsoareindis-pensable.SourcesavailableinPortuguese,Japanese,Chinese,Dutch,French,GermanandEnglishcouldbeemployedinobservingandana-lysingthetopicunderdiscussion.Ofthem,aJapaneseprimaryrecordscollectionentitledTsukoIchiran(通航一覧)orSurveyofIntercoursewithForeignCountries,whichhaslongbeenoverlookedbyhistoriansdeservesaspecialmention.PortugueseMacauandTokugawaJapanintheEarly17thCenturyasSeenfromtheJapaneseArchivalRecordTsukoIchiranJamesK.Chin--------

2726TsukoIchiranisamid-19thcenturycompilationofJapanesediplo-maticdocuments,bothofficialandprivate,regardingtotheforeignrelationsoftheTokugawaJapan.ThisprojectwasinitiatedbyanorderfromtheBakufutocompileandeditallthedocumentsandrecordspertainingtoJapan’sforeignrelations,withtheaimofprovidingapol-icyguidebasedontwoandahalfcenturiesofdiplomaticprecedents.AssistedbyagroupofJapanesehistorians,theShogunate’schiefad-visoronforeignrelations,HayashiAkira(林復齋,1800–1859,alsoknownasHayashiFukusai),consultedahugenumberofJapaneserecordsandsystematicallyorganisedprimaryrecordsproducedintheperiodfrom1566through1825intodifferentsectionsinaccordancewiththeregionsandcountriesthathadtrade,politicalandculturalrelationswithTokugawaJapan,togetherwithhisownobservationsandremarks.Consistingof8books,thisimportantarchivalcollectionwascompiledin1853,andallthedocuments,descriptionsandcom-mentariespertainingtoEastAsiantradeanddiplomacyweregroupedinto350juanorvolumes,andalltheeventsareorganisedchronologi-cally.RecordsrelatingtoPortugueseMacauareallcompiledinBookFivefromjuan182tojuan197,andthemajorityoftherecordsareconcernedwiththetraderelationsbetweenMacauandJapanaswellastheprohibitionofChristianityinthecountry.Ofthem,anumberofofficiallettersaddressingthePortugueseMacauauthoritiesinrela-tiontothearmedclashesofftheNagasakicoastin1610areparticu-larlyinteresting,astheyrevealtheculturaldifferencesbetweenthetwonationsandthementalityoftheJapaneseShogunategovernment.ThePortugueseMacauNáoTradewithNagasakiTheso-called“NanbanTrade”(南蠻貿易Nanbanboeki,“Southernbarbariantrade”)ortheNanbantradeperiod(南蛮貿易時代Nanbanboekijidai,“Southernbarbariantradeperiod”)inJapanesehistoryextendsfromthearrivalofthefirstEuropeans–Portugueseexplor-ers,missionariesandmerchants–toJapanin1543,totheirnear-totalexclusionfromthearchipelagoin1614,underthepromulgationofthe“Sakoku”SeclusionEdicts.Asbrieflymentioned,regulartraderelationsweregraduallyestablishedbetweenPortugueseMacauandTokugawaJapaninthelate16thcentury,andonaverageoneortwoPortugueseNáoorgreat“BlackShips”wouldsailintotheroadsteadofNagasakiannually,whilealargenumberofPortugueseandSpanishJesuits----portuguesemacauandtokugawajapanintheearly17thcenturyasseenfromthejapanesearchivalrecordtsukoichiran--sojournedtheretopreachChristianityamonglocalresidents.GiventhattheJapanesewerealreadyprohibitedfromlandingonmainlandChinaatthattimebytheimperialMingcourtafteraseriesofWakoorJapanesepirateraidsonChina’ssoutheastcoast,andChineseprivatemaritimetradewasconsiderablycurbed,ifnotcompletelystopped,bythestrictmaritimeprohibitivepolicyandregulationsimposedbytheChinesegovernment,thePortuguesebasedinMacauthusbecametheonlyonesintheregiontoseizetheopportunitytobecomeactivelyin-volvedintheprofitablemaritimetradebetweenMacauandNagasaki.AvastquantityofChinesesilksandforeignexoticawereshippedintoTokugawaJapanbythePortuguese“BlackShips”inexchangeforJapanesesilver,whichinturnmadeMacautheleadingemporiumoftheChina–JapantradeandNagasakianimportantChristiansettle-mentinEastAsia.ThebulkofthecapitalinvestedbythePortugueseMacaumer-chantsintheChinamarketactuallywasderivedfromtheNáotradewithJapanesesilverbars,whichthePortugueseNáobroughtbackfromNagasaki.Inareasonablygoodyearthesewereworthoveramil-lioningold,andthegreatbulkofthissilverwaspromptlyinvestedinChinesegold,silks,porcelainandothercommodities,onlyasmallpro-portionbeingre-exportedfromMacautoGoa.1ItisinterestingtonotethatthePortugueseMacaumerchantswerenottheonlyonesthathadinvestedheavilyintheNáotradewithNagasaki,andtheJesuitmissioninJapanalsohadagreatshareofit,thoughitisdifficulttodeterminedetailsoftheircommercialactivitiesinJapan,andnoonecouldtelltheexactsumreceivedbytheJesuitsfromallsourcesinsupportoftheJapanmission.Suchapracticewasquitepopularamongearlymis-sionariesinAsia.TheProtestantDutchpastorsinTaiwanfrom1640to1661,forexample,werefrequentlyaccusedoftradingindeer-skinstoJapanfortheirownprivateends.2Asaconsequence,anygrievouslossofaNáowouldconstituteaheavyblowtotheJesuitmissioninJapan,asaconsiderablepartoftheirincomewasderivedfromthesaleofanumberofbalesofChineserawsilkwhichwereshippedontheirac-countintheannualnáodotratofromMacau.-1.DiogodoCouto,Diálogodosoldadoprático,ed.M.RodriguesLapa,1937,p.240,quotedinC.R.Boxer,TheGreatShipfromAmacon:AnnalsofMacauandtheOldJapanTrade,1555–1640,p.64.2.MichaelMoscatocompiled,PapersonPortuguese,Dutch,andJesuitInfluencesin16thand17thCenturyJapan:WritingsofCharlesRalphBoxer,Washington,D.C.:UniversityPublicationsofAmerica,Inc.,1979,p.34.jamesk.chin

2928  WiththedevelopmentofthePortugueseNáotradewithTokugawaJapan,asizableChristiancommunitywasgraduallyformedinthetownofNagasaki.Meanwhile,itwasprobablyahabitualpracticeatthattimewasforthePortuguesesettlersofMacautointermarrywithJapanesewiveswhilemaintainingclosematrimonialandcommercialtieswiththesamuraiofKyushu.AsthePortugueselanguagewasthenthecommerciallinguafrancaofmaritimeAsia,manynativeJapaneseofKyushustartedtolearnitandweresubsequentlyemployedbytheearlyDutchandBritishtraders.3ThePortugueseNáoinNagasaki3.MichaelMoscatocompiled,PapersonPortuguese,Dutch,andJesuitInfluences,Ibid.,p.46.portuguesemacauandtokugawajapanintheearly17thcenturyasseenfromthejapanesearchivalrecordtsukoichiran--TheJapaneseVermillion-SealShipTradewithSoutheastAsiaWhilethePortuguesebasedinMacaumaintainedtheirregularNáotradewithNagasaki,theJapanese,ontheotherhand,quietlylaunchedtheirownoverseastrade,i.e.the“Vermillion-SealShipTrade”.TheVermillion-SealshiptradewasofficiallysponsoredandencouragedbytheTokugawaauthorities.ThestorygoesbacktotheWakopiracythatinfestedChina’scoastduringthe15thand16thcenturies.Japan’smostpowerfuldaimyoToyotomiHideyoshi(豐臣秀吉)thensuppressedtheWako,astheirpiraticalactivitieshadcompletelydestroyedthejunktradebetweenMingChinaandJapanandbedevilledSino-Japaneserelations,whichinturngavethePortugueseinMacauararechancetobecomeindispensablebusinessmiddlemenplyingbetweenthetwocountries.ItwasHideyoshiwhoinitiallyencouragedandpromotedJapanesemerchantstotradeindifferentportpolitiesofSoutheastAsia.WhenTokugawaIeyasu(德川家康)cametopower,thisoverseasendeavourwasfurtherofficiallyencouragedandexpanded.AnofficialnavigationandtradelicencewouldnormallybeprovidedbytheTokugawaShogunate,certifiedwithalargevermillionseal,fortheJapanesemerchantshipsthatwerepermittedtotradeoverseas.Asaresult,aspecialoverseastradesysteminJapanesehistoryknownasShuin-sen(Vermillion-Seal朱印)tradecameintoviewinthelate16thandearly17thcenturies.Andby1607therewereatleast23Japanesemerchantshipsengagedinthisofficiallysponsoredoverseastrade.--TheVermillion-Sealshiplicenceissuedin1613jamesk.chin

3130MerchantsofHataka(博多)inKyushuweretheprincipalownersandentrepreneursinthisbusiness,joinedbyvariousdaimyos,Tokugawagovernmentofficials,EuropeantraderssuchasWilliamAdamsandJanJoosten,and11ChineseHokkienmerchantssojournedinKyushu.Atonepointafter1621,JanJoostenisrecordedashavingpossessed10Vermilion-sealshipsforthisparticularcommerce.TwomajorfactorscouldbecitedtoaccountfortheriseandrapiddevelopmentofVermillion-Sealshiptradeinthelate16thcentury.Thefirstfactor,asmentionedabove,isconcernedwithWakopiracy,whichforcedtheChineseMinggovernmenttoprohibittheJapanesefromlandingontheChinacoastandtradingdirectlywithChinesemerchants.JapaneseprivatemaritimetradersthushadtosailinsteadtoportsinSoutheastAsiainordertopurchaserawsilkandotherChineseproducts.TheotherfactorisrelatedtothesuddenincreaseinthevolumeofJapanesegoldandsilverproductionaroundthemiddleofthe16thcentury,whichinturngreatlyfacilitatedtherapidgrowthofJapaneseoverseastrade.AccordingtoIwaoSeiichi’s(岩生成一)studyonthetopic,morethan350vesselswereinvolvedintheVermillion-Sealtradeovertheperiodof30years.Anintheearlyyearsofthistrade,Vermillion-Sealvesselssailedto19portpolitiesofSoutheastAsiafromNagasaki,butafter1617thistrendwascompletelyreversedduetochangesinthepoliticalandeconomicsituationinmaritimeEastandSoutheastAsia,whilethenumberoftradedestinationswasreducedtoonlysix,includ-ingTonkin,CochinChina,Cambodia,Siam,LuzonandTakasago(Taiwan).Inotherwords,whiletheJapaneseVermillion-SealvesselsvisitedmostofthemarketplacesofSoutheastAsia,mainlandSouth-eastAsiahadalwaysbeentheirmostimportanttraderegion,andtherawsilkssmuggledfromChinaandlocallyproducedIndochinesesilksformedthebulkoftheirreturncargoes.ItisinterestingtonotethatintheearlystagetheJapanesealwaysemployedPortuguesepilots,andPortugueseinfluencecouldeasilybediscernedintheirnavigationalcharts,sailingplansandsailingdirec-tions.Beforelong,astheJapanesebecamemoreexperiencedinover-seasnavigation,theybegantograduallydispensewiththeirPortuguesepilots.GraduallytheJapanesemaritimetradersbegantosojournandsettleinthesetradeports,andtherewasasizablesojourningJapanesequarternamed“NihonMachi”(日本町).4-portuguesemacauandtokugawajapanintheearly17thcenturyasseenfromthejapanesearchivalrecordtsukoichiran--TheJapaneseVermillion-SealshipsailingfromNagasakitoAnnamTheVisitoftheJapaneseVermillion-SealJunkandthe1608RiotinMacauInthewinterof1608,aJapaneseVermillion-SealjunkbelongingtoArimaHarunobu(有馬晴信),theChristianDaimyoofArimainHizen,whichhadmadeatradevoyagetoCambodiatopurchasearomaticea-glewood,wasforcedbyweathertoputintotheportofMacauinordertowinterthereuntilthemonsoonof1609.TheJapanesecrewindulgedinbrawlswithlocalsailorsandinhabitantsandwalkedthroughthetowninarmedbandsofthirtyorforty,afterbeingreinforcedbythecrewofanotherJapanesejunkshipwreckednearby.ThelocalChineseauthoritieswerealarmedbythesedevelopments,andaskedthePortu-gueseSenatetocurbortoexpeltheJapanesesailors,asJapanesewere4.ForthedetailsofVermillion-Sealtradeintheearly17thcentury,seeIwaoSeiichi,Shuinsenboekishinokenkyu(StudiesoftheHistoryofVermillion-SealVessels),revisedandenlargededition,Tokyo:YoshikawaKobunkan,1985;IwaoSeiichi,ZokunanyoNihon-machinokenkyu(StudiesontheJapa-neseQuartersinSoutheastAsia),Tokyo:IwanamiShoten,1987.----jamesk.chin

3332definitelynotallowedonChinesesoilonpainofdeath.LocalChineseofficialsthusrebukedthePortugueseauthoritiesinMacaufortolerat-ingthearmedJapaneserowdies.Duringthefirstarmedclash,whichoccurredon30thNovember1608,aPortuguesemagistrateandhisen-touragewereattackedbytheinfuriatedJapanese.Themagistratewaswoundedandsomeofhismenwerekilled.Asaconsequencethealarmwassoundedbyringingallthechurchbellsinthetown.Hearingoftheriotinthetown,Captão-MórAndréPossoa,whowasactinggovernorbyvirtueofhiscapacityontheNagasakivoyage,rushedtothespotwithastrongforceandforcedtheJapanesetotakerefugeintwohous-es,whichPossoathreatenedtoburndownunlesstheysurrendered.Onlyafew,however,acceptedhisoffer.Possoathenattackedoneofthetwohouses,andstormeditafteradesperateactioninwhichabout40Japanesedefenderslosttheirlives.Meanwhileanothergroupof50barricadedthemselvesinanotherhouse,andtheypreparedtofighttothelastman.AtthispointthebishopofMacauandhisfellowJesuitsintervened,andeventuallytheypersuadedtheremainingJapanesetosurrender.ButbeforePessoawouldreleasetheJapanese,hecompelledthemtosignadocumentstatingthattheyaloneweretoblameforwhathadoccurredinMacau.5ArmedClashesofftheNagasakiCoastTheNagasakiauthoritieswerenotactuallyawareoftheMacauriotinlateJuly1609whenAndréPessoareachedtheportwiththerichlyloadedcarrackNossaSenhoradaGraça.ThefirstthingPessoadidondisembarkingwastopresenttheNagasakiBugyo(長崎奉行),HasegawaSahioye(長谷川左兵衛),withacopyofanaffidavitsignedbytheJapa-nese,whichhadbeendrawnupinMacauafterthesuppressionoftheriotof1608.HesuggestedthatitbeforwardedtotheTokugawacourtatShidzuoka(駿府).HasegawastronglyadvisedPessoanottodoso,andpointedoutthatifthePortugueseinsistedonbringinganofficialcomplaintbeforethecourt,thematterwouldhavetobeinvestigated,andthenTokugawaIeyasu(德川家康)mightfeelcompelledtotakethe-5.Briefaccountonthe1608riotinMacauisasummarybasedonanumberofarticlesandbooksauthoredbyC.R.Boxer,suchasFidalgosintheFarEast,1550–1770,HongKong:OxfordUniversityPress,1968,pp.53-54;TheGreatShipfromAmacon:AnnalsofMacauandtheOldJapanTrade,1555–1640,Lisbon:CentrodeEstudosHistóricosUltramarinos,1963,pp.72–74;MichaelMoscato(ed.),PapersonPortuguese,Dutch,andJesuitInfluences,Ibid.,pp.37–38;TheChristianCenturyinJapan,1549–1650,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1951,pp.270–271.portuguesemacauandtokugawajapanintheearly17thcenturyasseenfromthejapanesearchivalrecordtsukoichiran--6.HayashiAkiraed.TsukoIchiran(SurveyofIntercoursewithForeignCountries),Tokyo:KokushoKankokai,1912–1913reprinted,Book5,juan182,p.2.---sideofhispeople,whichcouldbeverybadforthePortuguese.Pessoa,however,wasnotfullyconvincedbythisargument,andhetriedtoconveyhiscomplainttothecourtthroughHondaMasazumi(本田正純),theseniorandinfluentialrojuoftheTokugawaShogunate.Atanyrate,accordingtotherecordscollectedandcompiledbytheJapanesecourthistorianHayashiAkira,TokugawaIeyasuacceptedwhatthePortuguesesaidandauthorisedared-sealletter(shuinjo御朱印)tobesenttotheSenateofMacau(天川湊年寄中).TheletterwasgiventoAndréPessoa’semissary,MateoLeitão,andreadasfollows.6--TheletterfromtheTokugawaShogunatetoAndréPessoa’semissary,MateoLeitãojamesk.chin

3534SinceitisanundoubtedfactthatthegoingofJapaneseinshipstoMacauisprejudicialtothatplace,thispracticewillbestrictlyprohibitedinfuture.IfanyJapaneseshouldgothere,theymaybedealtwithaccordingtothelocallaws.twenty-fifthdayoftheseventhmonthofthefourteenthyearofkeicho(慶長十四年1609)[redsealoftheshogun]Thesatisfactoryscenariobroughtaboutbytheofficialred-sealletterfromtheTokugawacourt,however,didnotlastlong.Soonafterwards,theJapanesesurvivorsoftheMacauriotreturnedtoNagasakiandgavetheirversionoftheconflicttotheirlordArimaHarunobu.DetailedaccountsoftheMacauriotandastorydifferentfromthattoldbythePortuguesefilteredthroughtoTokugawaIeyasu,whowasfuriousandreprimandedHasegawafornotdivulgingtheincidentbefore,andorderedhimtomakeathoroughinvestigation.Hasegawa’sreportwasdrawnupinconsultationwiththeaggrievedArimaHarunobu.Unsurprisingly,thereportcriticisedPessoa’sconductinMacau.Whatisworse,HasegawapointedouttothecourtinhisreportthatArima’sshiphadbeenprovidedwithashuinjo,meaningithadbeenendorsedbytheShogunate,andhencetheJapaneseshogunalhonourwasinsulted.AsaresultTokugawaIeyasuwasmuchimpressedbythisreport,andhedecidedtoseizePessoaandhisship,thepassen-gersandcrewwouldbeallowedtogofreeprovidedthattheydidnotresist.ArimaHarunobuwasentrustedwiththetaskoftakingthePor-tugueseCaptão-MórAndréPessoadeadoralive,sinceArimawastheinjuredpartyintheearlierMacauconflict.Arimaassembledaforceofabout1,200samuraiandreachedNagasakiinquestforvengeance.Pessoahowever,hadbeenwarnedofwhatwasafootbyanumberofnativeChristians,andhepromptlytookallpossibleprecautionstoavoidbeingsurprised.Hepreparedalargequantityofhandgrenades,powderandshot.HealsotriedtogethiscarrackclearoftheharbourandtocastdowntotheanchorageofFukuda,butunfortunatelydidnotmakeitduetothecontrarywinds.Meanwhile,PessoasentanurgentmessageashoretowarnallthecrewandmerchantsinMacautoembarkinthecarrackforthwith.Hisur-portuguesemacauandtokugawajapanintheearly17thcenturyasseenfromthejapanesearchivalrecordtsukoichiran--gentcallattractedonlyapoorresponse.Whilesomeconsidereditafalsealarm,othersdidnotwishtoleavetheirvaluablegoodsashore,andmostofthosewhotriedtoreturntothecarrackwerepreventedfromdoingsobytheJapanesesoldiers.Intheend,onlysevenoreightpeopleweresucceededingettingbacktothevessel.AccordingtothelateProfessorC.R.Boxer,thelubberlycarracksoftheJapanvoyagenormallycarriedlessthanfortyEuropeansamongthecrew,includingtheship’sofficers,sailors,gunnersandsoldiers.Inotherwords,onlyahandfuloftheMacaumerchantswereableorwillingtojoinPessoaatthiscriticalmoment,meaningthatapartfromtheIndianlascarandNegrosailors,hehadaboutfortyEuropeansonboardwhenthebattlebegan.7However,theJapaneserecordTsukoIchiranprovidesuswithadifferentstory,sayingthatmorethan200barbarians(蠻人)diedinthisbattle,anditseemsthetruthremainsamystery.8Arima’ssamuraiembarkedontheirflotillaindarkness.AboutthirtycraftsladenwithyellingsamuraiapproachedthePortuguesecarrack,shootingtheirmusketsandarrows.ThePortugueseignoredthefirstvolleybutafterthesecondtheyfiredtwosuccessivebroadsidesoffivegunsapiece.TheseshotswroughtgreathavocinthecrowdsofJapa-nesesamurai.Meanwhile,thecarrackdroppeddowntheharbourwiththetide,butitcouldnotreachitsintendedanchorageatFukudaduetolackofwind.ThefirstattackonthePortuguesecarrackthusended.Thebattlewasrenewedwithsimilarresultsforthreenightsinsuc-cessionandtheJapanesedidnotdaretocometooclosethecarrackduringthedaytime.AfinalattackbyArima’ssamuraionthenightofthe6thJanuary1610wassuccessful,owingtothePortuguesecarrackcatchingfirefromtheaccidentalexplosionofagrenadejustwhenitseemedthatthelastJapaneseassaultwasgoingtoberepulsed.Thefirespreadtothemizzensailfirst,andfromthereitspreadeverywhererap-idly.Obviously,thescantycrewhadnochanceofextinguishingthefirewhileatthesametimecarryingonthefight.Seeingnohopeofescapeandhavingpreviouslyresolvednevertobetakenalive,AndréPessoafiredthepowder-magazinewithhisownhand.Thecarrackblewupwithtwosuccessiveexplosions,splittinginhalfandsinkingintothejamesk.chin--7.C.R.Boxer,TheChristianCenturyinJapan,1549–1650,Ibid.,p.279.8.HayashiAkiracomp.TsukoIchiran,Ibid.,Book5,juan183,p.25.--

3736thirty-twofathomsofwaterofftheNagasakicoast,togetherwithhercostlycargoestimatedatoveramillioningold.9DiplomaticNegotiationsThePortuguesecommunityofMacauwasshockedtolearnthesadnewsofthelossoftheircarrackNossaSenhoradaGraçainNagasaki.Fathers,merchantsandofficialsstartedtoworryabouttheoutlookoftheJapantrade,asMacau–NagasakitradewassoimportantforthesurvivalofthetownthatthewholetownwouldbeboundtoperishfromdecayiftheTokugawagovernmentdecidedtocutoffthetradelinewithPortugueseMacau.Atthattime,tradewithManilawaspro-hibitedbytheCrown;commercewiththeMoluccasandMelakawasexposedtotheraidsoftheDutchfleet,whiletradewithChinawasde-pendedontheJapanmarketforitsexistence.CommercewithCochin–ChinaandTonkinhadnotyetbecameimportant.Consequently,thetown'ssoleprospectoffinancialrescuelayinthespeedyrecoveryoftradewithJapan.ConsensuswasfinallyreachedinthePortuguesecommunityofMacau,andtheSenatedecidedtosendanembassytoJapaninordertopersuadetheTokugawacourttoconsenttothere-turnofthePortuguese,butitwasnoteasytofindasuitableofficialwhowaswillingtoundertake,andcapableofundertaking,suchadan-geroustask.Asaconsequence,nomeasuresweretakentorestoretheimportantwithJapantraderouteinthenexteighteenmonths.TheJapaneseauthorities,ontheotherhand,werealsoeagertore-sumetheinterruptedtraderelationswithPortugueseMacau.ShortlyafterthearmedclashesofftheNagasakicoast,HasegawatoldtheMa-caumerchantswhohadremainedashoreduringthebattlethatiftheywishedtheirtradetoberenewed,itwouldhavetobeconductedonJapaneseterms.ThoughTokugawaIeyasuwasatfirstveryangryoverthelossofthecarrack’spreciouscargoandthreatenedtokillallthePortuguesetradersandtoexiletheJesuits,hesooncalmeddownandallowedMacaumerchantswhohadnotbeeninvolvedinthebattletoreturntoMacauinahiredjunkwithalltheirgoods.NoPortuguesecarrackorsmallvesselenteredtheNagasakiroad-steadin1610.ThisdeadlockcontinueduntilJuly1611,whenanem-bassyfromtheSenateofMacau,headedbyDomNunoSoutomaior,9.C.R.Boxer,TheGreatShipfromAmacon:AnnalsofMacauandtheOldJapanTrade,1555–1640,Ibid.,p.77.portuguesemacauandtokugawajapanintheearly17thcenturyasseenfromthejapanesearchivalrecordtsukoichiran--jamesk.chin10.HayashiAkira(comp.)TsukoIchiran,Ibid.,Book5,juan182,p.5.wasdispatchedtoJapan.ThePortuguesemissiondidnottrusttheNagasakiauthoritiesbecauseofthetragedy,andtheythuslandedatKagoshimainSatsuma,andthentravelledtotheCourtatShidzuokawiththeprotectionofSatsumaDaimio.Unlikewhatwaspractisedpreviously,noannualblacknáowassentthistime;instead,therewasasmallvesselwithpresentsforTokugawaIeyasu,theShogunToku-gawaHidetada(德川秀忠),andthechiefadvisersorrojuatthecourt.Soutomaior’sinstructionsweretoaskforthere-establishmentoftradebetweenMacauandNagasaki.Inaddition,hehadtoprofferexplana-tionsforPessoa’sconductintheMacauriotof1608,andtoaskforcompensationforthelossofthecarrackNossaSenhoradaGraçaandhervaluablecargo.ThePortuguesemissionreachedKagoshimainJuly1611,andwaswarmlywelcomedbythelocaldaimioShimazuIehisa(島津家久),whoprovidedthemwithboatsfortheirjourneytoHondo,aswellasfurnishingthemwiththreesamuraitoactasguides.SoutomaiorreachedShidzuokainearlyAugustandwasgrantedanin-terviewwithTokugawaIeyasu.Asplaned,Soutomaiorthenpresentedhisexplanationofthe1608riot,andaskedforcompensationforthelossofthePortuguesecarrack.TokugawaIeyasudidnotgivedirectreplytowhatSoutomaiorrequested,butentrustedhissenioradviserHondaMasazumitodealwithit.DetaileddescriptionisprovidedinTsukoIchiran,togetherwiththeoriginaltextofallofficialdocumentsconcerningthePortuguesetradeinNagasaki,andoneofthemisasfol-lows.TheEnvoyshavecomefromGoa(五和)andhaveinformedmeoftheirwishtosendtheirblackshipstoJapan.Thereisnoob-jectiontowhattheyrequested.Itisgrantedthattheblackshipsmaycometotradeinaccordancewithourlawsandregulations,andtheywillbetreatedastheyformerlywere.Anyoneviolatingthisorderwillbepunished.autumnofthesixteenthyearofkeicho(1611)[redsealoftheshogun]10------

3938Meanwhile,theseniorrojuHondaMasazumisentalongofficiallettertothePortugueseGoaauthoritiesandtheMacauGovernorre-spectivelyonbehalfoftheTokugawagovernmenttoexplainindetailhowtheunfortunateclasheshappenedofftheNagasakicoastintheearly1610,whileblamingAndréPessoaforhiscarelessbehaviour.11TheSeniorAdvisorofNippon,HondaMasazumi,herebyoffi-ciallyrepliestotheNavalCommander-in-ChiefofWestCountry(西域國)asfollows.YourenvoyDong-lu-na(東魯納DomNuno)hasnowcometoJapanfromafarwithtranslateddocu-mentsandgifts,andhasbeengrantedwithinterviewbyourLord(i.e.TokugawaIeyasu).Insofarasthedestructionoftheblackshipisconcerned,yourenvoyarguedthatitwasnotyourfault,butthisisnottrue.Lastyear,ourpeoplewerekilledinAmacon(阿媽港i.e.Macau),andwhywasthat?YourpeoplecoulddotransactionsattheportofAmaconandyouwouldnotallowourpeopletoknowit,whichresultedinmoreandmoretradersrushingintotheport.ThenewsofslaughteringofourinnocentpeoplewaspassedontoourLord,whowasverysadaboutthetragedyandwasalsoveryangrywiththebarbar-ians.ItwasatthispointthatablackshipsailedintoNagasakiHarbour.ItwasreportedthatthemurderedwhokilledourJapaneseinAmaconwastheCapitan(加毘旦)oftheblackship.TheNagasakiBugyothensuggestedthatourLordbecautiousandpolitetowardstheforeigners.Asaresult,ourLordaskedtheBugyotocalltheCapitanforquestioning,withwhichtheCapitanrefusedtocomply.TheNagasakiauthoritiescalledhimagainandwererejectedagain.Werepeatedourrequestandheneverturnedup.Consequently,ourLordstartedtobelievethattheCapitanwasguilty.However,ourLordstillorderedtheNagasakiauthoritiestoonlyarresttheCapitan.TheBugyowasentrustedwiththetask,andheledsoldierstotaketheCapitan.ImmediatelytheCapitanshotthegunsthatdestroyedseveralofourships,andhecuttheblackship’scablesinordertoescape.SeeingtheCapitanandhisblackshipabouttoescape,oursol-dierslaunchedanassaultfromthetoweredvessels.Suddenly,--11.HayashiAkiracomp.TsukoIchiran,Ibid.,Book5,juan182,p.3.--portuguesemacauandtokugawajapanintheearly17thcenturyasseenfromthejapanesearchivalrecordtsukoichiran--jamesk.chintheCapitansetfiretotheshipandallthepreciouscargoeswereburntandtheshipfinallysank.WeinitiallyplannedtotaketheCapitanhimselfonly,andwhyshouldwekillothers?Andifthishadcometopass,theblackshipwouldnothavebeenburnt.Itisthetruthandnowyouknowitall.Dong-lu-naandhismissionarehereandIarrangedtohavehiminterviewedbyourLord,whohasdecidednottotakeanyrevenge.Onthecontrary,weencouragethetransactionsbetweenmerchantswhicharebenefi-cialtoourcountry.Assuch,itishopedthatblackshipsshouldcomeagaintoNagasakinextsummer,andyoupeoplemaydobusinessasyouwish,whichwouldbegoodforbothsides.Ifanyofyouareharassedbyourofficersandmerchants,pleasefileyourcomplaintswithusandwewilldealwithitinlinewiththelaw.Thelicencehasbeengranted,sopleasedonothesitate.Fortheotherthings,IhavetoldDong-lu-naandaskedhimtopassonsuchinformationtoyou.fifteenthdayofjuly,autumnofthesixteenthyearofkeicho(1611)TheagreementwasreachedandthePortuguesemissionwassatis-fiedwiththeresultssecuredinthediplomaticnegotiations.WiththeresumptionoftheMacau–Nagasakitrade,theincidentofNossaSenhoradaGraçamaybesaidtohavebeenquietlyclosed.AsidefromdiplomaticcorrespondencerecordsaboutthedebatesandnegotiationsovertheMacauriotof1608andthetragedyofNossaSenhoradaGraçainearly1610,officialdocumentsthatrevealtheamicablerelationsbetweenthePortugueseMacauandlocalJapa-neseDaimiomayalsobefoundintheprimarysourcecollectionofTsukoIchiran.Forinstance,inAugust1612theSatsumaDaimioShima-zuIehisasenttwoletterstothePortuguesebasedinMacau.WhileoneaddressedtotheCapitanofthevesselNanban,theotherwassenttotheSenateofMacau.TheSatsumaDaimioexpresseshisprofoundgratitudeinhisletterstowardsthePortugueseforthekindsupportandgenerousassistanceprovidedtooneofhistradejunks,whichhadbeenblownbyastorminthespringof1611anddriftedtotheGuangdongcoast.ThePortuguesenotonlyrescuedthisJapanesejunk,helpingtheJapanesesailorstorepairit,butalsoprovidedthemwithChinesesilkasgifts.12--

4140portuguesemacauandtokugawajapanintheearly17thcenturyasseenfromthejapanesearchivalrecordtsukoichiran--ConcludingRemarksAsrevealedbythebriefaccountabove,bilateralrelationsbetweenPortugueseMacauandTokugawaJapanduringtheearly17thcenturywerequiteinteresting.ThesadstoryofNossaSenhoradaGraça,thesubsequentdiplomaticnegotiations,aswellasthelettersofthanksfromtheSatsumaDaimio,allpointtothefactthatmaritimetradebe-tweenMacauandNagasakiatthattimewascrucialandindispensibletobothsides,andtheybadlyneededeachothereconomically.ThereisThelettersofthanksfromtheSatsumaDaimioShimazuIehisa12.(Comp.)HayashiAkiraTsukoIchiran,Ibid.,Book5,juan182,p.14.--jamesk.chinnodoubtthatprideandhonourweredeemedveryimportantbybothPortugueseandJapanese,andthatiswhyTokugawaIeyasuwasfuri-ouswhenhelearntfromtheNagasakiBugyoHasegawaSahioyethattheJapaneseshogunalhonourwasinsultedintheMacauriotincident,andasaresultheorderedtohavethePortugueseCaptão-MórAndréPessoaarrestedandpunished.Forthesamereason,thePortugueseMacauauthoritiesaskedtheJapanesesailorswhowereinvolvedintheriottosignanaffidavitbeforebeingreleasedtoreturntoJapan.How-ever,theculturalmentalityandpoliticalnegotiationshadtobesub-jectedtoeconomicconsiderations,especiallywhenthesurvivaloflocalsocietywasthreatenedandtheeconomywasindanger.Consequently,boththeTokugawagovernmentandtheMacauauthoritieswereeagertorestorethenormaltraderelationsthathadbeeninterruptedbytheunfortunateclashesthatoccurredinMacauandNagasaki.Anotherpointthatneedstobenotedisthatonthewholethebi-lateralrelationsbetweenPortugueseMacauandTokugawaJapanintheearly17thcentury,theyearspriortotheexpulsionofChristiansfromJapanandtheSakokupolicythatwasformallyenactedbytheTokugawaShogunatein1633inparticular,wereamicable.ThelettersofthankswrittenbytheSatsumaDaimioShimazuIehisaprovidecon-vincingexamplesinthisregard.-

43Mepropongocompararenesteartículoalgunosdelosproblemasquesuscitólaminoríajaponesaendosemplazamientostanparecidosy,almismotiempo,tandisparescomofueronManilayMacao.Ladocu-mentacióndequedisponemosnoes,pordesgracia,muyabundante.Porfuerza,pues,habremosdedibujar,confrecuenciaagruesosbro-chazos,losrasgosmássobresalientesdeaquellarelación.Noscentrare-mossobretodoendosaspectos:losfactoreseconómicosenlosquesedesarrollóelmutuoencuentro,porunlado,y,porotro,losinevitablesrocesproducidosporlaconvivenciadiaria.Lospormenores,quizálapartemássabrosadelacuestión,senosescapansinremedio.1.MacaoyManila.ContrastesSilahistoriadeMacao,desdeunprincipio,nosecomprendesineltrasfondodelJapón,suéxitotampocoseexplicasinlapresenciadelosjesuitas,demodoquenosesabesilaCompañíafueunagentedePor-tugaloPortugalunagentedelaCompañía.Raravezhubounasimbio-sistanperfectaentreunaOrdenreligiosayunpoderpolíticocomolaqueexistióentrelosdiscípulosdeIgnacioyelreinolusoenelSuresteasiáticoyenelBrasil.Laeconomíaylareligiónmarcharonparejas:elkurobunetransportótodoslosañossupreciadacargaaNagasaki,unpuertocreadoyfavorecidoporlaCompañía;yenelColegiodeSanPablosepreparóconcalculadaminuciosidadlaevangelizacióndelJapón.Estesutilyprovechosoensamblajefallóaraízdelesta-blecimientodelosespañolesenFilipinas.Lacompetenciaarruinóelmonopolioy,siabriónuevasvíasyensanchóelpanorama,fuecausatambiéndenopocosdesastres.Portanto,decirMacaoequivalecasiadecirJapón.Encambio,laprimeravezqueaparecenlosjaponesesenlascartasoficialesdeManilaesporunmotivopocosanto:susincursionespi-ráticasenlasFilipinas.Setratadelosfamososwakku,encuyasfilasmilitarontambiénproscritoschinos.Yviceversa:entreloshombresdelfamosocorsarioLimahón,queapuntoestuvodetomarManilaenUnaminoría:losjaponesesenManilayenMacaoJuanGil

4544unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao1574,seencontrabanasimismoalgunosjaponeses.1Puedesorprenderenprincipioestaestrechaalianzaentreenemigostanirreconciliablescomosonloschinosylosjaponeses,masladesesperaciónforjaextrañascamaraderías.Laamenazadeloswakkudurómuchotiempo.En1582elgober-nadorGonzalodeRonquilloenvióunaarmada,almandodelcapitánJuanPablodeCarrión,apoblarCagayánydefendersucostadeunataquepiratadelquesehabíatenidoprevioaviso.Carrión,quefun-dóNuevaSegovia,setopóconunnavíojaponésyotrochino.SegúnRonquillo2,enlapeleaqueseentablóacontinuaciónmurieron200japoneses,entreellossugeneralyunhijosuyo;porparteespañolasolocayerontressoldados,unadesproporciónmanifiestaenelnúmerodebajasque,probablemente,esfrutodeunasimplefanfarronería.PeroCarrión,alentrarenelríodeCagayán,seencontróconseisnavíosmás.Laluchafueferoz,ylosjaponeseshicierongaladesubriosavalentía,asombrandoalosespañolesconsudesprecioalamuerte.Lapiratería,elmalendémicodeaquellosmares,nodesapareciónimuchomenosenlosañossiguientes.En1592tornaronahacersuapa-riciónloswakkuporlacostadeIlocos;treintahombresquesaltaronentierraperecieronamanosdelosnaturalesque,prevenidosdesullegada,losesperabanenpiedeguerra.Además,algobernadorGómezPérezdasMariñasselellevaronpresosotrosveintecorsarios“entrexaponesychinos”,quefueroncondenadosagaleras.3Constaquesecerniódenuevosuamenazaafinalesdelsigloxvi:“Esteaño[1599]tambiénesperamosarmadadecosariosjapones,quealomenosprocuraránrobarestascostas,poblaçonesynavíosd’ellas,ylosquevinierendeChina,aquedieroncomiençoelañopasado”.Sefabricaronalgunasgalizabrasysehicieronotrasprevenciones,aunqueelpeligronollegóamaterializarse.4Mástarde,comoessabido,Ieyasu,enpruebadesubuenavoluntadhaciaelgobiernodeManila,mandócolgardelahorcaalospiratasquefuesenapresadosporlasautoridades.Estamedidadrásticano1.“Lagentequedizenteníaelcosarioportodoserancasitresmillhombresyotrastantasmugeres,quetraýarobadasdeChinayJapón,deadondeeralamejorgentequetraýa”(cartadeFranciscodeSandealreydel7dejuniode1576[IsacioR.Rodríguez,HistoriadelaprovinciaagustinianadelSmo.NombredeJesúsdeFilipinas,Manila,1981,XIV,p.398]).2.Cartaalreydel1ºdejuliode1582(ArchivogeneraldeIndias,Filip.[enadelanteFilip.]6,452).3.Filip.18B,r.2n.8.4.CartadelaAudienciadeManiladel8deagostode1599(Filip.18B,9137).juangilacabóconelcorso.En1629quedócerradoelcomerciodeChinaconManila.Lacausadeesemomentáneocortocircuitodeltratosedebió,segúnelgobernadorJuanNiñodeTávora,a“lamuchedumbredeco-sariosdesuproprianaciónqueancorridosuscostas”.Y,endefinitiva,lamayoramenazaquesecerniósobreLuzónenelsigloxviiprovinodelmásfamosodeloscorsarioschinos:Cogseng.2.PazyguerraLosportuguesesentraronencontactoconJapónenunmomentoes-peranzadordelahistoriadelarchipiélago.Losgrandesdaimyosaco-gieronconagradoaunosextranjerosqueveníanatraerlesexóticasmercancíasylesenseñabannuevaysuperiortecnología,quebienpo-dríaredundarensupropioprovecho.Lapredicaciónjesuíticacosechóasimismograndeséxitosensucomienzo,culminandoconlafamosaembajadaenviadaaFelipeiiyalPapaen1582.Graciasaestosespec-tacularesavanceslaCompañíalogróforjarseenelExtremoOrienteunmonopoliomisionero,excluyendodelJapónalosfrailesasentadosenelarchipiélagofilipino(losjesuitasllegaronaManilaconposteriori-dad,en1581).Encambio,lasprimerasrelacionesdeFilipinasconelJapóntu-vieronlugarmástarde,duranteelafianzamientodelshogunatobajoHideyoshi.Unpaísdesgarradoporlasguerrascivilesylasbanderíasdelosnoblesparecióquehabíaalcanzadoporfinlaunificaciónylapazinterna.Peroellotuvouncoste.Nadafomentatantoelpatriotismointernocomolapresuntaamenazadelenemigoexterior.Nosorprende,pues,queHideyoshi,unviejozorro,decidiesellevarsusejércitosfueradesusfronteras,considerandoquelaguerraeraelmediomáseficazdeaunarfuerzaseintereses,alcanzargloriayprestigioy,almismotiem-po,desembarazarsedeincómodoscompetidoresenelcampodebata-lla.LaofensivadescargósobreCorea,comoenloscomienzosmíticosdelahistoriajaponesa.Peronosedescartaronotrosfrentes.En1592HideyoshilanzóunultimátumalagobernacióndeFilipinas–quete-níaqueelegirentresertributariadelshogunoversedomeñadaporlafuerza–,unultimátumquemalpodríahabersehechoaMacao,unaciudadsituadaenterritoriochino.Afortunadamente,elgobernadorGómezPérezdasMariñascapeóeltemporalconhabilidad,demodoquealaintimidaciónbélicasucedióladiplomacia.LamuertedeHide-yoshien1598marcóelcomienzodeunanuevaera.Susucesor,Ieyasu,

4746unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaoseesforzóporestablecerrelacionespolíticasycomercialesentreMani-laysufeudodelKanto.Contodo,lapersecuciónreligiosaanticristiana,comenzadaen1597yreavivadaen1611,agudizólosconflictos,estimuladosporotrosincidentes.Asífuecomoen1632llegaronaManilanuevosavisosdequeelshogunsedisponíaaatacarlasislasFilipinas.PorprevenciónserepararonlasmurallasdeManila(seleañadieroncincocaballeros,seabrieronlosfososysehizounaestacadaencubierta)yseorganizaronlasdefensasdeCavite.5Apesardeestossombríosanunciosypresentimientos,jamássepro-dujoaquelataquetantemido.DelosposiblesenemigosvislumbradosporlaAudienciaen1585,fueelpeligrodelJapónelúnicoquenollegóacuajar.HastalaSegundaGuerraMundial.3.ElcomerciodeJapónconManilaAfortunadamente,nosiempresoplaronvientosdeguerra.ElcomercioatrajoaCaviteagentemáspacífica:losmercaderes.En1572escribióJuanPachecoMaldonado:Bienencadaañoaestaislanavíosxaponescargadosdemerca-durías,ysuprincipaltratoeselrescatedeoroporplata:dosmarcosymediodeplataporunodeoro.6Esestaunanoticiaaisladaquenoencuentrarefrendoenningúnotrodocumento.Enrealidad,elcomercioanualentreJapónyFilipinascomenzóveinteañosmástarde,graciasaungolpedesuerte:unaarri-badaforzosaaKyushu.Enefecto,elbarcoabordodelcualviajabaelagustinoFranciscoManriquefuearrastradoen1584poruntemporalaHirado,dondeelfrailefuebienrecibidoporsurey[Shigenobu],quevioenlosespañolesunosposiblesaliadoscontraelpodercentralizadordeHideyoshi7.EstaarribadaimprevistaayudóaquelasrelacionessenormalizasenyaquelosmercaderesjaponesescomenzasenaafluiraManila.Delcambioradicalquehabíaexperimentadolasituaciónda-5.Cartadel8dejuliode1632deLorenzodeOlaso(Filip.21,520).6.ArchivogeneraldeIndias[enadelanteAGI],Patron.24,14(IsacioR.Rodríguez,Historia,XIV,p.104;elpadreIsaciolafechaenel6demayo).7.Semostrócontrario,encambio,alcristianismoquehabíanabrazadootrosmiembrosdesufamilia(cf.L.Frois,HistoriadeJapam,ed.deJoséWicki,Lisboa,1984,I,p.328ss.).juangiltestimoniolacartaqueescribióalreyel26dejuniode1586elgober-nadorSantiagodeVera,dándolecuentadelallegadadeembajadoresconpropuestasdealianza:Despuésvinieronaestaciudadonzejaponeschristianos,vassa-llosdelreydonBartolomé[elfamosoOmuraSumitada],cris-tianosyvezinosdeLangasaqui,elpuertoprincipaldondelosportuguesescontratan.TraxéronmecartasdelprovincialyreligiososdelaCompañíaqueallíresiden,enquemepidenqueinbíealgúnsocorroalosreyeschristianos.Sonlosprimerosjaponesquedepazanvenido…Coneltiemposederrotaronyanllegadoconmuchanecesidad.Unañodespués,el26dejuniode1587volvióainformarelmismogobernadorVera:Anvenidoesteañoaestepuertomásdetreintanavíosdera-zonableportedeChina,ydosdeportuguesesdelaçiudaddeMacán,yunnavíograndedelJapónconsumagrandedemerca-deríasymantenimientos…Elcapitánd’estenavíodelJapónescriadodelreydeFirando,hombredetraçaydeentendimiento,delosprincipalesdeaquellatierra;ytratandoconéldealgunascosas,medixoque,aunquesuvenidaavíasidoparaconoçernosyabrircaminodesutierraparaesta,loprinçipalquetraýaquehazeresofresçeralreydeFirandoyasusvasallosalserviçiodeSuMajestad;yasí,lasvezesqueselemandaseyavisasequeaynesçesidadalgunaparasuserviçiodegentedeguerra,eldichoreyyotroreychristiano,suamigo,llamadodonAgustín,enbia-ríalossoldadosqueselepidiesenbienarmadosyapocacosta,orafueseparaBurney,SianoMalucooparalaGranChina,dequienellossonenemigos,porquesolopretendenserviraSuMajestadyganarhonra;yqueéltienesoloasucargoqui-nientosbuenossoldados,yvendríacongranvoluntad;ycomohombreprudenteypráticoenlaguerra,medioalgunosavisosytraçaparaconduzirfácilmentedeaquellasprovinçiasseismillhombres,yelhordenquesepodríatener,quenoparesçiópocoaçertado…Estecapitánylosmásdesugentesoncristianos,yescosanotableladevoçiónycristiandadquemuestran,que

4948unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao8.Filip.18A,532(Rodríguez,Historia,XV,p.272ss.).LaafluenciadenavesjaponesasladatóVera,en1588,“dedosañosaestaparte”(ibidem,p.349).9.RelacióndelasislasFilipinasideloqueenellasantrabaiadolospadresdelaCompañíadeJesús,Roma,1604,I19.10.Laborevangélica,ministeriosapostólicosdelosobrerosdelaCompañíadeIesús,fundaciónyprogressosdesuprovinciaenlasislasFilipinas…Nuevaedición…porelP.PabloPastells,S.J.,Barcelona,1900,II8(I,pp.359–40).11.Filip.18B,r.2n.8.noscausanconfusión”.Noselescobróalmojarifazgonialosportuguesesnialosjaponeses8.Lashistoriasdelospadres9PedroChirinoyFranciscoColín10refie-renaesterespectounaanécdotapiadosayedificante.UntalGabriel,naturaldeMiyako,quellegóaManilaen1587segúnelprimero,convirtió,aldecirunánimedelosdoscronistas,aochocompañerossuyosdurantelatravesía.Conelnaturaljúbilodetodoslosvecinos,eltanimprovisadocomoefectivopredicadorrecibiólaconfirmacióndemanosdelobispomanilenseenunasolemneceremoniacelebradaenlaiglesiadelaCompañía,sitaentoncesenLaguío.ApartirdelgobiernodeVeraseestableció,pues,unarelaciónco-mercialpermanenteentreelJapónylasFilipinas,unarelaciónqueestuvomuymarcadaenprincipioporlosjesuitasy,desdeluego,porlosportuguesesdeMacao.Enefecto,todoslosjaponesesquefueronamercadearaManilaerancristianos,pruebadequehabíansidobautizadospormiembrosdelaCompañía;procedíandelugaresdon-dehabíapredicadolaCompañía(NagasakioHirado);en1596uncomerciantellevóelnombredeMiguelLangasaque,esdecir,MiguelNagasaki;otrosellamóDomingoFirando(=deHirado):elapellidoexpresabaellugardeorigendesuportador.Parecemuyprobable,enconsecuencia,quelosprimerosnavíosdecomerciantesjaponesesquearribaronaLuzónpartiesenendoslatravesía,haciendoescalaprimeroenMacaoydeahírecalandoenLuzón.Coneltiempo,losmercaderesjaponeseshicieronviajesdirectosentreJapónyManila,sibiensiguieronutilizandolosserviciosdelamarineríaylospilotoschinos.En1592surgióenCavite“unnavíodechinosyjapones”cargadodeharinayotrosbastimentos;enélveníaelfamosoultimátumdeHideyoshiaGómezPérezdasMariñas.11Nofueuncasoinfrecuente,antesbien,serepitióamenudoenelsigloxvii.juangil12.SucesosdelasislasFilipinas,ed.W.Retana,Madrid,1909,p.219.ElcomerciodelosjaponesesenManilafuedescritoconprecisiónyvivezainigualablesporAntoniodeMorga:12DeXapónvienenasimismocadaañodelpuertodeNangasaque,conlosnortesdefindeotubreoporelmesdemarço,algunosnavíosdemercaderesxaponesyportugueses,queentranysurjenenManilaporlamismaorden.Lagruesaquetraenesharinadetrigo,muibuenaparaelabastodeManila;ceçinasestimadas;algunassedastejidasdematizes,curiosas;biovosalolioydora-dos,finosybienguarneçidos;todogénerodecuchillería;muchoscuerposdearmas:lanças,catanasyotrasvisarmas,curiosamentelabradas;escritorillos,cajas,ycajuelasdemadera,conbarnizesylaborescuriosas,yotrasbujeríasdebuenavista;perasfrescasmuybuenas;barrilesysalsasdebuenatúnsalpresado;jaulasdecalandriasmuybuenas,quellamansimbaros,yotrasmenuden-cias.Enestosehazentambiénalgunosempleos,sinqueseco-brenderechosrealesd’estosnavíos,ylomássegastaentierra,yd’ellosirveparacargazonesalaNuevaEspaña;elprecioeslomásenreales,aunquenoloscudiciancomoloschinasportenerplataenJapón;ydeordinariosetraepormercaderíacantidadd’ellaenplanchas,queladanapreciosacomodados.BuelvenaJapónestosnavíosentiempodevendavalesporlosmesesdeiunioyiulio.LlevandeManilasusempleos,hechosensedacru-dadelaChina,enoroyencuerosdevenadoyenpalobrasilparasustintas;yllevanmiel,ceralabrada,vinodepalmasydeCastilla,gatosdealgalia,tiboresparaguardarsucha,vidros,pañoyotrascuriosidadesdeEspaña”.Losbiombos,escritorios,catanas,lanzasyotrosproductosdelujosedestinaronaldisfrutepersonaldelosvecinosmáspudientes,queprontoapreciaronlafinurayperfeccióndesuacabado.Porelcontra-rio,alosalmacenesrealesdeManilasevendieronmercancíasmáspro-saicas,aquellasquehacíanfaltadeverdadenlagobernacióndeFilipi-nas:sobretodohierro,queeramuyraroenLuzón,asícomoclavazónparalasnaves,aparejos(anclasdehierro),balasycañonespequeños(versospedreros);salitre,azufreypólvora;cáñamo,paralajarcia;

5150unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaocobre;mantasymantenimientos(harina,bizcocho,tocinoyhastaja-mones).Lospliegosdecontaduríadanmonótonaslistasdecomprasdeestetenor,sinqueelpasodeltiempointrodujeseelmenorcambioenlasmercancíasadquiridasporlarealHacienda.Laimportanciadelcomerciotrajoconsigolacreacióndefactoresypoderhabientes.SebastiánSenguroactuóporpoderesennombredelcapitánLuisMundi;SebastiánZacarías,eneldePedroGómez;BenitoSilveira,eneldeJerónimo;AntónGómez,eneldeunacompañíadecuatrosocios,yFranciscodeGuevara,eneldeLuisMelo.EsteLuisMelosemantuvoactivoenelcomerciodeManiladesde1603hasta1620,aunqueapartirde1619dirigiósusnegociosdesdeelJapón,desuertequeenterritoriofilipinorepresentósusintereseseltambiénjaponésFranciscodeGuevara.SuviajeaManilaen1610fueacciden-tado.Enefecto,lanavedeMelo,apresadaporlosholandeses,recuperófinalmentelalibertadgraciasalavictoriadelosespañolesenPlayaHondasobrelaarmadadelosEstadosGenerales(24deabrilde1610).Sunombresonarámásdeunavezenestaspáginas.Losnombresquellevaronloscomerciantesafinalesdelsigloxviycomienzosdelsigloxviisiguenrevelandosuestrecharelaciónconlosportugueses:PedrodeFaría,Domingos,BenitoSilvera,ToméBaez(sindudaBentoSilveirayToméVaz),LuisMelo.Masloscatecúmenosnotardaronentenernombresespañoles,tomadosdeprohombresdeFilipinas:JuandeAlcega(elalmiranteacusadodedesampararlanaocapitanaenlabatallaquesediocontralaarmadadeOlivervanNoordel14dediciembrede1600),JuandeBustamante(elcapitánquedes-empeñóelcargodecontadoren1600)oAlonsoFajardo(elgoberna-dordeFilipinasde1618a1624).Estosgrandesmercaderesjaponeseshicieronmuybuenasmigasconlosespañoles.En1611unjaponésllamadoSimónDíazprestó100taesdeplata(125ps)aoncemarinerosespañolesquesehallabannecesita-dosenJapón13;jamáslohubierahechodenohabertenidolaseguridaddepoderrecuperarsupréstamosindificultad.Elgobierno,asuvez,secuidóconespecialmimodefomentarestanuevarutamarítima,pensandoquizáenellucroespiritualquepodríanconseguirlasmisionesdelosfrailes.Alosmercaderesjaponesesseles13.AGI,Contad.[enadelanteContad.]1209,f.486r.Elpréstamolomandópagarel27dejuliode1611elgobernadordonJuandeSilva,prorrateándosedichasumaentrelosseismarinerosqueestabanasueldodelagobernación.juangil14.EnmilibroHidalgosysamurais,Madrid,1991,p.122ss.15.MacaosurtióaManilaasimismodehierro,talvezprocedentedelJapón.Porejemplo,el28denoviembrede1629DiegodeRibeirahizoentregade700picosdehierrodeMacao=3.150ps(Contad.1211,f.646r).En1630hicieronentregadehierrodeMacaodosportugueses:elcapitánNicolásdeSequeira(29deagosto):165picos,3arrobasy14librasdehierrodeMacaoenpanecillos=662ps,5tn,10gr(Contad.1213,f.236r),yAlonsoFernandesMoreira(27deagosto):309picosdehierrobrutodeMacaoenpanecillos=1.236ps(ibidem,f.239r).Asuvez,loscapitanesGasparBorgesdeFonsecayLuisAlonsodeRoa,porcomisióndeManila,compraronenMacao72picos,4arrobasy2librasdecobrepor1.608ps,4tn,10gr(f.236v).Cabríatambiénsuponer,enprincipio,quevinieradelJapón,porlavíadeMacao,lamercancíavendidaporelfactorManueldaCunhaennombredelosportuguesesDomingoMirandaTorresyJuanDanieldeRocha(23denoviembrey25deoctubrede1630,respectivamente):449picosy116librasdesalitre=4.723ps,6tn,10gr(Contad–1213,f.532r,537v).PeroenelcasodelcapitánJuandeRochaelsalitreprocedíadeBengala(f.540r).En1631DiegoLeitePereiravendiósalitredeBengala(f.540v),yAntonioLeitedeAzevedosalitredelaIndia,sinespecificarsuorigen(f.540r).En1634losoficialesrealescompraronaAntonioMachado390picosdehierrodeCochinchinapor560psyaAntoniodaCostaotros150picosy10librasdelmismohierropor632ps,2tn,5gr(Contad.1216,f.346r).cobróporlosderechosdelalmojarifazgoel3%desucarga,mientrasquealoschinosselesexigióel6%;unverdaderocontrasentido,puesdelcomerciochino–ynodeljaponés–dependíalaprosperidaddelagobernaciónfilipina.Peroatodoseantepusoelinterésdelasórdenesreligiosas.Apesardetalesfacilidadesyconcesiones,elcomercioanualdeJapónconFilipinasnoalcanzógranintensidad,antesbien,llevóunavidabastantelánguidayhastadecrecióanteelempujedeloscomer-ciantesespañolesafinalesdelsigloxviyenlosprimerosañosdelsigloxvii.14Mástarde,lasdificultadespuestasalasnavesdeFilipinasporelshogunredundaronenbeneficiodelosjaponeses,queduranteuntiemposehicieronconelcomercio,inclusodemaneraoficial:LuisMelorecibióimportantesencargosdelaHaciendadeManilaenlasegundadécadadelsigloxvii.TambiénlosportuguesesdeMacaoseaprovecharondeestacoyuntura.Sobreestepuntovolveremos.ElcierredeltráficomarítimoconJapóntuvounaconsecuenciaimportante.Afaltadepodersesurtirdehierro,cobreyharinaenlosmercadostradicionales,Manilabuscónuevosproveedores,yestosfue-rondenuevolosportugueses,queacudieronasuministrarlosgénerosdeseadosdesdeGoa,Cochín,NagapatányMacasar:15unviajeexcesi-vamentelargoy,aveces,cargandounamercancíadeinferiorcalidad.Laorientacióndelcomerciocambióentoncesdeformadrástica.En1629llegaronaManiladosnavesdeMalaca(Jesús,MaríaeJosé;capitán,GasparSoares;NossaSenhoradosRemedios;capitán,Gonza-loJuan),unadeCochín(NossaSenhoradaLimpaConceicão;capitán,

5352unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaoCosmeCardoso),unadeCherue(NossaSenhoradoRosario;capitán,FranciscodaCosta),yotradeCochinchina(unchampán;piloto,NicolásdePenha).16ManuelÁlvaresdeUrrego,queen1632merca-deabaconJapónyFilipinascomodueñodelnavíoNossaSenhoradaLimpaConceição,arribóen1634aCavitedeCochinchina17,vendien-doalosalmacenesreales5.388arrobasdehierrodeesepaísporvalorde4.144ps,4tn,11gr,a4pselpico:todounejemplodelatransfor-macióndelmercado.EnelapéndicedoyunextractodelasnoticiasqueloslegajosdeContaduríadelArchivoGeneraldeIndiasproporcionansobreestecomerciomarítimo,corrigiendoyaumentandolosdatosquepubliquéen1991.184.ProtestasdeMacaoporelaugedelcomercioentreJapónyFilipinasEltráficomarítimoentreJapónyManilarepercutióporfuerzaenelcomerciodeMacao,desuertequeempezaronaoírseprotestasdesusvecinos,tandolidoscomoquejososdelaspérdidasqueleshabíacausa-dounarivalidadinesperada.AsílopruebanlosdocumentosfelizmenteexhumadosporElsaPenalva.19Enelcursodeunainformaciónrealiza-daen1621enlaciudaddelNomedeDeusEstebanBorgestestimoniócompungido:“AviagemdeJapaoestámuiacabadaporrespeitodaabundanciadasedaquedeManilhavaiaJapaoporviadosChincheos,edoditoManilhaalevaoaoutraspartes”.20LomismovinoadecirFranciscoCarvalhoAranhaenesemismointerrogatorio:“EnotorioqueasviagensdeJapaoestaremmuiabatidas,porcausadeosJapoesiremaManilhaabuscarsedaqueoschincheoslalheslevao”.21Nuncaesaconsejabledarenterocréditoaestasinformacionesinteresadas,quesuelenexagerarlanotaenlaexposicióndelasmise-riaspropiasparalograracambioayudaomercedesdelmonarca.ElvolumendelcomercioentreManilayJapónnopudonimuchomenoshabercausadotangravesperjuiciosalvecindariodeMacao.Peroelhechoesqueestasquejasnoestánsolas,sinoqueseensamblan16.Contad.1211,f.586ss.17.Contad.1216,f.119vy360rrespectivamente.18.Hidalgosysamurais,p.94ss.19.EditadosporElsaPenalva–MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoséc.XVII,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.,2009.20.Penalva–Lourenço,Fontes,p.101.21.Penalva–Lourenço,Fontes,p.102.juangil22.Penalva–Lourenço,Fontes,p.300.conotrasprotestasmásautorizadasydemássubidotono.LasfuenteslusasdanaentenderqueunpoderosolobbydejaponesesycastellanoshabíatendidosusredesenMacao.Almenos,asílodenuncióen1624contodassusfuerzasdonFranciscoMascarenhas,capitánmayordeMacao.Suspalabrasalrespectosontaxativas,sindejarlugaraotrasinterpretaciones:Asiosjapoenscomooscastelhanos,pellomuitoqueinteresamemseempregaremseuscabedaisnaChina,osfiaodeparticu-llarespesoasqueembrevissimotempo,comasagenciasdetaograndessomas,sefazemriqos,alterandoospressosdasfazendasnasfeiras…eabatemdo’semJapaoeManilha,aondelevaoosempreguosjadaquifeitos”.22Parece,pues,quelairrupciónmasivadelosapetitososrealesdeaochohabíaalteradoenalgunamedidalosparámetrosenqueantessemovíaelmercadochino.Maslaspérdidasenlaexportaciónma-caensenosedebíansoloalaactividaddeloscomerciantesjaponesesyespañoles.Enelnegociodecomprailegaldesedaestabanimplicadostambiénnopocosportugueses.Elcontrabandoserecubríadeunafachadadehonorabilidad.Eljuncojaponés,biencargadodeplata,llegabaalpuertodeMacaocomosihubieratenidoquehacerunaarri-badaforzosa.Entonces,conelmayorsigilo,seproducíaelembarquefraudulentodesedaacambiodelmetalpreciosoy,acontinuación,lanavepartíabienrepletadeproductoschinos,dejandochasqueadosalosvecinoshonradosenlapartealícuotademercancíaqueleshu-biesecorrespondidocargarenlosbarcosdespachadoslegalmenteporlaciudad.Estasoperacionesdecontrabando,porfuerza,requeríanlaconnivenciadelavigilanciadelpuertoyaunelapoyodemiembrosdelcabildosecular(losvereadores).OigamosahoratronaraMascarenhascontraloocurridoen1624,enviandoalreyFelipeivotrainformaciónperdidaacuyosfoliossehacenvariasmenciones,dejadasenblancoparadespuéscolmarlalagunaconelnúmeroexactodelareferencia,cosaquenosehizo:

5554unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaoEm18deabrillcheguouaestasilhasumjuncodeJapoenscommuitaprata,dequeiaavianoticia,elaspessoasaquevinhaemcaminhada.QuizerãoosdacidadefazersuasIndias,quehenomehonestoemlugardemaldades,emepedirãoquenosjumtasemos,comosefez.Edespoisdeosouvir,lhedisseque,sequeriãoquenãofossecomooanopassado,emqueoutroemtra-raaforsanaaparençiaeseforacareguadoemtantodanodosvezinhos,quefizesemhumtermoasinado,queeuadefenderia.Oqueseffez,edelleconstafol.***.Despois,caindonoquetinhãofeito,mefoiumdosvereadorescomhavertimentosnomodoquedeviater.Respondi-lhequeemnometernofundo,emcazoquequizeseemtrardespoisdelhefazerosrequerimentosnesesarios.Atteestetempoandeisemprepairando,deixand’osproverascapitaniasdasembarcasoensdevegiaedosmaisqueselheantoiava,arespeitodenãoterduvidasemcoantoagentecastelhananãoeraida,comojatinhafeito.Pregumtei-lhedequemseaviadefiaraguardadojunco,sendodetantaimportan-cia.Nomearãohummancebocazado,depouquoedesuapar-ziallidade,castellano.Disse-lhequebusquasemumvelhoonradoeportugues,poisaviatantos.Foram-medizendoqueasiofarião,enapropiaoramandarãoomesmoquetinhãoapontadoperadesbalisaremhojuncocomaquellacapa,carguoqueelleaceitousemmofazerasaber.Ordeneiloguotresembarcasoenscomtrintasoldadosemeusobrinho,quefosseefiquassenaguoardaememandareprezooseunomeado.Constafol.***.Loguolhefizasaberquenãoprouessemmaiscapitaniasnemestendessemocarguodevereadoresamaisqueoquesteregimentofosse.Fol.***.Nãoseatreverãoatomarmalestaproebiçãoporqueosnãoapadreiaceopovo,quetodomeviuhadarasgraçasaofor-tedobenefficioquerecebia.23Porloquecuenta,denadalevalióalcapitánmayorsuamenazadeecharapiqueeljuncosiseaproximabaalmuelleahacerladescarga,23.Penalva-Lourenço,Fontes,pp.300–01.GraciasaladiligenciaycortesíadelCentroCientificoyCulturaldeMacau,quemehaenviadocopiadelosfolios219r-219vdelmanuscritodeÉvora,hepodidocontrolarlatranscripciónycorregiralgunospequeñoserroresdelaediciónpríncipe:“iudias”por“indias”;“ouseja”envezde“disse-lhe”;omisiónde“Foram-me”;“quehoseu”por“queste”y“apadreiace”por“apadreiace”(i.e.,“apedreiase”).juangilnisuprohibicióndenombrarcomoguardiándelanaveauncaste-llano,unjovenzuelodebajaestofaqueestabacasado,talvezconunamacaense.Labandacorruptasehubierasalidoconlasuya,siMasca-renhas,alcomprobarlainutilidaddesusadvertenciasyelmanifiestodesacatoasusórdenes,nohubierazanjadoelasuntoporlasbravas,congranalgazarayaplausoporpartedetodoelvecindario.Comoseveconclaridad,o,almenos,esonosquierehacercreerelcapitánma-yor,laciudadestabadivididaendosparcialidades:una,ladelospor-tugueses“viejosyhonrados”,quemalvivíanrespetandolalegalidad;otra,ladelosricoscomerciantes,enquistadosyaenelcabildomunici-palque,atentossoloasumedropersonal,seenriquecíancompincha-dosconsusconsortesespañolesyjaponeses.QuizáMascarenhasrecar-gólastintasnegrasmásdelodebido;perosuirritacióntuvosindudaalgunabaseenlarealidad.Dehecho,notodoslosjuncosqueibanaMacaovolvíandirecta-mentealJapón.AlgunoshacíanantesescalaenManila,comohemosvisto.Esunapenaquenodispongamosdeloslegajosdecontaduríacorrespondientesalosaños1613–1619,elperíodoquizámásflore-cientedeaquellucrativotrato.Algunasbriznasdocumentalesapuntanaloqueibanaserlasnuevasdirectricesdelcomercio.Enprimerlugar,losjaponesesrecuperaronlainiciativa.Apartirdelacrisispolítico-religiosadesatadaporlasmedidasdelshogun,elcapitánLuisMeloseconvirtióenunverdaderofactótumdelcomercioentreLuzónysupatria.Constaqueen1617compróenJapón,porcuentadelaadministraciónfilipina,mercancíasporvalorde9.685psyde602ps,4tn.ElproblemaconqueseencontróMeloasullegadaaCavitefuequelarealCajanodisponíadeesedineroparapagarlosgénerosadquiridosporsuencargo,desuertequesetuvoquedesviar,parasatisfacerladeuda,unpréstamoquehabíahecholaburguesíadeManilaalarealHacienda.Elclamordelosvecinosllegóalcieloalver-sedefraudadosenelfindelpréstamo,quesehabíahechoparaaderezareldespachodelosgaleonesaAcapulco.Mastambiéneracomprensiblequenosedesearairritaralacreedor,ymássiendoesteunpersonajedetantanotacomoeljaponés,unpersonaje,además,quepodíadispensarsustanciosassumasdedineroacambiodeobtenerfavores.Dosañosmástarde,enunajuntadecuentasconvocadaporelgobernadordonAlonsoFajardoel17deoctubrede1619,elcontadorPedrodeLeusarradeclarónulosaquellospagos.Noparecequetaldecisiónafectaraala

5756unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaoprósperamarchadelosnegociosdeLuisMelo,quesiguióimpertur-babledespachandoremesasdemercancíasaLuzón.Dehecho,“hizoconçiertodetraeraestaciudadelmásfierroquepudiese”24;y,comoelcontratoeraoficial,lamercancíanopagabaderechosalrey.UncuriosodocumentonospermiteveraMeloenfaena.El8deagostode1619elmercaderrecibióenNagasakideLuisMartínezdeFigueiredotodaunaseriedearmasyropa,quecargóenelnavíoNuestraSeñoradelosRemedios.Estebarcohabíatenidounahistoriatrágica:habíapartidodeLuzónen1619“desocorroalMaluco”,perosealzóconélelmaestreJuanOchoadeZaraspi.Traselmotín,nosesabecómoniporqué,lanavellegóalJapón,dondeserecuperólanor-malidad.AsuregresoaCavite,supiloto,MarcosSimón(sindudaunSimão),diocuentadelasmercancíasquellevabaelbarcoalosoficialesrealesdeManilael29deenerode1620.25De1620nosproporcionalacontaduríaotroejemplobiensignifica-tivo:eneseañosurgióenCaviteelbarcoNuestraSeñoradelRosariodeljaponésdonAlonsoFajardoOcsaba26,quienvendióenManilamercancíastraídasdesdeMacao“enunnabíodelreydeOju,suseñor”porvalorde16.875ps,porcuyosderechosquepagóel7dejulio1012ps,4tn(enestecaso,elalmojarifazgofuedel6%,porvenirlanavedeMacao,ynodel3%,comoestabanobligadasasatisfacerlasnavesquellegabandelJapón).EstejaponésdonAlonsoFajardo,quetomóenelbautismoelnombredelqueeraentoncesgobernadordeFilipinas,donAlonsoFajardodeTenza,servíalosinteresesdelreydeOju[Mutsu,Tahoku],elfamosoDateMasamune.YesteseñordeSendainoteníaempachoenenviarsusnavesamercadearconlospuertosibéricoscuandohacíatiempoquelapersecucióndelcristianismoenJapónhabíahechoinviableelcomercioespañolconJapón.Enestebarcolle-garon,además,diversospasajeros(entreellos,JosephCuchiyMiguelCoji,criadosdedonAlonso),quenodejarondecargartambiénellosdiversamercancíaparasuventaenLuzón.En1620entróenelpuertodeCaviteotranavequenosinteresaenparticular:ladelportuguésManuelRodriguesNavarro.27Enefecto,esteportuguésteníaunsociojaponés,Matíasdono,porloqueNavarro24.Contad.1208,f.245r.25.Contad.1208,ff.271r–71v.26.Contad.1210,ff.13v–14r.27.Contad.1210,f.13v.juangil28.Hidalgosysamurais,p.439ss.y,sobretodo,443ss.29.NofueelúnicoquellevóentoncesesteapellidoenLuzón:tambiénhabíaunpilotollamadoBaltasarOmem(Contad.1208,f.111v;1209,f.202r);RafaelOmemdeAzevedofuecapitándeinfan-teríaespañolaenTerrenate(Contad.1213,f.810v),etc.30.Lamultalapagóen1611(Contad.1209,f.444r,656r).31.Contad.1209,f.448r.32.Contad.1207,f.321v.pagó,ensupropionombreyeneldeMatíasdono,los114ps,6tn,5grquecostaronlosderechosdelasmercancíasquehabíacargado–cu-riosamente–noensubarco,sinoeneldedonAlonsoFajardo.Lacon-clusiónquesedesprendedetodosestosdocumentoses,comoyaseñaléensutiempo28,queenplenaebullicióndelasmedidasanticristianas,enmediodeunarepresiónsangrienta,nosoloDateMasamune,sinotambiénsussúbditosseguíanhaciendopingüesnegociosconManila.Ellucronoentendíadedogmasreligiososnidemartirios.Confiesoquemehubieragustadodisponerdemásnoticiasacercadeestecomercioysusactores;perolainformaciónespañolasemuestraextremamenteavaraalrespecto.Porotraparte,noerasoloenMacaodondeflorecíaelcontrabando.HeaquítresejemplosdeFilipinas,lostresprotagonizadosporportu-gueses.MelchorOmem29tuvoquepagaren1603unamultade144ps,4tn,porhaberenviadoaAcapulcoenelgaleónEspírituSanto“seiscaxonesdemercaderíassinabaliarnipagarderechosasuMagestad,nihaverhechoregistrode’ellos”.30EnesemismoañoelcapitánPedroCotelodeMorales,unnombreenelquesetransparentalaimprontadelaonomásticalusa[CotelodeMorais],cobródemenos42ps,4tn,8gradosnavíoschinosquehabíaregistradoenlaprovinciadeBala-yán,dondeeraalcaldemayor31antesdeconvertirseentesorerodelarealHaciendaen1614.Porfin,DiegoFernandesReiGotofueconde-nadoen50ps“enlacausaquecontraélhiçoelcapitánPedrodeBrito,alcaldehordinariod’estaçiudad[Manila]elañopasadodeseisçientosyçincoporavercompradocantidaddepicosdezedacrudaparaen-biaraXapónsinliçençiadelgovernadord’estasislas”.32¿Noparecevislumbrarseenestastransgresionesdelaleyunaveladaconnivenciaentremercaderesdeorígenesdiversos,todosellosconchabadosconlasautoridadesenelmedropersonal?¿Cómoeraposiblequesedespacha-sencajonesycajonesdesedasincontarconunapoyoenelpuertoyenelpropiobarco?

5958unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaoPerohaymás.ConvienetraerahoraacolaciónqueenelcomercioentreManilayJapóntomaronpartemuyactivalosmarinosportugue-ses.EnlosúltimosañosdelsigloxvidestacóVascoDias,aquiensuce-dieronenlasegundadécadadelsigloxviinuestroyaconocidoManuelRodriguesyGaspardeSousa(1624).Rodrigues,elsociodeMatíasdono,inclusopropusoalasautoridadesdeManilaunarbitriobienfac-tible:concretamente,secomprometióaconstruirunanaoenSatsumayatraerlaunavezhechaaManilapormayode1621.33Enconsecuen-cia,elgobierno,apretadosiempreporlafaltadenavíos,sedecidióaen-viaralJapónaartesanosespecializadosenlaconstrucciónnaval,unostrabajadoresalosqueen1620larealCajadio334pscomoadelantodesusalario.34FueasícomoJuanLuisGuerra,maestrodefábricasdenaos;AgustínMatías,cabodeobraycontramaestre;cuatrocagayanescarpinterosyunherreropartieron“afabricarunanaoqueseavíaor-denadoseizieseeneldichoreynoacargoyacostadelcapitánManuelRodríguezNavarro,portugués,parapagárselesubalordelarealHa-zienda,enconformidaddeloqueconélseavíatratadoyconcertado”.Laideanoeramala:comoqueunproyectosemejantesehabíabarajadoyaentiempodeIeyasu35,conladiferenciadequelosdrásticoscambiosenlapolíticadelshogunaconsejabanentoncesquelosespañoles,malrecibidosenJapón,fuesensustituidosporportugueses;yprobablementedeesanacionalidaderanGuerrayMatías.36Elbarcofueconstruido,efectivamente,aunquesuejecuciónsufriógrandesdilaciones:RodriguesnollevólanaveaCavite“sinomuchodespués”,retrasoquelecostóunpleitoyunamultade2.000pesosasufiador,PelayoHernández37.33.AsíloanuncióalreyelgobernadorAlonsoFajardoel7deagostode1620:“SeaconçertadoyhechoasientodehazerseenSasima,queesunaprovinçiadelJapón,laçercanadeaquí,dondemeanaseguradoseharáconmuchacomodidad,fuerteydebuenasmaderasymuyalamedidaypropósitoqueamenesterparaestacarreraycontrataçióndelaNuevaSpaña”(Filip.7,r.5,n.51).34.Contad.1210,f.203r.Lospagosfueronlossiguientes:120psaJuanLuisGuerra;100psaAgustínMatías;36psalcarpinterocagayánTomásTotocoan,y18psacadaunodelostrescagayanes.35.Cf.lacláusulaterceradelconciertoaceptadoporRodrigodeViveroconelshogun:enelJapónseleshabríadeproporcionaralosespañolesoficialesparalafábricadelasnaos(Hidalgosysamuráis,p.222).36.Conocemosaotromaestrodelamismafamilia:HernandoGuerra,queen1611construyóenCamarineslanaoNuestraSeñoradeGuadalupe(Contad.1209,f.487r).Portuguéspareceasimismootro“maestrodefabricarnaos”en1634:JorgeFernándezGrella(Contad.1216,f.290r).37.Contad.1213,f.724v.PelayoHernándezfueensayadory“balanzario”delarealHaciendadeFilipinas;dadasuelevadaposiciónsocial,fuepropietariodeunacasadepiedraquelefuealquiladacomoprisióndelosholandesescapturadosen1610(Contad.1209,f.489r).Asumuerte,sereclamóelpagodelamultaasusherederos,loscapitanesLuisAlonsodeRoayJuandeOláiz,quealfinalseconcertaronconHaciendaenpagarlamitaddelapena,estoes,1.000ps.Elprimerpago,600ps,sehizoen1632.juangil38.Cartaalreydel4deagostode1630(Filip.8,111,f.3v).Ahí,enesosintrépidosnavegantes,tenemosalosposiblesbrazoseje-cutoresdelentramadocomercialhispano-luso-japonés,quenobrillónuncaporsutransparencia.LarelaciónentreMacaoyManila,prohibidaomalvistaaniveloficial,siguiófluidamentesucursoanivelparticular,comoatestigualatomadeljuncoquellevabaalosembajadoresjaponesesen1628.Enefecto,siahoranosinteresaenparticularestaacciónbélicaespor-queelcapitánDiegoLópezLobo,elresponsabledelasalto,noeracas-tellano,sinoportugués.Ahorabien,delamismamaneraqueenMacaosecriticabaconacritudalosespañolesqueresidíanenaquellaciudad,enManilasellevabamuyamallaascensióndelosportugueses,ta-chadosdeadvenedizos.LairritaciónenlaciudadconLobollegóatalextremo,queelpropiogobernador,JuanNiñodeTávora,tuvoquedefenderloanteelreyFelipeivdelamaledicenciadelosmanilenses,fuesenonodepuracepa:YenquantoanosereldichoDiegoLópezLobocastellanovi-sinoportugués(queasidolapiedradeescándaloparaoydoresyvecinos,yelmotivoqueatomadolaçiudadparaquexarsedelomismoaVuestraMajestad),yonoséqueelserportuguésseacrimennidemérito.DiegoLópezeshijodeLuisLópezLobo,hidalgodelacalidadquesepodrásaberfácilmenteeneseCon-sejo.PassóalaYndiaorientalenserviçiodeVuestraMajestad,dondeasistiódiezaños;ydeallívinoaestasislas,dondeyolohalléméritamenteocupadoenunacompañíadeinfanteríaqueleavíadadodonFernandodeSilvaelañoqueaquígovernó.TodoesseañoylosquatrodemigoviernoatenidosucasaydomiçilioenManila,quepodríabastarparapodersellamarvezino.38EsmuydignadenotarselaprontitudconqueesteLoboseunióalaexpediciónpunitivacontraSiam,peronomenosnotableresultalafacilidadconquedespuéssequedóavivirenManila,dondetalvezencontrómáscapacidaddemaniobrafinancieraparaprosperar,dadossuscontactosenMacao.Nosorprendeahoraestacamaraderíahispa-no-lusa,fraguadaporelinteréscomúnyunidaporfuertesvínculoscomercialesdenomuyacrisoladalegalidad.

6160unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaoAldeLobohandeunirseotrosnombres;porejemplo,eldelyamencionadodeManuelRodriguesNavarroenManila,oeldeLopoSarmentodeCarvalhoenMacao.En1629esteCarvalhoarrendódelaCoronapor306.00serafineselmonopoliodeldoblecomercioconManilayJapóndurantetresaños,encadaunodeloscualeshabríadeenviar,almenos,tresnavesaManilayalJapón.Esteproyectoen-contrófuerteoposiciónporpartedelosvecinosdeMacao,puesasícomoMascarenhasprotestabaen1624delosmercadereslusosquehacíannegociosconloscastellanosylosjaponeses,delamismamane-raelayuntamientodeMacaoimpidiódurantedosaños(1630–1631)elcumplimientodelcontratofirmadoporCarvalho39:quesiempreseteme,yconrazón,queelmonopolioacabeenmonipodio.LaRestauraciónpusofinalafluidezdelcomercioentreManilayMacao.Soloporunosaños.6.ConflictosarmadosconlosjaponesesEshoradeexaminarotropuntoenelque,amijuicio,hubounaciertaconexiónentrelossucesosacaecidosenManilaylosacontecimientosquetuvieronlugarenMacao:losconflictosarmadosconlosjaponeses.Sitodoslosautoresalabaronlainteligenciaylalealtaddelpueblojaponés,enotropuntohubounanimidad:ensufogosidadybrío.“Sonmuyvalientes,atrevidosycruelesytemidosdeloschinos”,afirmóen1588elpadreManrique,quienpropusoconquistarlaChinavaliéndo-sedesuapoyo.40Lasfuentesprocurannopocosejemplosdesangrien-tosincidentes.Masahoranonosinteresanlasrencillasparticulares,sinolossucesosquetuvieronuncaráctergeneral.En1587corrieronrumoresdequesepreparabaunarebelióndeloschinosenManila.Estealzamientoteníamuchasramificaciones,puestambiénsehablódequeestabaimplicadaenlatramauna“conju-raçióndexapones”,enlaquehabríaparticipadocomo“terçeroeintérpetre”eljaponésDionisioFi.SegúncuentaelgobernadorSantiagodeVera,aviendovenidoaestasislasunnavíojapón,losin-diosmásprinçipalesdeestacomarca,hijosynietosdelosqueantesdelavenidadelosespañolesseñoreavanestatierra,trataronconelcapi-tánjapónqueviniesseconjentedeguerra,yledaríanacogida,ytodos39.BenjamimVideiraPires,S.J.,AviagemdecomércioMacau–ManilanosséculosXVIaXIX,CentrodeEstudosMarítimosdeMacau,Macau2,1987,p.23ss.40.Rodríguez,Historia,XV,p.322.juangil41.Filip.18A,r.7,n.47.Cf.asimismosucartaalreydel13dejuliode1589(Rodríguez,Historia,XV,p.372).42.AGI,Patr.52,15:2ºinformación,ff.9–10r.juntos,naturalesyjapones,daríansobrelosespañolesylosmataríanconmuchafacilidad,yquedaríanseñoresdelatierracomoantesloheran.Loqualhizieranmuyasusalvo,siDiosnolesatajara,porque,aunqueesteconçiertoyconjuraçiónestubosecretapormuchotiempo,aunquetodoslosmásprinçipalesdeestacomarcaylosquebastavanparaelhecholasavían,alcabodeañoymediovinoaentenderysaverelgovernadordelconçierto.41Pocomássesabedeaquelconatodeinsurrección,quefuesofocadoconelajusticiamientodelosprincipalescabecillas,entreloscualessehallabaestedesdichadoDionisioFi.42Yesdenotarqueentanapuradasituaciónunportugués,BartoloméVazLandeiro,acudiódeinmediatodesdeMacaoensocorrodelosespañoles.Enlospeligrosseolvidabanlosviejosrencoresyprevalecíaelinteréscomúnsobreodiosyrencillasparticulares:delamismamanera,ManilaenviótropasderefuerzoaMacaocuandoestaciudadsufrióen1622elataquedelosholande-ses.Yquizáenambasocasioneslosreciénllegados,ademásdeprestarayudaalosnecesitados,hiciesendetapadilloalgunalucrativaopera-ciónfinanciera.Pasaronalgunosañossinque,alparecer,volvieraaproducirseotrointentodesublevaciónporpartedelosjaponeses.LasegundaasonadatuvolugarmientraselgobernadordonPedrodeAcuñasehallabafue-radeManila,empeñadoenlareconquistadeTerrenate;esdecir,enundíaindeterminadoentreoctubrede1605yel2dejuniode1606.Enestaocasióntampocollegóaproducirseunchoquearmado,aunquelamuertedeunjaponésamanosdeunespañolestuvoapiquedecausarunsangrientoconflictoenelpobladodeSanAntón.Lasversionesquetenemossobreesteacontecimientovaríanensustanciososdetalles.SegúnelpadreColín,jesuita,lagentedeguerraespañolahabíasalidoyadeManiladispuestaacargarsobrelosrebeldes,cuandolosánimosencrespadosseapaciguaronmercedalaintervencióndeunmiembrodelaCompañía,elpadrePedroMontes,secundadoporeldoctrinerofranciscano.Aunasí,fueronnecesariastodaunatardeytodaunano-cheparadevolverlacalmaalosindignadosjaponeses,querecapaci-taronporlamañanaalverqueloscañonesdelaartilleríaapuntabanasushogares.Pordesgracia,alanochesiguiente“seprendiófuegoen

6362unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaounacasillacercadelosjapones”,yesteincendioreavivólacóleradelosdamnificados,quevierondetrásdeldesastrelamanoculpabledelosespañoles.Afortunadamente,otrojesuitadeautoridadlogróvencersususpicacia,asegurándolesqueelsiniestrohabíasidofortui-toynointencionado.AsícontóloshechoslaCompañía,destacandosolo,admaioremDeigloriam,eloportunoarrojodelosignacianos.43AntoniodeMorga44,aunrespetandolaimportanciaquetuvoelprovi-dencialprotagonismodelosreligiosos,diootraversióndeloshechosquemeparecemásfidedigna.Segúnél,laAudienciaquisoexpulsardelaciudad“cantidaddeiapones…,gentebriosaypocoseguraparalatierra”.EstosseresistieronyllegaronatomarlasarmascongranpeligroparaManila,pueslosjaponeseseranmásde1.500,yelgruesodelejércitoespañolhabíapartidoalmandodelgobernadorAcuñaalajornadadelMaluco.Sinembargo,“pordiligenciadealgunosreligiososlosiaponesseredujeron,ydespuésembarcaronlosmásquesepudie-ronechar,aunquemuyadisgustosuyo”.Losincidentes,quizánobienzanjados,volvieronarepetirsepocodespués.El1ºdefebrerode1608seprodujootroconatodeamotina-mientoporpartedealgunosdelosjaponesesresidentesenelpariánextramurosdeManila,denuevo“enelsitioquellamanSanAntón,cercadeDilao”.45Noestánclaroslosmotivosdelalboroto.Elhechofueque,alserrechazadaairadamentelamediacióndeunregidor–elcapitánJuandeBalmaseda–,lainfanteríadelcampoylosvecinosvelaronaquellanocheenarmas.Aldíasiguienteseconminóalosjaponesesdepazasalirdelrecintopacíficamenteconsusmujeres,hijosyhaciendas.Acontinuación,entraronenacciónlossoldadosyla43.Laborevangélica,IV3(III,pp.24–25).Enotropasajedesuobra,Colínhizounbreveresumendeloshechos:“Mientraselgovernador(GómezPérezdasMariñas)estavaenTerrenate,sealborotaronlosjaponesdeManila,queeranmásdemilyquinientos,ysepusieronencampocontralosespa-ñoles,queeranpocos.Vistoelpeligro,elpadrePedrodeMontes,rectoralasazóndelColegiodelaCompañíadeJesús,searrojóosadamenteconotroreligioso,quesabíalalenguadelosjapones,entrelosdoscampos,ytalesrazonesdioalosjapones,quemitigaronsuirayconvinieronconlosespañoles,escusándoseporestemedioelriesgodeManila”(I23[Pastells,I,p.210],citandoaMorga,f.121]).44.SucesosdelasislasFilipinas,p.166Retana.Significativamente,nomencionólaactuacióndelosjesuitasSalvadorGómezdeEspinosaensuMemorialodiscursoinformativo,histórico,iurídicoypolíticodelaRealAudienciadeManilaenlasislasPhilipinasygrandeArchipiélagodelaChina,sobrerestituirlaalgoviernopoliticoymilitarenlasvacantesdesuGovernadorPresidente,dequeseleapretendidodespojar,Manila,1655,ff.23v–24r:“Elañode1606,queelmismoGovernadorD.PedrodeAcuñaestavaenlajornadadelMalucocontodalafuerzad’estasprovincias,serevelaronenManilalosiapones,poniéndolaenevidentepeligro,ylaRealAudienciagovernanteconmediosprudencialesyremediossuaves,segúnlascircunstanciasdeltiempo,templólaalteraciónysossegóelmovimiento”.juangil45.Lasfuenteseclesiásticassonmuyparcasalhablardeestarebelión:“Buélvenseainquietarlosjapones.SalecontraelloselsargentomayorChristóvaldeAzcuetaMenchaca,quepormuertedelmaesedecampogobernavalasarmas.Hubomuertesdeunayotraparte,yalfinquedaronvencidoslosjaponesyquemadosuparián,quehastaentonceshabíantenidocercadeSanAntón,ydespuésnoselespermitiómás”(Colín,Laborevangélica,I23[Pastells,I,p.211,fechandolarebeliónen1607).“Aunquelosjaponesviuíanfueradelosmuros,enelsitioquellamanSanAntón,cercadeDilao,comoaltivosysentidosdenoauerllegadoalasmanosconlosespañolesydeldestierrodelosmásculpados,tomaronlasarmasacaudilladosdevnodesuNacion;peroauiendosalidocontraelloselsargentomayorChristóvaldeAzcuetaconbastantessoldados,lesdiobatalla,yconpérdidadeambaspartes,losrindió;ylarealAudienciamandóquemarelpariánenqueviuían,yjamásselespermitióhabitassenjuntos”(GaspardeSanAgustín,Conquistas,III28[p.525b]).46.LafuenteprincipalalrespectoeslacertificacióndadaporCristóbaldeAzquetaaJuandeBalmaseda(Filip.38,40ff.9r–10r).EnlainformacióndelosserviciosdeBalmasedaseinquirióenlapreguntaquinta:“Sisavenque,abiéndoseamotinadolosjaponesquetíansupoblaçónestra-murosd’estaçiudad,eldichocapitánJuandeBalmasseda,rejidord’ella,porhordendelosseñoresprezidenteyoydoresquegovernavanestasislaslesfuearequerirconlapas,enloqualtrabajómucho,porsergentetanindómitayarrogante;ynolaabiendoqueridoadmitir,sinoantestomandolasharmas,eldichocapitánJuandeBalmassedaponiendomanoasuespadayrodelaresistióelínpitudelcapitányotroconpañero;yabiéndolosmuertoypidiendosocorro,seloinbiaronporestartodaslasconpañíasdeinfanteríaconharma;aloqualyatodolodemásqueenestaocasiónseofreçióacudiócomomuibalientesoldado”(ibidem,f.22v).Declararonlossiguientestestigos:CapitánAntoniodeJerezMontoro,regidordeManila(45años).EstabaenaquelentoncesenPintados.Looyódecir(ibidem,f.25r).AlférezHernandoPachodeGuevara(36años).Looyódecir(f.22r).CapitánPedroPérezdeSegura(53años).Estuvopresentesinparticiparenlaacción(“estetestigobidoquesepedíasocorro”),perorepitelostérminosdelapregunta(f.29v).CapitánJuanGallardo.50años.Estuvopresentesinparticiparenlaacción:“bido”,“oyódezir”.(f.32r).AlférezAntoniodeEscobar.48años.“Looyódezir”(f.34v).CapitánPedrodeChaves.40años.“SehallóconeldichoalmiranteJuandeBalmassedaasuladoybidoque,abiendoidoporhordendelarealAudiençiaeldichoalmiranteJuandeBalmassedayestetestigoadezirlesalosjaponeslomalquehazíanenmoberaquelalsamientosincausanirazón,porsergentetanindómitayarrogantelosdi-chosjapones,comensaronelcapitándelosenemigosyotrosconpañerosamenospresiarlanaçiónespañolay,apellidandogente,quisieronmatarlos.Ydefendiéndoseeldichoalmirantematóalca-pitándelosenemigosyaunconpañerosuyo,conquelesresistióelínpitudelosenemigos,yconlagenteespañolaqueacudiófuemuyfácilelquietareldichoalsamientoymotín”(f.36v).sublevaciónfuesofocadaenunbañodesangre:elpropioBalmasedadiomuertealcabecilladelainsurrecciónyaotrodelossublevados.46Huboquien,comoBalmaseda,describióelhechocomounaacciónheroicay,portanto,dignadealabanzayrecompensa.Masnotodosestuvierondeacuerdoconesaapreciación.Enunmemorialdirigidoalreyel8dejuliode1609,unodelosoidores,eldoctorJuanManueldelaVega,vertiendoincriminacionesarosoyvelloso,lanzóunadurísimaacusacióncontraotrooidor,ellicenciadoCristóbalTéllezdeAlmazán,reprochándolehabersidocausa,porsumalorden,dequesuhijoyotrossoldadosmatassenochentaoçienxaponessinculpa,sinarmas,desnudos,metidosdevaxodelascamas,aviéndoseidosóloaprenderochoxaponesporquenoobedeçíanalfrayledeladoctrina,todoporanbiçión,pordarlavanguardiaasuhixo,moçosinexperiençia[elca-

6564unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaopitánPedroTéllezdeAlmazán],quitándolaaotroscapitanesveteranosdelcampo,onbresdeconfiançaydecordura.47Estadesobedienciaaldoctrineropudohabersidoexageradaporlosrumores,haciendotemerqueseprodujeseunasublevacióngeneralcomolaquehabíanprotagonizadolossangleyesen1603.Sóloasíseexplicaladesaforadarespuestadelasoldadescaespañola,silencia-daporlasdemásfuentes.TambiéncabesuponerqueeldoctordelaVega,paraafearlaconductadelhijodesucolega,extremaseeltono,regodeándoseenlaferocidadmostradaporlosmilitaresanteunapo-blaciónindefensayentregada,aunquenoparecequelacobardíaylainacciónhayansidonuncaunacaracterísticadelosjaponeses.SegúnelpadreColín48,lainfantería“conpocasangrelosdesbarató,ysaqueóydeshizosuparián”.LoquesíextrañaesquetantoColíncomoGas-pardeSanAgustínatribuyanladireccióndelasoperacionesaCristó-baldeAzquetaMenchaca.EsprobablequeelerrorprocedadelhechodequefueAzquetaquiensofocóasangreyfuegolasublevacióndelossangleyesen1603;así,porsimpleasociacióndeideas,sepudoponerensuhaberlarepresióndeestanuevarebeldía.Seacomofuere,laAudienciametióenlacárcelaunos200japone-ses,losmáslevantiscos,sibienrectificómástardesabiamenteydecidióprocederasurepatriación.Segúndijoencartadel8dejuliode1608,noquedóningúnjaponésenManila49,unaexageraciónevidente.DeembarcarlosenlasnavesdelosmercaderesqueveníandelJapónseocupóunoidor,elmismodoctordelaVega.Todohabíapasadoyacuandollegóelgobernadorinterino,donRodrigodeVivero,quienselimitóadarcuentadelosucedidoalshogunenunacarta,escritael9deagostode1608,quenoestabaexentadeciertaimpertinentealta-neríabuscadaadrede.AsílopusoViveroenconocimientodelreydeEspaña,Felipeiii,el8dejuliode1608:[Losjaponeses]ansalidoyadelatierra[lasFilipinas],yalenpera-dordelJapónescriuoloquehiçieronyquemandécastigarlosyque,deaquíadelante,nobengagentedesconpuestaaestasyslas,sinosólolosmercaderesquecontratanenellasylosmarinerosforçososasunaue-gaçión.ApareçidoalasrreligionesdeSantFrançiscoylaConpañíaquebayaestacartaconpalabraspocoencareçidas,sindardisculpaen47.Cartaalreydel8dejuliode1609(Filip.20,326).48.Laborevangélica,IV3(III,p.25).49.I.Rodríguez,Historia,XVII,p.106.juangilelcastigoqueacásehizo,porqueestanaçiónnoquieresertratadaconsumisión,sinoconynperio,demásdeconuenirasíalaauthoridadrrealdeVuestraMagestad.50LoshechosocurridosenManilaexplican,amijuicio,losnomenossangrientossucesosquetuvieronlugarpocotiempodespuésenMacao.Ennoviembrede1607ArimaHarunobuenvióunnavíoaChampáendemandadeinciensoocalambac.Estanave,pilotadaporKyubei,unchinonaturalizadojaponés,sevioforzadaporelmaltiempoarecalarduranteeltornaviajeenMacao.Porlasmismasfechasarribóallíasi-mismounjuncodepiratasjaponeses.Gruposdelasdostripulaciones–unos50entotal–sepasearonporlascallesarmadosdecatanasydearcabuces.Ennoviembrede1608seisdeellosseenzarzaronenunapendenciaconlosportugueses,delaqueresultaronvariosmuertosyheridos,entreellos,eloidorgeneral,querecibióungolpedealabardaenlapierna.Losjaponeses,acosados,sehicieronfuertesensualoja-miento,capitaneadospordosvasallosdeArimaHarunobu.LarebelióntuvoqueserreprimidaviolentamenteporelcapitánAndrésPessoaque,almandode70o80soldados,hostigóalosrebeldes,quemósualbergueyentróenalcancedelossupervivientesdentrodelbarcodeKyubei,decuyacargaseapoderó.Enotracasadelaciudadserefugióunsegundogrupomásnumerosodejaponeses,quelograronescaparsanosysalvosgraciasalaintervencióndelobispodeMacao,eldomi-nicoJuanPintodelaPiedade,ydealgunosjesuitas.Solounodelosculpablesfuecondenadoamuerte.51Cabeahorapreguntar:¿Influyóenestasangrientarepresiónlacar-niceríahechaanteriormenteenManila?Amijuicio,larespuestaesafirmativa,pormásqueMacao,unaciudadsujetaalaconstantevigi-lanciadeloschinos,constituyesesiempreuncasoespecialyaparte.Losacontecimientossangrientosqueafectanaunaminoríapareceneslabonarseunosconotros,estallandocomoindeseadaréplicaendi-versoslugares.Siexisteunfatídicoprecedente,esmásfácilqueaflorelasuspicacia,secaldeenlosánimosy,finalmente,ladisputaacabeentragedia:lasangreyavertidaofreceunaexcusaounacicatealproce-derdeunosyotros.50.Cartacitada(Filip.20,326).51.MebasoenlareconstruccióndelosacontecimientosquehizoJoséLuisÁlvarezTaladriz,“DonRodrigodeViveroetladestructiondelanaoMadredeDeos”,MonumentaNipponica,2(1939)481ss.Cf.asimismoPastells(ed.deColín,Laborevangélica,III,p.476).

6766unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaoFuerancualesfuesenlasrazonesquemotivaronlasublevacióndelosjaponesesenDilao,larepatriacióndelosrebeldesylacartadeViverosatisficieronaIeyasu.Ensucontestación,escritael14deno-viembresiguiente,elshogunaconsejóalgobernadorquecondenaseamuerteatodoslosqueenunfuturoprovocasenunarevuelta.52Surecomendaciónfuetomadaalpiedelaletra.En1609donJuandeSilvarepatriódenuevoalJapóna19hombres,queantesestuvierondepositados140díasenlasgalerasreales,trabajandoeneladerezodelasnaos.Estostrabajosforzososrecibieronirónicamenteunaremu-neración.AntesdedespacharlanaooficialquehabíadeiraJapónen1609,elgobernadorentregóalcapitándelanave,JuanBautistadeMolina,181ps,4tn,6grparapagarconesedineroeltrabajodelosexpulsados,arazónde9ps,6grporcabeza,esosí,poniendobuencui-dadoenhacerelpagoanteescribano,paraevitarreclamaciones.53Portanto,eltremendoincidentede1608fuezanjadosinque,alpa-recer,quedasenenJapónrescoldosdeenemistadnitemorarepresalias.MuydiferentefueeldesenlacequetuvieronlossangrientossucesosdeMacao,puesabocaronaotratragedia:enenerode1610elMadredeDeus,atacadoenNagasaki,volóporlosairesconPessoaytodalatripulación.Ieyasu,vivamenteinteresadoentoncesenlaposibilidaddeabrirunanuevavíacomercialentreJapónylaNuevaEspaña,con-donóaFilipinasunafaltaque,porelmomento,noquisoperdonaraMacao.Denuevoreinóelinteréseconómicoporencimadeotrascualesquierconsideraciones.52.ÁlvarezTaladriz,“MadredeDeos”,n.99(p.509).53.Contad.1209,f.195r.1598Cinconavíos(Contad.1205,f.70r):–CapitánDomingosGonzález:10ps,7tn,3gr.–CapitánPedroGómez:2ps,2tn,6gr.–CapitánDomingoFirando:1ps,1tn,6gr.–CapitánVascoDias:84ps,2tn,7gr.Navíochino:–AlonsoSauyo:7ps,7tn(f.16r).AlcapitánportuguésVascoDíazselecobrarondemenos23ps,5tn,4gr(f.108v).Parecequealmismocapitánseledejarondecobrar3psporlosderechosdecincofardosdeincienso(ibidem,f.109r).AlcapitánDomingosGonzálezselecobródemenos1ps(f.109r).ventasalosalmacenesreales–JuanFaraz:uncabledemaribagoqueselecompróparalasfragatasdeislaHermosa=32ps(Contad.1204,f.225r).1599Cinconaves.Sumadoslosaños1598y1599,eltotalcobradoporelalmojarifazgomontóa74ps,1tn,11gr(Contad.1205,f.70r):–CapitánLuisGuisimo:12ps,4tn.–CapitánBernardoLópez:22ps,6tn,10gr.–CapitánFundagoroyn:4ps,4tn.–CapitánEsquemon:13ps,2tn,6gr.Navíochino:–CapitánGonzaloAyten,sangleycristiano:7ps,10gr.Huboyerroenlascuentasysecobrarondemenoslassiguientescanti-dades:alcapitánLuisGuisimo6tnyalcapitánBernardoLópez6tn,8gr(f.109r).ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1205)–CapitánGruemo(1ºdejulio):4picosy2arrobasdecáñamoenhoja,a10pselpico=44ps(f.91r).ApéndiceLlegadadenavesprocedentesdelJapónjuangil

6968–Domingos(1ºdejulio):4arrobasdehierro,a3pselpico+9arrobasy12librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=41ps,4tn(f.91r).–Joaquín(1ºdejulio):39arrobasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=75ps(f.91v).–SebastiánSenguro,ennombredelcapitánLuisMundi(3dejulio):22picosdepólvora,a21pselpico+5picosdecáñamo,a10pselpico+20picosy62librasdehierro,a3pselpico=574ps(f.91v).–Mataenio(3dejulio):“Xamonesdetocinoycantidaddepólvoraysalitre”=130ps,2tn(f.91v).–Groimo(3dejulio):99arrobasy9librasdepolvora,a21pselpico=399ps(f.91v).–SebastiánÇacarías[=Zacarías],ennombredePedroGutiérrez[hadeserGómez,comodicealmargen](3dejulio):128arrobasy10librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico+134arrobasy15librasdehierro,a3pselpico=325ps,4tn,6gr(f.91v).–Esquesso(3dejulio):116arrobasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=223ps,4tn,1gr(f.92r).–BenitoSilvera,ennombredeJerónimo(5dejulio):149arrobasy20librasdehierro,a3pselpico=86ps,4tn(f.92r).–BenitoSilvestre[léaseSilvera],ennombredelcapitánEsquimo(5dejulio):203arrobasdehierro,a3pselpico=117ps(f.92r).–BenitoSilvera,ennombredePabloYemo(6dejulio):16arrobasy2librasdepólvora,a21pselpico=65ps(f.92v).–Jerónimo(6dejulio):22arrobasy18librasdesalitre,a15pselpico=65ps,2tn(f.92v).1599(17dediciembre)–1600(1ºdemayo)“Cinconavíosdejapones”:142ps,5tn,9gr(Contad.1205,f.170r):–CapitánFranciscoMartín:45ps,7tn.–CapitánManuelLuis:16ps,7tn,2gr.–CapitánPedroFaría:3ps,7tn,10gr.–CapitánMelchordeContreras:18ps,6tn.–CapitánJiduamo:57ps,1tn,9gr.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1205)–Xiiove(31demarzo):62arrobasy15librasdemetal,a10pselpico=120ps,3tn(f.243v).–PedroFaría(31demayo):31picos,3arrobasy20librasdehierro,a4pselpico=127ps(f.246r).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao–Mataymon(2dejulio):15picosdepólvora,a18pselpico+y8picosy4arrobasdecobre,a10pselpico=356ps,6tn(f.246v).–Chiahaymon(2dejulio):14picos,4arrobasy20librasdecáñamo,a12pselpico=179ps(f.247r).–SebastiánSacarías[i.e.,Zacarías](2dejulio):15picos,4arrobasy17librasdecáñamo,a12pselpico=191ps(f.247r).–Chudemo(5dejunio):84arrobasdehierro,a3pselpico=48ps,2tn(f.247v).–FranciscoAntonio(5dejunio):48arrobasy15librasdehierro,a2pselpico=22ps,5tn(f.247v).1601“Quatronavíosxapones”:148ps,7tn,7gr(Contad.1205,f.307v):–CapitánQuesanu:3tn,6gr.–CapitánFranciscoMartín:135ps,4tn.–CapitánVascoDias:6ps,2tn.–UnnavíojaponésllegóaMindoro,dondeloregistróelcorregidor:2ps,6tn.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1205)–Miguel(22deabril):82arrobasy3librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=159ps,6tn,10gr(f.351v).–SimónRodríguez(22deabril):6arrobasymediadeazufre,a20realeslaarroba=16ps,2tn+6picosy23librasdehierro,a18realeselpico=13ps,7tn(f.351v).–JuanRodríguez(22deabril):69arrobasy16librasdeclavazón,a7pselpico=93ps,3gr(f.351v).–Fabián(22deabril):46arrobasy24librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=90ps,2tn(f.351v).–León(22deabril):65arrobasdehierro,a14realeselpico=21ps,7tn(f.352r).–Martín(22deabril):34arrobasy14librasdecáñamo=73ps,10gr(f.352r).–Juan(23deabril):17arrobasy3librasdecáñamo,a11pselpico=36ps,1tn(f.352r).–AntónGómez(24deabril):116arrobasdecáñamo,a11pselpico+282arrobasdebalasdehierrodetodassuertes,a5pselpico=516ps,4tn(f.352r).juangil

7170–—(24deabril):15picosy5arrobasdehierro,a18realeselpico=35ps,7tn(f.352v).–FranciscoMartín(24deabril):75arrobasy8librasdepólvora,a20pselpico+7arrobasy24librasdesalitre,a12pselpico=270ps+189arrobasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=363ps,3tn,6gr(f.352r).Noconstaquefuesejaponés.–JerónimoBarbosa(24deabril):82arrobasy3librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=159ps,6tn,6gr+19arrobasy14librasdepólvora,a20pselpico=75ps,1tn,10gr(f.352v).–Chiquisaymo(24deabril):105arrobasdehierroborra,a18realeselpico=45ps,2tn,6gr(f.352v).–Juan(24deabril):10arrobasy20librasdecáñamo=22ps,6tn,9gr(f.352v).–CuatrojaponesesyAntónGómezensunombre(24deabril):288arrobasdehierro,a18realeselpico=124ps,4tn(f.352v).–CapitánGervasioGarcés(30demayo):194arrobasdeclavazón,a7pselpico=261ps,1tn(f.353r).Español.–VascoDias(13deagosto):24arrobasdeclavazón,a7pselpico=32ps,2tn,5gr(f.358r).Portugués.1602“TresnavíosdelreynodeJapón”:132ps,6tn,7gr(Contad.1205,f.427r):–CapitánJuandeAliega:113ps,6tn.–CapitánMiguel:14ps,2tn,7gr.–CapitánFayamon:4ps,6tn.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1205)–AmbrosioGómez(14demayo):229arrobasdehierrobarreta,a3pselpico+22arrobasy12librasdehierroenpanes,a2pselpico+203arrobasdebalasdehierrodeartillería,a5psymedioelpico=396ps,6tn,1gr(f.493r).–Simón(14demayo):708arrobasdehierrobarreta,a3pselpico+19arrobasdehierroenpanes,a2pselpico=52ps,5gr(f.493v).–Miguel(14demayo):21arrobasy7librasdebalas,a7pselpico+83arrobasy3librasdehierroenpanes,a2pselpico=69ps,7tn,7gr(f.493v).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao–LeónFernández(14demayo):281arrobasdehierroenpanes,a2pselpico+101arrobasy18librasdehierroenbarreta,a3pselpico:167ps,4gr(f.493v).–Jasqui(14demayo):192arrobasdebalasdehierro,a7pselpico=258ps,3tn,8gr(f.493v).–Quifoy(20demayo):97arrobasy20librasdehierro,a2pselpico,+29arrobasdebalas,a7pselpico=211ps,1tn,11gr(f.495r).–Juan(20demayo):47arrobasdehierro,a2pselpico=18ps,2gr(f.495r).–Jiroboy(20demayo):131arrobasdehierrobarreta,a3pselpico=85ps,4tn,6gr(f.495r).–León(20demayo):71arrobasy9librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=136ps,6tn(f.495r).–Cungor(20demayo):163arrobasdehierroborra,a2pselpico=62ps,2tn,6gr(f.495r).–Juan(20demayo):92arrobasy1libradepólvora,a20pselpico+23arrobasy10librasdesalitre,a12pselpico=408ps(f.495r).–Pablo(20demayo):41arrobasy6librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico+26arrobasy15librasdebalasdeacero,a7pselpico=113ps,7tn,9gr(f.495v).–Miguel(20demayo):176arrobasdeclavazón,a6pselpico+49arrobasdebalasdehierro,a7pselpico+20arrobasdehierroenpanes,a2pselpico+32arrobasy12librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=336ps,6tn,8gr(f.495v).–Fayamon(21demayo):24arrobasy1libradecáñamo,a10pselpico+15arrobasdepólvora,a20pselpico+20arrobasy15librasdeclavazón,a6pselpico=125ps,7tn(f.495v).–—(25demayo):119arrobasy9librasdepólvora,a20pselpico=73ps,7gr(f.498v).–Tomé(21demayo):82arrobasy15librasdehierroenbarreta,a3pselpico+6arrobasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=59ps,1tn,5gr(f.496r).–Liamon(21demayo):191arrobasy16librasdebalasdehierro,a7pselpico+133arrobasy5librasdeclavazón,a6pselpico+25arrobasdecobre,a6pselpico+20arrobasy19librasdepólvora,a20pselpico+60sacosdeharina,a3pscadauno+30jamones,a3tncadauno=691ps,6tn(f.496v).juangil

7372–—(21demayo):89arrobasy10librasdeclavazón,a6pselpico+119arrobasy20librasdehierroenpanes,a2pselpico=139ps,7tn(f.496v).–Jorge(21demayo):44arrobasy10librasdeclavazón,a7pselpico=51ps,1tn,10gr(f.496v).–Cincogoyo(21demayo):94arrobasy2librasdeclavazón,a6pselpico=108ps,4tn(f.496v).–SebastiánGonzález(21demayo):47arrobasy20librasdebalas,a7pselpico=63ps,2tn(f.496v).–Quiamon(21demayo):108arrobasdehierroenbarreta=62ps,4tn(f.497r).–Sianboyo(21demayo):45arrobasdeclavazón,a6pselpico=68ps,6tn(f.497r).–Reyna(21demayo):61arrobasdepólvora,a20pselpico=273ps,7gr(f.497r).–Gayamon(21demayo):13arrobasy10librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico+187arrobasdehierroenbarreta,a3pselpico+48arrobasdehierroenpanes,a2pselpico=152ps,1tn,6gr(f.497r).–León(21demayo):50arrobasdeclavazón,a6pselpico=57ps,5tn,6gr(f.497r).1603Ochonaves(Contad.1206,f.61v):–CapitánViemon:5ps,5tn,2gr.–CapitánDiegodeVera:4ps,2tn,6gr.–CapitánFaimon:Nopagóderechos.–CapitánGervasioGarcés:88ps.–CapitánMiguelSejo:7ps,3tn.–CapitánAntonioGómez:5ps,5tn.–CapitánJuandeAlcega:42ps,1tn,5gr.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1206)–Fayamon(7dejunio):4picosy75librasdepólvora,a18pselpico+4picosy55librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico+60picosy40librasdehierro,a17realeselpico+39picosy80librasdeclavazón,a6pselpico+127librasdesalitre,a12pselpico=504ps,6tn(f.128r).–LuisMelo(7dejunio):12picosy75librasdehierro,a2pspico=25ps,1tn(f.128v).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao–—(30dejunio):unanclotedehierro,quepesó3quintalesymedio,a6pselquintal=21ps(f.129v).–Manuo(5dejulio):108librasdesalitre,a12pselpico=9ps,7tn(f.131r).–JuandeAlcega(5dejulio):20picosdecáñamo,a10pselpico+15picosy120librasdeclavazón,a6pselpico+50librasdehierro,a2pselpico+5picosdepólvora,a18pselpico+100librasdesalitre,a12pselpico=405,5tn(f.131r).–JuanYs(7dejulio):60arrobasdeclavazóndecostado,a6pselpico,+40arrobasdehierro,a17reales=86psy5tn(f.131v).–DonLeóndeSantiago(7dejulio):35picosyunarrobadecáñamo,a10pselpico=351ps,6tn(f.131v).–—(8dejulio):1picoy45catesdepólvora,a18pselpico+4picosdehierro,a2pselpico=34ps,9gr(f.132v).–Pablo(7dejulio):1picoy85librasdepólvora,a18pselpico=29ps,6tn(f.131v).–DomingoHernández(7dejulio):17picosy85librasdebalasdehierrodeartillería,a7pselpico=123ps,4tn(f.131v).–AntónGómez(8dejulio):74arrobasy16librasdepólvora,a18pselpico+4arrobasymediadesalitre,a12pselpico=278ps,4tn(f.132r).–LeónYoste(8dejulio):36picosy67librasdehierro,a17realeselpico+3picosy5librasdepólvora,a18pselpico+15librasdehierroenpanes,a17realeselpico+204mantasdepanojodeperdiz,a3realeselpico=222ps,7tn,9gr(f.132r).–MiguelSeso(8dejulio):96arrobasy18librasdepólvora,a18pselpico+13arrobasy2librasdesalitre,a12pselpico=361ps(f.132v).–LeónDaopan(8dejulio):162arrobasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=302ps,4tn(f.132v).–LeonNay(8dejulio):64arrobasy16librasdepólvora,a18pselpico=223ps,6tn(f.132v).–Gingoro(10dejulio):20picosy50librasdepólvora,a18pselpico+3picosy110librasdesalitre,a12pselpico+21picosy20librasdehierro,a2pselpico=455ps,2tn(f.133r).juangil

7574–CapitánGervasioGarcés(11dejulio):49picosy5librasdebalasrasas,a6pselpico+43picosy127librasdeclavazón,a6pselpico=558ps(f.133r).Seterminódepagarladeuda(158ps,2tn)el21deabrilde1604(f.385v).–JuanSabuya(17deoctubre):35tinajasdevino,a2psy4tncadauna=87ps,4tn(f.139r).1604“Seisnavíosjapones”(Contad.1206,f.281v):–CapitanSintohan:2ps,2tn.–CapitánFigueredo:16ps.–CapitánAlejoMartín:3ps,2tn,6gr.–CapitánQuesayrinon:8ps,4tn.–CapitánSumayaguren:11ps.–CapitánAntonioGómez:9ps,6tn.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1206)–MiguelGarcía(31deenero):20cestosdearrozparaprovisióndelejércitoenPintados=13ps,6tn(f.325r).–CapitánGervasioGarcés(21deabril):doshierros,unoconuñasyotrosinellas,quepesaron,eluno,2picosy45libras,a8pselpico,yelotro,3picosy78libras,a5pselpico=36ps,6tn(f.385v).–—(21deabril):45picosy75librasdeclavazóndecostado,a6pselpico=273ps,5tn,5gr(f.386r).–SimónRodríguez(21deabril):4picosy115librasdecáñamodelJapón,a10pselpico=48ps,6tn,9gr(f.386r).Noconstaquefuesejaponés.–Pedro(25demayo):18picosy54librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=184ps,1tn,2gr(f.386v).–JuanGonzález(25demayo):14picosy105librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico=148ps,6gr(f.386v).–Joaquín(1ºdejunio):dosversospedrerosdemetaldelJapón,quepesaron6picosy70libras,a12pselpico=78ps,3tn,8gr(f.386v).–AlejosMartín(1ºdejunio):7picosy90librasdeclavazón,a6pselpico+2picosy42librasdehierro,a19realeselpico=51ps,7tn,1gr(f.387r).–JuanMagayamon(1ºdejunio):63picosy35librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico+3picosdepólvora,a20pselpico+56librasdesalitre=802ps,10gr(f.387r).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao–PabloSarmiento(1ºdejunio):92picosy65librasdehierro,a19realeselpico=410ps,3tn(f.387v).–MiguelTagafacio(30[hadeser3]dejunio):24picosy5librasdebalasdehierrodediamanteycadenadeJapón,a7pselpico=168ps,2tn(f.387v).–AntonioGómez(11dejunio):26picosy70librasdecáñamo,a10pselpico+40picosdeclavazón,a6pselpico+2picosy29librasdepólvora,a20pselpico+75jamones,atresrealescadauno=576ps,5tn,8gr(f.389r).–BenitoSilvera(30dejunio):14picosdebizcochoqueletomóenArévalo(Pintados)JuanSuárezGallinatoparasustentodelejército,a10pscadapico=140ps(f.390v).1605Seisnavíos(Contad.1206,f.486r):–Santiaguillo:Nohuboderechos–CapitánVicenteDíaz:10ps,3tn,6gr.–Máximo:3ps,3tn,6gr.–DonJuanBustamante:5ps–Gayamon:Nohuboderechos.–CapitánFranciscoMartínez:7ps,2tn.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1206)–BaltasarTaxima(17demarzo):71picosdehierro,a3pselpico:213(f.560v).–Cuyamon(23dejunio):62picosy69catesdehierrodeJapón,a2psymedioelpico+7arrobasy16librasdeclavazóngruesa(7picosy23cates),a3psy6tnelpico+9picosy38catesdecobre,a10pselpico;5picosy406catesdepólvora,a18pselpico+44picosy81catesdecáñamo,a10pselpico=823ps,5tn(f.565v).–JuandeBustamante(23dejunio):57picosy69catesdecáñamo,a9pselpico+22picosy8catesdepólvora,a18pselpico=929ps,4tn,8gr(f.565v).–AntonioGómez(23dejunio):34picosy34catesdecáñamo,a9pselpico+6picosy51catesdepólvora,a18pselpico+22picosy64catesdehierro,a3psymedioelpico+5arrobasdeazufre,en2ps+4picosy80catesdesalitre,a60pselpico=584ps,3tn,6gr(f.566r).juangil

7776–DiegoBohon(23dejunio):239arrobasdecáñamo,a9pselpico+280arrobasdeclavazón,a7pselpico+31arrobasdepólvora,a18pselpico=897ps,6tn,4gr(f.566r).–LuisBonche(23dejunio):76jamones,a4realesymediocadauno+22picosy16catesdecáñamo,a9pselpico=241ps,7tn,6gr(f.566r).–MelchorFayamon(27dejunio):3picosy67catesdepólvora,a18pselpico=74ps(f.567r).1606Llegaronvariosnavíos–nosediceelnúmero–alosquenosecobraronderechos(Contad.1207,14v).Elúnicoquepagóelalmojarifazgofue:–CapitánRoqueMerino:21ps,3tn,6gr.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1207)–AntonioLópez(5dejunio):cobre,pólvora,hierro,clavazónysalitre=1.059ps,6tn,6gr(f.59v).–JuanGonzález(12dejunio):300sacosdeharina,a3pselsaco+4picosy30librasdesalitre,a14pselpico=959ps,1tn,10gr(f.60r).–DonLeóndeSantiago:“ciertascosas”quesetomarondesunavío=8ps(f.189r).En1606elalférezBartolomédeOlmedo,ejecutordelarealHacienda,reclamó25psalsecretarioOrdásy24psalcapitánGasparPérez,“quelosdebíandefletesdelaharinaquelesbinodeJapón”(f.15r.15v).1607DosnavesdeJapón(Contad.1207):–AntonioMatayamon(13defebrero):25ps,2tnporalgodónporhilarencapulloy200mantillasblancas,tasadasen837ps(f.240v).LlegóderrotadoaCavite.–JerónimoFiranuya(18demayo):20ps,2tn,10grpormercancíatasadaen678ps,6tn(f.243r).ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1207)–Jorge(15demayo):2picosy15librasdecáñamo,a11pselpico=23ps,2tn,6gr(f.393v).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao–ToméBaez(15demayo):45sacosdeharina,a17realeselsaco=95ps,5tn(f.393v).UnToméjapóntambiénfuemultadoen1607en2ps(f.323r).–CapitánGervasioGarcés(12dejunio):4picosy50librasdecáñamodeJapón,a10pselpico=43ps,6tn,3gr(f.395r)+63sacosdehari-na,a22realeselsaco=173ps,2tn(f.395v)+19picosy33librasdecáñamodeJapón,a8pselpico=154ps,2gr(f.409v).1608NoconstaquelasnavesdelJapón(comoladeLeónChiamon)paga-senalmojarifazgo.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1207)–CapitánGervasioGarcés(19dejunio):19picosy33librasdecáña-modeJapón,a8pselpico=154ps,2gr(f.409v).Español.–BartolomédeMedina,maestredelnavíoSanIldefonso(8demayo):44picosy45librasdehierrodeJapónenplanchas,a31realeselpico=170ps,4tn+210picosy125librasdeclavazóndecinta,costadoymediocostadodeJapón,a6pselpico=1.265ps,6tn,1gr+83picosy110librasdecáñamodelJapón,a8pselpico=67ps,5tn,8gr.Total=2.106ps,7tn,9gr(Contad.1207,ff.407v-408r).Español.–Osqueday(31demayo):119sacosdeharina“paraymbiardesoco-rro”alcampodelMaluco=297ps,4tn(f.534r).–LeónChiamon,japóninfiel,“dueñodesunavío”(19dejunio):24picosy80librasdecáñamo,a8pselpico+37arrobasdehierroenpanesredondos(7picosy15arrobas),a12realeselpico=207ps,4tn,8gr(ff.409v-410r).–CapitánFranciscoMorenoDonoso(7dejunio):200quintalesydocelibrasdeclavazóndecinta,costadoyescoradeJapón,a6pselquintal=1.200ps,5tn,9gr(f.395r)+23quintalesy5librasdeclavazón,a7pselquintal=882ps,2tn,9gr(f.414v).Español.1609Tresnaves(Contad.1209):–CapitánLuisMelo,“que…vinoensujuncodelreynodelJapón”(4dejunio):15ps,por“20picosdecoladecaballo,a25ps,porserdelaordinaria”,tasadosen500ps(f.109r).juangil

7978–LeónChiamon,“que…vinoensujuncodel…reynodelJapón”(4dejunio):45pspor50picosdecobre,a15pselpico+20picosdecolasdecaballo,a37ps,4tnelpico,tasadotodoen1.500ps(f.109v).–JerónimoGramayon(4dejulio):19pspor15picosdecolasdecaba-llo,a40pselpico,tasadosen660ps(f.109v).ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1209)–LuisMelo(16dejuniode1610):104picosy22catesymediodeclavazóndehierrodetodassuertesdelJapónen542arrobas,a6psymedioelpico=667ps,3tn,7gr+70picosy59catesymediodecobreen367arrobasy5libras,a10pselpico=705ps,7tn,7gr;total:1.383ps,3tn,2gr(f.207r).1610Noconstaelpagodealmojarifazgoalguno.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1209)–JuanHerhicaymo(16dejunio):27picosy87librasdecobredeJapón,a9psymedioelpico(110libras)=262ps,5tn,8gr(f.207r).–LuisMelo(16dejunio):104picosy22catesymediodeclavazóndehierrodetodassuertesdelJapón,a6psymedioelpico=677ps,3tn,7gr+70picosy59catesymediodecobre=705ps,7tn,7gr.Total:1.383ps,3tn,2gr(f.207r).–GasparCosaymon(26dejunio):11picosy55librasdecobredeJapón,a9ps,4tnelpico=108ps,4tn,1gr(f.211r).1611Noconstaelpagodealmojarifazgoalguno.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1209)–TanabeaChoymo(9demayo):50sacosdeharina,a4pselsaco+301arrobasy15librasdecobre,a10pselpico=778ps(Contad.1209,f.526v).1612Noconstaelpagodealmojarifazgoalguno.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1209)–LuisMelo(17demayo):550arrobasy5librasdehierrodeJapón(373arrobasy10librasenplanchas,a3psy5realeselpico;y176arrobasy20librasenbarretas,a2psy6realeselpico=353ps,6tn,5gr(f.526v,869v).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao–EstebanFranco:70sacosdeharinadeJapón,a2pselsaco=140ps(f.875v).1613–1619.Faltalacontaduríadeestelapsodetiempo,peroserecuperandiversasnoticiasreferentesaestosañosgraciasadatosextraídosdeotroslegajos.1614El28dejuniosepagarondemásaPedroGroemon7ps,4tn,2gr,“por1picoy32catesdeyerrocoladoquedexódeentregardeloquerecivió,yotropicoy70catesdeldichoyerroquelepagaronmásdeloqueleperteneciódelflete,todoelloa20realeselpico”(Contad.1208,f.172r).1617ventasalosalmacenesreales“En7dejulliode1617alcapitánLuisMelo,Japón,9.685psaqüentade16.643psy6tnqueinportaroncantidaddegénerosqueconpródesudineroenelreynodeJapónporqüentadesuMagestadylosmetióensusrealesalmaçenesd’estaciudad,ylibrançade26demayodeldichoaño.Yporquantoselepagaronsinordendequienlapudodar,aunquenoconjustificaciónenestetiempoporsermuyapretado,quelarealCaxaestavaconsumaneçesidad,tanto,quelosvecinosprestaronparaqueseadreçasenlosgaleonesqueavíaenCaviteaynstanciadelcapitángeneraldonGerónimodeSilba,paraatajarfuturoscontigentes;perocomoeldichoenpréstidonosirvióparaelfinquesehizo,alterándoloporpagaraestejapónyotrosquepudieranesperaraotraocasión,su-puestolapenuriadelarealCaxaynoaverordenparapagarles,dexan-dodeacudiraloquetanprecisoera;yaunquedespuéstratarond’ello,fuetarde,quesientonçesluegoquesehizoeldichoenprestido,seadre-zaranlosdichosgaleones,quiçásnoseperdieran,nilatierranoseallaratanapuradaniapretadanienelriesgoqueestubo.Yasí,noseadmitenlosdichos9.685ps,porquelamanoquelosjuezesoficialesrealestienenesmuylimitadayquarteadaporlosdichosautosdelaproybizión;yquandonoloshubiera,sinoquecorrieraporellolalibreadministraçióndelarealHazienda,nopodíanpagarestacantidaddeaqueldineroqueprestaronlosvecinosparaeladrezodelosdichosgaleones.juangil

8180EndichodíaaldichocapitánLuisMelo602ps,4tn,quemontaronlosgénerosquemetióenlosdichosrealesalmazenes,ylibrançade5dejuniodeldichoaño.Yporqueselepagaronsinorden,noseadmiten.Yden”(Contad.1208,ff.197r–197v).“En7dejulioalcapitánLuisMelo,Japón,212psy4tn“porlossoco-rrosquedioasietemarinerosqueseperdieronenelJapón,aquienessecargaronensusasientosylibrançasde10dejuniodeldichoaño.Yporqueselepagaronsinorden,noseadmiten”(Contad.1208,f.199r).CertificacióndelcontadordeManilaFranciscoLópezTamayo(Filip.37,4nº138):–PedroGroemon(28dejunio):1picoy32catesdehierrocolado=151ps,7tn,8gr.–MiguelItoya(6dejulio):hierroysalitre=1.194ps,2tn,4gr.–SebastiánCoimon(28dejunio):150sacosdeharina+25tinajasdebizcocho=525ps.–LeónMongobeo(6dejulio):cobre=570ps,2tn,6gr.Enunañodesconocido,entodocasodespuésde1614,unjuncodelJapóndiocuentaadoñaLucíadelaCruzdelmartiriodesupadreenMiyako(Colín,Laborevangélica,iii31,4[Pastells,iii,p.513]).1618Unanave(Contad.1210):–NavíodeSimónFori.LlegópordiciembreaCavite.LuisMelocargóenestebarcovariasmercancías:8picosdehiloblancoparacoser,a75pselpico+100lienzosy200mantasnegras,a2pscadauna=1.200ps(f.265r).Ensunombre,el11dejuliode1620eljaponésFranciscodeGuevarapagó30psporderechosdel6%(f.14r).Hubieradebidopagar72ps,segúnseobservóen1620PedrodeLeusarra(Contad.1208,f.265r)1.1.ParecequehubounerrorenlaspartidasdePedrodeLeusarra:enunasedicequeelnavíodeSimónForillegó“pordiciembredemilyseisçientosydiezynuebe”(Contad.1208,f.244v–45r);enotra,quearribó“pordiciembredelañopasadodemillyseisçientosydiezyocho”(ibidem,f.265r).EsposiblequeForihicieradosviajesporlasmismasfechas,peronocabedescartarunerrordecopia.Alviajede1618serefirierontambiénloscontadorescuandoescribieron:“lasmercaderíasquetruxoelañopasadode1618delreynodelJapónenelnabíodeSimónFori”(Contad.1210,f.14r).Peroesosmismoscontadores,porerror,fecharonlallegadadelanaveNuestraSeñoradelosRemediosenelmismoañoenquellegóelbarcodeSimónFori(Contad.1210,f.14r);yconstaquelaprimeranavellegóen1619.MeparecemuysignificativoelhechodequeSimónForiaparezcaenlasventasalosalmacenesen1620.PeronomeatrevoadescartarqueForihicieseundobleviaje.unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaoEn1618llegóaFilipinasotronavíojaponés,peroporunavíainusita-da,ladeAcapulco.SetratabadelSanJuanBautista,elnavíoenviadoen1613alaNuevaEspañaporDateMasamune(sobresusanterioressingladurascf.Hidalgosysamuráis,p.301,428,433,436).Elgober-nadordonAlonsoFajardocomunicóalreyeldestinoúltimode“lanaodejaponesquetambiénvinoconmigodelaNuevaSpaña,enqueuboartoadereçoynopocoquehaçerconsusdueñosparaquelaspres-tasen,yalfinlaprestaron.Yagoraselaecompradoenbienbaratopreçio”(cartadel10deagostode1619[Filip.7r.5,n.58]).ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1208)–FranciscoLópezyAntonioQuiamon(12dejulio):“porcantidaddegéneros”=9.516ps,7tn.Selesdespachóunalibranzaduplicada,querechazóen1620PedrodeLeusarra(f.222v).1619¿Tresnaves?(Contad.1210):–JuanSinguin,“dueñodesunavío”(20dejuniode1620):84ps,3tnpor2.804psdemercancíasdelJapón+126ps,3tnpormercaderíasdeChina,al6%(f.12v).SinguinllevómercancíasparaelalmiranteJuanRuizdeYcoagayelhermanojesuitaSebastiánBertarelo,procuradorgeneraldelColegiodeSanJosédeManila(ff.13–13v).El11deabrilde1620supiloto,DomingoLeal,pagó9psporlosderechosde5esclavos,traídosalparecerdeChina,dedondedebíadevenirlanave(f.10v).–NuestraSeñoradelosRemedios.VolvióaCavitepilotadaporMar-cosSimón,aquiensetomaroncuentasel29deenerode1620.El8deagostode1619LuisMelocargóenNagasakilamercancíasiguiente:“Unbersodemetalconunacámara.Otrobersodefierro.UnfardoconçientoyquinzecalçonesdemantadeXapón.Doscaxasbiejas.Unbufeteviejo.Unaespadaydagacubiertadeplata.Seistinaxasba-zías”.Procedierondelmismocargamentolascosassiguientes:“Ytenunaalabarda…YtenquatrocalçonesdemantadeXapónenunfar-do…Ytenunostirosypretinaconsushierrosdeplata,que…pareçereçivióeldichoLuisMeloconunaespadanegradefierro”(Contad.1208,ff.271r–71v).Melocargóademás70picosdesalitre,a25pscadauno.Nopagólosfletesdelsalitre“acausadeabérselededescon-tardelalibrançaqueseleavíamandadodaraldichoLuisMeloporloquegastóconeldichonavío”.Ensunombre,el11dejuliode1620eljuangil

8382japonésFranciscodeGuevarapagó52ps,4tnporderechosdel3%(f.14r).–¿SimónFori?ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1210)–FranciscodeGuevara,japón,ennombredelcapitánLuisMelo,residenteenJapón(20dediciembre):4.000psacuentadelos6.297ps,6tn,4grquemontaronlosgénerosvendidos:325sacosdeharina,a4psy4tnelsaco+70picosdesalitre,a25pselpico+500picas,a7realescadauna+2picosdehilodehierro,a38pselpico+74picosy49librasdeclavazóndetodassuertes,a6ps,4tnelpico+478picosy64librasdehierroplatinayenbarretas,a4psy4tnelpico(ff.202v–203r).–LuisMelo(26dejunio):517picosymediodepólvoraysalitre,a22pselpico=22.508ps,11gr.“Nodeviéndolehazerbuenosmásde517picosymediodepolvoraysalitrequeentregóenYlocosalcapitánJuandeHerreraconotrosgéneros,leabonaron518picosdedichapólvoraysalitre,a22pscadauno”(Contad.1208,f.236r).–SimónFori(diciembre):699picosdehierro+20picosdeclavazón,“queelcapitánLuisMeloembiabaporqüentadeSuMagestad”(Contad.1208,ff.244v–245r).–SanchoGuinsabroyMarcos(27deagosto):125picosdehierrobrutoqueselestomaronenCagayán,a3pselpico=375ps(f.340r).1620Dosnaves(Contad.1210):–ElcapitándonAlonsoFajardoyOcsaba,quellegódeMacao(7dejulio):1.012ps,4tnporderechosal6%demercancíastasadasen.16.875ps(f.13v).Elcapitánregistró“unapetacaembejucada,quedixoserdeungrumetedelosqueavíanidoenunnavíodeSuMagestadaladichaciudaddeMacao”;estapetacanopagódere-chos,quefueronreclamadosenlarevisióndecuentasdeLeusarra(Contad.1208,f.265v).Pasajerosenestanave:–ElportuguésSebastiánMendes(9dejulio):192ps,7tn(ff.13v–14r).–JuanBenítez(10dejulio):16ps,1tn,8gr(f.14r).–ElpilotoBenitodePalaciosyelpadrepresbíteroAgustínEstévez(4dejulio):114ps,4tn,9gr,sumadelaque107ps,3tn,2grpertene-cíanalpiloto(f.13r).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao–JoséCuchiyMiguelCoji,criadosdedonAlonso(7dejulio):6ps,6tn(f.13v).–ManuelRodriguesNavarro,dueñodesunavío(7dejulio):ensunombreyeneldeMatíasdono:114ps,6tn,5grporvariasmercancíastraídasenelnavíodelreydeOju,al3%(f.13v).Portugués.ventasalosalmacenesreales(Contad.1210)–DonJuanYngoch,capitándeunnavío(19dediciembrede1619y27deenerode1620):50tinajasdebizcocho,a4pscadatinaja+120sacosdeharinadelJapón,a3ps,4tncadauno=620ps(f.199r).–FranciscodeGuevara,ennombredeLuisMelo,por“cantidadesdeharina,hierro,cobre,salitre,pólvora,picas,hilodealambreyclavazónqueinbióaestaciudaddesdeelreynodelJapónparaprovisiónd’esterealcampoyarmadasreales,compradoporsuqüentayconsudineroeneldichoreyno”.Selehicierontreslibranzasporuntotalde8.356ps,7tn:–—(7defebrero):147ps.–—(2dejunio):1.911ps,2tn,4gr.–—(2dejunio):6.297ps,6tn,4gr.SepensóquepagasenestaúltimacantidadlosmaestresdelasnaosquefuesenalaNuevaEspaña,“silasdichasnaosarribasenaldichoreyno[delJapón],adondeseinbiabaeldicholibramiento”:unaidearealmenteperegrina,dadaslascircuns-tancias.En11dejulioseentregaronaGuevara4.000ps,quedandoporpagar2.297ps,6tn,4gr(ff.341v–342r).–—424picosy80catesdehierro,a4psy6tnelpico,a4psy6tnelpico+10picosdeclavazón,“queasimismoembiabaporqüentadeSuMagestadeldichoMelo”.EntotalMeloenvióenelnavíodeSimóndeFori(1619)yeneldeManuelRodrigues(1520)untotalde1.123picosy80catesdehierro+16picosdeclavazónparaelrey.Sinem-bargo,enlosalmacenesrealessemetieronsolo907picosy60librasdehierro+210declavazón:quedaronporentregar216picosy44librasdehierro,a4ps,6tnelpico=1.027ps,4tn,10gr,quePedrodeLeusarrareclamóen1620aloscontadorespasados(Contad.1208,ff.244v–245r).juangil

8584–ManuelRodrigues(22y25dejunio):150tinajasdebizcochodeJapón,a4ps,4tncadauna+1.200sacosdeharinadelJapón,a3ps,4tncadauno+2.816arrobasy20librasdehierrodelJapón(541picosy90libras),a4ps,6tncadapico+70jamonesdelJapón,a5realescadauno=7.491ps,6tn.–CapitánJuandeEspinosa(17deoctubre):24tinajasdebizcochodelJapón,a4pscadatinaja=96ps(f.343r).1621–1626Faltanenlacontaduríaloslegajoscorrespondientesaesosaños.1624Llegarontresnaves,lastresibéricas(Contad.1211):–NavíoElRosario,acargodeJaimeBaler.LlegóaCaviteel7demayo.ElgeneraldonFernandodeAyalayelcapitándonAntoniodeArceocargaronenestebarcoporsucuenta300picosdehierro,tasa-dosen1.200ps,yAntoniodeMesinasotros5picosdehierro,tasadosen20ps,todoellosometidoal3%dealmojarifazgo(f.872r).NilosembajadoresniMatíaspagaronderechosporelhierrotransportado;debieranhaberpagado36pslosprimerosy5tnelsegundo(f.872r).–GaleónSanAndrés(cabo,elcapitánJuanRodríguezdelCastillo).“Alosveinteyseisdenobiembred’esteañopasado[1624]surgióenelpuertodeCavitelanaoSanAndrés,qu’elgovernadordonAlonsoFaxardoavíadespachadoalJapónconenvajadaparticular.Laqualelemperadornoquisorezivir,porqu’eselmayor{y}enemigodechris-tianosqueaavidoenaquelreyno”(cartadedonJerónimodeSilvaalreydel4deagostode1625[Filip.7,r.5n.84]).Volvióenestegaleóncomopasajero:–JuandeBarriosCárdenas,mercader,quiencargó432picosy32catesdehierro=4.160ps+150picosdeclavazón+harinaporva-lorde1.502ps.Seledebiócobrarel10%(7%defletesy3%almo-jarifazgo)porlaclavazónyel30%defletesporlaharina(f.872v).–NaoSanReymundo,delcapitánManuelRodriguesNavarro,quellegóaCaviteconpasajerosymercaderes.Nopagaronlosderechosdebidoslassiguientespersonas(ff.874r–874v).–CapitánManuelRodriguesNavarro:7ps,4tnpor250psdemer-cancía(derechosdel6%).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao–AlférezJosédeVides:72pspor600picosdehierro,tasadosen2.400ps(derechosdel3%).+66pspormantasyotraropa,valoradasen1.100ps(derechosdel6%).–GonzaloHernández:37ps,4tnpor625psdemercancía(derechosdel6%).–EstebanFrancisco,gobernadordelosjapones:28ps,4tnpor475psdemercancía(derechosdel6%)+9ps,3tnporhierrotasadoen312ps(derechosdel3%).–CapitánJuandeOláiz:9pspormantastasadasen150ps(derechosdel6%).–CapitánMartíndeHerrera:12ps,5tnpor210ps(derechosdel6%).–CapitánAntonioFernándezNavarrete:37ps,4tnpor625ps(derechosdel6%).–BaltasardeSousa,portugués:18pspor300ps(derechosdel6%).–DomingoRodríguez:30pspor500ps(derechosdel6%).Muchosañosdespués,en1638,eljaponésEstebanFrancopagóeldineroreclamadoporlarealHacienda:28ps,4tn+9pspordi-versasmercancíasy,además,3tnpor“cantidaddefierro”(Contad.1218,f.991v;Contad.1220,f.142r).Enelprimerlegajocitadosealudetambiénalos600picosdehierrocargadosporelalférezVides(ibidem).1626ElcapitánAndrésLópezdeAzaldiguientregóenlosalmacenesdeCavite186picosy112librasdehierrodelJapón+118fanegasy4gantasdearrozlimpio=1.662ps,4gr(Contad.1211,f.645v–46r).1627Noconstaquellegasenavealguna(Contad.1211).1628“Unnavío,queelañopasado[1628]salióahurtadillasdelaspartesdeArimayOmuraparaestasislas[Filipinas],aviendoarrivadoysaví-dosedóndevenía,costómuchasvidasygrandíssimasmolestiasalachristiandad”(Segundajuntadeteólogos,reunidaenManilael16deenerode1629:Filip.8,16;cf.Pastells,ed.deColín,Laborevangélica,I,p.241).Noconstasullegadaenlacontaduría(Contad.1211).juangil

87861629Dosnaveschinas(Contad.1211,f.586v):–Hantion(20denoviembre):91ps,4grpor1.517ps.–Husap(20denoviembre):9pspor140ps.1630Tresnavíoschinos(Contad.1213).EnunodeestosbarcosdebierondellegarlosleprososaManila:–DiegoSimbo,“capitándeunnavíodeChinaquevinodelJapón”(2demayo):447ps,1tn(f.43r).–Tengçiao,“capitándeunchampánquevinodeJapón”(12dejunio):12ps(f.44v).–Binbay,“capitándeunnavíoque…binodeJapón”(16dediciembre):11ps,3tn,11gr(ff.48v–49r).ventasalosalmacenes(Contad1213)–Yagsob,mercaderchino(6deabril):218sacosdeharinadelJapón(402arrobasy21libras),limpiayneta=981ps(f.232v).1631¿Seis?navíos(Contad.1213).Contad.1612294r344r:–LlegaronaCavitedosnavíos,unodeNagasakiyotrodeSatsuma(Colín,Laborevangélica,I24[Pastells,I,pp.242–42];Rodríguez,Historia,xix,p.254,357).Foto35.UnapartidadelacontaduríaserefiereaLorenzoGuirobioy,“fatordeljuncoquevinodelJapóneldi-choañode1631”(f.531r).Nofiguranenlascuentasdelalmojarifaz-go,aunquepuedenserlosbarcoschinosmencionadosacontinuación.–Sequa,chino(31demayo):188ps,6tn,6gr(f.402r).–Gusan,chino(31demayo):42ps,4tn,9gr(f.402r).–Siansed,chino(3dejunio):6ps(f.402r).–CapitánManuelÁlvares,vecinodeMacao.Llegó“ensunavíoquevinodelreynodeJapón”(f.528v).Noestáregistradoenlascuentasdealmojarifazgo.Portugués.ventasalosalmacenes(Contad1213)–CapitánManuelÁlvares(9deabril):598picosymediodecobreengoquez+666picos,1arrobay16librasdehierrodelJapónordinario=13.240ps,5tn,10gr(f.528r,529r,530r,531v–532r).Selepagóenpartecon5picosdesedacrudablancacompradapor1.400psalalmi-ranteNicolásdeSequeira,quienlahabíatraídodelJapón(f.536r).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao–LorenzoGuirobioy,“fatordeljuncoquevinodelJapón”(10demayo):500sacosdeharinadelJapón,a3psporsaco=1.500ps(f.531r).LoscapitanesdonPedroManueldeBracamonte,JuandeOláizyFranciscodeRebolledocompraron579arrobasy10librasdeclava-zón+293.500estoperolesenMacao,queentregaronalosalmacenesrealespormanodelalmiranteNicolásdeSequeirael23deagostode1631(ff.541v–42r).1632Cinconaves(Contad.1213).–MontayModomo,“japón,capitándeunnavíoquevinodeJapón”(26dejunio):324ps,7tn,8grpor677picosdecobretasadosen10.832ps(f.699v).–Qumsin,chino,“capitándeunnavíoquevinodeJapón”(8dejulio):44ps,3tn,9gr(f.699v).–Yangyog,chino,“capitándeunnavíoquevinodeJapón”(8dejulio):3ps,6tn,7gr(f.700r).–Chayay,chino,“capitándeunnavíoquevinodeJapón”(7deagosto):310ps,6tn,4gr(f.701r).–NuestraSeñoradelaLimpiaConcepción,capitánManuelÁlvaresdeUrrego(7deagosto):313ps,1tn(f.701r).Portugués.ventasalosalmacenes(Contad.1213)–Yosobe(3dejunio):667picosdecobredeJapónengoques,a16pselpico=10.832ps(f.842r).–LorenzoGiroboy(22dejunio):66arrobasy9librasdehierrodelJapón(12picos,3arrobasy24libras),arazónde4ps,2tnelpico=54ps,1tn,10gr(f.843r).–Yauyoc,chino(22dejunio):55arrobasy10librasdehierrodelJapón(10picos,3arrobasy10libras),a4ps,2tnelpico=45ps,10gr(f.845v).–CapitánManuelÁlvares(27demayo)715picosdecobre,a16pselpico+1.200sacosdeharina,a3ps,4tnelsaco=15.640ps(f.846v–47r).–—(6dejulio):4.103arrobasy17librasdehierrodelJapón(789picosy22libras),a4ps,2tnelpico=3.353ps,7tn,9gr(f.847r).juangil

8988–Chonguan,chino(24deagosto):815arrobasy5librasdehierrodelJapón(156picosy5libras),a4ps,2tnelpico+498arrobasy4librasdeazufre(95picosy104libras),a3pselpico=953ps,5tn,3gr(f.851r).1633Dosnaveschinas(Contad.1214,f.365v):–Chinquan,“sangleiynfiel,capitándeunnavíoquevinodelJapón”(22dejunio):6ps.–Sinquan,“sangleiynfiel,capitándeunnavíochinoquevinodelXapón”(28dejunio):62ps,3tn,2gr.Nocoincidenlasdosúltimascifrasconlasquesedanmásabajo.ventasalosalmacenes(Contad.1214)–Siguan,“sangleyynfiel,capitándeunnavíodeChina”(23demayo):164arrobasy12librasdehierrodelJapón,a3ps,6tnelpico=62ps,3tn,2gr+56ps,1tn,9gr(28dejunio[ff.559r–59v])=118ps,4tn,11gr(ff.558r–58vy559r–59v).–—(10demayo):568arrobasy10librasdetrigodelJapón,a3pselpico=327ps,7tn,4gr(ff.552v–53r).–(25dejunio):300sacosdeharinadelJapón,a3ps,4tnelpico=1.050ps(f.559v).–Chunquan,“sangley,capitándeunnavíodeChina”(14demayo):816arrobasy4librasdetrigodelJapón,a3pselpico:470ps,6tn,10gr.Seledescontaron62ps,4tn,9grporderechosdealmojarifazgo=398ps,2tn,1gr(f.558v).–Chonguan,¿elanterior?(9dejunio):329arrobasy7librasdehierrodelJapón,a3ps,6tnelpico:237ps,3tn,8gr(f.559v).–Tuyhon,“sangleyynfiel,pilotodeunnavíoquevinodeChina”(10demayo):100arrobasy16librasdehierrodelJapón,a3ps,6tnelpico:72ps,4tn,9gr(f.559r).1634Unanavechina(Contad.1216,f.116v):–Bitquan,“sanglei,capitándeunnavíoquevinodeXapón”(27demayo):87ps,6tn.ventasalosalmacenes(Contad.1216)–Bicuan,“sangleyynfiel”(6deabril):49sacosdeharinadelJapón(110arrobas),arazónde3ps,6tncadasaco+143arrobasy15librasunaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacaodecobredelJapónenbarretillas(27picos,3arrobasy5libras),a13ps,6tnelpico+780arrobasy15librasdehierrodelJapón(150picosy15libras),a4ps,2tnelpico+2012arrobasdetrigodelJapón(386picosy120libras),a3ps,6tnelpico=2.652ps,3tn,1gr(ff.341v–41v).–CapitánJuanLamprea(7dejulio):1.466arrobasy19librasdehierrodelJapón,a5ps,4tnelpico+757arrobasy22librasdehierrodeCochinchina,a4ps,4tnelpico=2.207ps,1tn,10gr(f.346v).Estecapitán,llamadoMamprea,llegódeCochinchinaenunchampándelqueerapropietariojuntoconAntonioMendes,DiegoFrancoySebastiándeArévalo(f.112v).Esunaincógnita,pues,dedóndeélysussociospudieronhacerseconhierrodelJapón.Apartirde1635noseregistraenlaaduanalallegadadeningúnbar-co,niibériconijaponés,procedentedelimperiodelSolNaciente.Losúnicosqueseatrevieronahacerlatravesíaentrelosdosarchipiélagosfueronlosjuncoschinos,perosiempreencircunstanciasexcepcionales,talycomoocurrióen1652y1658.Síconsta,encambio,elpagodelalmojarifazgodemercancíascargadaspornavíosjaponesesenCamboyaoenCochinchina:1646AndrésDono(22deenero):51ps,3tn,4gr.DeCamboya(Contad.1226,f.161r).1650MiguelChacona.DeCamboya(Contad.1229,f.152v).Sinbe(21dejulio):321ps,3tn,7gr.DeCochinchina,enuncho(Contad.1229,f.156v).1651MiguelLanda(28dejunio):43ps,4tn,11gryel21dejulio43ps,4tn,11gr:entotal,87ps,1tn,10gr.DeCamboya,enuna“enbarca-ziónpequeña”,desviadaporuntemporaldesunavegaciónaCochin-china(Contad.1230,ff.128v-129r).PabloChinbi(18deagosto):504ps,3tn.DeConchinchina(Contad.1230,f.129r).juangil

901657NiquayGasparCansaimon,capitándeunnavío.Recibiódelosoficia-lesreales570ps,5tn,7gracuentade1.160ps,6tn,2grqueselelibra-ronel1ºdesetiembrede1653por477arrobasy22librasdecobredeJapónenbarretillasyenláminas(Contad.1231,f.437r)+otros304ps,6tn(Contad.1233,f.65r;másespecificadoibidem,f.137v).DeCochinchina.FranciscoChossa,capitánydueñodeunchampán:203ps,7tn,8gr(Contad.1233,f.65r).DeCochinchina.1658MiguelOranda.DeCamboya(Contad.1233,f.139r).unaminoría:losjaponesesenmanilayenmacao

931.Em18deJaneirode16002ojesuítaSebastiãoFernandes3renunciouàsuaherançamaternaemNanquim4tendocomotestemunhasManuelPereira5eMiguelPinto6.Ostrêsantropónimosportuguesesadoptadosporesteshomens,cujosnomesdenascimentoapenasconhecemososrespeitantesaosdoisprimeiros–ZhongMingren7eYouWenhui8,sãoumpontodepartidaparaacompreensãodaintegraçãodechineses,mestiços,edejaponeses9nas«parentelas»10deMacau,edasuaagili-zaçãonasustentaçãoesobrevivênciadacidade,porpartedaparceria11compostapelosjesuítas12epelaselitesmercantiscomacessoaocursushonorum13dacidade.Omesmoseaplicaaosnomesportuguesesadop-tadospeloscunhadosdeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren,aquemestesereferenosseguintestermos:«[…]EperquantoeutenhoalguãobrigaçãoahummeninopernomeBastiãoehuãmeninapernomeAnnafilhosdehuãCaterinadeMendonçaqueoraestãoemcasa,oud’AntonioFerreira,meucunhadooudemeupai,peçoaoPadreReitorManoelDiasquelhesapliquealguãpartedaminhaherançaperasuasustentaçãod’ambosquantolheparecerqueforserviçodeDeos,edepoisdeaplicadosamandeaosganhoscomseuriscodellespermeiododitoAntonioFerreirameucunhadoouaTomePereiraouaGasparFernandezoutrosimeuscunhados[…]».14Dosseishomens15dequepartimos,trêsdelesnaturaisdeXinhui16edeMacau17,encontram-seestudadasasbiografiasdeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingrenedeManuelPereira/YouWenhuiporIsabelMurtaPina18,eadeMiguelPinto19pornós.20SeavançamosalgunsdadosdabiografiadeMiguelPinto21até1627,éporqueasuarelaçãocomaCompanhiadeJesus,comouniversomercantilnosMaresdaChinaedoJapão22,asfunçõesdetradutor23,eoestatutode«homemquesab[ia]Lereescreveracharachinamuitobem»24–segundoelepróprio(nãodesmentidopelosdemais25),exerci-dasaoserviçodaselitescomacessoaogovernocamarárioeaosprinci-paiscírculosdopoderemMacau26,sãoimportantesparaabordarmosestaproblemática.Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(1600-1627)1ElsaPenalva

9594MiguelPinto«homemletradonalinguachina»27,segundoChristo-vãoGonsalves28,e«homemletradonasletraschina»29,naspalavrasdeAntónioLobo30,«jurubaçadasfeirasdeCantão»31,fezpartedogrupodechinesescaptadospelosjesuítas,tendoaprendidocomestes,alereaescreverportuguês32,bemcomoasmatériasinerentesàdoutrinacristã.Deigualmodoteráaprendidojaponês,oupelomenosapron-fundadooquesabia.Nascidoem1578ou1579emMacau33,muitopossivelmente,numafamíliademercadores34,em1600com22ou23anos,casonãoresidisse,pelomenos,frequentavaacasajesuítadeNanquim35,ondesecruzoucomSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingrenecomManuelPereira/YouWenhui.Em1606pensamosquetalvezjáseencontrassenoJapão,sendoporhipótese,o«Christam»36aqueserefereoautordoexcertoquesesegue:«HatambemaquibomnumerodeChinaschristãos:esteannoseprocuroucomoouvissemmaisderaizascouzasdeDeusdehumChristamquenaChinaesteveemnossacazaoqualalemdeassabermuitobem,sabiatambemalingoadachinaparalhespoderdeclararnasuamesmalingoa,explicando-lhe(s)particularmenteoCathecismoimpressoemlingoa,ecaracteressinicos,eensinando-lhe(s)asoraçoensquevãotomandodememoria,etambemoditoCathecismo,comoqueseespera,seajudarammuito,eviveramdaquipordiantecomoChristãos.».37Aconfirmar-seahipótesequecolocamos,asuapro-jecçãojuntodosjesuítaster-se-áfeitonoJapão,ondeinscritonoseucírculo,semanteveactivonomeiomercantil,apesardasfunçõesquedesempenhava.Sabemosnoentanto,quenãoseencontraentreos«estudantesdeMacaunãoadmitidos»38naMissãodaChinaentre1595e1611.39Poroutrolado,nãofezpartedoschinesesemestiçosqueintegraramaProvínciadoJapãoaté1614.40Muitopossivelmenteter-se-ácruzadocomovisitadorAlessandroValignanoentrefinaisdeJaneirode1603e20deJaneirode1606,datadasuamorte.Em1611,encontrava-secasado41comumamulhermestiçadeorigemluso-japo-nesa42,tendooestatutode«casadoemoradoremNagasaqui»43.Nesteano44enoseguinte45,paraalémdeteracessoàprocuraturadoJapão46,tinhaimportânciaparatestemunharnuminquéritosobreaactuaçãodoprocuradordaCompanhiadeJesus47,relacionadocomatransacçãodeouroemNagasáqui,colocadonomercadoporviadeMacau48,ondetinhaconhecimentosquernas«parentelas»portuguesas,quernarededecontactoschinesa(guanxi)49operantesemeapartirdestacidade.50mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)NoinquéritoefectuadoapedidodopadreCarloSpínolaem19deSe-tembrode161251apropósitodoourodafragatadeSanctoAntónio52,cujocapitãoeraGaspardosReis53diz:«[…]quesabedesertasertezaqueoPadreProcuradordaCompanhiadeJapamariscounanaodaviagemtodaapratadoouroquelhefoiencomendadapormodolícitoeuzadonestaspartesdeJapamperaMacaoeistosabeelletestemunhaporqueoenqueriosendoescrivamanteoSenhorBisponessemesmotempoqueaNãoseperdeo[…]».54AsuapermanêncianoJapão,nomeadamenteemNagasáqui,ondenasceuoseufilhoLourençoPinto55,permitiu-lhecriarumcírculodeamizadesduradouroentreosparceirosdeMacau,aindasólidomaisdevinteanosvolvidos.56Osconhecimentosquedetinhadapráticamercantil57,bemcomoodomínioescritoeoraldoportuguês58,japo-nês59,cantonês60,eda«linguadosmandarins»61,justificaram,apardotempodoseurelacionamentocomaselitesdeMacau62,noperíodoaquenosreportamos,asuaintegraçãona«parentela»daCompanhiadeJesus,compostaporsuavez,também,pormercadoresdediferentesproveniências63,peseemboraofactodenãoseterconfinadoaesta.Em1614,trêsanosdepoisdeseencontraradesempenharfunçõescomoescrivãodobispodoJapãoD.LuísCerqueira64,tornou-seseunotárioeclesiástico,talcomoIjoJeronimo/JeronimoIyo.65Terásidoonotárioeclesiásticoresponsávelpelainventariaçãodosbensdobispo,depoisdoseufalecimento.66JuntamentecomJeronimoIyo,fezarevisãoda«interpretação»67escrita68«emlingoaPortuguesa»69deumacartaem«letraJappoa»70dobugyodeNagasáquiHasegawaSahioye.71Atarefadesempenhadaemequipapelosdoishomensdenaturalidadejaponesaechinesa,édescritanosseguintestermos:«Peraquecotejandohumacomaoutrauissemosseconcordauaotresladoeinterpretaçãodacartacomopropriooriginal,oqualnosditosNota-rioslendocotejamoseconcertamosedamosnossafeeainterpretaçãodacartaconcordaehefielmuitonauerdadeoqueacartadoditogo-vernadordis».72Significativodequenãosósabiaportuguêsejaponês,comoasuacolaboraçãotalvezfosseimprescindívelaonotárioecle-siásticojaponês.Arazãoresidiacertamentenofactodestenãosaber,aocontráriodeAgostinhoOtâ73,«escreverjaponêsetraduzirtextosnipónicos»74incluindo«cartasenviadaspelosgovernantesescritasporbonzos“emletrachinamuydifficultozadeentender”».75Eraportanto,jáantesdasuaestadaemMacaunadécadade1620,umquadrodeelsapenalva¯

9796vultonoplanodatradução,incluindopelodomíniodoportuguêsqueescreviacomdesenvoltura76,semrevisãofeitaporterceiros77,emboradistanciadamentedosjesuítasDomingosMendes/QiuLiangbin78ePascoalMendes/QiuLianghou.79ApósamortedobispodoJapãoD.LuísCerqueira81,desempenhouomesmocargocomoProvincialValentimCarvalhoemNagasáqui.82Nomesmoano,assinoucomonotárioeclesiásticojuntamentecomMartinhoMoan83,LourençodaCruz84,FranciscoAntonio85,MiguelAntonio86,PaulodosSantos87,ThomazdosAnjosePedroClemente,Figura1–«Interpretação»dacartadobugyodeNagasáquiHasegawaSahioye,redigidaporMiguelPinto,efeitaconjuntamenteporesteeporIjoJeronimo.80mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)¯o«ProtestodoClerodeNangazaquisobreaeleiçãoquefizerãonoPadreValentimdeCarvalhodaCompanhiadejesus».88Em11deMar-çode1615surgereferidocomo«Escrivãopublico»89apardojesuítaluso-chinês,naturaldeMacau,FranciscoLobo90mencionadoapenascomo«Escrivão».91Inscrevia-senumatradição92dequefaziampartehomenscomoThomedeAndrade93,«línguadoJuizo»94,MiguelMon-teiro95eoseufilhoGeronimoMonteiro96«interpretesdalínguaChi-na»97,todosnoexercíciodefunçõesaoserviçodogovernocamarárioedaOuvidoriadeMacauem1612.98Oprimeirocertamentetambémemanosanteriores,eosdoisúltimoshápoucotempo,conformesededuzdofactodeMiguelMonteirosercaracterizadocomosendoum«chinachristãodecabelo».99NamesmatradiçãoseinscreveramtambémLourençodeCarvalhoentre1611e1613100(comquemseencontrounoJapão,provavelmentemaisdoqueumavez101)eFrancis-coVarella,o«Girobaça»102queredigiuoqueoAidaoordenaraapro-pósitodaIlhaVerdeem1621.103Em24deJunhode1622aquandodoataqueholandêsaMacau,MiguelPintoencontrava-seemCantão104,acompanhandoosjesuítasqueretornavamàChinacontinental.105Hánoentanto,dapartedesteúltimo,umpercursoqueodistanciadesteshomens,resultantedasuapreparaçãointelectual,mastambémporserummercadordeprestígio,edetercontactosemPequim.106Porestasrazões,asuaopiniãoerasolicitadapelaselitescomacessoaogovernocamarário.107Apesardena«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»108de1625,integraros«homensdaterra»109ou«çurubaças»110dafreguesiadaSé111,nãosónãoserefereasiprópriocomotal,comopornorma,émencionadopeloseunomeporterceiros,talcomoosde-maismercadoresdeorigemportuguesa,italiana,espanhola,japonesa,easiática:«CertificamosnososPortuguezesqueviemosaCantãoperordemdaCidadeeCapitãoGeraladarRezãoaosMandarinsdoquepretendemsabersobreaforteficaçãofeitanaquellaCidadeserVerda-deoMemorial,despachodelRey,edosmaistribunaesdaguerraaquiacimatreslladadosdalingoaChinaemPortuguesforãotraduzidosporMiguelPintodosOrizinaesqueemnossasmãosuierãoBemefiel,Euerdadeiramentecomooditoodeclaroupellobementender[…]».112PorpartedeMiguelPintonãoháumaidentificaçãocomouniversosocialdos«jurubaças».Nãoéporacasoqueem14deMaiode1625,nacertidãoqueassinaescreve:«[…]chegouaestaCidadedeMacaoelsapenalva

9998hummandarimAnchasuAitaoEporellefoiditoaosPortuguesesmo-radoresdestaCidadequealiseacharãopresentesentreoscoaesfuihumdellesporentenderesaberbemalingoachinanaqualpraticaefallafis[…]».113Umaposturacontroversa,porquantoAgostinhoLobo,GasparHomem,AntónioFrancisco,FranciscoCarvalho,Cristo-vãoGonçalves,BritodaRocha,eopadreJoãoRodrigues,Tçuzzu/LuRehannãooincluemnoseugrupo,emMarçodomesmoano.114Ape-sardisto,nadocumentaçãoqueatéhojeconhecemos,nuncaéreferidoexpressamentecomo«lingua»–«interprete».MiguelPintoera«muitointeligentenalinguaeletraschina»115,eporessarazão,mastambém,peloseupodereconómico,livreacessoaPequim,econtactosnasredesmercantischinesaseasiáticas,alguémque,peseemboraasresistências,tinhaultrapassadoessepatamar.Econformevimos,ChristovãoGon-çalves116eAntónioLobo117,aotestemunharemafavordaCompanhiadeJesus,emSetembrode1626118,nãooincluemnesseuniversosocial.Em1625àsemelhançada«interpretação»feitaemequipacomIjoJeronimo/JeronimoIyo,assinouastraduçõesquefezaoserviçodogo-vernocamarário.119Em1626refereexpressamenteumaquefizeranoanoanterior:«[…]eistosabeelletestemunhaporseraprovizãodelReyeatraduzioelletestemunhaemlinguaPortuguezaparaatrazeraestaCidade.»120Aindaem1625,acompanhouaCantão,oPadreJoãoRodrigues,Tçuzzu/LuRehan,osseis«eleitos»,eos«Linguas»AntónioLoboeSimãoCoelho«[…]paradarfedetudooquesepas-savaoquetratavãonalinguasinicaentreosMandarinseosPortu-guezeseLinguasdaCidade[…]».121Fora-lhedelegadaumafunçãodesupervisãodojesuítaedos«linguas»,oqueincluianaturalmente,osprópriosmandarins,pelasrazõesqueexplica:«[…]porsaberalinguaeletrasescienciaschinasemeelegeraaCidadeecapitamgeral[…]».122Em1626aquandodestaspalavrasreportadasaumamissãodoanoanterior,AntónioLoboo«jurubaçadasfeirasdeCantão»e«linguad[eMacau]comosmandarinsdaChina»123refere-se-lhe,conformeapontámos,como«MiguelPintomuitointeligentenalinguaeletrasChina».124ÉatravésdeAntónioLoboquepercebemosqueseafirmoudefinitivamenteemMacau,muitopossivelmente,porvoltadesteano,senãomesmonoiníciodadécadade1620.Seapropósitodainterme-diaçãodopadreJoãoRodrigues,Tçuzzu/LuRehan,AntónioLobodiz:«OpadreJoãoRodriguesrespondeopornosdousLinguas»125,deixan-doclarooascendentedojesuíta,nafrasequesesegue,dácontadadis-mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)tânciaexistenteentreMiguelPinto,elepróprio,eSimãoCoelho:«[…]dousinterpretesosmelhoresdella[daterra]eelletestemunhafoihumdelleshindotambemMiguelPintoporserhomemLetradonasletraschina[…]».126MiguelPintotinhaem1625,segundoaselitesmercantisquelhedelegaramfunções,capacidadeparaaferirdacompetênciadojesuíta,inquestionadoatéali,edosseusconterrâneos.Apartirdoquetemosvindoaexpôr,edofactodenãoseenquadrarnouniversosocialdosjurubaças,quernaperspectivados«linguas»–«interpretes»,quernadoouvidorLourençodaCostaCavalhero127quevalidaacertidão,assinadaporelepróprio,porAntónioLoboeSimãoCoelhoem9deNovembrode1626128,percebe-sequeser«homemdaterra»nãosigni-ficavanecessariamente,ser«jurubaça».elsapenalva

101100OdomíniooraleescritodasváriaslínguasporpartedeMiguelPin-to,juntamentecomoutrascompetênciasquedetinhanapráticamer-cantil,aexcelênciana«linguadosmandarins»130,mastambémofactodetercontactosnacorteimperial131,fezdeleumquadrodevultoeumareferêncianouniversomercantildeMacauaindanadécadade1640.132Porestemotivo,asuaagilizaçãoaoserviçodarededesustentaçãoesobrevivênciadacidadefoiseriamenteponderada,fazendo-oserdis-putadopelaselitesmercantiscomacessoaopodercamarárioedemaiscírculosdopoder,numatentativadeescaparemaocontroledaCompa-nhiadeJesus.133Àsemelhançademuitosfilhosdemercadoreschineses,Figuras2e3–Traslasdodadeclaraçãododutang,governadorprovincial,aosportuguesesdeMacau,feitoporMiguelPintoem1625.129mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)asiáticos,portugueseseeuropeus,nãoseguiuavidareligiosa,tendo-setornadoumquadroqualificadoaoserviçodaparceriacompostapelosjesuítasepelaselitesmercantis,comoerapráticacomum.134Conscientedasvantagensdopercursoqueopaitinhafeito,noscircuitosmercan-tisasiáticos,LourençoPintodesenvolveucompetênciasnoâmbitodatradução:«[…]filhodeNangasaqui,cujoPayheMiguelPintoprezoemCantão(…)esteleuamospornosauerensinadoalingoa,eterfeitoporespaçodetresannosvidadenossasportasadentrocomodehumnouiço,epedirdeentrarnaCompanhiagraçaquelheconcederão».135Comopaiapostaranaformaçãodojovem,ensinando-lhejaponês136,juntamentecomasuamulher.Certamentedesdecriança.137Umoutrotipodepercurso,tambémimportanteparaacompreensãodaparceriacompostapelaeliteletradajesuítaeaselitesmercantisemMacau,éodeAndréBorgeso«VigariodaIgrejadeS.Lourenço»138,queassinaumacertidãoem1623139.DacartaqueescreveuaogeraldaCompanhiaseteanosvolvidos140,transcrevemosoexcertoquesesegue,queapesardelongo,sejustificapelariquezadoseuconteúdo:«[…]SounaturaldestaCidadedeMacaoportodaChinaeportuguêssemimpedimentoalgumquemeimpidaaserdacompanhia.SendomeninomecrieinasescolasdaCompanhiaenestecolegiodeMacaomefizeramosPadresmerçedemeterportasadentroestudando,dondesahifeitosacerdote.DesejeideserdaCompanhia.EestandoparamerecebermorreomeuPai,peloqueseiulgousernecessárioacompanhareuahumaMayuelha,eprocurardepagaralgumasdiuidasdemeuPai,oquefiscomtodoocuidado,deseiandoleuaradiantemeusintentos,equandomefaltouoimpedimentodemay,mecarregarãodeinfirmida-des,quenãomedeixãogozardobemquetantodeseio,poremsempremeconserueinelle,enodeseiodefazeralgumserviçoaesteCollegio,ememostraragradecidoasmercêsquedosPadresdellerecebi;euen-do-meriquomedetermineifazerdoaçãocomotenhofeitoporescriturapublicadetodosmeusbensaestecollegiodeMacao,osquaesadmi-nistrocomdeseioquecheguemaeupoderserfundadordesteCollegioporquetenhoiaoiehummuitoarezoadocabedal,eesperoemDeosnossoSenhoroha-deaugmentarperaofimquepretendo[…]».1412.DesenvolvemosapartirdoestudodaseliteseredessociaisdeMacau,ecomoobjectivodecontinuarmosatrabalharasuasociedadenosé-culoxvii,oavançadoporLuísFilipeBarreto142eIsabelMurtaPina143elsapenalva

103102emcomoosjesuítaschinesesemestiços–filhosdepaiasiático144,eramrecrutadosnasredesmercantis145,dequeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren,juntamentecomseupai(PeroFernandes/ZhongNianshan146)eseuirmãoJoãoFernandes/ZhongMingli147,constituemexemplosparadigmáticos.OfactodosseuscunhadosAntónioFernandesouFer-reira148,ToméPereira149,eGasparFernandes150,seremmercadores,comcapacidadedeinvestirdinheiro–«[…]amande[partedaherançale-gadaaBastiãoeaCatarina]aosganhoscomseuriscodellespermeiododitoAntonioFerreirameucunhadoouaTomePereiraouaGasparFernandezoutrosimeuscunhados[…]»151,éjuntamentecomoscasosdeMiguelPintoedeAndréBorges,umfactoressencialparaacom-preensãodestaproblemática.152Ainformaçãoquetemosvindoaexpôr,articuladacomoselemen-tosqueseseguem,permitem-nospercebermelhoroelevadonúmerode«jurubaças»constanteda«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»153,ressalvadopornósnoutrolugar.154Umelevadonúmeroqueseexplicaessencialmentepelofactodoshomensinscritosnestegruposocial,seremoelementoaglutinadordaparceriacompostapelaselitesmercantisepelosjesuítas155,juntamentecomosdemaischinesesresi-dentesemMacau.MiguelPintoéumcasoentrevários156,demercadoreschinesescaptadosparaas«parentelas»queintegravamasredesdesustenta-çãoesobrevivênciadeMacau157,aquejáfizemosreferência.Nocasovertenteinteressaconvocá-lo,nãoapenasenquantoquadropreparadopelaCompanhiadeJesus,decujaopçãodevidanãofizeraparteavidareligiosa(questãofundamentalnaabordagemdaparceriaentreaCom-panhiadeJesuseaselitesmercantisemMacau,naprimeirametadedoséculoxvii158),pelosseusconhecimentosnapráticamercantil,da«linguadosMandarins»(semesquecerojaponêseoportuguês),porserelodeligaçãoaPequim,tãopouco,naqualidadedetestemunhadacartaderenunciaçãodojesuítaSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren.Seofazemos,éporqueoseunomeportuguês,eaadopçãodomesmoapelidoporoutroschineses(algunsdosquaistemosvindoaestu-dar159),sãoimportantesparaoentendimentodalógicadeintegraçãodestesedemestiços160,emeapartirdeMacau,nasredesmercantisdaÁsiaOriental.Paraacompreensãodestaquestão,importaatenderaoscasosquepassamosaconvocar.mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)ToméPereira161,cunhadodeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren,homónimodo«jurubaça»deDiogoPereira162,ededois«vizinhos»dafreguesiadeS.Lourenço163,residianaSé.Ohomemcujonomeadoptouterásidoporhipótese,oautordoparecerquereproduzimosabaixo,datadode1deOutubrode1624,relacionadocomaviagemdeManila164,ouentão,talvezmesmo,ohomemdeconfiançadeDiogoPereira165,«cabeça»deuma«parentela»que,porsereportaràépocafundacionaldeMacau166,oinscrevianamemóriadacidade.Pormenorimportante,namedidaemque,entrefinaisdeQuinhentoseiníciosdacentúriaseguinte,aCompanhiadeJesusinvestiupartedoseuesforço,naconstruçãodeumamemóriacolectiva,contribuindoparaexistên-ciadeumaidentidadeprópriadeMacau.167Ainscriçãonamemóriadeumafamíliaapartirdaatribuiçãodeumnomejáexistentenesta,afilhosouaoutrosparentesdesangue,ouadoptados,comoelemen-toidentificativo,sãoprópriosdeassociaçõesdetipofamiliar.168Nãodeixadeserinteressante,queohomemcomqueseiniciao«Roldoshomensdaterra»169sechameThomePereira.170Figura4–ParecerdeThoméPereiradatadode1deOutubrode1624.171elsapenalva

105104Oquepareceficarclaro,comSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren,numacorrelaçãoestabelecidacomosantropónimosqueaquiconvoca-mos,entreosquaisosdeMiguelPintoeodoseucunhadoToméPerei-ra,équepornorma,osmercadoreschinesesemestiços,integradosnas«parentelas»deMacau,adoptavamonomeda«cabeça»172dogrupo,oudeumdosoutrosmercadoresqueacompunham,possivelmenteseuspadrinhos,aquandodoseubaptismo,ouentão,deumindivíduoqueàdatadasuainclusão,eraumdosnomesdereferênciadocolecti-voaqueseagregara.EmSetembrode1625MiguelPintonotrasladodeumachapadohaidao,utilizaestetermo:«AgoramandoosQueueschamarascabeçasdaCidadeparauiremcomalgunsportuguesestercomigo,paraiuntamentecomellesirmosaoTutam,Etratarpresencial-mentecomellenestenegocio,perasetornaremlogoparaMacao…»173Oquestionáriodeverámesmoseralargadoàsváriaszonasgeográfi-casemconexãonaÁsia,emparticularnaÁsiaOriental.DiogoPereira,umluso-indianonaturaldeCochim174,muitopossivelmentecomliga-çõesà«parentela»doseuhomónimoquesereportaàépocafundacio-naldeMacau,éumcasoatrabalhar.TendosidoadmitidonaCompa-nhiadeJesusemAbrilde1575175,permaneceunoJapãoaté1614176,efaleceuemMacauem20deNovembrode1618.177Foideacordocomestalógica,queHoracioNerettiteráadoptadoonomedoparceiroitaliano178deD.PaulodePortugal,capitão-mórdaviagemdoJapãoem1600179e1612180,damesmaformaqueSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingreneMiguelMonteiro181,queabordaremosdeseguida,ofizeramtambém.Omesmoseaplicaao«jurubaça»ToméPereiraresidentenaSéem1625182,quereferimosanteriormente,eaDomingosSoares183,tambémresidentenamesmafreguesia.184MiguelPinto,conformeveremos,emboraseencaixenalógicaquetemosvindoaexplicar,pertencerá,tantoquantoapesquisanosper-mitiuexploraratéhoje185,aumoutrotipodecasos.OchinêsHoracioNerettiqueem1625nãoconstada«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»186,aotomaronomedoparceiroflorentinodeD.PaulodePortugal,inscreveu-senomesmogrupodos«jurubaças»PauloNerette187eVenturaNerette188.AmbosresidentesnafreguesiadaSé189,oúltimodosquais,comprestígiodeclaradono«Regimento»daLingoadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»190,tantomaisque,conformesevê,garantiaoacessoàrededecontactoschinesamercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)(guanxi):«OJurbaçaquehouuerdeordinarionacidadepoderàcorrercomoEscrivão;queporhorapodiaseroNereteporseromaisfiel,eentendedeletras,etementradacomosMandarinsdoPorto,eCazaBranca,ehecazado,eassentado,etemdeseu.»191Ressalve-senoentanto,queofactode,pornorma,oschinesesqueintegravamumadeterminadafamília-empresa192,adoptaremonomedoseulíder,oudeoutrosparceirosnelasinscritos,compesoeconómicosuficienteecontactos,parajustificarasuaopção,baptizando-se,nãoqueriadizerquetodosos«jurubaças»fossemcristãos.No«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»193aosercolocadaahipótesedomandarimLiZhizao(mencionadonasfontesjesuítasporDoutorLeão)ocuparocargo,ressalva-sejustamenteesteaspecto:«Teràdousescrivaensdacidadepessoasfieis,equantoforpossivelchristãoshumprincipal,ecabeça,queteràcontacomocartorio,queporhoraseráLeãoLetradonaturaldeHamcheu».194Oquefazsenti-do,namedidaemqueacooperaçãocomarededecontactoschinesa(guanxi)ficariaefectivamentefortalecida.195Tãopoucosedeverápartirdoprincípioqueos«jurubaças»ouchinesesresidentesemMacaueaoserviçodosorgãosinstitucionaiscidade,estivessemnumplanose-cundáriorelativamenteaosseus«parentes»,defiliaçãoportuguesaoueuropeia.ComoschinesesSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren,MiguelPinto,MiguelMonteiro,TomePereira,DomingosSoareseHoracioNeretti196,estamosperanteumprocessodeassumpção-inscriçãoemdeterminadas«parentelas»,edeidentificaçãocomamesmas,remon-tadoàcentúriadeQuinhentos.197Esteshomenscorrespondemàcate-goriaoperativacriadaporLuísFilipeBarreto,apartirdasualeituradeAlessandroValignano.São«Gentedenaçãochinesa,masnascid[a]ecriad[a]emAmachaoeaparentad[a]comportugueses…».198Apesardasbiografiasdosjurubaçascommaiorpoderdeintervençãoereco-nhecimento,porpartedaselitesmercantisejesuítas,revelaremqueeramnasuagrandemaioriaorigináriosdoFujian199,nãodeixadesersignificativoquedissessemqueeramnaturaisdeMacau.200Noquerespeitaàadopçãodospatronímicos,tudoindicaquehaven-dovariantesnonomepróprio,osapelidosadoptadoscorresponderãoaindivíduosquesemoviam«àsombra»201,querdizer,sobaliderançaeprotecçãodeummercadordeavultadopodereconómico,ouasso-ciadosaoutroparceirotambéminfluente,deorigemeuropeia,chinesa,japonesa,ouasiática,pertencenteaomesmogrupoauto-referencial202,elsapenalva

107106queporsuavez,adoptaracomodistintivo,opatronímicodominanteda«parentela»emqueseincluia.Aquestãotorna-setantomaisinteressan-te,porquantona«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»203datadade1625,encontramosvárioshomónimosentreos«vizinos»204e«estravagantes»205eos«çurubaças».206Esteuãod’Abreu207,AntonioAluares208,Franciscod’Araujo209,DomingosCardozo210,FranciscoCarualho211,AntonioCoelho212,SalvadordaCunha213,constituemal-gunsdosmuitosexemplos.214NocasodeDomingosMendes/QiuLian-gbin,nascidoemfinaisdadécadade1570215,edePascoalMendes/QiuLianghouporexemplo216,fazsentidoquecoloquemosahipótesedequeo«intérpreteFilipeMendes»217queacompanhouRuggierieFrancescoPasioaZhaoqingem1582218,pertencesseàsua«parentela»ou,talvezmesmo,quefosseseupai219.Tantomaisqueestesjesuítaspertenciamauma«segundageração»220debaptizadosdequeéumreflexoodomí-niodalínguaportuguesaquerevelam.Porém,emboraavancemosestahipótese,decorrentedaarticulaçãodosdados,nãopodemosignorar,apesardetudo,quesóapropósitodeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMin-gren221edeLuísdeFaria/CaiSiming(?)/HuaLi’e(?)222éescritoqueeramfilhos«depaisChinasmaschristãosantigos».223Nalistade1625quequestionámos,oapelidoPereiracorrespondea15«çurubaças»224igualandooDias225,emboraFernandes226,Rodri-gues227,Gonçalves228,Correa229,osultrapassememnúmero,tendocadaumrespectivamente,39,18e16agregados,nocasodosdoisúltimos.Seguem-seosCunha230eosGomescom12231,osMonteirocom11232,eosFerreiracom10.233GráficoNº1/I–ChinesesemestiçosresidentesemMacauem1625registadosna«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»234,queadoptaramapelidosdevizinhoseextravagantes.ParentelasA–L.mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)Quadronº1JesuítaschinesesemestiçoshomónimosoucomapelidosdevizinhosouextravagantesresidentesemMacauem1625235,cujapermanêncianacidadesereportaa1592,1607,1611e1617,edecasadosmorado-resemNagasáquiem1612.GráficoNº1/II–ChinesesemestiçosresidentesemMacauem1625registadosna«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,queadoptaramapelidosdevizinhoseextravagantes.ParentelasM–Z.Nomes236Homónimodeummercador/anoComapelidodeindivíduosdecujopercursodevidaconstavaocursushonorumdeMacauem1592,1607,1611e1617Comapelidodevizinhoseextravagantesresidentesnastrêsfreguesiasem1625SebastiãoFernandes+/1611+/1611+FranciscoMartins+/1612237-+238AntónioLeitão-+/1607-1617239+ManuelPereira-+/1592240+DomingosMendes-+/1611241+JoãoFernandes-+/1611+JacobeNiva---PascoalMendes-+/1611242+FranciscodaLágea---LuísdeFaria--+FranciscoFerreira-+/1592-1611243+ManoelGomes--+LuísGonçalves--+244elsapenalva

109108Oquetemosvindoaexpôr,torna-semaisclaro,aocruzarmososnomesportuguesesdosjesuítaschinesesemestiçoscomosantropóni-mosdosvizinhoseextravagantesconstantesda«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»245de1625,tendoematençãoosseusapelidos,homónimos,etempodapermanênciadosseussujeitos,resi-dentesemMacauem1611,ecomparceirosmercantisdestacidadenoactivonoanoseguinte.Osnúmerossãoexpressivos.Dototalde13jesuítascom«registoanualdepresençasnamissão/vice-província»246noperíodoaquenosreportamos,constantesdoquadronúmerodois,11têmapelidosdevizinhosedeextravagantesresidentesemMacauem1625,2têmumapelidoquesereportaa1592,1a1607,5247deindivíduosdecujopercursodevidaconstavaocursushonorumdestacidade,em1611,e2sãohomónimosdemercadorescomfortepoderdeintervençãopolítica,económicaesocialnadécadade1610emMacau,ecomprestígionocírculomercantildefiliaçãoportuguesaemNagasáqui,noiníciodamesmadécada.Emboraoúltimodadopareçacontrariaroquetemosvindoademonstrar,nãoofazefectivamente,setivermosemcontaosdemaischinesesemestiçosquesetornaramhomónimosdemercadoresdeorigemportuguesa,italiana,echinesa,convocadosnestaspáginas,algunsdosquais,viramosseusdiaschegaraofim,aindanestadécada.248AntónioLeitãoera«parente»deMatheusLeitão,umdosoficiaiscamaráriosde1617,queforamfiadoresnocon-tratoqueGeronimoMacedodeCarvalhocelebroucomocapitão-mórdaviagemdoJapão,LopoSarmentodeCarvalho249em6deMaiode1617.250Nomesmoano,em8deAgosto,MatheusLeitãoeratambémcapitão-mórdanauSenhoradaVida.251Emboranãoapareçaentreaselitesmercantiscomacessoaocursushonorumdacidadeem1611,sabemosquepertenciaaocírculoderelaçõesdePeroMartinsGayoem1607.252MatheusLeitãoem27deJaneirode1623tinha45anosdeidade.253OjesuítaFranciscoMartins/HuangMingsha254martirizadoemCantãoem1606255,erahomónimodeummercadorqueseisanosapósasuamorte,aindaseencontravaaresidiremNagasáqui256,tendooestatutodecasado.257Oqueconfirma,porumlado,aexistênciadeparceriasluso-chinesasesino-luso-nipónicas258actuantesnosMaresdaChinaedoJapão,quefaziamaligaçãocomoarquipélagofilipinoecomaNovaEspanha.Poroutro,queháumamesmalógicadeins-mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)criçãonas«parentelas»portuguesas,emMacauenoJapão,nomeada-menteemNagasáqui.AanálisedouniversodosjesuítasnaturaisdeMacau,admitidosnaProvínciadoJapãoaté1614,édeigualmodoreveladora.Conformesepodevernoquadroquesesegue,dosseiselementosqueforamad-mitidos,umerafilhocertamentedeGaspardosReis,dequemtinhaomesmonome.SendonaturaldeMacauefilhodeumportuguês,seriamuitopossivelmentefilhodocapitãoGaspardosReisqueem1611seencontravaemNagasáqui,comocapitãodafragataSantoAntónio.260TodososjesuítasnaturaisdeMacautêmapelidosdemercadorescomfortepoderdeintervençãonestacidade.261ParaalémdeFranciscoLobo262,FranciscoOliveira263,JacomedeNavais264,ManuelRodri-gues265ePedroRodrigues266,enquadram-senestacategoria.Osdoisúltimos,porexemplo,sãoinclusivé,homónimosde«jurubaças»resi-dentesemS.Lourenço267enaSé.268FranciscodeOliveiratemoape-lidodeFernãodeOliveira,escrivãodocapitão-morRoquedeMelloPereiraem1592.269Figura5–AssinaturadeFranciscoMartinscasadoeresidenteemNagasáqui,em1611e1612.259elsapenalva

111110Quadronº2JesuítasnaturaisdeMacauadmitidosnaCompanhiadeJesusparaoJapãoaté1614.NomeDatadenascimentoElementoscaracterizadoresDatadamorteFranciscoLobo270c.1581271Luso-chinês,naturaldeMacau.272FoiadmitidonaCompanhiadeJesus,em1602.273Em1606foiparaMacau274tendoregressadoem1609aoJapão,jáordenadosacerdote.Em1613encontrava-senoColégiodeNagasáqui.275PermaneceunestacidadeatéNovembrode1614276,dataemqueregressouaMacau.Em1616ou1617foidemitido.277FoiposteriormentecompanheirodoVisitadorAntonioRubino,tendomorridocomestejuntamentecomLourençoPinto(filhodochinêsMiguelPinto),eoutroscompanheiros278,martirizadoemNagasáqui.27925deMarçode1643280JacomedeNavais281c.1561282NaturaldeMacau283FoiadmitidonaCompanhiadeJesus,em1583.284RetornouaMacauem1598285eregressouordenadosacerdoteemAgostode1600.286?FranciscoOliveira287?288NaturaldeMacau289,foiadmitidoem1602naCompanhiadeJesus.290Faleceuem1604.291mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)Aligaçãoentreosdoisuniversosjesuítas,tantoquantonosaper-cebemos,apartirde1583,sobaorientaçãodeAlessandroValignano,fez-setambémcombasenaintegraçãodeindivíduosqueactuavamemredesmercantiscompostaspor«parentelas»luso-asiáticasassociadasemparcerias,actuantesnoÍndico,nosMaresdaChinaedoJapão,enaNovaEspanha,muitosdelesparentesdesangueouporafinidade.Nãodeixadeserinteressante,queJacomedeNauaistenhasidoadmi-tidonaCompanhiaem1583,depoisdovisitadorterestadoemMacauentre9deMarçode1582e31deDezembrodomesmoano.312ApesardonúmerodejesuítasnaturaisdeMacauserdiminutonoJapão(emborasaibamosqueoutrospropósitoshavia313)sãoexpres-sivososhomónimoseapelidosadoptados,pelaimportânciapolítica,económicaesocialdosmercadoresaqueseagregavamoucomquemtinhamlaçosdesangue.FranciscoLoboporexemplo,eramuitopos-sivelmentefilhodeAgostinhoLobo314,apesardeserreferidoapenascomo«luso-chinês»315,semnenhumaressalva,atendendoàimportân-NomeDatadenascimentoElementoscaracterizadoresDatadamorteGaspardosReis292?NaturaldeMacau293,filhodeumportuguês294,foicriadonoJapãoondefrequentouoSeminário.295FoiadmitidonaCompanhiadeJesusem4deOutubrode1595.296FoiparaMacauem1598.297Faleceuem27deNovembrode1601.298ManuelRodrigues299c.1577300Luso-asiático301naturaldeMacau.302Luso-asiáticonaturaldeMacau.303Foiadmitidoem1602naCompanhiadeJesus.304FoiordenadosacerdoteentreOutubrode1607eFevereirode1613.Em1614foiparaMacau.305Faleceuem9deAgostode1636.306PedroRodrigues307c.1568308NaturaldeMacau,luso-asiático309,foiadmitidonacompanhiadeJesus,em4deOutubrode1595.310FaleceuemArimaemDezembrode1611.311elsapenalva

113112ciadopai.Omercadoremcausa,moradornafreguesiadaSé316,intermediou,juntamentecomGasparToméeVicenteRodrigues–«todoscidadoiscazadosemoradores»317emMacau,ocontactoentreocapitãogeralD.FranciscoMascarenhaseogovernocamarário,em19deMaiode1624,efoiumdos«eleitos»quesedeslocouaCantãoemMarçode1625318,àsemelhançadeGasparHomem319,AntónioFrancisco320,FranciscoCarvalho321,CristovãoGonçalves322,BritodaRocha323,dopadreJoãoRodrigues–Tçuzzu324edochinêsMiguelPinto.325JacomedeNavaiseracertamentefamiliardeAntóniodeNavais,queem1611faziapartedaselitesmercantiscomacessoaocursushonorumdacidade.326Quadronº3DadosbiográficosdejesuítasnaturaisdeMacauadmitidosnaCompanhiadeJesus,paraoJapãoaté1614.327ThoméPereira,oautordoparecersobreaviagemdeManilade1624aquefizemosmenção,tinha,umanovolvido,cercade60anos.328EraumdoshomensqueLourençodeCarvalho,ocapitão-mór,osofi-ciaiscamarárioseosjesuítasem1613329designampor«mercadores,velhos».330LourençodeCarvalho,a«pessoa»331escolhidapelos«verea-dores,povo,ecapitãomórqueentãoeradaditacidade,JoãoSerrãodaCunha»332na«camaradacidadedeMacau»333,paraaconselharefazer(porter«conhecimentoeexperienciadascousasdoschinaseemseumododefallar»334)«arespostad’elles»335paraoAidao336,eraumchinêscompesoeconómico,influência,econhecimentosnaredeNomeDatadenascimentoDatadeadmissãonaCompanhiadeJesus,noJapãoDatasdepermanênciaemMacauapósaadmissãonaCompanhiadeJesusnoJapãoFranciscoLobo158116021606-16091614-1642(?)JacomedeNavais156115831598-1600FranciscodeOliveira?1602—GaspardosReis?4deOutubrode15951598-1601ManuelRodriguesc.157716021614-1636(?)PedroRodriguesc.15684deOutubrode1595—mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)decontactos(guanxi),integradonumaparcerialuso-sino-nipónica,ac-tuantenosMaresdaChinaedoJapão,queAntónioBocarrocaracterizacomasseguintespalavras:«eachandoLourençodeCarvalho,queentreelleshaviaestadomuitosannoslhoencarregaramepediram».337Umchinêsquenaqualidadede«jurubaça»,porexigênciadomandarimdeHiangshan338,debateuecompôs,nessacondiçãoenadeconsultor339arespostaexigida,apardasdemaiselites:«Paraesteeffeitoseajuntouocapitãomór,ouvidor,osvereadores,ospadresejurubaçaetodosjun-tosbatemoscabeçaaDeus,fazendomuitasdiligencias,tomandonossospareceres,fazendoestescapítulosporitens[…]».340Ofactodasautori-dadeslocaischinesascolocaremnomesmopatamarocapitão-mór,oouvidor,osoficiaescamarárioseojurubaça,éreveladordoníveldeintegraçãodahierarquiasocial,compostapeloschinesesemestiços,«parentes»341dosportugueses,europeusedoutrosasiáticos,nasocie-dadedeMacau,mastambém,dasuaimportânciacomointerlocutoresprivilegiadosdopodercentralelocalchinês,ecolaboradores342dapar-ceriacompostapormercadoresejesuítas,razãopelaqual,eramsimul-tâneamenteconvocadosecontrolados.343Umaambiguidademarcadaporumcontroleemcrescendo,pautadoporacirradaslutas,entreasmulticulturais«parentelas»deMacaueosquevees344actuantesapartirdeCantão/Guangzhou345,emparce-riacomosmandarinsdestacidade.346Omesmotipodecolaboraçãoentreeliteschinesas,elitesmercantisdefiliaçãoportuguesaeaeliteletradajesuíta,encontramosnocontextodereuniõesdevereação,emanosposteriores.347LourençodeCarvalhoreferidoporsipróprioepelosdemaisinterve-nientesnareuniãode1613,como«jurubaça»348,eracertamenteomesmohomemquetalcomoPedroChum/Zhong349foiportadordecartas350dojesuítaDomingosMendes/QiuLiangbin351,quelheempres-toudinheiroporduasvezes,equedele«esta[ua]deparedeemeja»352aquandodasuaprisãoem1611,emCantão/Guangzhou353:«[…]assidespoisdememandarLorençoCarualhooutrohumtaele2condorins,nãotenhoporquempodeçeenviarestaaVossaReverenciaportudooquetenhorecebidodelleJtemsemcaixasdecobrequeheacontiade7condorins.Primeirauez9masese8condorinspoe2ªuezhumtaeledouscondorins.(…)assiVossaReuerenciaporcharidadepornenhummododajalgumindissioquetenhocumunicaçãocomosdeAmacao,euestoudeparedeemejacomLorençodeCarvalho,nãoazaalgumelsapenalva

115114mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)curiozoquandouemauisitarelletãobemlheuenhaodesejoezelodemeuer,porqueabertaistoporpublicarechegarasaberosmandarinsectVossaReverenciapodeescreuer-lhedandograçasdiuinascharidades,eupedirejestandoemnecessidadealgumsocorroauendoporquemquepossafazeremuitosegredosemperigosectporquedestamaneirajulgoquehebemnãoariscar-mesemnecessidades[…]»354LourençodeCarvalhoeraumhomemdaconfiançadocírculodeinfluênciajesuíta,comumperfilsimilaraodeMiguelMonteiro355que,dezasseisanosvolvidos,foihomenageadopostumamenteno«Regi-mentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens.»356.Certamenteum«parente»deFranciscoCarvalho357oudeManuelCarvalho358,mercadorescomfortepoderdeintervençãopolítica,eco-nómicaesocialnadécadade1610.Em1611pensamosquetalvezfosseomesmohomemaqueFranciscoMartins359(homónimodojesuítaHuangMingsha360)serefere,equeterátransportadonasua«soma»361AfonçoVaz362,deregressodeNagasáqui.Aconfirmar-seestedado,LourençodeCarvalhoeraummercadordeorigemchinesaqueintegravaumaparceriasino-luso--nipónica.Noentanto,arelaçãoentreesteeMiguelMonteironãosecircunscreveàquestãoqueapontámos.Osdois«jurubaças»cujasbiografiasfazempartedotrabalhoaquepertencemestaspáginas,permitem-nosreconstituiraredede«linguas»–«interpretes»,ede«letrados»,aoserviçodogovernocamarárioedaouvidoria,entre1611e1627.MiguelMonteiroem1612foi«notificado»363juntamentecomoseufilhoGeronimoMonteiro364,ThomedeAndrade365eFran-ciscoPeresReboça366apedidodopadreManuelGaspar.367Osdoisprimeiros,conformevimos,naqualidadede«interpretesdalingua»368eThomedeAndradede«interpretedalinguaChinanoJuizodestaOuvidoria».369Oúltimocomoautordo«treslado»370mandadofazerpelosvereadores371emPortuguês,da«chapa»372doAidao,postoemcausapelojesuíta.373Noquadroquesesegue,constamastrêsfasesdoprocessodeagili-zaçãodos«jurubaças»,porpartedaCompanhiadeJesusnoplanodatradução,comofimdeneutralizarumadversário,nocasoconcreto,obispodaChinaD.JoãoPintodaPiedade.374MiguelMonteiro,Gero-nimoMonteiro,eThomedeAndrade,notificadosapedidodoreferidojesuíta,eramos«linguas»–«interpretes»commaiorautoridadenodo-mínioemqueeramchamadosainterviràépoca,oprimeirodosquaiselsapenalva«letrado»375,epertencentesà«parentela»daCompanhiadeJesus.Atraduçãofeitaemequipa,àsemelhançadoquesepraticavanoJapão,conferiarigorereforçavaoprestígiodosjesuítas,responsáveispelaprepaçãodosquadroschinesesintegradosnasdiferentes«parente-las»,naaprendizagemdalínguaportuguesa.Quadronº4Oqueascorrelaçõesquetemosvindoaestabelecerpermitemcon-firmar382,équeháumacontinuidadeaolongodegeraçõesnoplanosecular,deagilizaçãodechinesescaptadosnasredesmercantis,algunsdeles«letrados»,cominteressesemMacau,preparadosintelectualmen-tepelaCompanhiadeJesus383,naqualseinscrevemThomédeAndra-de,LourençodeCarvalho,MiguelPinto,MiguelMonteiro,GeronimoMonteiro,SimãoCoelho,FranciscoVarella,eDomingosSoares.384SenãoreferimosToméPereira,éporque,nãoconhecemosnenhumdocu-Pedidoparaarealizaçãodeumatraduçãodechinêsparaportuguês,por«intérpretesdalingua»376sobjuramentoeparaquedebatessemsobreautilizaçãodapalavra«padre»377nocontextoaquereportavaa«chapa».Traduçãoemequipadotextochinês-«chapa»,paraportuguês.Respostadosintérprestesaumasegundaquestão,relacionadacomaexpressão:«cabeçadospadres».378«[…]PedeaVossaMercêmandevirperantesioditooriginalchina,einterpretesdalingua,quecomjuramentootraduzãoemPortuguez,aqualtraduçãoeversãopedeaVossaMercêmandeescreverpeloEscrivãodiantesifielmente,assimcomodisseremosditosinterpretesefeitaaditaversão,torneaperguntaraosmesmosinterpretescomjuramentoquedeclaremondeachapafalaemPadresquementendemosChinaspelapalavraquequerdizerPadres,equequerdizerpropriamentenasualínguaapalavradequealliuzaachapa,elhemandedartudoautenticoparabemdajustiçadosditosPadresqueestãodentrodaChinapelasviasquelheforemnecessárias.»379«[…]naspouzadasdeDiogoManuelLuizCoelho,elogoporellefoidadoojuramentoaosditosnotificados,paraquesobcargodellebem,everdadeiramentedeclarassemaChapadoAitao,naditapetiçãorelatada,quelogofezentregueaossobreditos,osquaesprometerãodeoassimfazer,comodefactotodosjunto,eentreelesThomeAndradeinterpretedalínguaChinanoJuizodestaOuvidorialerãomuitodevagaramesmaChapa,quedeCantãoveio,etodos,porhumamaneiraadeclararão,eelesprezentespelointerpretefaziaduvidaemlinguaPortugueza,ditandoelleeseoescrivãoescrevendopelaordemseguinte.»380«TraduzidaassimaditaChapa,peloditoLicenciadoOuvidorfoiperguntadoaosditosnotificados,quesobreomesmojuramentorecebidodeclarassemquesignificavaapalavradaditaChapa,quedizcabeçadosPadres,eporquemseentendiam;pelosquaesfoidito,queaditapalavraseentendiampeloReverendoBispodestaCidadeD.FreiJoãoPinto,ecomellefalavaaditapalavra[…]»381

117116mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)mentoassinadoporeste,ouemquesejamreferidascompetênciasquernodomíniodatradução,quernodaintermediação,muitomenosumtextodasuaautoria.Noquerespeitaaestechinês,apenassabemosqueeraummercadorcomcapacidadeparainvestirdinheiroalheio.385Oquenãoédesomenosimportância.Nemtodosos«jurubaças»residentesemMacauem1625haviamfrequentadoasescolasjesuítas.SalvadorDiasnaturaldeMacau386,re-sidianestacidadejuntamentecomosseuspaisem1622.387NesteanofoifeitoprisioneiropelosholandesesnaIlhadosPescadores388,tendo-setornado«lingua»389destesaté1626,primeironailhaaquefizemosreferência,edepoisnaFormoza.390Constituiumexemplointeressante,pelocontrastequeestabelececomosoutroschinesessobreosquaisnostemosdebruçado.Nãopertenceàesferadeinfluênciajesuíta.Paraalémdalínguamaterna,apenassabiafalarportuguêseoholandês.391Nãotinhaosrequisitosnecessáriosparaconstituirumamaisvalianoplanodasredesdesustentaçãoesobrevivênciadacidade.ContactaocapitãogeralD.FranciscoMascarenhasporquenãoeraumdosqua-drosqualificadosnodomínioda«interpretação»,tãopoucoalguémquecontassecomoavaldocírculodeinfluênciajesuíta,aindahege-móniconesteano,apesardosoponentesqueenfrentava.392Restaapu-rarse,entreosmercadoresda«parentela»emqueseinscrevera,haviaalgumcomfortepoderdeintervençãopolítica,económicaesocialnadécadade1620.DomingosSoaresquereferimosanteriormente,constituiumexem-plocontrário,próximododeLourençodeCarvalho.SituadonumpatamardiferentedeMiguelPinto,MiguelMonteiroedeSimãoCoelho,torna-sepeloseuperfil,umcasoquedevesertidoemconta.Tinhacompetência,podereconómicoeprestígioparaestaraoserviçodeMacaueintermediarumdiferendocomasautoridadeschinesasdacidade.Eradonodeumaoficinadecarpintaria,etinhapelomenos,trêshomensatrabalharparasi.Em29deJaneirode1626,«emcom-panhiadetresmestrescarpinteiros»393dirigiu-se,juntamentecomojuizordinárioFranciscod’AbreuecomoalcaideSimãoGonçalvez«aocampodosmandarinsondeestauãoascazasdellesdenificadaseRoubadaamadeiradehumadelas»394parafazerocálculodopre-juízo.Erahomónimodeum«vizinho»dafreguesiadeSantoAntónioem1625,talvezomesmohomemquenoanoanteriordesempenhavafunçõesde«escriuãodasexecusois».395Em7deMarçode1626acom-elsapenalvapanhouocapitãogeralD.FranciscoMascarenhasnaqualidadede«ju-rubaça»396pararesolverumaquestãorelacionadacomosupostoraptode«humAttaychinadeydadedeseisannospoucomaisoumenospornomeAchon»397,queforatirado«dacazadopadreClerigoFranciscoFerreira,porhumamultidãodechinas».398Asituaçãodecontornosde-licados,sópoderiaterasuaintervenção,casofossealguémcomprestí-gioeinfluênciaquerperanteacomunidadechinesaresidentenacidade,querjuntodosmandarins.DomingosSoaresquemuitopossivelmentesabiaescreverchinês,foracertamente,umdosmuitosalunosqueha-viamfrequentadoasescolasjesuítas.Naqualidadedeintervenientenaresoluçãodoconflitoaoserviçodacidade,assinaoAutodaentregadeum«atai»399aoMandarimdeSegundaCadeiraporFranciscodeAbreu,juizordináriodeMacau,em17deMarçode1626.400Na«Lis-taDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesEgenteDellatierra»401encontra-seentreosprimeiros«homensdaterra»402dafreguesiadaSé.403

119118mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)Figura6–Autodaentregadeum«atai»aoMandarimdeSegundaCadeiraporFranciscodeAbreu,juizordináriodeMacau,em17deMarçode1626.404Figura7–AssinaturadeDomingosSoaresnoautodeentregadeum«atai»aoMandarimdeSegundaCadeiraporFranciscodeAbreu,juizordináriodeMacau,em17deMarçode1626.405elsapenalvaÀsemelhançadosdemaischinesescujoestatutoeraode«juruba-ças»em1625,actuantesemeapartirdeMacau,tambémosjesuítasSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingreneJoãoFernandes/ZhongMingli,tinhamconhecimentosdapráticamercantil406,própriosdatradiçãofamiliaremqueseinscreviam.407Oseupaiterásidoummercadorcompodereconómicoconsiderável,umavezquenocatálogodosbenfeito-resdaCompanhiadeJesusdatadode1677,seencontraincluídoentreos«homensdaterrapostoquericosemuitohonrados».408FranciscoFerreira/FeiCangyu409peseemboraofactodeserluso-chinês,étam-bémumcasoareter.Aoserexpressamentereferidocomosendo«filhodeumachinesaedeumportuguês“muitograveaparentadocomomelhordaCidade»410,percebe-sequeoseupaieraumindivíduocompodereconómicoacimadamédia,quesehaviaintegradonumadas«parentelas»maisinfluentesdeMacau.Emboraexistamapenas10«jurubaças»comesteapelidoem1625,agregadosà«parentela»dosFerreira411,em1611encontravam-seentreosmercadorescomacessoaocursushonorumdeMacau,Belechior412Ferreira413,CaetanoFerreira414,eJorgeFerreira.415EsteúltimoeraescrivãodaOuvidoriadeMacauem1612.416InteressanteéaindaofactodojesuítaLuísGonçalves/PangKeji417,cujoregistoanualdepresençasnamissãodaVice-ProvínciadaChinaremontaa1627418,terumhomónimonafreguesiadeS.Lourençoem1625.419DomingosGonsalvesqueem1623foiumdosseteenviadosporMacau,paraanegociaçãodoestatutode«filhos,enaturaesdaChina»420paraosseusmoradores,eramuitoprovavelmenteseupai.421Atendendoaoquetemosvindoaexpôr,dificilmentesepoderádes-valorizarofactode35%dosantropónimosehomónimosadoptadosporchinesesemestiços,constantesda«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»422de1625,como«jurubaças»residentesnastrêsfreguesias,corresponderemamercadorescomgrandepoderdeinter-vençãopolítica,económicaesocialnadécadade1610.Significativoéainda,queoshomónimosadoptadospeloschinesesemestiçoscorres-pondama30%dototaldeantropónimosehomónimos,vinculadosaMacauem1611,dequetemosconhecimentoatéhoje,mascujosdadosaindapoderãoavançaratéaofinaldaredacçãodonossotrabalho.423

121120mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)Quadronº5Antropónimosehomónimos424demercadorescomacessoaocursushonorumdadécadade1610,adoptadosporchinesesemestiços,cons-tantesda«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»425de1625,residentesnastrêsfreguesias,cujapermanênciaemMacaueemNagasáqui,remontaa1607,1611,1612e1617.426MiguelPintoterá,àdatadasuaagregaçãoàfamília-empresadosPinto(comumtotalde8«jurubaças»em1625433),adoptadooapelidodequemencabeçavaogrupodechinesesemestiços,quefaziamparteda«parentela»deManuelPinto434,muitopossivelmenteum«portu-guêsdenação»435,emboranãopossaserexcluídaahipótesedeserumchinêsouummestiço,decujopercursoemMacau,faziampartecargoscomoode«capitão»436,«vereador»,ede«Prouedor»437daSantaCasadaMisericórdia.Esteúltimoé,juntamentecomSebastiãoFernandeseHoracioNeretti,umdossignatáriosdacertidãoabonatóriadaCom-panhiadeJesusde31deOutubrode1611.438CardozoDomingos*CarvalhoFrancisco*CarvalhoManoel*CoelhoAntónioCoelhoManoel427FernandezFrancisco*FernandesSebastião*FerreiraBelechiorFerreiraCaetanoFerreiraJorgeFonsecaGasparMendesdeGracesLuizJorgeEstevão428LeitãoMatheusMartinsFrancisco*429MendesJeronimoMonteiroAntónio430MonteiroMiguel*431NavaisAntóniode*NerettiHoracio*PereiraAlvinoLopesPereiraDiogoPintoManoelRochaGeronimodaRodriguezAlexandreRodriguezVicente*TavaresNicolaoAzevedoNuno432elsapenalvaApesardaconstataçãodequeexisteumaassociaçãoentreosho-menscomoestatutode«vizinos»439ede«estravantes»440,«portugue-ses»(peseemboraosentidolatodestetermo441)eeuropeus442,eoheterogéneogrupode«jurubaças»,nãopoderemosfechartodososindivíduoscomomesmoapelido,oucujonomeéumhomónimodeumlíder,mercadorinfluente,ou“padrinho”,nogrupoaqueseagrega-ram.Macautemnasuagéneseumalógicadeparcerias443,quepelasuanaturezadecidademercantil,perdurounoperíodoquetrabalhamos444,sendoabasedasuasustentaçãoesobrevivência.445OsexemplosdeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingrenedeMiguelMonteirosãoexemplificativos.Oprimeiroaquandodadoaçãodaherançamaterna,mencionatrêscunhados,aquejáfizemosreferên-cia,umdosquais,pertencente,emprincípio,aoutras«parentelas»:AntónioFernandesouFerreira446,ToméPereiraeGasparFernandes.DeAntónioFernandesencontramos6homónimosnalistade1625,3nafreguesiadaSé447,e3emS.Lourenço448,casotenhaoprimeiroapelidoenãoosegundo.Osdoisúltimosencontramo-losaresidirnaSé.449Oqueestescasosiluminam,équeas«parentelas»nãosendoestanques,co-relacionavam-seentresi,apartirdoslaçosdeparentes-co(desangueouporafinidade),edeacordocomointeressedosqueasconstituiam,sendoporestarazão,pontodepartidaparaacriaçãodeparcerias.ThoméPereiracunhadodeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren,parececomprovarestahipótese,umavezque,apesardeserseufamiliarporafinidade,seencontravaincluidonuma«parentela»diferente,oquenãoinvalidavaporsuavez,quehouvesserelaçãoentreambas.MiguelMonteiroeoseufilhoGeronimoMonteiropertenciamàmesma«parentela»,enquantooseufilhoSimãoCoelho,seintegrounoutra,possivelmente,adeManuelCoelho.450Estestrês«jurubaças»queseencontrammencionadosno«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»451,sãopretexto,senãomesmocausa,paraasuaconcepção.452Osprimeiros,quesehaviamagregadoaosMonteiro,cuja«cabeça»eratalvezum«portugues»,foramhome-nageadospostumamente453,eaoterceiroatribuídoo«titulodecabeçadosJurbaçasdaterra»454,apardanomeaçãopara«Linguaprincipaldacidadeporofficio»455,«paratermaisautoridadecomoschinas».456OtítulohonoríficoparaalémdeohomenagearpelosucessodasuaintermediaçãoemPequimem1623457,aondefoienviadojuntamentecommaisseis«nobresestrangeiros»458,afirmavaasuaautoridadepe-

123122mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)ranteapopulaçãochinesaresidentenacidade,mastambémperanteosmandarinsdeHiangshanedeCantão/Guangzhou.459Apesardoprotagonismoquelheéconcedidopelossignatáriosdo«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»460,todos«jurubaças»461,sabemospela«TresladodehuãpetiçãodosupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,paraoTutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcunhaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»462,traduzidapelojesuítaNiccoloLongobardo/LongHuamin463,queos«eleitos»,porquedissomesmosetrata,nãotiveramumpapelsecundário.464AvalorizaçãodeSimãoCoelho,decorrentedaconcessãodoestatudode«naturaesdaChina»465aos«estrangeiros»466deMacauquatroanosantes,iaaoencontrodasconvocaçõessistemáticasde«linguas»oude«jurubaças»467(asduasexpressõessãorecorrentesnastraduçõesdosdocumentoschineses468)porparte,querdosmandarinsdaprovínciadoGuangdong469,querdePequim.470Paraalémdeilustraroquetemosvindoaexpôr,ochinêsMiguelMonteiro,éumcasodereferênciaparaoestudodasparceriassino--portuguesas.Pelaatençãoquelhefoivotadaapósasuamorte,masnãosó471,umavezquecomopodereconómicoacumulavaumestatutoquenahierarquiadogrupoaquepertencia,ditadapelaparceriacom-postapelaeliteletradadaCompanhiadeJesusepelaselitesmercantiscomacessoaosdiferentescírculosdepoder,erafundamental,comoparceiroduplamentequalificado:«MiguelMonteirohomemhonradoeletrado».472MiguelPinto,MiguelMonteiroePeroFernandes/ZhongNichian,constituemtrêsexemplosdequeoschinesesemestiçosqueseagrega-ramàs«parentelas»deMacau,nãoestavamnumplanosecundário.Trêsentrevários.Ocontrárioseriadesurpreender,seatendermosànaturezadainscriçãoportuguesanasparceriasactuantesnoSudesteAsiáticonoséculoxvi473,queseencontramnagénesedeMacau,eaoscasosdeToméPereira474–«jurubaça»deDiogoPereira,edeFilipeMendes475–ointérpretedeRuggieriedeFrancescoPasio476,paraape-nasreferirmosalguns.Os«jurubaças»DiogoJorje477ePauloJorje478,em1625agregadosaAndreJorie479eaFranciscoJorje480,ostrêsprimeirosresidentesnafreguesiadaSé,eoúltimoemSantoAntónio,eram«parentes»deEste-vãoJorge.Umchinês,médicodocolégiodeS.Paulo«muitosanos»481,queem1623tinha72anosdeidade482,edecujopercursoconstavaelsapenalvaocursushonorumdeMacaunadécadade1610.483Nascidoem1551,àdatadaassinaturadacertidãoquereproduzimosdeseguida,tinha59anos.484NocatálogodosbenfeitoresdaCompanhiadeJesusde1677,encontra-seentreos«homensdaterrapostoquericos,emuitohonra-dos»485,àsemelhançadePeroFernandes/ZhongNichian.486Em1625nãoconstada«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstravagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra».487Porém,talnãoésignificativoquenãotivessevínculoaMacau.GasparBorgesdaFonseca,LopoSarmentodeCarvalho,AntónioFialhoFer-reira,paraapenasreferirmosalgunsnomesconhecidos,tambémnãoconstamdomesmodocumento.488Em1626EstevãoJorgecontinuavaaintegrarocírculodeinfluênciadaCompanhiadeJesus.489FranciscoJorge,naturaldeNagasáqui490,moradornafreguesiadeSantoAntó-nioem1635491,erafilhoPaulaRodrigues492edeJorgeBastião«humJappãochristão(…)naturaldaCidadedeMacao(…)cazadonaquelleReyno[Japão]»493e«homemrico»494,queintegravaumaparceriadaqualfaziamparteosjesuítas.Nomesmoanoconfessava-senoColégiodeS.Paulo,sendopenitentedopadreManuelRodrigues.495Em1616ojesuítaManuelBorgesanotouapropósitodeFranciscoCarvalhoeAntónioPires:«[…]ProcuradoresdeMartimdeGouveaeJorgeBastiammoradoresemJapãodeprataquepornossavialhesveyodeManilaaqualporhumalettradoPadreCarlosSpinolaselhesentre-gouaquiseusProcuradores[…]».496Em1617JorgeBastiãorecolheuocorpodefreiFernandodeS.Jozeph,martirizadonoJapãotendo-oconservadocomoumarelíquiaduranteanos:«[…]poroditoJappãonãoseatreueraocultartãograndethezourosemriscodeserreuelado,pellapersiguiçãoeodiodenossaSantafee,hircadadiacomgrandissi-moimpetu,efururencresimento;eporestamesmacausaoditoJorgeBastiãodepoisdealgunsanosoinviouporhumfilhoseuchamadoFranciscoJorgeaMacao,aondegozozamenteenquantoviveoteueosobreditoJorgeBastiãoensuaCompanhiaoditosantocorpo[…]».497ParaalémdaindentificaçãodestesjaponesesnascidosecomestadasemMacau,pertencentesà«parentela»dochinêsEstevãoJorge,ficaclaraquecompunhamumaparceriasino-luso-nipónicaactuanteentreMacau,NagasáquieManila,naqualaCompanhiadeJesustambémseencontravaintegrada.

125124mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)AsconjunturasvividasporMacau,levavamaqueaselitesqueasgeriam,escolhessemoschinesesemestiçosinscritosnasdiferente«parentelas»,algunsdosquais«jurubaças»,noperíodoemquenosdetemos,deacordocomdiversoscritérios.Eramfactoresdecisivosnaescolha,oníveldefidelidade499,osconhecimentosdentrodarededecontactoschinesa(guanxi)500,ainfluênciaeprestígioquedetinhamnes-tecircuito,ascompetênciasnosdomíniosdesaberexigidos501,acapa-cidadedenegociaçãoeintermediação502,entreoutros.Sóassimlheserapermitidointerviremcontextosemquepoderiamserumamaisvalia,sendoagilizados,combasenoseuperfil,pelaparceriacompostapelaCompanhiadeJesusepelaselitesmercantis.Naselecçãointervinhamosjesuítasemercadorescomacessoaogovernocamarárioeaoscírcu-lospolíticosadstritosaestainstituição,nomeadamenteos«eleitos»503,«adjuntos»504,e«povo»505,paraapenasreferiralguns.506Acriaçãodeumvínculoaumdeterminadogrupoatravésdaadop-çãodopatronímicodeummercadortomadocomoreferênciavincula-tivaàjurisdiçãoportuguesaecristã507,tambémnãoobrigavaàfixaçãonumamesmafreguesia.EmS.Lourenço,morava,porhipótese,BastiãoFernandes508,filhodeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren509.Em1605aos18anosdeidade,terásidoumdastestemunhasconvocadasporFreiFranciscoPinto510noâmbitodascontradiçõesocorridasnacidadeentrejesuítasefranciscanos.Algunsdosseusfamiliares,residiamnaSé,nomeadamenteotioJoãoFernandes/ZhongMingli511,expulsodaCompanhiadeJesusem1622512,àsemelhançados«jurubaças»commaiorimportâncianarededesustentaçãoesobrevivênciadeMacau.513SecolocamosahipótesedequesetratadofilhodojesuítaZhongMin-gren,éporqueestáregistadotalequalaformacomoesteselhereferenacartadedoação.514Aagregaçãodechinesesemestiçosàsvárias«parentelas»dacidadefronteiradoGuangdong,erahierarquizadaepautadaporvariantesquenosencontramosatrabalhar.515Oschine-sesemetiços,bemcomoosportuguesesedemaiseuropeusaointegra-remas«parentelas»,alcançavamdiferentesníveisde«aparentados»,Figura8–AssinaturadeEstevãoJorgenumadascertidõesde31deOutubrode1611.498elsapenalvaconsoanteomaioroumenorpodereconómicodas«cabeças»edos«parentes»aqueseassociavam.516NocasodoJapão,conformedemonstrámos,em1612residiaemNagasáquiummercadorhomónimodojesuítaFranciscoMartins/HuangMingsha517,falecidotragicamenteem1606.518Percebe-sequeestamosperanteomesmomodusoperandiqueobservamosemMacau,equefoiamesmalógicaquelevouaqueumjaponêsadoptasseonomedeLuísdeMello,sendoporessarazão,designadonadocu-mentaçãocomo«CapitanLuisMeloJapon».519Em6deFevereirode1635AntónioLobo,naturaldeMacau520,filhodeAgostinhoLobo521,umdos«eleitos»quesedeslocaramaCantãoemMarçode1625,edeFilipaCarvalhaes522,refere-se-lhenosseguintestermos.«[…]humJa-pãoaquemosPortuguezeschamãoLuizdeMello[…]».523Ojaponêsemcausa,adoptouonomedoseuhomónimo,ocapitãodeumadasarmadasportuguesasque,apardeDiogoPereira,neutralizaramnadécadade1560,apedidodasautoridadesdeGungdonguma«rebeliãodelargascentenasdemilitaresdadefesacosteiradeGuangdong».524AntónioLobo«jurubaça»aquejáfizemosreferênciapertenciaaesta«parentela».Nãodeixadeserinteressantequetivesseomesmonomequeofilhodoportuguêsaqueseagregara.NoquerespeitaaouniversodosjaponesesemMacau,refira-sequeem27deJaneirode1623entreastestemunhasda«Petiçãoeaponta-mentos…»525dopadreAntónioLeiteencontrava-seFranciscoGon-salves«castaJapão»526nela«cazado,emorador»527,comcercade40anos528.Tinhatrêshomónimoschinesesoumestiçosentreos«juruba-ças»constantesda«ListaDeLagentequeAyEmestaCiudade…»529de1625.DoisresidentesnafreguesiadaSé530eumemS.Lourenço.531Ofactodeoacompanharnomesmoprocessoumconterrâneoemcujonomeestáplasmadaasuaorigemasiática,oupelomenos,asuaori-gemmestiça,nãodeixadesersignificativo.Referimo-nosaLuizFayadaCosta532«casadoemorador»533emMacaunamesmadata.Doisdosantropónimosquetomamoscomopontodepartida,SebastiãoFernandeseHoracioNerettiencontram-seentreos43sig-natáriosdacertidãoabonatóriadaCompanhiadeJesus,assinadapelochinêsEstevãoJorge,naqualatestavamquejamaisosjesuítashaviamabordadoaquestãodocomérciocomManila.534OmesmoacontececomMiguelMonteiroecomManuelPinto,peseemboraofactodosdocumentosemquenosapoiamosparaestes«parentes»dechineses,

127126seremcópiasmaistardias535,impossibilitandoporessarazão,aleituradaassinaturaoriginal.OitalianoHoracioNerettitalcomojáreferimos,parceirodeD.PaulodePortugal,em1600foicapitão-mórdaviagemdoJapão538,eem1612acompanhouPeroMartinsGayo539comoenviadodacidadedeMacauaoShôgunparaconfirmar«oacordoparaorestabelecimentodocomérciodeMacaucomNagasaki,feitoporD.NunodeSouto-maiorem1611».540Em1598541,aquandodasuaestadaemMacau,FrancescoCarletticonviveucomesteseuconterrâneo,quesegundorelata,nãocontactavacomnenhumitalianohá16ou18anos.542FoiescrivãodaSantaCasadaMisericórdiatendofeitoaanotaçãoà«verbadoPadreJoãoEspinhosa»543,possivelmenteapós21deSetembrode1610.544SebastiãoFernandesterá,àsuasemelhança,integradoosprin-cipaisgruposauto-referenciais,razãopelaqualfezpartedocolectivoqueassinaem31deOutubrode1611umadascertidõesredigidasnes-sedia.545EmboraosmercadoresMiguelMonteiroeManoelPinto,decujopercursoconstavaocursushonorumdeMacauprópriodadécadade1610,nãoseencontrementreossignatáriosdodocumentoanterior,fizeram-nonoutrospertencentesàmesmatipologia.MiguelMonteiroemduascertidões,umadatadade30deSetembro546,naqualidadedevereador547,enoutrade31Outubrodomesmoano548,redigidanomes-mocontexto,aindaquecomumtotalde48assinaturas,semindicaçãoparticularizadadoseuestatuto.Mais5doqueaquelaquetomámoscomopontodepartida549,emqueassinamhomenscujosperfissãogros-mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)Figura9–AssinaturadeHoracioNeretti536Figura10–AssinaturadeSebastiãoFernandes537elsapenalvasomodo,caracterizadoscomosendotodos«cazadosemoradoresnestacidade»550,«todosportuguezes»551,«entre[osquais]quatroseremdecapitãoqueforãodesuaMagestade,enouedelesseremdepessoasqueforãoProuedoresdacasadasantaMisericórdiaeosdemaisVereadores,juízeseoficiaisdogovernodestacidade».552ManuelPinto,ohomemaqueMiguelPintoseagregou,epossivelmenteumoutroindivíduodenaturalidadechinesa,seuhomónimo(talvezparentedo«jurubaça»chi-nês,porsangueouafinidade),incluia-setambém,entreaselitesmercan-tisdeMacau,razãopelaqualassinaacertidão.SebastiãoFernandes,HoracioNeretti,MiguelMonteiro,ManuelPinto,ThoméPereira,DomingosSoares,erammercadorescujoperfildeintervençãopolítica,económicaesocial,lhespermitiasalvaguardar,naqualidadedeagentesmercantis,aparceriaqueintegravam,junta-mentecomaCompanhiadeJesus,apartirdaagregaçãodemercadoreschinesesemestiços,dequeestesúltimoseram,porsuavez,oelementoaglutinadoregarantedarededesustentaçãoesobrevivênciadeMacau.Umaquestãotantomaisinteressante,porquantoestesúltimos,nãoeramnecessariamente«jurubaças»,nosentidoestrito553,querdizer,«lingua,interprete»/«tassi»554,ouindivíduosque,naqualidadede«homensdaterra»555–outrodosseussignificados556,tinhamestegru-pocomoauto-referencial.Nosfólios157–169docódice557ondeseen-contrao«Vocabulário»dePortuguês–Chinêsdeautoriacolectiva558,feitoemZhaoqing559,lê-senasentradascorrespondentesàletraG,apalavra«girobasa».560Significativodequeparaquemcompôsoacrescentoaodicionário,ovocábulo,nãocorrespondianecessaria-menteaquemdesempenhavaafunçãode«interprete»–«lingua».EmboraacontaminaçãoentreosdoistermosocorraporvezesemMacaunadécadade1620,otermo«jurubaça»vai,mercêdaimpor-tânciacrescentedos«interpretes»–«linguas»comointerlocutoresdomandarinatodeCantão,edaligaçãodirectaaPequim561,passaradesignartodoaquelequeerachinêsoumestiço(filhodepaiasiático),naturalounãodeMacau–«homemdaterra»,eresidentenacidade.EmNagasáquiaoinvés,nadécadade1630,ser«jurubaça»significavaserintérprete.ÉocasodeAntonioNereteeAntonioCarvalho,respec-tivamente:«JurubassadosPortuguezes»562e«JurobaçadeSoya»563,apesardenatraduçãodosDeshimaDagregistersqueconhecemos,otermoutilizadoporCynthiaVialléeLeonardBlusséser«Interpre-ters»564eapalavra«jurubaça»nãoconstardoglossário.565

129128mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)LourençodeCarvalho,porexigênciadomandarimdeHiangshan(paraqueparticipasseum«jurubaça»566naredacçãodarespostaaoAidao),eporescolhadaselitesmercantisedosjesuítas,representouacomunidadechinesanareuniãoemqueseredigiuarespostaàsacu-saçõesfeitasàcidade,edefendeuaparcerianaqualseintegrava.DomingosSoarestambém«jurubaça»,interveionessamesmaquali-dade,comointérpreteemediadoremconflitosocorridoscomacomu-nidadechinesaresidenteemMacau,ecomoMandarimdaSegundaCadeiraFuãoPô.567Masnemtodoseramcapazesdeofazer.Asrazõesporqueoschinesesquetemosvindoaconvocarnestaspáginas,seagregaramadeterminadas«parentelas»,tornam-semaisclarasapartirdasbiografiasdosseushomónimos,ou«parentes»cujosapelidosadoptaram.MiguelMonteiro,HoracioNeretti,SebastiãoFernandez,ManuelPinto,eDomingosSoares,forammercadorescomgrandepoderdeintervençãopolítica,económicaesocialemMacau,comumaperma-nêncianacidade,certamenteanteriorainíciosdeSeiscentos,quenumadascrisesvividapelaparceriaqueformavamjuntamentecomosjesuí-tas,testemunharamaseufavor,emdocumentosconcebidosparaesseefeito,nomeadamenteem«certidões».568AcusadosdeseremcontraapresençadecastelhanosemMacau,edequereremimpedirqueo«castelhano»569PeroAngulodeSalazaremparceirassecomobispodaChinaD.FreiJoãoPintodaPiedade,nocomércioentreMacaueManila570,osjesuítas,emcolaboraçãocomaselitesnopoder,agiramnosentidodesemanteremdistanciadosdo“podertemporal”,salvaguardandodestaformaaparceria,queintegra-vam,dequeeramparteinteressada,edequedependiaasustentaçãoesobrevivênciadeMacau.571Nodocumento,escritoafavordaCompanhiadeJesus,numcon-textoemqueeranecessáriodistanciá-ladoplanomercantilesecular(àsemelhançadoperíodocorrespondenteaomandatodeD.FranciscoMascarenhas,entre1623e1626572),MiguelMonteiro,ohomemdequemopaidos«jurubaças»GeronimoMonteiroeSimãoCoelho,adoptaraonome,éreferidocomosendo«vereador».573Emboraporora,apenasavancemosqueàdatadaredacçãodoseutestamento574edasuamorteem4deNovembrode1616,eraalguémcompodereconómico575,solidáriocomos«portugueses»576(eportanto,comfortesentidodepertençaaogrupo),nomeadamentecomassuasorfãs,casa-elsapenalvadocomMariadeMelo,umamulherchinesaoumestiça(talvezluso--chinesa),dequemnãotinhafilhos,eaquemdeixoumaioritariamen-teosbensquelhecabiampordireito.577MiguelMonteirobeneficiouaindaaCompanhiadeJesusdoando«duzentostaeisDepratadeseda,amissãodeChinaparaajudadesesustentar»578e«cemtaeisdepratadeseda»579às«quatroresidencias»580davice-provínciadaChina.581Encontra-seentreos«Benfeitoresmenosprincipaes»582doColégiodeS.Paulo,tendodoado50taeis.583Talvezfossefamiliardocapitão-mórdaviagemdoJapão,DomingosMonteiro.584UmdoshomensactuantesnosMaresdaChinaedoJapão,queem1607tinhamgrandepoderdeintervençãopolítica,económicaesocialemMacau585,talcomoManuelCoelho586,a«cabeça»ouo«parente»quemuitoprovavelmente,terásidooresponsávelpelaagregaçãodeSimãoCoelho.Aintegração,conformedemonstraremosnoutrolugar,foimediadapelosjesuítas.587ThoméPereiramoradornafreguesiadaSé588,àsemelhançadoseuhomónimo«jurubaça»589,nasceuporvoltade1564.590Sessentaanosvolvidos,foichamadoporD.FranciscoMascarenhasparadaroseuparecersobreaoficializaçãodaviagemdeManila,noqualsemantevefielàselitestendencialmentedistantesdeGoa591participandona«jun-ta»592convocadapelocapitãogeral,emSetembrode1624593,tendointegradoogrupo«pasantedecorentahomens(…)todososprinçipaessidadõesdestaçidade»594quedebateuaquestão.EmMarçode1625,fezpartedasdezasseis595testemunhasqueresponderamàinquiriçãofeitaapedidodeD.FranciscoMascarenhas,sobreatomadadoFortedeS.Pauloaosjesuítas,daqualfizerapartejuntamentecom«muitoshomrradoscasadosdestaCidadeEsoldados».596Daarticulaçãoda«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiu-dadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatier-ra»597,nomeadamente,daslistasdos«jurubaças»dasváriasfreguesiasdeMacau598,comosdocumentosrelativosaalgunsdosseushomónimosportugueses(dosquaisconstaouniversosocialepolíticoaqueperten-ciam),apartirdoestudoprosopográficoquedesenvolvemos599,torna-semaisclaraalógicadaassociaçãodemercadoresdeorigemchinesaemestiçacomosdeorigemportuguesa,europeia,asiáticaemMacau.OschinesesemestiçosactuantesemeapartirdeMacau,inscritosnasdiferentes«parentelas»defiliaçãoportuguesaejesuíta,eramele-mentosactivosdentrodestas,cominiciativaeefectivaparticipaçãonasustentaçãoesobrevivênciadacidade.Nocasodos«jurubaças»

131130mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)tinhamumahierarquiaprópria,reconhecidaoficialmenteem1627apartirdo«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»600,emrespostaàeficáciadaactuaçãodealguns«juru-baças»noalcancedoestatutode«naturaes»paraos«estrangeiros»quecomo«hóspedes»moravamemMacau,mastambémdasuagra-dativaconvocaçãoporpartedasautoridadeschinesas601,noplanodaajudamilitaraquandodainvasãoManchu.602Naqualidadedeagentespromoviamaagregaçãodeoutrosmercadoresna«parentela»aquepertenciam,efaziamoentrosamentocomarededecontactoschinesa(guanxi),assegurandoasustentaçãoesobrevivênciadacidadefrontei-radoSuldaChina.603Quadronº6605«Parentelas»existentesemMacauem1625606elsapenalvaApéndice604«parentela(s)»/«cabeça(s)»de«parentela(s)»607Freguesiaderesidência/Extravagantes«Jurubaças»608FreguesiasderesidênciaAbreuEsteuãod’AbreuFranciscod’AbreuPoncianod’S.LourençoS.LourençoStºAntónioAbreuEsteuãod’AbreuGomsaloAbreuGregoriod’AbreuPerod’AbreuThomasd’S.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoAguiarPerod’S.LourençoAguiarBrasd’AguiarNicolaod’S.LourençoS.LourençoAluaresAfonsoS.LourençoAluaresAmtonioSéAluaresBertolameuAluresAntonioAluresFranciscoAluresGonsaloAluresJoãoAluresManoelAluresManoelAluresMarcosS.LourençoExtravaganteS.LourençoS.LourençoSéExtravaganteExtravaganteS.LourençoAluresAntonioAluresDiogoAluresDiogoAluresDomingosAluresFranciscoAluresGonsaloAluresNicolaoAluresNicolaoAluresSaluadorSéSéSéS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoStºAntónioAntunesPedroAntunesPeroExtravaganteStºAntónioAntunesFranciscoAntunesPaulloAntunesYnacioSéS.LourençoS.LourençoAranhaFranciscoCarualhoStºAntónioAranhaMateusSéAraujoFranciscod’AraujoManoelCarualhod’SéS.LourençoAraujoJorjed’AraujoManoeld’AraujoNicolaod’ArauyoFranciscod’SéSéSéSéBarretoPascoalS.LourençoBarretoLuisBarretoPeroSéS.LourençoBotelhoLuisSéBotelhoGonsaloBotelhoPascoalS.LourençoSé

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141140mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)TeixeiraAntonioTeixeiraBaltezarTeixeiraDomingosTeixeiraDommingosTeixeiraFranciscoTeixeiraFranciscoTeixeiraFranciscoTeixeiraGonsalloTeixeiraManoelTeixeiraPedroTeixeiraPeroTeixeiraPeroRodriguesS.LourençoStºAntónioStºAntónioSéS.LourençoSéStºAntónioS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoTeixeiraAntonioTeixeiraAntonioTeixeiraDomingosTeixeiraFranciscoTeixeiraJoãoTeixeiraJorjeTeixeiraMarcosTeixeiraMatheusTeixeiraPauloS.LourençoSéStºAntónioStºAntónioS.LourençoSéSéSéS.LourençoThomeManoelSéThoméFranciscoSéVaasGasparVaasPeroVaazLuizStºAntónioStºAntónioExtravaganteVaasAntonioUasDomingosVaasDomingosVaasFranciscoManoel617VaasPeroVaasPeroVaasVenturaStºAntónioSéSéSéS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoS.LourençoVarellaManoelVarellaSebastiãoS.LourençoSéVarellaAugostinhoVarellaDiogoVarellaThomasSéSéSéVieiraFranciscoS.LourençoVieiraAntonioVieiraJoãoVieiraPascoalVieiraPeroSéS.LourençoS.LourençoStºAntónioZauedoFranciscodeZauedoLuisdeZauedoManoeldeZauedoManoeldeZauedoRuydiasdeZavedoGraciadeS.LourençoExtravaganteSéStºAntónioStºAntónioSéZauedoManoelLopesdeS.LourençoDocumentoNº1BA,JA–49–V–5,«DoAitaosobrequenãosecompremmeninos,nemmeninas»,fls.137v–139v,anteriora17deJaneirode1612.[fl.137v.]DoAitaosobrequenãosecompremmeninos,nemmeninasDizoPadreManoelGaspardaCompanhiadejesus,ProcuradordosPadresdamesmaCompanhia,queestãodentrodaChina;queasuanoticiaveio,queAitaoMandarimdeCantãomandouasemanapassadahuãchapaaosVereadores,emaisofficiaesdaCidade,emqueelsapenalvasequeixados[fl.138]quecomprãomeninos,emeninaschinas,eosditosVereadoresamandarãotresladaremPortuguês,masqueotresla-donãoestàfeitonaverdadeconformeaooriginalchina.PedeaVossaMercêmandevirperantesioditooriginalchina,einterpretesdalingua,quecomjuramentootraduzãoemPortuguez,aqualtraduçãoeversãopedeaVossaMercêmandeescreverpeloEscrivãodiantesifielmente,assimcomodisseremosditosinterpretesefeitaaditaversão,torneaperguntaraosmesmosinterpretescomjuramentoquedeclaremondeachapafalaemPadresquementendemosChinaspelapalavraquequerdizerPadres,equequerdizerpropria-mentenasualínguaapalavradequealliuzaachapa,elhemandedartudoautenticoparabemdajustiçadosditosPadresqueestãodentrodaChinapelasviasquelheforemnecessárias.EReceberaMerce.ComopedeeparaodittoefeitosejãonotificadosMiguelMonteirochinachristãodecabelo,eseofilhoGeronimoMonteiro,eolínguadoJuizoThomedeAndradepareçãologoperantemim,eomesmoFranciscoPeresReboça.CoelhoAosdezasetediasdomezdeJaneirodoannoprezentedeseiscentos,edozeemcomprimentododespachoacimaaopèdapetiçãodoReverendoPadreManoelGaspar,notifiqueiaspessoasconteudasnoditodespachoparaoffeitodonellereletado[sic];osquaesaparecendonaspouzadasdeDiogoManuelLuizCoelho,elogoporellefoidadoojuramentoaosditosnotificados,paraquesobcargodellebem,ever-dadeiramentedeclarassemaChapadoAitao,naditapetiçãorelatada,quelogofezentregueaossobreditos,osquaesprometerãodeoassimfazer,comodefactotodosjunto,eentreelesThomeAndradeinterprete[fl.138v.]dalínguaChinanoJuizodestaOuvidorialerãomuitodeva-garamesmaChapa,quedeCantãoveio,etodos,porhumamaneiraadeclararão,eelesprezentespelointerpretefaziaduvidaemlinguaPortugueza,ditandoelleeseoescrivãoescrevendopelaordemseguinte.OAitaodeCantãomandaestaChapaaoMandarimdaprimeiraCadeiradoPortodeMacaoparaqueatodossejanotoriooquenellasecontem.EuAitaoviqueemMacaopouzarãoosPortuguezescomoemterrasemprestadas,nessamesmaterradeMacaohamuitosvelha-cos,eestragadosdanossanação,quevãoaellaaganharefurtãoos

143142direitosaelReydaChina,nãoguardãosuasLeysenganão,evendemgentenossa,couzadignademuitograndesentimento;euAitaosei,eouvi,queemMacaohahuãCabeçadePadres,quecomosdesuaCazagentedecoraçãoarapozado,queajunta,echamaassiosmausroins,aosquaescortacabelo,efazChristãos,eaoccupaçãodestaca-beçadosPadresheagasalhar,eesconderestagenteruinstambémhaoutrosmaoschinasenganadores,queandãopellanossaterradeMacaoenganando,efurtandoosfilhosefilhasdehomensdebens,eostrazemavenderaosPortuguezes,eentãoesteslhecortãocabelos,trocãoovestido,amarra-lheacabeça,elhecalsãomachosnospés,eescon-dememcovas,eesperãoembarcações,emesturãohomenscommulhe-resosmandãovenderaoutrasterras;estesbarbarosestrangeiroscomestesruinshomenssosabemajuntarganhos,enãoattentaomaldoshomens:estespecados,eestasmaldadesnuncasãodignamentecastiga-dos,porquenemcomamortesepagão.EuAitaoseiistodecerto,porquejatomeialgunsdestesladrões;eporissomandeiestachapaparafazerasaberaoOuvidordeMacao,aoCapitãoMor,aosBonsosPortuguezes,Jurbaças,queirãofalarcomaCabeçadosPadres,edigãoqueguardeasleysdaChina,quenãofaçadaquipordianteascousasquefaziadeantes,nemcompremeninosemeninasdaChina,esehouverestravagantesdaChinaquefurtaremfilhos,efilhasda[fl.139]daChina,eviremaquiavende-llos,peço,queosapanhem,eosmandeaosmandarins;eseosPortuguezesguardaremasleys,emeosmandadospodemestardescansadosemMacao,eosmaosChinasmercadores,queemMacaoestiveremdequalquerlayaquesejacadahumcomseoofficioganheasuavidanãoenganemboagente,eavendãoaosPortuguezes,porqueocontrarioserámeter-lheellemesmosnaredeesujeitarem-seaocastigo.Eosmandarinsda2ª,e3ªcadeiradeMacaoambosdedoussedebonsman-darins,ecomdiligenciavigiaraCabeçadosPadres,eestravagantesdaChina,eseforemdesobedientesasleysfazendoascouzasdanteslogootomai,eprendei,enistomandaiparaqueoscastiguedireitamente.Eassimquenãolargueis,efazeicomquetudoistosejaatodosnoter-modelReydigodeEscrivão.Hojeaos39.annosdeseuReinado,edosdozemesesaos10.dias.TraduzidaassimaditaChapa,peloditoLicenciadoOuvidorfoiperguntadoaosditosnotificados,quesobreomesmojuramentorecebi-dodeclarassemquesignificavaapalavradaditaChapa,quedizcabeçamercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)dosPadres,eporquemseentendiam;pelosquaesfoidito,queaditapalavraseentendiampeloReverendoBispodestaCidadeD.FreiJoãoPinto,ecomellefalavaaditapalavra:edecomoassimodeclararão,etraduzirãoaditachapaseassinarãoaquiodittoLicenciadoOuvidor.EuJorgeFerreiraEscrivãodestaOuvidoriaqueoescrevi.ManoelLuizCoelho.SinaldeMiguelMonteiroSinaldeGeronimoMonteiroSinaldeFranciscoPiresThomèdeAndrade[fl.139v.]GouernavanesteannooBispadodeMacaooBispoD.FreiJoãoPintoDominicano,eeraCapitãoMordaViagemdeJapão,edaCidadedeMacao.Estassãoasnoticias,queacheidoannode1612.JozèMontanhaDocumentoNº2arsi,Jap–Sin16–I,«Interpretação»dacartadobugyodeNagasáquiHasegawaSahioye,redigidaporMiguelPinto,segundoValentimdeCarvalho,assinadaporeleeporJeronimoIyo,ecertificadapeloprovincialevigáriodobispadodoJapão,em20deMarçodede1614,fls49–49v.[fl.49]Sajbãoquantosestepublicoestromentodadopermandadoeautori-dadeexofficiodomuitoReuerendoPadreValentimCarualhoProu-incialdaCompanhiadejesueVigairogeraldestebispadodeJapãouiremquenoannodonacimentodenossoSenhorjesuChristodemileseiscentosecatorzeannosaosdezanouedomêsdeMarçoemestaCidadedeNangasaquinaspozadasqueforãodomuitoJllustreEReuerendissimoSenhorDomLuisCerqueiraBispodeJappão,antenosNotariosEcclesiasticosIjoJeronimoclerigoJappãodeordensmenoresRessidentenaspouzadasdoditoSenhorBispo,eMigel[sic]elsapenalva¯

145144PintocasadoemoradoremNangasaqui,presentouopadreFranciscoPachecodaCompanhiadejesushuãcartaemletraJappoaasinadaporFarengauaSafioyedonogouernadordeNangasaqiescritadacorteondeResidiaaopadreReitordacidadedoMiyaco,ejuntamentenou-tropapelescritaemlingoaPortuguesaainterpretaçãodaditacarta,queheaseguinte.AoSenhorpadredacazaqueestanaquintaRuadoMiyaco.Mandodempropositooportadordesta,eoquecontemhequeouuindoelReycomoinnumeraueischristãosdesseMiyacosaiãoadoraracruzemqueactualmentefoicrucificadoGirobúyecidadãodeNangasaquìpornoMiyacoquebrantaraleyqueestàpostaemtrocareleuarparaoXimoPratasemcunhos,disseque[?]quepersuadeado-rarhumquebrantadordasleysdoReino,humladrãoehumgrandepeccadorcrucificado,ejuntamenteReuerenciasaosquesãocortados,eassados,heleydodemonio.hehumgrandecrime,doquegrande-mentemepezaeporqueouuindoistotiuegrandepezarmandodeprepositoestehomemperano-lofazerasaberAosomze[sic]daunde-cimaLuã.FaxengauaSafioye.Peraquecotejandohuãcomaoutrauis-semosseconcordauaotresladoeJnterpretaçãodacartacomoproprioeoriginal,oqualnosditosNotarioslendocotejamoseconçertamosedamosnossaféqueainterpretaçãodacartaconcordaehefielmuitonauerdadeoqueacartadoditogouernadordis.EenfeetestemunhodoacimaditopassarnauerdadenosasinamosambosnesteestromentofeitoporuiasepormymMigel[sic]PintoNotarioEcclesiasticoEmNagasaquinasditaspousadasdoSenhorBispo//enoditodiaemêseanno–AntemyNotarioEcclesiasticoMiguelPintoAntemimnotarioEcclesiasticoIjoJeronimo618619ValentimCarualhoProuincialdaCompanhiadejesus,eVigariogeraldesteBispadodeJappâocertificoemcomooestromentoacimaescritohefeito,eassinadoporMiguelPintoNotarioEcclesiasticodesteBispadodeJappão,queactualmenteserueseuofficio;certificomaisqueooutrosinalacimaescritohedeIjoJeronymoclerigoJappãodeor-densmenoresoutros.NotarioEcclesiastico,queactualmenteserueseuofficionesteditoBispado,eaospapeis,eautosporellesnotariosfeitos[fl.49v.]selhesdàinteirafeeecreditoemjuizo,eforadelleeporassipassarnauerdadepasseiapresentepormimassinada,eselladacommercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)osellodemeuofficio.EmNangasaquinoCollegiodaCompanhiadejesus.aos20deMarçodemileseiscentos,equatorzeannosValentimdeCarvalhoVigairoGeralDocumentoNº3BA,JA–49–V–5,«TresladodehuãpetiçãodosupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,paraoTutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcunhaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»,feitoporNicollòLongobardo/LongHuamin,fls507r–509v.[fl.507v.]TresladodehuãpetiçãodosupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,[fl.508]paraoTutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcunhaHu,aqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623.TratadosPortuguezesquevierãoàPekimparaprovaremaspessasdeartelharia;edosfavoresqueseconcedemàCidadedeMacaopormandadodoReydaChina,e&.ªNósMandarinsdoofficiodoChefansu,porcommessodonossosupremoTribunaldaGuerradestaCortedePekim,fazemosasaberosnobresestrangeirosDomingosAntunes,FranciscoVieira,FranciscoDias,DomingosGonsalves,PedroMendes,ThomeRodrigues,eoIn-terpreteSimãoCoelho,naturaesdograndeOccidente,emoradordoPortodeMacao,nosapresentarãohuãpetiçãodetheorseguinte.–NósDomingosAntunes,eosmais,sendochamadosporordemdeVice-Rey,vimoscààCorte,erecebemosmuitasmercesdeSuaMages-tade,aposistotambemnosdeolicençaparanostornarmo-nosoutravez;peloquelheficamossumamenteaggradecidos,elhedamosmuitasgraças:Comistoconsiderandonososmuitosaggravos,eenfadamen-tos,quedeordinariotemospadecidoatheagoraemMacaoporviadosmaraos,edezejandodenoslivrardelles,osdiaspassadosdepoisdetermoscommunicadoaquiasregrasdanossaarte,eprofissão,demosanossapetiçãoaosMandarinsparaquenosfizessemmercedenosprocuraremdetodososditosaggravos,etrabalhos;masdistonãosetemdadocontaaelRey,eassimnãosabemoscomquerostotornare-mosaveraosVereadoresdeMacao,osquaesnostinhãoencarregadodisto:Portantopedimos[508v.]queirãoverdenovoaquellapetiçãopassada,enosrecebãoascouzas,queagoralhesaprezentãoosdouselsapenalva

147146mandarinsquenostrouxerão,convemasaberhumcanochali,comoqualsepodevermuitolongeparamuitasmilhasdicernindoascou-zasdamaneira,quesão,eporissolaemEuropahepessadegrandeestima;apresentando-lhesoutrosialguãsarmasquepodeservirdemodello,scilicethumcapacetedeferro,humpeitodeferro,huãcoura,onzepanelasdepolvora,ehuãlansadefogo;pedimospoisquedemdenossaparteoutravezMemorialaelReyejuntamentemandehuãpro-visãofavoravelaoTutãodasduasProvinciasdeCantão,eGuansi,efinalmenteponhãoemboalembrança,erecolhasaspessassobredi-tas,paraquetendo-serecebidoostrezentostaeisafimdesecompra-remasarmas,nãopareça,quefoipordemaisedebalde:aforadistopedimostambem,quenosdemhuãcertidãocomquepossamosevitartodogenerodeaggravoeaffronta.Tendo-sediferidoestascouzas,eoutrassemelhantesaotribunalsupremodaguerra,deo-lhedespacho,dizendo,queestesPortuguezestinhãodadoduas,outrêspetiçõesosquaestinhãoenviadoaestetribunaldonossoofficioparavermosseeraconvenientequelhedessemosaprovisão,ecertidõesquepedem,emaisquelhedessemosboacontadaspeçasquediziãoter-sejaof-ferecido,eemquelugarsehaviãodeguardar,diziãotambém,queosdousmandarinstinhãorecebidoalliemCantãotrezentostaeis,dosquaeshaviãohumpapel,edeviainquirir-seseeraassim,epor-setudoemlembrança,eaistoenviouaonossotribunal,todasaspetiçõesquetinhãodadoaosPortuguezesparaasconsultarmos.Respeitandopoisaestemandadotemosfeitoinquirição,eachamos,queestesPortugue-zesforãomandadoscàporviadeTutãodeCantão,eonossosupremotribunaldaguerradeomemorialàElRey,oqualovio,edespachou,dizendo,queosPortuguezesdeMacaovindosdelonge,erãogentefiel,edignadelouvor,equeporissoselhesdeviaconsederdeveremaelRey,eacrescentar-lhenovamerce,paramostrarquesetratavamcor-tez,eliberalmentepedemaisnodemais,quesefizessecomosejulgavaserexpediente:estedespachodeuelRey,e[fl.509]mandouqueseexe-cutasseporissoonossosupremotribunal,encomendouaoMandarimKichinxe(?)daordemdeYuenvajdestenossoofficio,queescolhessesoldados,tomassepratadeerariodelRey,echamasseofficiaes,paraqueemcompanhiadosestrangeirospusessememordemascarretasdeartelhariafizessemapolvora;eseadestrassememdespararaspessas,efinalmentequedepoisdeteremacabadoasobrassedesseavizoaelRey,oqualseduvidalhesdarialicençaparasetornarem.Attentandomercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)agoraascouzas,queestesPortuguesespedirãoporvezes,achamos,quesãomuitas,emuymeudas,quedifficilmentepoderapor-seemhummemorialparaseapresentaraelRey;poremtomandoemsummaoquelhesdisserãoepedem,equesejãotodoscomofilhos,enaturaesdaChina,quesereprimãoosmaraos.Oqueselhesdemcertidõeses-tastrescouzasparecequelhesdeo,econceder,emaisconvemdar-lhesappartadamenteaprovizão,ecertidõessobreditas,asarmasqueseaprezentarãohamisterguardarnopaçodonossotribunalparaesta-remprestesfossemnecessariouzardellas:quantoaostrezentostaeis,osquaesdizoTutãonoseomemorialqueosdeoaosditosmandarinsquandoosmandouparacà;paragovernaremasarmas,deveinqui-rir-seseestãobemgastados,todasascouzasreprezentadosaonossoSupremotribunal,erespondeoquesefizessedemaneiraquetínhamosassentado,equeestedespachosepusessemnoarchiviodenossotri-bunaldeChifansuporistoagoramandamosestaprovizãoparaqueVossaSenhoriatometrabalhodeveroquesediznella,eadmitaoqueestesPortuguezesDomingosAntunes,comFranciscoVieira,eosmaislherepresentarão,tirandoaschapas,queelle,eoseointerpretelevaconsigocomocertidõesdestenossotribunal,–quantoocanochali,earmas,queosdousMandarinsofferecerãoportudo21.pessasastemosaquibemguardadasoqueficaagorahequesecolhelaosPor-tuguezescomohomensfieis,erectossemnenhuãdobra,osquaesdese-jãodedeffenderonossoReino,econcordãototalmentecomnossonomesmointento,evontade,eporondesemoverãoavirporterra,eporaguadetãolongemostrando[509v.]porobra,oseorespeito,eobser-vância.Asregrasqueensinarãodefazerapolvora,edespararaarte-lharia,sãonaverdadeexcellentepararomperasfronteiras,edesbara-tarexercitos,segundoasleisdeChinadevemosconservaramemoriadosseosmerecimentosetodosdebaixodanossaprotecção,ecertonãoconvemqueporteremvestidoperegrinoserãotidosestranhos,antesherezãoqueosaffaguemos,eregalemoscomofilhospiquenos,etenrosenãoosalarguemosdosnossospeitosvendepoisosmaraos,ebar-gantesdaquelaspartesqueosmolestão,einquietãocomosseosem-bustes,efalcatruasqualqueelesforemnãohamisteresperarqueosPortuguezesvenhãoafazerqueixumesdeles,senãoquedesyoreprimacomseveroseditos,ecastigos,epedimos,queemtodasestascouzasseappliquemdecoraçãoparaasporememseolugar;comquedeveprocurar-sequeosdoReinoHu,edoReynoYuefaçãohuãcasa,elsapenalva

149148eparticipãoigualmentedasmesmasleys,efazendo-separatodosem-prehuãcoroacommua.Peloquepertenceaostrezentosquetinhãorecebidoosdousmandarinsparaacompradasarmasostemempre-gadojanellas,porondeconvempor-seemcontadedespeza,sobretudopedimosqueestaprovizãosobreasuatornadacorreaseexecutainteiramentedemaneira,queestàdito.FeitaemPekimno3ºAnnodeTienkiaos28.daSextaLuae&.ªEstaProvizãotenhovistoeunopropriooriginalautentico,quehiaparaoTutãodeCantão,eatraduziemPortuguezparaselevaraCidadedeMacao.NestaResidenciadePekimhoje5.DeDezembrode1623.NicolaoLongobardo.DocumentoNº4BA,JA–49–V,«CertidãoauthenticadadeAntonioLobo,eSimãoCoelhoLinguasdaCidadecomosMandarins,eMiguelPintoasercadosmurosquesedesfizerãoqueimpunhãoaosPadresdaCompanhiafalçamente.»,Macau,20deSetembrode1626[fl.156]CertificoeuAntonioLobocastachinacazadoemoradornestaCidadedeMacao,elinguadamesmaCidadeaquieemCantão,eXauquidiantedoTutãoViceReyedoChayemdezembargadordaCortecomalçadaMoreviadoporelReydaChinaaestaProvinciadeCantãoedoAnchassujustiçaMordaProvinciaePochensuVerea-dorMordafazendadamesmaProvinciaediantedetodososdemaismandarinscomqueosPortuguezestratãoseusnegociosquesempremeacheyprezenteemtodoodiscursoquehouveacercadederubar[fl.156v.]opedaçodomurodocampodospatanes,efuilinguanesteparticulardesdoprincipioatheseacabardetododeconcluirachando--sesempreprezentesseisPortuguezesCidadoensprincipaesdestaCida-dequeamesmaCidadeelegeocomopovoecapitãogeralD.FranciscoMascarenhas,paraestenegocioeachando-seoutrosy,oPadreJoãoRodriguezdaCompanhiadejesusprezenteaestaCidadepediraseusuperiorparacomosseisPortuguezes,trataromesmonegociocomoprezimentodomesmocapitamgeraleseachouatudoatheofimprezenteMiguelPintomuitointeligentenalinguaeletrasChinaquemercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)oCapitãogeraleaCidadeescolherãoparadarfèdetudooqueoslin-guastratavãocomosmandarins,eoqueosmesmosmandarinsdiziãoacercadasmesmascouzasparasesaberseaslinguastratavãofielmen-teediziãooquedapartedosPortuguezessediziaaosMandarins,eoqueosmesmosmandarinsdizião.Certificooutrosy,quehindoosseisPortuguezescomoPadreeMiguelPinto,eeuSimãoCoelhotãobemLinguadaCidadeaCantãosahimosdiantedoAnchasujustiçaMordaProvinciaoqualemnomedoTutãonosdissequeentodoocazohaviamosdedesmancharopedaçodomuroquecontravontadedoReydaChinaedeseusma-gistradostinhamoslevantado.OPadreJoãoRodriguesrespondeopornosdousLinguasquepornenhummodoosPortuguezeshaviãodedesmancharodittomuroquetinhãofeitoparaconservaçãodesuasvidas,molheresefilhosparadefençãodaterradoReydaChinacontraosOlandezeseodittoPadrelhedeotaesrezõesacercadissoqueoAnchasuvendo-seatalhadoseagastougrandementecomodittoPadredizendoqueosPadresdaCompanhia;erãoosquedefendeãoaCidadedeMacaoeaconselhavãoaosPortuguezesquenãoobedecesemaosMandarinsoPadredeusuasatisfaçãoemandouquesefossemtodostercomoTutãoequelaseaviassemcomellepoisnãoqueriãoobede-ceraosMandarinsemderrubaromurocomolhesmandavão.CertificooutrosyquehindonosparaoTutãojanomeyodocami-nhoomesmoAnchasunosmandouchamaretornasemhirdantresy,eosPortuguezestemendoqueoPadrerespondessefortementeaoAnchasucomotinhafeitodaprimeiravezcomqueseagastassemaisasperamenteassentarãoentresy,queoPadreficassenabarcaenãofossecomelles;esahindonoscomascabeçasdosquaeschinasdiantedoAnchasucomgrandetemorquemostroucominstromentosvariosparadartratosaosquevajimputando-lhequeporsuacauzaosPortuguezesnãoobedeciãoapertoudenovocomosPortuguezesquedesmanchassemomuroequecadaannoacressentassedemaisosdirei-tosreaesdemiltaeisdeforodascazas[fl.157]egentedeMacaoeapartandocomosquevesvendoosPortuguezesseuchoroequequazitodoocabedaldeMacaoestavãoemsuasmãosequeosditosquevesporescrituraseobrigavãocomoemeffeitoseobrigarãoapagarcadaannoosdezmiltaeis,evendoquejanãohaviaoutroRemediosenãoromperemguerracomosChinasoudesfazerodittomurocon-cederãooAnchasuporhumassinadoemqueseobrigavãoaqueaCi-elsapenalva

151150dadedesfariaoditomuroepagariacadaannoosdittosdezmiltaeis,etornandoparaabarcaondeestavaoPadreoqualouvindooquesepassavarespondeoaalgunsdosPortuguezesdeteremcomsentidoemtalaindaquecustasseavida,eellesdandosuasrezoensaoPadredofeito,ficouoditoPadresatisfeitoentendendoquenãopodiãoalfazer.Certificooutrosyquehindo-nosdaliaoTutãoparadetodocon-cluironegociopelamesmarazãopassadaosPortuguezesnãoquizerãoqueoPadresahissecomellesdiantedoTutãoeassimficounabarcasahindoosPortuguezesdiantedoTutãoconcederãoomesmoqueoAnchasuobrigando-sseadesmanchartodoomuroseelReydaChinaomandassepoisestavãoemsuasterraseporhoradesmanchassemaquellepedaçodemurodocampodospatanesemandandooTutãochamaroPadreparasecertificardelleseosPortuguezesdiziãoverdadeoqualseescuzoudemaldespostosduasvezesdehir,eaterceiraman-douquefosselaemhuãcadeira,oPadrefoieperguntando-lheoTutãoseosPortuguzesdiziãoverdadequejaquetinhãoprometidoaquellacouzaaSuaSenhoriaquelhefalavãoverdade\respondeooPdreerãochristãoscujaLeyprofessaverdade/;elhahaviãodecumprircomoqueoTutãoficousatisfeito.Certificooutrosysergrandissimafalsidadeealeivequealgunsho-menssemtemordeDeos,demaconscienciaougentiosinterecadosquefariãoavontadedoCapitãoGeralD.FranciscoMascarenhasempu-zerãoaoditoPadreJoãoRodriguezeaoutrosPadresdaCompanhiadizendoqueellescompratapeitarãoaosmandarinsparaquemandas-semdesmancharomurodaCidadeemvingançadoGeralD.FranciscoMacarenhasseterapoderadoporforçadomontedeS.Paulo,porquealemdenãocabertalmaldadecontraobemcomumdehuãCidadedeChristãosemReligiozostãosantos.Seydecertonãoterpassado,nemacontecidotalcouzaporsercontraoqueodittoPadreJoãoRodriguezterfeitodefendendosemprediantedosmandarinsaodittoGeralD.FranciscoMascarenhascomoditohe,eeucomoLinguaenaturaldaterraseytudooquenestamateriaenasdemaiscouzastocanteaodittomuropassarãooqualmurosederubouporordemdelReydaChinapormuitasoccazioensdigoacuzaçoensquesederãonacortecontraaCidadedeMacaocomohenotorio.CertificooutrosyqueporalguãsvezesdissemaldoCapitamgeralD.FranciscoMascarenhaseoPadreJoãoRodriguezdiantedetodososPortuguezeseMiguelPintodefendeofortementedizendoqueeragran-mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)defidalgoenviadoporElReydePortugalparadefençãodestaterradaChinacontraosOlandezes,quenenhummaointentotinhacontraaChinaqueserepugnavadesfazer-seomuroeraporcauzadosOlan-dezesquelhenãoentraremaCidadeinssistindooTutãocontraoditoCapitamgeralGasparHomemqueprezenteestavatevemãoaoPadredizendoquenãodefendessemaisaoCapitãogeralpoisoTutãoestavatantocontraelle.[fl.157v.]CertificooutrosyqueodittoPadreJoãoRodriguezestenegocioemtudosehouveinteiramente;ereligiosamenteprocurandoportodasasviasobemeconservaçãodestaCidadeinsistindoporvezescomosmandarinsqueolhassemoquefaziãonãoapertassemtantoaCidadeporqueoCapitamgeralhaviadequebrardetodocomelles,eserom-periaemguerra,comoemeffeitosocedeoquandooCapitamgeralsepozemarmascontraosChinasesteveemgrandeperigoderomperemdetodoentãoentenderãoosmandarinsqueoPadrelhedeziaverdadeenãoameaças.CertificooutrosyqueconcluidasaspazesecorrendocomoprimeirootratooTutãoaseumodoquizapremiarosPortuguezescomprezen-tesechapasdeprataeremalhetesdomesmoemsinaldaspazes,eaoPadreparaalemdissoquisdarinsigniasevestidodemandarimcomhuãdignidadepormimdiantedetodososPortuguezesrespondeoaoTutãoqueelleeraReligiozoquepornenhummodohavianempodiarecebertalinsignianemdignidadedemandarimmasquesemissoemtudosempreserveriãoatodos,eaconselhavãoconformesuaprovizãocomqueoTutãoetodaasuacortemuitoseedificarãoosPortuguezesestavãoprezentes.EjuroaosSantosEvangelhosecomoChristamsertudoosobredittoverdadepormepassarpelasmaospormeserpedidaestapassey,eassineydeminhamãohoje20deSetembrode1726620annosemMacao.AntonioLoboCertificoeuMiguelPintocazadoemoradornestaCidadedoNomedeDeospassarnaverdadetodoocontheudonacertidãoacimaporsertestemunhadevistaeachando-meprezenteatudooquenacertidãoacimarefereporsaberalingualetrasescienciaschinasemeelegeraelsapenalva

153152aCidadeecapitamgeralqueentãoeraD.FranciscoMascarenhasememandarãocomosPortuguezesnomeadosnasobreditacertidãoparadarfedetudooquepassavaoquetratavãonalinguasinicaentreosMandarinseosPortuguezeseLinguasdaCidadeejuroaosSantosEvangelhospassarbemefielmentetudonaverdadecomosereferenaditacertidãopasseyestapormeserpedidapormimpasadaeassinadanaditaCidadedoNomedeDeosaos20deSetembrode1626.MiguelPintoCertificoeuSimãoCoelhocazadoemoradornestacidadedonomedeDeoselinguadamesmacidadecomosmandarinsdaChinapassarnaverdadetudoocontheudonacertidãoatrasporsertestemunhadevistaachando-meprezenteatudooquenaditacertidãorefereporeujuntamentecomoditoAntonioLoboLinguahircomosPortuguezesaCantãoeoutrosyMiguelPintoatratarcomosmandarinsasmes-mascouzasreferidas,ejuroaosSantosEvangelhospassarbemefiel-mentenaverdadedetudooquesereferenacertidãoatrasdeAntonioLoboLinguaepormeserpedidaestapasseypormimjuradaeassina-danestaCidadedonomedeDeosaos20deSetembrode1626.SimãoCoelhoLourençodaCostaCavalheroprofessodohabitodeS.BentodavisouvidorcomalçadaejuizdasjustificacoensedosRegidosporsuaMagestadenestaCidadedonomedeDeosdaChina&.ªfaçosaberaosqueestaminhacertidãodejustificaçãovirememcomoostressinaesacimaeatrasaopedascertidõessãodeAntonioLoboeSimãoCoelhojurubaçasdestaCidadeeooutrosinalhedeMiguelPintotodoscaza-dosemoradoresnestaCidadesegundomeconstoudafedoescrivãoqueestesobscreveopeloquetemosditossinaesporjustificadosporcertezadaqualmandeypassaraprezentecertidãodejustificaçãopormimassinadaeselladacomosellodasarmasreaesdaCoroadePortu-galquenojuizodaOuvidoriadestaCidadee[?]aosnovediasdomezmercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)deNovembrode1626annos.EuAffonsoGraciaescrivãodaOuvidoriaafezescreveresobscrevipagounadadeassinarquarentaReis.FranciscodaCostaValhasemSelloexcauzaCostaAbreviaturas:AGIArchivoGeneraldeIndias,APAFArchivodelaProvinciadelosAgustinosdeFilipi-nas,ARHAcademiaRealdeHistoria,Madrid,ARSIArcchivumRomanumSocietatisIesu,Roma,BABibliotecadaAjuda,Lisboa,BADEBibliotecaeArquivoDistritaldeÉvora,DenHaagNationaalArchiefDenHaag,JAJesuítasnaÁsia,Jap–SinJaponica–Sinica.AgradeçoaoProfessorJoãoPauloOliveiraeCostaeàDirecçãodoCentrodeHistóriadeAlém--Mar,terem-mefacultadocondiçõesparapoderprepararotextoinicialdestacomunicaçãoemOutubrode2012.OmesmoagradecimentoestendoàDraAlexandraCanaveiraCampos.AgradeçoaindaaoCentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,otempoconcedidoparaasuaconclusão,eemparticular,àDoutoraAnaCristinadaCostaGomes,aserenidadecomquenosacompanhou.ÀDra.CristinaPintoBasto,DraFátimaGomesResende,D.MargaridaCerqueira,eD.AnaMariaMacha-do,pelogenerosoapoionaBibliotecadaAjuda.AoMiguelRodriguesLourençoeaMauroBrunelloacedênciadedocumentosdigitalizados,eemparticularaoprimeiro,odocumentorelativoafreiFernandodeS.Joseph,eaajudacomasdúvidassurgidasnatranscriçãodosdocumentosemanexo.AoDanieleFrisonatranscriçãodeumdocumentodequesótínhamosexcertos,osesclarecimentossobrequestõesrelacionadascomojaponês,eapartilhadebibliografia.AosProfessoresJorgedosSantosAlveseRuiManuelLoureiro,apaciênciaegenerosidadecomquesemprenosacompanham.AoProfessorRoderickPtakabibliografiadereferênciaparaaproblemáticadatraduçãoemMacau.1.Estetextocorrespondeàabordagemdeumadasprincipaislinhasdeforçadanossatesededoutoramento,revistaàluzdopós-doutoramento,subjacenteaotemaProsopografiadasEliteseRedesSociaisnaCriaçãoeSustentaçãodeMacau(c.1590–c.1660),realizadoentreSetembrode2006eAgostode2012naqualidadedebolseiradaFundaçãoparaaCiênciaeaTecnologia,Minis-tériodaEducaçãoeCiência,sobaorientaçãodoProfessorLuísFilipeBarreto.Apesardasbalizascronológicasdotrabalhofinal,seestenderematécercade1650(aindaque,apartirdoqueconhece-mossobreFranciscoVieiradeFigueiredoedasredessociaiscomqueesteserelacionava–algumasdasquaisactuantesemMacaunadécadade1620,tenhamosequacionadoestendê-loatécercade1680),optámospornosdeterapenasnumadasquestõesqueabordamos,noestudoaeditar,peseemboraofactodenacomunicaçãooralapresentadanoCentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.Pem15deoutubrode2012,termosapresentadoasprincipaislinhasdeforçasubjacentesaotra-balho.OreferidoestudotemportítuloMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).2.Paraumaleituradabiografiadestejesuíta,veja-seIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),Lisboa,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P,2011,pp.425–426.3.Idem,emparticularpp.316–319.4.Sobreapresençajesuítanestacidadeerespectivaexpulsão,veja-seIsabelMurtaPina,OsJesuítasemNanquim,Lisboa,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P,2007.5.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiços(c.1589–c.1689),pp.192,425–426.6.OpercursobiográficodeMiguelPintodequeapenasdamoscontadealgunsaspectos,cujospri-meirosdadossereportamàsnossastesesdemestradoededoutoramento(ACompanhiadeJesusemMacau1615–1626,2000,LutaspeloPoderemMacau(c.1590–c.1660),2005),fazpartedonossotrabalhoMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650),aquejáfizemosreferência,aeditarpeloCentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.Paraumaleituradoutroselementosrela-cionadoscomestechinêsqueintegrouasredessociaisdesustentaçãoesobrevivênciadeMacau,veja-seElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,Lisboa,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P,2009,pp.188,223,246–247,253,255–256,ElsaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEscravasSéculosXVIeXVII,Lisboa,CentrodeHistóriadeAlém-Mar,FaculdadedeCiênciasSociaiseHumanas,UniversidadeNovadeLisboa,UniversidadedosAçores,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P,2011,pp.65,109.elsapenalva

1551547.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.425.8.Idem,p.316.9.Edeoutrosasiáticostambém.10.Ostermos«parentela»e«parentes»sãoutilizadosporAntónioFialhoFerreira.Oprimeirodesig-naumtipodeassociaçãogrupal,sobaliderançadeummercadorcomfortepoderdeintervençãopolítica,económicaesocialemMacau,comoporexemploPeroRodriguesTeixeira:«[…]hecabeçadegrandeparentelaqueosegue[…]»,AntónioFialhoFerreira«NotasparaviagemàChina»,inCharlesBoxer,MacaunaÉpocadaRestauração,FundaçãoOriente,vol.II,1993,p.137.Osegundode-signaoselementosintegrantesdeumaassociaçãodeindivíduosdetipoempresarial,queserviadenúcleodeapoioàquelesqueaintegravam:«[…]asembarcaçõesdeMercadoresquenavegãoparaaIndiaeManillaprocurandoqueosreligiozosdaCompanhiaarmassemtambemhumnavioeLopoSarmentodeCarvalhoeseusparentesoutroeassimqueoutraspessoasparticularesdessemajudaparaomesmoeffeito[…]»,CartadeelReiaoVicereisobreauxilioprestadopelosJesuitaseLopoSarmentodeCarvalhocontraosholandeseseinglesesnomar,31deJaneirode1632,DocumentosdoBritishMuseumreferentesaMacau,(dir.deMoraisSarmentoeLuísGonzagaGomes),ArquivosdeMacau,3.ªSérie,Vol.I,Nº4,Maiode1964,p.251.DuarteCorreanacartaqueescreveaopadreAntónioCardimquandosevêreduzidoàmisériaemNagasáquiéclaríssimoquantoaosentidodotermo:«[…]OEstadoemqueficohetalquesenãoforaomuitoquedevoaVossaMercênãofizeraestapelloqueheDeosservidodar-meestestrabalhos,permitaellesejaparagloriasuaebemdaminhaalma.JasabeVossaMercêqueeunestaterrasoudezemparadodeparentesquefaçãoporminhascouzas[…]»,BA,JA–49–V–12,CartadeDuarteCorreaparaopadreAntónioCardim,escritaemNagasáquiem30deNovembrode1637,fl.184.AntónioFialhoFerreiraem28deMaiode1642,nacartaqueescreveaogovernadordeBatáviaescreve«AhumalegoaemejadeMacaodesembar-queinumParaodechinaslogonomesmodiafaleicommeusparentesecomoCapitãoJeraleomaisgouernodacidade[…]»,«PergunteilogoameusParentespelosnegrosCambojos(…)seeunãodescubrirestesmossos,neguemoa-depoderfazer[…]»,NationaalArchiefDenHaag,V.O.C1140,cartadeAntónioFialhoFerreiraparaoGovernadordeBatáviaAntonieVanDiemen,de2deJu-nhode1642,emMacau,fls441,443.Estedocumentoseráeditadopornósnoestudo«ARestaura-çãoemMacau:PensamentoeAcção»inbulletinofPortuguese/JapaneseStudies(noprelo);ojesuí-taJoãoCabralnacartaqueescreveaosPadresdaEtiópiaem1655tornamuitoclaraaassociaçãoentreosdoisvocábulos,apropósitodoprimeirograndesurtomigratóriodeMacau:«PorestacausamuitagentepobredeMacao,pornãoteralymododesepodersustentar,foiuiueraoutrasterrasmaisbaratas,comoCamboia,Sião,Macassâr,ealgunsemcompanhiademuitosricos,quenãoseicomquelicençadosViceReisdaIndia,sepassarãoaestaspartes,emsuasombra;eassyficouaCidademuitodespovoada»,ARSI,Jap–SinJap–Sin22,«CartadoPadreCabraldaCompanhiadeJesusqueemMacaufoiProuincialdoJapãoperaosPadresdaEthiopia»,escritaemMacauem1655,fl.334,ElsaPenalvaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEs-cravasSéculosXVIeXVII,p.69.OpadreMathiasdaMayautilizaamesmaexpressãoapropósitodarelaçãoentreojesuítaAntónioFranciscoeFranciscoVieiradeFigueiredo,«[…]foiobrigadoasairdaquellereino[Macaçar]todaasuacazaocapitãoFranciscoVieira,àsombradoqualsetinhapermitidoficarallioPadreAntonioFrancisco.Eassimfoinecessariosair-secomelleperaLarentu-ca[…]»,MathiasdaMaya,S.J,«AnnuadaProvinciadeJapãodoannode1665AonossomuitoReve-rendoemChristoPadre,oPadreJoãoOliva,VigarioGeraldaCompanhiadeJesusMissãodoReynodeMacassar»,TheJesuitMakasarDocuments(1615–1682)(editedandAnnotedbyHubertJacobsS.J),Rome,JesuitHistoricalInstitute,1988,p.209.Ostermos«parentes»,«parentela»,«sombra»,«amigo»,sãovocábulosquepertencemaomesmocamposemântico.ÉaindanodiscursooficialdoEstadodaÍndia,quenumperíodomaisrecuado,em1616encontramososignificadodotermo«ca-beças»–homenscomcapacidadedechefiasegundoodiscursooficialdoEstadodaÍndia,ecomfortepoderdeintervençãopolítica,económicaesocialnocasodeMacau,deorigemportuguesa,chinesa,japonesa,luso-asiática,easiática,quetinhamoutrossobasualiderança,ouassociadosasi:«[…]equesobretudolevavamascabeçastaespodereseprovisões,quelançaramnaChinaporforçaosmercadoresparasuasdespesas;»,DocumentosRemetidosdaIndiaouLivrodasMonções(Rego,AntóniodaSilva,dir),AcademiadasCiênciasdeLisboa,Lisboa,ImprensaNacional–CasadaMoeda,1974,vol.II.pp.373–374.OmesmonadocumentaçãoproduzidaemMacauem1623e1627.SimãoCoelhorecebeo«titulodecabeçadosJurbaçasdaterra»numatentativadelheserconferidaamáximaautoridadenahierarquiasocialaquepertencia.BA,JA–49–V–8,«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,fl.245inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.378.Emcontrapartida,napopulaçãodefiliaçãoportuguesaexistiamvárias«cabeças»,osváriosmercadoresqueiamintegrandoogovernocamará-mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)rio,os«eleitos»,os«adjuntos»,einclusiveo«povo»,sistemaprópriodeumaoligarquia.Paraalémdesteúltimoexemplo,háqueterpresenteparaoséculoXVIoqueLuísFilipeBarretores-salvaeutilizacomocategoriaoperativa,apartirdeAlessandroValignano,S.I,«[…]denaçãochinesa,masnascid[a]ecriad[a]emAmachaoeaparentad[a]comportugueses.»,LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.335.11.Enquantoeliteletrada.ParaumaanálisedesteconceitoaplicadoàHistóriadeMacau,veja-seLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,Lisboa,EditorialPresença,2006,pp.141–167.12.Paraumaabordagemaestaquestão,veja-seidem.13.Tendo-secomplexificado,sobretudoapartirde1623,em1611eraconstituídopeloscargosdecapitão-mór,oficiaisdogovernocamarário,epelosProvedoresdaSantaCasadaMisericórdia.Apesardesabermosquehavia«eleitos»,estesnãoseencontrammencionadosdeumaformageralnasfontesconvocadasnesteestudonoquerespeitaàdécadade1610,peseemboraofactodesabermosqueem1584existiam,edeFrancescoCarletti,autordereferênciaparaestetrabalho,escreversobreoassuntoem1598,explicandoopapeldesempenhadonasfeirasdeCantão,pelosmercadoresqueintegravamestegrupoauto-referencial,FrancescoCarletti,Razonamientosdemiviagemalrededordelmundo1594–1606,estudiopreliminartraducciónynotasdeFranciscaPerujo.México:UniversidadAutónomadeMéxico–IntitutodeInvestigacionesBibliográficas,1976,p.141.Retomamosestaproblemáticatrabalhadapornósnanossatesededoutoramento,emMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaças(c.1600–c.1650).Lamentavelmente,nãoconseguimosacederàobradeCarlettiescritaemitaliano.14.ARHM,Jesuitas,Legajo21,fls407v.–408,«CéduladedoaçãodoIrmãoSebastiãoFernandes»,Nanquim,18deJaneirode1600,documentotranscritoepublicadoporIsabelMurtaPinainJesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.425–426.15.OfilhodeSebastiãoFernandescomomesmonomedopai,possivelmentenascidoemMacau,apesardepoderserdadocomoexemplo,conformeveremosadiante,àdatadaredacçãododocu-mento,eraaindaumacriança,ibidem.16.Idem,pp.316,425.17.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).18.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.316–319,425–426.19.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).20.ParaumaleituradasbiografiasdeMiguelPintoedeThoméPereiraveja-seidem.21.Idem.22.Enãosó.Veja-seibidem.23.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,PapéisMascarenhas,CertidãodeMiguelPintode15deMaiode1625,emMacau,Trasladodeumachapadohaidao,intendentedadefesamarítima,aoSenadoaordenaroderrubedoselementosdefensivosdeMacau,comacertidãodeHenriqueBorgesdeMacedo,ouvidordeMacau,de20deSetembrode1625,emMacau,Trasladodadeclara-çãododutang,governadorprovincial,aosportuguesesdeMacau,comacertidãodeHenriqueBorgesdeMacedo,ouvidordeMacau,de20deSetembrode1625,emMacau,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.246–247,252–253,254–256.EmboraaquandodaediçãodestesdocumentostenhamosdesignadoMiguelPintoapropósitodacertidãoanteriormentemencionada,como«jurubaça»,nãoofazemos,atendendoaoresultadodapesquisadequedamoscontanestaspáginas.24.Ibidem.25.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).26.Idem.27.BA,JA–49–V–3,«PetiçãoeapontamentosaprezentadospelloPadreManoelLopesReytordaCompanhiadeJesusdesteCollegiodaMadredeDeusdeMacao»,22deSetembrode1626,fl.153.28.Idem,fl.152v.ChristovãoGonsalves«Cidadãomorador»emMacauem1623,viúvoàdatadoseutestemunho,tinhamaisde60anos,ibidem.29.Idem,fl.153.30.Sobreopercursodestechinêsentreiníciosdadécadade1620e1653,veja-seElsaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEscravasSéculosXVIeXVII,pp.116–142,169–200,idem,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).31.BA,JA–49–V–3,«PetiçãoeapontamentosaprezentadospelloPadreManoelLopesReytordaCompanhiadeJesusdesteCollegiodaMadredeDeusdeMacao»,22deSetembrode1626,fl.149.elsapenalva

15715632.Idem.33.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasáqiojedezanouedeSetembrodeSeiscentosedozeAnnos»,dePeroMartinsGaio,capitão-mór,fl.160.AgradecemosaonossocolegaDanieleFrissonter-nosfacultadoatranscriçãodestedocumento,dequetínhamosapenasalgunsexcertos.OmesmoagradecimentoestendemosaMauroBrunellopornosterfacultadoareproduçãodomanuscrito.34.Sobreestaquestão,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).35.DificilmenteMiguelPintopoderiasertestemunhadeumdocumentodaimportânciadacéduladedoaçãodeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren,senãofossealguémcomrelaçõesestabele-cidasquercomodoador,quercomaCompanhiadeJesus.Sobreapresençajesuítanestacidadeveja-seIsabelMurtaPina,OsJesuítasemNanquim(1599–1633,Lisboa,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,2007,R.Po-ChiaHsia,UnGesuitanellaCittàProibita.MatteoRicci,1552–1610,ilMulino,2012(AJesuitintheForbiddenCity.MatteoRicci1552–1610,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2010).36.BA,JA–49–IV–59,«CopiadacartaAnnuade1606escritaemJapãonaCidadedeNangazaquiemSetembrode1607»,paraoGeral,fl.393v.37.Idem.SobreobairrochinêsdeNagasáquiJoãoPauloOliveiraeCostarefereAloysiusChang,JoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianismonoJapãoeoEpiscopadodeD.LuísCerqueira,FaculdadedeCiênciasSociaiseHumanas,UniversidadeNovadeLisboa,1998,p.735.38.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.184.Entresestesencontravam-seoschinesesJoãoBarradas,DominguesFernandes,ToméeSalvadorMartins,possivelmentechinesestambém,idem,ibidem.39.Idem.40.AbordaremosestaquestãomaisadianteapartirdotrabalhodesenvolvidoporJoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta.41.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojedezanouedeSetembrodeSeiscentosedozeannos»,dePeroMartinsGaio,capitão-mór,de19deSetembrode1612,fl.160.42.ElsaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEscravasSéculosXVIeXVII,p.65.43.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojeaosdezanovedeSe-tembrodeSeiscentosedozeannos»,dePeroMartinsGaio,capitão-mór,de19deSetembrode1612,fls.160–161.Estedocumentofarápartedaediçãodedocumentosquenosencontramosapreparar,talcomoosqueseencontramnoapêndicedestetrabalho.Idem,fl.160.44.Ibidem.45.Idem.46.Idem.47.DesempenhavaasfunçõesdeProcuradordaProvínciadoJapãoopadreSebastiãoVieira.AgradecemosaonossocolegaDanielFrisson,aajudanaidentificaçãodoprocurador.48.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).49.Ibidem.50.Idem.51.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojeaosdezanovedeSetembrodeSeiscentosedozeannos»,de19deSetembrode1612,fl.160.52.Idem.53.Ibidem.54.Idem,fl.160v.55.ElsaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEscravasSéculosXVIeXVII,p.109.56.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).57.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seidem.58.Ibidem.59.Idem.60.MiguelPintodeslocou-seaCantãováriasvezes,algumasdasquaisemdirecçãoaPequim,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).61.BA,JA–49–V–3,«PetiçãoeapontamentosaprezentadospelloPadreManoelLopesReytordaCompanhiadeJESUSdesteCollegiodaMadredeDeusdeMacao»,22deSetembrode1626,fl.148v,LuísFilipeBarretoapropósitodeMicheleRuggieri/LuoMingjiancitaojesuítaAntónioMoserate,mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)cujaepístolasereportaa26deOutubrode1579:«…enviou-seoP.MiguelRogerioparahaverdeaprenderalínguadosmandarinsqueéamaispolidaeelegantedaquelaspartes…»,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.320.PaulFu-MienYang,S.J,aoproblematizaromandarimcomolínguarecorrentenaChina,nomeadamenteporpartedosmissionáriosjesuítas,refereváriosexemplosdentreosquaisosqueseseguem:AlessandroValignanoter-se-áreferidoà«linguadosmandarinsdacorte»eà«linguamandarina»;deMicheleRuggieriedeMatteoRiccicitarespectivamente:«OsPortuguesesfazemnegócioscomoschinesesnesteporto[Macau].Algunsdosseuscriadosservemdeintérpretes.Porisso,desdeoinício,tivedificuldadeemencontrarumprofessorquemeensinas-sealinguachinesadacorte(lalinguacinadellacorte),assimcomoassuasletras,eeuprecisodeasaprenderporcausadomeutrabalho.»(em7deFevereirode1583);«AsletrassãoiguaisemtodasasquinzeprovínciasdaChina.Contudo,alínguavariaemtodasasprovincias.Hátambémumalínguauniversal(unalinguauniversal).Podemoschamá-lalínguadacorteforense(lalinguadellacortefo-rense).Umavezqueestaéalínguautilizadaemtodosostribunaispelosmagistradosoriundosdasváriasprovíncias,éaquelaqueestamosaaprender.»(em12deNovembrode1592),«DicionáriodePortuguês–ChinêsdeMicheleRuggierieMatteoRicci:IntroduçãoHistóricoLinguística»inDicioná-rioPortuguês-Chinês(ed.JohnW.Witek,S.J),2001,pp.32–33.EmFrancescoCarlettiencontramostambémaseguintereferência:«[…]laspersonasletradashablanunalenguaquesellamamanderi-na,esdecir,deloshombresletrados,queesosignificamanderino.Tambiénsellamaquonhoà,quequieredecirlenguadecorte,esdecir,demagistradosydelosquelitigan;laqualesentendidaentodaslasprovincias,asícomoentrenosotrosseentiendeenmuchosreinoslalengualatina,ydeellasesirvenlosmagistradosygobernadores,queentretodoslosdemástienenelprimerlugarenelpaís,ylosquemássabenyconocemmayornúmerodeestoscaracteres,enloscualesestánes-critastodassuscienciasyleyesestabelecidasporsusreyes.Estostalessonlosprincipalesdetodoelreino,yaellosselesponeelgobiernoenlasmanos,yllámanselautié,quequieredecirmaestroypadre;»,Razonamientosdemiviagemalrededordelmundo1594–1606,p.162.O«jurubaça»LourençodeCarvalho,aselitesmercantiscomacessoaogovernocamarárioeosjesuítasautoresdarespostaaoAidaoem1613,aofazeremmençãoaos«negroscaptivos»quefugiamvestindo-sepos-teriormentecom«trajosdaChina»referemexpressamente:«fallamnalinguadosmandarins;nãosedifferençamdosnaturaes»,AntónioBocarro,Década13daHistóriadaIndia,(dir.RodrigoJosédeLimaFelner),AcademiaRealdasSicienciasdeLisboa,1876,pp.729–730.Sobreaquestãodaapren-dizagemdochinêsedatraduçãoemMacau,Japão,enaChinacontinental,veja-se,JorgeFlores,«AHistóriadeMacau,séculosXVI–XVII:algunsinquéritosemaberto»,RevistadeCultura,nº19(IIsérie,pp.13–18),idem,«Comunicação,informaçãoepropaganda:“Jurubaças”eousodoportuguêsemMacaunaprimeirametadedoséculoXVII»,EncontroPortuguês–LínguadeCultura–Actas,IPOR:Macau,1993,LiChangsen,LuísFilipeBarreto(edição),ParaaHistóriadaTraduçãoemMacau,Lisboa,InstitutoPolitécnicodeMacau,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,2013.62.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).63.ACompanhiadeJesustinha,àsemelhançadaselitesmercantis,uma«parentela»própria,dequefaziampartemercadoresdediferentesproveniências,veja-seibidem.Relacionadocomestaquestão,eapropósitodasparceriassino-luso-nipónicas,veja-seLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII.64.Sobreestedignatárioeclesiásticoveja-seJoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianismonoJapãoeoEpiscopadodeD.LuísCerqueira.65.IjoJeronimo/JeronimoIyo,surgecaracterizadoporValentimdeCarvalhocomo«clerigoJappãodeordensmenores»,ARSI,Jap–Sin16–I,sobreatraduçãodacartadobugyodeNagasáquiHase-gawaSahioye,feitaemNagasáquiem20deMarçode1614,fl.49.JoãoPauloOliveiraeCostanasuanotabiográficaapontaoseguinte:«JerónimoIyoouJerónimodaCruz,foiestudantenosemináriodeD.LuisCerqueira,queofezclérigodeordensmenores.Em1614eranotárioeclesiásticoealinhoucomopartidoopositoraValentimCarvalhoedesempenhoufunçõesdenotáriodePedroBaptistaPorresyTamayoenquantopretensogovernadordobispadodoJapão.EmNovembrode1614,partiuparaasFilipinasefoiaiordenadosacerdote,antesdeterchegadoaManilaalicençadeabsolviçãodeexcomunhãoquelhefoidadaporMatheusdeCouros,comosucessordeValentimdeCarvalhonogovernointerinodadiocese.A15deSetembrode1619,mateusdeCourosdavacontadoseuregres-soaoJapão.Morreumártir,posteriormente.»,JoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianismonoJapãoeoEpiscopadodeD.LuísCerqueira,p.703,idem,704–705.Em21deOutubrode1614ValentimCarvalhoproibiu-odeexercerocargodenotárioeclesiástico,tendo-oexcomungadodoisdiasde-pois,idem,pp.703–704.66.Veja-seacartadopadreFranciscoPachecoreferidaporJoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,idem,p.692.elsapenalva¯

15915867.Idem.68.Ibidem.69.Idem.70.Ibidem.71.Idem.72.Ibidem.73.SobreestejaponêsqueintegrouaCompanhiadeJesus,veja-seJoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianismonoJapãoeoEpiscopadodeD.LuisCerqueira,p.757.74.Documentocitadoemsegundamão,apartirdeJoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,idem,ARSI,Jap–Sin13–II,CartadeAlessandroValignanoparaoreitordeManila,fls331–331v.75.Idem.JorgeManuelFloresrefereaexistênciadeumgabinetedeintérpreteschineses,oToTsuji,JorgeManuelFlores,«AHistóriadeMacau,séculosXVI–XVII:algunsinquéritosemaberto»,p.18.AlessandroValignanotalvezsereferisseaokanbun漢文,alínguautilizadaemcontextosoficiaiseartísticos.SegundoDanieleFrison,ocolegaquenostemajudadonestasmatérias,«basicamenteeraChinêsmasescritoporeparaJaponeses.Nãoeramutilizadososkanas,osalfabetossillabicosjaponeses,massimoskanji漢字,oscaracteresimportadosdaChina».Agradeçovivamente,maisumavezaoDanieleaajuda,dadoquesóagoraeapropósitodaproblemáticarelativaaos«juruba-ças»comeceiainteressar-meporestasquestões.76.EditaremosumtextodaautoriadeMiguelPintononossoestudoMercadores,JesuítaseJuruba-çasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).77.Debruçamo-nossobreestaquestãoinMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).78.Veja-seacartaescritaemCantãoporestejesuítaparaopadreManuelDiasSénior,quandoseencontravaprisioneiroem16deSetembrode1611,transcritaepublicadaporIsabelMurtaPina,bemcomoasuabiografiainJesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.310–315,426–433SobreadiferençanodomíniodoportuguêsentreMiguelPintoeDomingosMendes/QiuLiangbinePascoalMendes/QiuLianghou,veja-seonossotrabalho,Mercadores,Jesuí-taseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).79.ParaumaleituradabiografiadestejesuítasobreoqualécolocadaahipótesedeserirmãodeDomingosMendes/QiuLiangbin,eparaaleituradeumacartaescritaporesteúltimoaquejáfize-mosreferência,veja-seidem,pp.329–333,426–433.80.ARSI,Jap–Sin16–I,«Interpretação»dacartadobugyodeNagasáquiHasegawaSahioye,redi-gidaporMiguelPinto,efeitaconjuntamenteporesteeporIjoJeronimo,fls49–49v.AgradecemosaMauroBrunellooenviodareproduçãodestedocumento,queapenaspudemostranscreverexcer-tos,aquandodanossaúltimaestadaemRomaem2012.Veja-seodocumentonúmero2noapêndicedestetrabalho.81.Ocorridaem16deFevereirode1614,JoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristinanismonoJapãoeoEpiscopadodeD.LuísCerqueira,p.700.82.AquandodasuaeleiçãoparabispodoJapãoem21deOutubrode1614,idem,p.700.83.Deigualmodo,notárioeclesiástico,BA,JA–49–V–5,«ProtestodoClerodeNangazaquisobreaeleiçãoquefizerãonoPadreValentimdeCarvalhodaCompanhiadeJESUS»,fls526v–529.SobreaopçãodeIyoJeronimonestaquestão,veja-seJoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianisnonoJapãoeoEspiscopadodeD.LuisCerqueira,pp.703–704.84.Idem,p.704.85.Ibidem.86.Idem.87.PaulodosSantosprotagonizoucontradiçõesemMacau,quercomaselitesmercantis,quercomaCompanhiadeJesus,veja-seidem,p.704.Paraaleituradedocumentaçãoondeéreferido,veja-seaindaMiguelRodriguesLourenço,MacaueaInquisiçãonosSéculosXVIeXVII–Documentos,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,FundaçãoMacau,2012,vol.II,pp.120,150.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JeuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).88.BA,JA–49–V–5,«ProtestodoClerodeNangazaquisobreaeleiçãoquefizerãonoPadreValentimdeCarvalhodaCompanhiadeJESUS»,fls526v–529.89.BA,JA–49–V–5,«TestemunhastiradasporpartedoPadreCarloSpínola»em11deMarçode1615,fl.530v.90.FranciscoLobointegrouaProvínciadoJapãoem1602,JoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianismonoJapãoeoEpiscopadodeD.LuísCerqueira,p.786.91.BA,JA–49–V–5,«TestemunhastiradasporpartedoPadreCarloSpínola»em11deMarçode1615,fl.531v.mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)-92.UmatradiçãocomumaMacaueaoJapão,conformesepodevernaorganizaçãodaCompanhiadeJesusnoJapão,enaavaliaçãodosseusmembros,feitapelosprópriosepelovisitadorAles-sandroValignano,JoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianisnonoJapãoeoEspiscopadodeD.LuisCerqueira.ApropósitodeMacaucitamosLuísFilipeBarreto:«Macaué,desdeasorigens,umcentromultilinguístico.Omundodosintérpretes,daaprendizagemoraldaslínguas,doexercíciopráticodatradução,existelogonosanosde1555a1556.Pontuaisinformaçõessobreosjurubaçassurgemdesdecedocomo,porexemplo,nocasodo«…jurubaçaToméPereira…»queJoãodeEscobar,em1564–1565,informa,emMacau,fazertraduçõesoraisportuguês-chinês.(…)Nodomíniodaslínguas,adiferençaeanovidadedeMacauresidemnaaprendizagemcontínuademúltiplaslínguasoraiseescritas.Macautorna-se,naépoca,lugarúnicoonde,aomesmotempo,épossívelaprenderportu-gês,latim,chinêsejaponês,ondeexistemmestresasiáticoseeuropeusquedãocursosdeiniciaçãooudeaprofundamentoaestaslínguas.»,LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.314.SobreaimportânciadeAlessandoValignanonofortalecimentodaMissãodaChinaedasuaorganização,apartirdaintegraçãodechinesesemestiços,veja-seIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689).93.BA,JA–49–V–5,«DoAitaoSobrequenãosecompremmeninos,nemmeninas»,fls137v–139v.Janeirode1612.Paraumaleituradestedocumentoquecomentámosaquandodanossacomunica-çãonodia15deOutubrode2012,veja-seoapêndicedestetrabalho,documentonúmero1.94.Idem,fl.138.95.ParaumaleituradabiografiadestejurubaçaedasuarelaçãocomMacau,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).96.Idem.97.BA,JA–49–V–5,«DoAitaoSobrequenãosecompremmeninos,nemmeninas»,fls137v–139v.Janeirode1612.98.Idem,fl.137v.99.Ibidem.100.Pelomenos,emboraoseupercursoindiciequeantesde1611játeriaqueterrelaçõesestabelecidascomaselitesmercantisdeMacauecomosjesuítas.Abordaremosestejurubaçamaisadiante.101.Retomaremosestaquestãonaspáginasqueseseguem.Estamosperanteaidentificaçãodeindivíduosdeorigemchinesa,queactuavamemparceria,entreMacaueNagasáqui.102.BA,JA–49–V–4,«LivrodascontendasdaIlhaVerde»,«Tratadosobreodireito,quetemaCom-panhiasobreaJlhaVerde»,fl.3r,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.313–314.103.Idem.104.BA,JA–49–V–3,«PetiçaoeapontamentosaprezentadospelloPadreManoelLopesReytordaCompanhiadeJESUSdesteCollegiodaMadredeDeusdeMacao»,fl.148.105.ARSI,Jap–Sin161–I,cartaparaoPadreNunoMascarenhas,AssistentepelasProvínciasdePortugal,JoãoRodriguesGiram,20deOutubrode1621,fl303,sobreestaquestãoveja-seemparti-cularabiografiadeDomingosMendes/QiuLiangbininIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMesti-çosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.314.106.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).107.ARSI,Jap–Sin161–I,cartaparaoPadreNunoMascarenhas,AssistentepelasProvínciasdePortugal,JoãoRodriguesGiram,20deOutubrode1621,fl303,sobreestaquestãoveja-seemparti-cularabiografiadeDomingosMendes/QiuLiangbininIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMesti-çosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.314.108.BADE,«PapéisMascarenhas»,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteefectivaquehayenestaciudadasívesinoscomoextravagantesforasterosygentedeella»,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.109.Idem,fl.229v,p.186.110.Idem,fl.234v,p.197.Entreos«jurubaças»emMacau,grossomodoassociadosaintérpretes--tradutores,haviachineses,mastambémmestiços,comoilustraoexcertoquesesegue:«PedroGonsalvesqueserviadeGerubaça,eeramestiço»,BA,JA–49–V–4,«ArrezoadosobrearespostadaCidadeaoprotestodaCompanhiaacercadaIlhaVerde,parasedeclararodireitoqueosPortuguezestemnaCidadedeMacao»,fl.11,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoséculoXVII,p.326.Sobrejesuítasmestiçosnumaarticulaçãocomestetema,veja-seIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689).111.BADE,«PapéisMascarenhas»,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteefectivaquehayenestaelsapenalva

161160ciudadasívesinoscomoextravagantesforasterosygentedeella»,fl.230,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.188.112.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,TrasladodeummemorialapresentadoàcortedePequimrelativoaproblemaslevantadosporMacau,despachodoImperadordaChinaepareceresdobingbu,TribunaldaGuerra,edodutang,governadorprovincial,comcertidãoassinadapelosmorado-resenviadospeloSenadoecapitãogeralaCantão,de14deMarçode1625,fl.181,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.223.113.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,CertidãodeMiguelPintode15deMaiode1625,fl.188,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.246.114.Idem,TrasladodeummemorialapresentadoàcortedePequimrelativoaproblemaslevantadosporMacau,despachodoImperadordaChinaepareceresdobingbu,TribunaldaGuerra,edodutang,governadorprovincial,comcertidãoassinadapelosmoradoresenviadospeloSenadoecapitãogeralaCantão,de14deMarçode1625,fl.181,p.223.115.BA,JA–49–V–3,«PetiçãoeapontamentosaprezentadospelloPadreManoelLopesReytordaCompanhiadeJESUSdesteCollegiodaMadredeDeusdeMacao»,22deSetembrode1626,fls136–153v.116.Idem,fl.153.117.Idem,fl.149.118.Idem,fls136–153v.119.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,Trasladodeumachapadohaidao,intendentedadefesamarítima,aoSenadoaordenaroderrubedoselementosdefensivosdeMacau,comacertidãodeHenriqueBorgesdeMacedo,ouvidordeMacau,de20deSetembrode1625,emMacau,fl178,Trasladodedeclaraçãododutang,governadorprovincial,aosportuguesesdeMacau,comacertidãodeHenriqueBorgesdeMacedo,ouvidordeMacau,de20deSetembrode1625,emMacau,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.252–253,254–256.120.BA,JA–49–V–3,«PetiçãoeapontamentosaprezentadospelloPadreManoelLopesReytordaCompanhiadeJESUSdesteCollegiodaMadredeDeusdeMacao»,de22deSetembrode1626,fl.148r.121.BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidãoauthenticadadeAntonioLobo,eSimãoCoelholinguasdaCidadecomosmandarins,eMiguelPintoasercadosmurosquesedesfizerãoqueimpunhãoaosPadresdaCompanhiafalçamente»,20deSetembrode1626,fl.157v.AestepropósitodizsobreMiguelPintoojurubaçaAntónioLobo:«MiguelPintomuitointeligentenalinguaeletrasChinaqueoCapitãogeraleaCidadeescolherãoparadarfedetudooqueoslinguastratavãocomosmandarins,eoqueosmesmosmandarinsdiziãoacercadasmesmascouzasparasesaberseaslinguastratavãofielmen-teediziãooquedapartedosPortuguezessediziaaosMandarins,eoqueosmesmosmandarinsdizião.»,idem,fl.156.122.Idem.123.BA,JA–49–V–3,«PetiçãoeapontamentosaprezentadospelloPadreManoelLopesReytordaCompanhiadeJESUSdesteCollegiodaMadredeDeusdeMacao»,de22deSetembrode1626,fl.149.124.BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidãoauthenticadadeAntonioLobo,eSimãoCoelholinguasdaCidadecomosmandarins,eMiguelPintoasercadosmurosquesedesfizerãoqueimpunhãoaosPadresdaCompanhiafalçamente»,20deSetembrode1626,fl.156r125.Ibidem.126.BA,JA–49–V–3,«PetiçãoeapontamentosaprezentadospelloPadreManoelLopesReytordaCompanhiadeJESUSdesteCollegiodaMadredeDeusdeMacao»de..deSetembrode1626,fl.149v.127.BA,JA–49–V–3,«CertidãoauthenticadadeAntonioLobo,eSimãoCoelholinguasdaCidadecomosmandarins,eMiguelPintoasercadosmurosquesedesfizerãoqueimpunhãoaosPadresdaCompanhiafalçamente»,20deSetembrode1626,fl.157v.128.Idem.129.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«Treslado,EdeclaraçãodamercesEpalauradoTutãoperasegurodosPurtuguezesdeMacaoperaEmpedirasfalçidadesqueContraellesdi-zem»,fls184–184v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.254–255.Apesardaautoriadatraduçãoconstardodocumento,acaligrafia,comoaliásoouvidorseapercebe,nãoeradeMiguelPinto.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).130.BA,JA–49–V–3,«PetiçãoeapontamentosaprezentadospeloPadreManoelLopesReytordamercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)CompanhiadeJESUSdesteCollegiodaMadredeDeusdeMacao»de22deSetembrode1626,fl.148v.131.Abordamosestaquestãonotrabalhoaquepertencemestaspáginas,ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).132.Idem.133.Ibidem.134.LuísFilipeBarretoapropósito«dosquadroschinesesdaCompanhiadeJesusaolongodoperíodoMing»chamaaatenção,combaseemAlessandroValignano,dequeeramde«famíliaschinesasfixadasouligadasàparceriasino-luso-nipónica»deMacau«Gente«…denaçãochinesa,masnascid[a]ecriad[a]emAmachaoeaparentad[a]comportugueses…»,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.335.SobreosquadrosnaturaisdeMacauveja-seidem,p.334.135.ARSI,Jap–Sin39–2,«GloriosaMortedoPadreVizitadorAntonioRubinoeseuscompanheiros»,fl.53v,citadoporElsaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEscravasSéculosXVIeXVII,p.109.136.Idem.137.Abordamosestaquestãonotrabalhoaquepertencemestaspáginas,ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).138.DocumentotranscritoepublicadoporMiguelRodriguesLourenço,BA,49–V–5,«CertidãodopadreAndréBorges,vigáriodaigrejadeS.Lourenço,de17deFevereirode1623,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,MacaueaInquisiçãonosSéculosXVIeXVII–Documentos,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,FundaçãoMacau,2012,vol.I,p.95.139.Ibidem.140.Apesardodocumentosesituarnumanoforadoperíodocronológicoaquesereportaestetrabalho,oseuconteúdojustificaoseurecurso.141.ARSI,Jap–Sin161–II,CartadeAndreBorges,naturaldeMacau,paraoPrepositoGeralMuzioVitelleschi,Macau,30deAbrilde1630,fls134–134v.142.LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII.143.IsabelMurtaPina,OsJesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689).144.EmMacaunoperíodoaquenosreportamosemesmoaté1650,otermo«mestiço»éaplicadodeumaformageralafilhosdepaisasiáticos.Noscasosemqueopaieraportuguês,ouluso--asiático,descendentedeportugueses,porviapaterna,osfilhoseramdesignadospor«portugue-ses».Estaéaleituraqueatéagorapudemosconfirmar,apesardeaindanosencontrarmosafecharotrabalhoaquepertencemestaspáginas.145.LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiços(1589–1689).146.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.297–307,ElsaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEscravas,SéculosXVIeXVII,pp.50–51.147.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaChina(1589–1689),pp.319–326.ParaumaleituradabiografiadestejesuítaexpulsodaCompanhiaen1622,apartirdesteano,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).148.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiços(1589–1689),p.186.149.Ibidem.150.Idem.151.ARH,Jesuítas,Legajo21,céduladedoaçãodoIrmãoSebastiãoFernandes,Nanquim,18deJaneirode1600,fls407v–408,documentotranscritoepublicadoporIsabelMurtaPinainJesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.425.152.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).153.BADE,«PapéisMascarenhas»,códice2–5,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.154.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seanossaintroduçãoinElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.13–30.155.Abordamosestaproblemáticanotrabalhoaquepertencemestaspáginas,ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).156.Debruçamo-nossobreestaproblemáticanonossotrabalhoMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaças(c.1600–c.1050)aquepertencemestaspáginas.157.Idem.158.Paraumaleituradanossaabordagemaestatemáticaconstantedasnossastesesdemestradoelsapenalva

163162ededoutoramento,veja-seidem.159.Paraumaleituradasbiografiasdechinesesqueintegravamarededesustentaçãoesobrevi-vênciadeMacau,veja-seidem.160.Filhosdepaiasiático.161.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fl229v.,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.186162.JorgedosSantosAlves,UmPortoentredoisImpériosEstudossobreMacaueasrelaçõesLuso--Chinesas,InstitutoPortuguêsdoOriente,Macau,1999.163.Veja-seoquadronúmero3noapêndicedestetrabalho.164.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,ParecerdeToméPereiradadoaD.FranciscoMascarenhas,capitãogeraldeMacau,sobreaviagemdeManila,de1deOutubrode1624,emMacau,fl.118,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.123.165.JorgedosSantosAlves,UmPortoentredoisImpériosEstudossobreMacaueasrelaçõesluso--chinesas,LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII.166.Idem.167.ElsaPenalva,«ContradictionsinMacao»,bulletinofPortuguese/JapaneseStudies,CentrodeHistóriadeAlém-Mar,FaculdadedeCiênciasSociaiseHumanas,UniversidadeNovadeLisboa,UniversidadedosAçores,2007,pp.7–20.168.JorgedosSantosAlvesreportando-seàcentúriadeQuinhentos,ressalva:«APeregrinaçãorefereexpressamentedoisnomeschineses,dedifícilidentificação:”Samipocheca”e“Chepocheca”,doiscontrabandistas,provavelmenteorigináriosdoFujian.Abaixodestesassociadosocasionaisouregularesentreoscontrabandistaschineses,arededafamíliaPereiradeveriaterumconsiderávelnúmerodecriadoseescravoschineses.Deextremautilidadeparaofuncionamentodarede,deve-riampossuircontactosfamiliaresoudeoutraordemnosportoseenseadasdascostasdoGuang-dong,Fujian,Zhejiang.EramtambémumaespéciedebocaseouvidosdaredePereira,escrevendoefalandoemseunomenoscontactoscomasautoridadeschinesas,nasuafunçãodetradutoreseintérpretes.»,inMacauOPrimeiroSéculodeumPortoInternacionalTheFirstCenturyAnInterna-tionalPort,Lisboa,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,2007,p.21.169.BADE,PapeisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiu-dadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fl.229v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.186.170.Idem.171.Idem,ParecerdeToméPereiradadoaD.FranciscoMascarenhas,capitãogeraldeMacau,sobreaviagemdeManila,de1deOutubrode1624,emMacau,fl.118,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.123.172.Sobreesteconceitorespeitanteàchefiadegruposmercantiseléxicocomquesearticula,veja-seidem.173.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«TresladodaChapadoAitaoquetrouxerãoosQueues»,fl.178,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.252.174.JoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianismonoJapãoeoEpiscopadodeD.LuísCerqueira,p.802.175.Idem.176.Ibidem.177.Idem.178.FrancescoCarletti,Razonamientosdemiviagemalrededordelmundo1594–1606,p.140.179.CharlesBoxer,OGrandeNaviodeAmacau,Macau,FundaçãoOrienteMuseueCentrodeEstudosMarítimosdeMacau,1989,p.55–56.180.Idem,pp.70–71.181.Sobreestemercadorerespectivabiografiaveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJuru-baçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650),ElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.378.182.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiu-dadeAssy,VesinoscomoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fl.229v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.186.183.Sobreeste«jurubaça»veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).184.BADE,«PapéisMascarenhas»,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestamercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)CiudadeAssy,VesinoscomoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.185.RetomaremosestaquestãoemMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaças(c.1600–c.1650).186.BADE,«PapéisMascarenhas»,códice2–5,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.187.HoracioNeretti,cujonomechinêsdesconhecemos,assinanoentantoo«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,acompanhandoSimãoCoelho,GonçaloTeixeiraCorreia,opadreJoãoRodrigues–Tçuzzu,eovisitadorAndréPalmeiroaPequim.«Nerette»écon-certezaumacorruptelade«Neretti».Ambasasgrafiascoexistiramem1627,emesmoposterior-mente.Paraumaleituradasuabiografiaveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).188.Idem.189.Veja-seoquadronúmero4noapêndicedestetrabalho.190.BA,JA–49–V–8,«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.378–386.191.Idem,p.386.192.Sobreesteconceitoquefazemoscorresponderàs«parentelas»,veja-seLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII.193.BA,JA–49–V–8,«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.378–386.194.Idem,p.380.195.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).196.Aordempelaqualseencontramenunciados,explica-sepelaantiguidadenarededesustenta-çãoesobrevivênciadeMacau,ibidem.197.JorgedosSantosAlves,UmPortoentreDoisImpérios,pp.53–101,IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítaseChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.33–66.198.LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.335.199.Sobreestaquestãoveja-se,ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).200.Idem.201.EsteéosentidodaexpressãonoperíodoaquenosreportamosenocontextodeMacau,mastambémdeMacaçareTimor,ElsaPenalva,idem,ibidem,«RedesSociaisePoderemMacaunoSéculoXVII:ocasodeFranciscoVieiradeFigueiredoedeD.CatarinadeNoronha»,conferênciaapre-sentadanoSeminárioPermanentedeEstudossobreMacau,CETAPS–CHAM,emJunhode2012.202.Encontramo-nosadesenvolverestapesquisainMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).203.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiuda-deAssy,VesinoscomoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.204.Idem,fls226–228,pp.174–186.205.Idem,fls229–229v.,pp.184–186.206.Veja-seoquadronúmero1destetrabalho.Encontramo-nosadesenvolverestapesquisainMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforas-terosEgenteDellatierra»,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.207.Veja-sequadronúmero4noapêndicedestetrabalho.208.OuAlures,idem.209.Ibidem.210.Idem.211.Ibidem.212.Idem.213.Ibidem.214.Idem.215.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosemMacau(1589–1689),pp.310–315.216.Estejesuítateránascidoentre1579e1581,idem,p.310.elsapenalva

165164217.Idem,p.61,vejam-seaindaaspp.54e55.ApropósitodaautoriacolectivadovocabuláriodeZhaoqingedeFilipeMendesescreveLuísFilipeBarreto:«oletradochinêschristãodepossívelnomeKiu-Nikó,ointérpretechinêscristãoFilipeMendes,senãoforemumaeamesmapessoa»,LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.319PensamosqueoautordacartaânuadaChinade1616e1617serefereaFilipeMendesnaspalavrasqueseseguem:«…cristãod’alcunhaSiu,pornomeFelipequetinhagraodeBacharel,eauiajamuitosannoseramestredosnossosnalingoaeletras,equeosajudauasemprenosnegociosdefora…»,ARSI,Jap–Sin114,«AnnuadaMissãodaChinadosannosde616e617»,fl.26v.218.Idem.219.Casoestesdoisjesuítassejamirmãos.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.310–315,329–333.220.CategoriaoperativadaautoriadeIsabelMurtaPina,veja-sesobretudo,idem,pp.70–72.221.ARSI,Jap–Sin114«AnnuadaMissãodaChinadosannosde616e617»,fl.23.222.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.339,paraumaleituradabiografiadestejesuíta,veja-seidem,pp.339–340.223.CitadoemsegundamãoapartirdeIsabelMurtaPina,idem,p.339.224.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodri-guesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.197.225.Veja-seoquandronúmero1.Entreosvizinhoscomesteapelido,destacamosFranciscoDias.MoradornafreguesiadeSantoAntónioem1625ecomdoishomónimosentreosjurubaças,umtam-bémresidenteemSantoAntónioeoutroemS.Lourenço.FoiemprincípioumdosseteenviadosporMacauem1623aPequim,paraanegociaçãodoestatutode«naturaesdaChina»paraosmoradoresdeMacau,peseemboraofactodehaverumhomónimoextravaganteBA,JA–49–V–5,«TresladodehuãpetiçãodosupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,paraotutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcundaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»,NicollòLongobardo/longHua-min,fl.507,BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fl.227,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.178.226.Veja-seoquadronúmero1.227.Ibidem.228.Nomanuscritolê-se«Gonsalves»,idem.229.Nomanuscritolê-se«Corea»,idem.230.Idem.231.Ibidem.232.Idem.233.Ibidem.234.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiuda-deAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.235.Idem.236.Aordempelaqualseencontramordenadososnomesteveematençãoo«registoanualdepresençasnamissão/vice-provínciadaChina»efectuadoporIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.79–82.237.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojedezanouedeSetembrodeseiscentosedozeAnnos»,PeroMartinsGaio,capitão-mór,fl.160v–161.238.Idem.239.BA,JA–49–V–5,«TestamentodeMaryaGaya»,2deJulhode1607,fls75v–77.BA,JA–49–V–5,«ContratoqueosProcuradoresdeGeronimoMacedodeCarvalhoporsuaparteaprezentaparasefazercomosenhorCapitam-morsobreaprezenteviagem.»,fl.211.240.ARSI,Jap–Sin31,fls.3,53,55.ManuelPereiraintegrouconcertezaaparenteladeRoquedeMelloPereira.241.TalveztenhaligaçãocomPedroMendesque,em1623,foiumdossetehomensenviadosporMacauaPequim,paraaobtençãodoestatutode«naturaesdaChina»paraosmoradoresdeMacau,BA,JA–49–V–5,«TresladodehuãpetiçãodosupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,paraotutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcundaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»,NicollòLongobardo/longHuamin,fl.507.Nãoseencontraporém,nalistade1625quetomámoscomopontodepartida.242.Idem,casosejairmãodeDomingosMendes,veja-seIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChinesesmercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)eMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.310–315,329–333.243.ARSI,Jap–Sin31,fl.2v.,FranciscodeNavaisFerreira.Aliásem1611sãováriososFerreiraqueintegravamocursushonorumdacidade:BelchiorFerreira,CaetanoFerreiraeJorgeFerreira,BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidamEmcomoosPadresnãopregaramcontraosCastelhanosnemaconselharãoolançassemfora»,de31deOutubrode1611,fls95–95v.244.PorhipótesefilhodeDomingosGonçalvesoudeDiogoGonçalves(casoDomingossejaumerrodetranscriçãodocopistadosJesuítasnaÁsia»,moradornafreguesiadaSéem1625,equedoisanosantes,foiumdossetehomensenviadosaPequimporMacauparaaobtençãodoestatutode«naturaesdaChina»paraosmoradoresdeMacau.245.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.246.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.79–80.247.Emborapossamosacrescentarmaisdois,umavezquesabemosqueumdosenviadosporMacauaPequimem1623,sechamavaPedroMendes,BA,JA–49–V–5,«TresladodehuãpetiçãodosupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,paraotutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcundaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»,NicollòLongobardo/LongHuamin,fl.507.248.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).249.CharlesBoxer,OGrandeNaviodeAmacau,p.79.250.Referimo-nosaDomingosCarvalho,EitordaMottaCaldeira,FranciscoCarvalhoAranha,Ma-theusLeitão,Rafaeld’Almeida,BA–JA–49–V–5,«ContratoqueosProcuradoresdeGeronimoMace-dodeCarvalhoporsuaparteaprezentaparasefazercomosenhorCapitam-morsobreaprezenteviagem.»,fl.211.251.ARSI,Jap–Sin17,8deAgostode1617,fls93–94v.252.BA,JA–49–V–5,«TestamentodeMaryaGaya»,2deJulhode1607,fls75v–77.253.BA,JA–49–V–6,«Petição,eapontamentos,eprocuraçãoaprezentadospeloReverendoPadreAntonioLeitedaCompanhiadeJESUS,sobrepedirlheperguntemtestemunhaspelocontheudonelles»,de27deJaneirode1623,fl.46.254.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.304–307.255.Idem,p.307,R.Po-ChiaHsia,UnGesuitanellaCittàProibitaMatteoRicci,1552–1610,pp.318–319.256.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojedezanouedeSetembrodeseiscentosedozeAnnos»,PeroMartinsGaio,capitão-mór,fl.160v.257.Idem.258.UmadasquestõesfulcraisabordadasinLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII.259.«Cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojedezanouedeSetembrodeseiscentosedozeAnnos»,PeroMartinsGaio,capitão-mór,fl.161.260.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojeaosdezanovedeSetembrodeSeiscentosedozeannos»,de19deSetembrode1612,fl.160.261.Cujopercursoaindateremosquereconstituir.262.Idem,p.786.263.Idem,p.799.264.Idem,p.798.265.Idem,p.806.266.Ibidem.267.Consultaroquadronúmero6noapêndicedestetrabalho.268.Idem.269.ARSI,Jap–Sin31,fls53,54.270.Idem,p.786.271.Ibidem.272.Idem.273.Ibidem.274.Idem.275.Ibidem.276.Ibidem.277.Idem.278.Veja-seElsaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEscravasSéculosXVIeXVII,pp.107–110.elsapenalva

167166279.JoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianismonoJapãoeoepiscopadodeD.LuísCerqueira,p.786.280.Idem.281.Idem,p.798.282.Ibidem.283.Idem.284.Ibidem.285.Idem.286.Ibidem.287.Idem,p.799.288.Ibidem.289.Idem.290.Ibidem.291.Faleceutísiconesteano,idem.292.Idem,p.805.293.Idem.294.Ibidem.295.Idem.296.Ibidem.297.Idem.298.Quandoestudavateologia,ibidem.299.Idem,p.806.300.Ibidem.301.Idem.302.Ibidem.303.Idem.304.Ibidem.305.Idem.306.Ibidem.307.Idem.308.Ibidem.309.Idem.310.Idem.311.Ibidem.312.Idem,p.800.313.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JeuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).314.Sobreestecapitãogeralveja-seLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,GovernadoresdeMacau,(coordenaçãodeJorgedosSantosAlvesedeAntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha),livrosdoOriente,2013,ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).315.JoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianismonoJapãoeoepiscopadodeD.LuísCerqueira.316.BADE,«PapéisMascarenhas»,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteefectivaquehayenestaciudadasívesinoscomoextravagantesforasterosygentedeella»,fl.226,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.175.317.«TestemunhosdeAgostinhoLobo,deGasparToméedeVicenteRodriguesemfavordeD.FranciscoMascarenhas,capitãogeraldeMacau,de19deMaiode1624,emMacau»,idem,fl.88,idem,p.95.318.«ConcelhoqueoTutãotomousobreascouzasdeMacaoporMandadodelReyEResumidoemsummadisdestamaneira.»,idem,fl.181,idem,p.223.319.Idem.320.Ibidem.321.Idem.322.Ibidem.323.Idem.324.Ibidem.325.Idem.326.BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidamEmcomoospadresnãopregaramcontraoscastelhanosnemacon-selharãoolançassemfora»de31deOutubrode1611,fl.95v.Emboraocopistasetenhaenganadoescrevendo«AntonioNalais»develer-seNavais.mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)327.EstequadrotevecomoreferênciaosapontamentosbiográficosinJoãoPauloOliveiraeCosta,OCristianismonoJapãoeoepiscopadodeD.LuísCerqueira,pp.756–812,eainformaçãodoquadroanterior.328.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,PetiçãodeD.FranciscoMascarenhas,capitãogeraldeMacau,aAntónioCameloSerrão,ouvidordeMacau,de7deMarçode1625,einquiriçãodetestemunhasde1deFevereirode1625,emMacau,fl.215v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.215.329.AntónioBocarro,Década13daHistoriadaIndia,academiaRealdasScienciasdeLisboa(dirFelner,RodrigoJosédeLima,Lisboa,1876,p.729.330.Idem,p.731.331.Idem,p.728.332.Ibidem.333.Idem.334.Ibidem.335.Idem.336.Idem,p.724.337.Idem,p.728.338.Idem,pp.724–725.339.Porescolhadaselitescamarárias,jesuítas,capitão-móreouvidor,idem,p.728.340.Idem,p.729.341.Estetermoconstadarespostaescritaemconjuntoaquetemosfeitoreferência,idem,p.730.342.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).343.Sobreaquestãodocontroleparaestadécada,veja-seoqueLuísFilipeBarretoescreveapro-pósitodoMemorialdeGuoShangpinde1613edocompostoporZhangMinggangem1614.Note-seemparticularnoqueesteautorescreveapropósitodosegundo:«EmZhangMinggang,porém,estaameaçaépassíveldecontroloeficazeatento.Asoluçãopropostapelovice-rei/primeirogovernadorprovincialéadecomsabedoriaconfucianairadministrandoaameaçaparasalvaguardadobenefí-cio.»,LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.218.344.«Aparentementedocantonês.Mercadorchinês»,GeorgeBryandeSouza,TheSurvivalofEmpire,ThePortugueseinChina,1630–1753,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPresse,1986(tradu-çãoportuguesaASobrevivênciadoImpério,OsPortuguesesnaChina,1630–1753,Lisboa,D.Quixote,pp.318).345.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).346.Ibidem.347.Idem.348.«Paraesteefeitoseajuntouocapitãomór,ouvidor,osvereadores,ospadresejurubaça,etodosjuntosbatemoscabeçaaDeus,fazendomuitasdiligencias,tomandonossospareçeres,fazendoestescapítulosporitens,erespondendoaoquevossasenhorianosmanda.»,AntónioBocarro,Década13daHistoriadaIndia,p.729.349.OsobrinhodeSebastiãoFernandes/ZhongMingren,IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.311.350.Idem,p.429.351.Idem,pp.310–315.352.DocumentotranscritoepublicadoporIsabelMurtaPina,idem,p.429.353.Idem.354.Idem,pp.429–430.355.Veja-seasuabiografiainElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).356.BA,JA–49–V–8,«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,fls245–251v,inpp.378–386.357.BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidamemcomoosPadresnãopregarãocontraosCastelhanosnemacon-selharãoolançassemfora»,Macau,31deOutubrode1611.358.Idem.359.FranciscoMartins,casadoemoradoremNagasáquiem1612,testemunhajuntamentecomMiguelPintoeMartimdeGouvea,apedidodopadreCarloSpínola,ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojedezanouedeSetembrodeseiscentosedozeAnnos»,PeroMartinsGaio,capitão-mór,fl.161.elsapenalva

169168360.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.304–307.361.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojedezanouedeSetembrodeseiscentosedozeAnnos»,fl.160v.362.Ibidem.363.BA,JA–49–V–5,«DoAitaosobrequenãosecompremmeninos,nemmeninas»,fls137v–139v.364.Idem,fl.137v.365.Ibidem.366.Idem.367.Ibidem,368.Idem,fl.138.369.Ibidem.370.Idem.371.Ibidem.372.Idem.373.Veja-seodocumentonúmero1noapêndicedestetrabalho.374.SobreestebispoeascontradiçõesocorridasemMacau,veja-seGeorgeBryandeSouza,TheSurvivalofEmpire:PortugueseTradeandSocietyinChina,andtheSouthChinaSea1630–1754,Londres,CambridgeUniversityPress,1986(traduçãoportuguesaASobrevivênciadoImpério:OsPortuguesesnaChina,1630–1754,Lisboa,D.quixote),MiguelRodriguesLourenço,MacaueaInquisiçãonosSéculosXVIeXVIIDocumentos,vol.I,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,FundaçãoMacau,2012,idem,OComissariadodoSantoOfício(c.1582–c.1644):ACidadedoNomedeDeusnaChinaeaarticulaçãodaperiferianodistritodaInquisiçãodeGoa,UniversidadedeLisboa(dissertaçãodemestradopolicopiada),2007,volI.375.BA,JA–49–V–8,«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,fls245–251v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.378–386.376.BA,JA–49–V–5,«DoAitaosobrequenãosecompremmeninos,nemmeninas»,anteriora17deJaneirode1612,fls137v.377.Idem,fl137v.378.Idem,fl.139.379.Ibidem.380.Idem.381.Idem.382.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seLuísFilipeBarretoemMacau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,pp.213,215,314,334,335.383.Nomeadamentonoquerespeitavaaodomíniodalínguaportuguesa,particularmentenoregistoescrito.384.Paraalémdeoutrosquenãopodemosabordaraqui.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).385.ARHM,Jesuitas,Legajo21,fls407v.–408,«CéduladedoaçãodoIrmãoSebastiãoFernandes»,Nanquim,18deJaneirode1600,inIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.425.TalvezfosseocompanheirodojesuítaPascoalMendes/QiuLianghouemNanquim.Omesmoqueem1603seencontravanestacasa,edequemoPadreJoãodaRocha,se-gundoIsabelMurtaPina,sequeixaqueandavamuito«distraído»,idem,p.183.386.Sobreestechinêsveja-seLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,pp.298–299,JorgedosSantosAlves,«ToBeijing:Macao’sDiplomacywiththeMingDynasty(1600–1633)inMacaoduringdeMingDynasty(ed.LuísFilipeBarreto),CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,2009,p.60.387.BADE,PapeisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,TermodeFranciscodeAbreu,juizordináriodeMacau,edeManuelGodinhoColaço,sobreadanificaçãodascasasdoMandarim,de29deJaneirode1626,emMacau,fl.300v.inElsaPenalva.MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.258.388.DocumentaçãoUltramarinaPortuguesa,I(MuseuBritânico–Add.28.461;Eg1646),Lisboa,CentrodeEstudosHistóricosUltramarinos,1960p.153.389.Idem.390.Ibidem.391.Sobreestaquestãoeparaumaleituradabiografiadestechinês,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).392.Idem.mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)393.BADE,PapeisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,Autodaentregadeum«atai»aoMandarimdeSegundaCadeiraporFranciscodeAbreu,juízordináriodeMacau,aos17deMarçode1626,emMacau,fl.271,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.275.394.Idem.395.Ibidem.396.Idem.397.Ibidem.398.Idem.399.Ibidem.400.Idem.401.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiuda-deAssy,VesinosComoEstravagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.402.Idem,fl.229v,p.186.403.Ibidem.404.Estedocumentoencontra-setranscritoeeditadopornóseporMiguelRodriguesLourenço,emborasematraduçãodotextoemchinês,questãoquenosencontramosatentarresolver,BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,Autodaentregadeum«atai»aoMandarimdaSegundaCadeiraporFranciscodeAbreu,juizordináriodeMacau,em17deMarçode1626,fl.271,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.275.405.Idem.406.Apropósitodestaleituraveja-seIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.297–303,319–325.407.Ibidem,idem,pp.185–188,260–272,288–290,310–315.408.ARSI,Jap–Sin23,«CatálogodosfundadoresdosCollegioseResidênciasdeJapão,edosbem--feitoresdamesmaProuincia»,3ªvia,fl.4v,ElsaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEscravasSéculosXVIeXVII,p.51.409.Paraumaleituradabiografiadestejesuíta,veja-seIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.340–343.410.Citadoemsegundamão,IsabelMurtaPina,idem,p.340.411.Veja-seoquadrosnúmero1enúmero4,oúltimodosquaisconstantedoapêndicedocumental.412.Emboratenhamosmantidoagrafiaconstantedodocumento,develer-se«Belchior»,BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.413.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).414.Idem.415.Ibidem.416.BA,JA–49–V–5,«DoAitaosobrequenãosecompremmeninos,nemmeninas»,fl.139.Paraumaleituradestedocumentoveja-seoapêndicedestetrabalho.417.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.346–347.418.Idem,p.79–80.419.Veja-seoquadronúmero4noapêndicedestetrabalho,bemcomoodocumentoquetomámoscomopontodepartida,BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls.225–234,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.420.BA,JA–49–V–5,«TresladodehuãpetiçãodoSupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,paraoTutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcunhaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»,NiccollòLongobardo/LongHuamin»,fl.509.421.SegundooapuradoporIsabelMurtaPina,opaideLuísGonçalvescujonomesedesconheceeraportuguês,IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.346.EmboranãoconstedaListade1625quetemostomadocomoreferência,hánoentantoumDiogoGonsalvesentreosvizinhosresidentesnafreguesiadaSé,BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra».fl.225–234,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.422.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaelsapenalva

171170CiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls225–234,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.423.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).424.Osindivíduosqueseincluemnestacategoriaencontram-seassinaladoscomum*.425.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiuda-deAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls225–234,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.426.Paraumaanálisedestesdados,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).427.Em2deJulhode1607foitestemunhadotestamentodeMaryaGaya,filhadePeroMartinsGayo,BA,JA–49–V–5,«TestamentodeMaryaGaya»,fl.77.428.EmboraEstevãoJorgenãoconstedalistade1625quetomamoscomoreferência,aindaeravivoem1623.SobrearelaçãodestechinêscomaCompanhiadeJesus,veja-seElsaPenalva,Merca-dores,JesuítaseJurubaças(c.1600–c.1650).429.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Cumpra-çecomonellesecontememNagasaqiojedezanouedeSetembrodeseiscentosedozeAnnos»,PeroMartinsGaio,fl.160v.430.Aindanãopudemosverificarsetemalgumarelaçãodeparentescocomocapitão-mórDomingosMonteiro«capitãomordosPortugueses»em1592,ARSI,Jap–Sin31,fl.55,CharlesBoxer,OGrandeNaviodeAmacau,FundaçãoOrienteMuseueCentrodeEstudosMarítimosdeMacau,1986,pp.134,142,LúciodeSouza,TheEarlyEuropeanPresenceinChina,Japan,ThePhilippinesandSoutheastAsia(1555–1590)TheLifeofBartolomeuLandeiro,FundaçãoMacau,2010.431.Idem,ibidem.432.Em2deJulhode1607,foitestemunhadotestamentodeMaryaGaya,filhadePeroMartinsGayo,BA,JA–49–V–5,«TestamentodeMaryaGaya»,fl.77v.433.Veja-sequadrosnúmeros1,eonúmero4noapêndicedestetrabalho.434.BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidamEmcomoosPadresnãopregarãocontraosCastelhanosnemacose-lharãoolançassemfora»,fl.95v.435.Tantoquantopudemosapuraratéhoje,estaexpressãodesignaaquelequeerafilhodepaiportuguês:«uncapitánportuguesdenación,peronacidoenNagasakidemadrejaponesa.»,Fran-cescoCarletti,Razonamientosdemiviajealrededordelmundo1594–1606,p.135.Damesmaformaseentendequeser«chinêsdenação»,significavaserfilhodepaichinês.Veja-seoquediziaNicolasTrigault/JinNigeapropósitodeJacobeNiva/NiYicheng,IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaCina(1589–1689),p.335.436.BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidamemcomoosPadresnãopregarãocontraosCastelhanosnemacon-selharãoolançassemfora»,fl.95v.Possivelmente,«capitão-mór»,emboranocasodeMacauexis-tamoutrasvariantesnesteperíodocronológico,inclusivéodecapitão-geral,nosanosanterioresaodomandatodeD.FranciscoMascarenhas,ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).437.BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidamemcomoosPadresnãopregarãocontraosCastelhanosnemacon-selharãoolançassemfora»,fl.95v.438.Ibidem.439.Sobreestaproblemáticaveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).440.Idem.441.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seRuiManuelLoureiro,«EncontroseDesencontrosEuropeusnoMardoSuldaChinaI»inRevistadeCultura,p.28,LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII.442.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).443.Sobreesteconceitoveja-seLuísFilpeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII.444.Emboranestetextoapenasexploremosalgumasdasquestõesabordadaspornósnoperíodocompreendidoentre1600e1627,onossotrabalhotemcomobalizacronológicamaisavançada,adécadade1650.445.LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).446.CasoseconfirmequeéFernandesenãoFerreira,comoIsabelMurtaPinaressalva,IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.298.447.Veja-seoquadronúmero4noapêndicedestetrabalho.448.Idem.449.Ibidem.mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)450.Em2deJulhode1607,foitestemunhadotestamentodeMariaGaia,filhadePeroMartinsGaio,BA,JA–49–V–5,«TestamentodeMaryaGaya»,fl.77.451.BA,JA–49–V–8,«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,fls245–251v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.378–386.452.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).453.«[…]respeitandojuntamenteoqueseu[deSimãoCoelho]PayMiguelMonteirohomemhonra-do,eletradofosseescrivãodestacidade,epelaservirbem,efielmente;osMandarinsoprenderãoaelle,easeuJrmão,osquaesambosporserviremestacidademorrerãonotroncodeCantão,eseeraquesaibaaforma,emqueha-deservirestacidade,eocomoacidadehaveràcomellelhedamosoprezenteregimento,oqualguardaràbem,efielmente,comodelleseespera.»,BA,JA–49–V–8,«RegimentodaLonguadacidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens.»,fl.245v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.378.454.Ibidem.455.Idem.456.Ibidem.457.BA,JA–49–V–3,«TresladodehuãpetiçãodoSupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedepekim,paraoTutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcunhaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»,NiccollòLongobardo/LongHuamin,fls507–509v.Estedocumentoàsemelhançadoanterior,seráeditadopornós.458.Idem.459.«OmarcodaligaçãoaBeijingparecesermesmoumadasmais-valiasdeSimãoCoelho,paraocargo,tantomaisquenaCapitalImperial«…oconselhodaguerralhedeuumgraudeoficialdelreicomquemtemautoridadediantedosMandarins…».SimãoCoelhosurgecomoponteoperacio-nalaBeijing,capazde,emMacau,AnsãoeCantão,enfrentarcomautoridadeosoficiaisletradosdeGuangdong.Éestaaexpectativadequemonomeia.»,LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.213.460.BA,JA–49–V–3,«TresladodehuãpetiçãodoSupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedepekim,paraoTutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcunhaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»,NiccollòLongobardo/LongHuamin,fls507–509v.461.EmaioritariamenteresidentesnafreguesiadaSé,sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).462.BA,JA–49–V–5,«TresladodehumapetiçãodosupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,paraoTutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcunhaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»,NiccollòLongobardo/LongHuamin,fls507–509v.463.Paraumaleituradabiografiadestejesuítaveja-seIsabelMurtaPina,OsJesuítasemNanquim,p.160–163.464.BA,JA–49–V–5,«TresladodehumapetiçãodosupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,paraoTutãodaProvinciadeCantãodealcunhaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623»,fls507–509v.465.Idem,fl.509.466.Idem.467.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).468.Idem.469.Idem.470.SobreSimãoCoelhonocontextoda«parceriainformal»entreMacauePequim,veja-seLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,pp.213–214.471.SobreaimportânciadeMiguelMonteiroparaasustentaçãoesobrevivênciadeMacau,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).472.BA,JA–49–V–8,«RegimentodaLinguadacidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,fl.245v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.378.473.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII.474.JorgedosSantosAlves,UmPortoentredoisImpérios,EstudossobreMacaueasRelaçõesLuso–Chinesas,p.72.475.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.340.476.Ibidem.477.BADE,PapeisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiu-elsapenalva

173172dadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fl.230,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.188.478.Idem,fl.229v,p.187.479.Idem,fl.226v,p.177.480.Idem,fl.227v,p.180.481.ARSI,Jap–Sin23«CatálogodosfundadoresdosCollegioseResideênciasdeJapão,edosben-feitoresdamesmaProuincia»,3ªvia,fl.4v.482.BA,JA–49–V–3«Petição,apontamentoseprocuraçãoaprezentadaspelopadreAntonioLeitedaCompanhiadeJesusProcuradordesteCollegiodemacaosobresepedirselheperguntemteste-munhaspeloconteudonosdittosapontamentos»,fl.90.483.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Certificamosnosabaixoasinadosqueordinariamenteouuimosasprega-çõesqueosReligiososdaCompanhiadeJESUSpregãonestacidade….»de31deOutubrode1611,emMacau,fl.84v.484.ARSI,Jap–Sin23«CatálogodosfundadoresdosCollegioseResideênciasdeJapão,edosben-feitoresdamesmaProuincia»,3ªvia,fl.4v.485.Idem.486.Ibidem.487.BADE,PapeisMacarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.488.Idem.489.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).490.BA,JA–49–V–11,«InquiriçãodajustificaçãodealgumascouzasmaravilhozasquesocederãonosmartyriosdetresPadresdaCompanhiadeJesus»,levadaacaboemMacauemJaneirode1635,pelopadreAntónioCardim,fl.388v.491.BA,JA–49–V–11,«InquiriçãodajustificaçãodealgumascouzasmaravilhozasquesocederãonosmartyriosdetresPadresdaCompanhiadeJesus»,levadaacaboemMacauemJaneirode1635,pelopadreAntónioCardim,fl.388v.492.Idem.493.APAF,Legajo494/3,fl.3.Nodocumentojesuítaoapelidosurgedeacordocomomodelopor-tuguês,aocontráriodojaponêsemqueprecedemonome.AgradecemosaDanieleFrisonaajudaprestadanestamatéria.494.Idem.495.BA,JA–49–V–11,«InquiriçãodajustificaçãodealgumascouzasmaravilhozasquesocederãonosmartyriosdetresPadresdaCompanhiadeJesus»,levadaacaboemMacauemJaneirode1635,pelopadreAntónioCardim,fl.388v.496.BA,JA–49–V–7,«ContasqueoPadreManoelBorgesdaReceita,edespezasdestaProcuraturadeMacaodesoprimeirodeAgostode616noqualtempode617emqueestascontasporordemdoPadreVizitadorFranciscoVieiraseremeterão»,fl.105v.497.APAF,Legajo494/3,fl.3.498.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I,«Certificamosnosabaixoasinadosqueordinariamenteouuimosasprega-çõesqueosReligiososdaCompanhiadeJESUSpregãonestacidade….»de31deOutubrode1611,emMacau,fl.84v.499.«OJurbaçaquehouuerdeordinarionacidadepoderàcorrercomoEscrivão;queporhorapodiaseroNereteporseromaisfiel,eentendedeletras,etementradacomosMandarinsdoPorto,eCazaBranca,ehecazado,eassentado,etemdeseu.»,BA,JA–V–8,«RegimentodaLinguadacidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,fl.251v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.386.500.Idem.VenturaNerettenãoéoúnicocaso.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seonossotrabalhoMerca-dores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).501.BA,JA–49–V–3,«CertidãoauthenticadadeAntonioLobo,eSimãoCoelholinguasdaCidadecomosmandarins,eMiguelPintoasercadosmurosquesedesfizarãoqueimpunhãoaosPadresdaCompanhiafalçamente»,fls156–157v.DesenvolvemosestaproblemáticanacomunicaçãoqueapresentámosnaInternacionalConferenceonMacauonNarratives(CHAM,CETAPS,FO)em10deMaiode2013,intitulada«Macaunos«JesuítasnaÁsia»»:Memória,Traduçãoeintermediação.OdifícilequilíbrioentreMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaças1623–1626»,enotrabalhodequeretira-mosestaspáginas.502.DequeéexemploSimãoCoelho,emboranãosejaoúnicocaso,BA,JA–V–8,«Regimentodamercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)Linguadacidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,fl.245,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.378.503.Emboranoexcertoquesesegue,datraduçãoemespanholaquetivemosacesso,surjaapala-vra«delegados»estacorrespondea«eleitos»:«[…]cuandollegóeltiempodelaferiaomercadoquesehaceenCantón,endondelosportuguesesvanacomprarlasmercancíasquesellevanalaIndia,yodimisdinerosalosdelegados:queparaellosonelegidosynombradoscuatroocincomercaderesdelosciudadanosdeMacao,parairalláafindehaceracopiodemercancíasportodoslosotros,afindequenosecausealteraciónenlospreciosdelasmercancías.LosdelegadossonconducidosaCantóncombarcosdelosproprioschinos,juntocomlamonedaquequierenotienenparaemplear…»,FrancescoCarletti,Razonamientosdemiviajealrededordelmundo1594–1606,p.141.Sobreestegrupoauto-referencialdeMacauveja-seonossotrabalhoMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaças(c.1600–c.1650).504.Idem.505.Ibidem.506.Idem.507.Ibidem.508.Veja-seoquadronúmero3noapêndicedestetrabalho.509.BastiãoFernandeserafilhodeSebastiãoFernandesedeCatarinadeMendonçaetinhaumairmãchamadaAna,IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.297.510.BA,JA–49–V–5,«PetiçamAprezentadaporpartedePadreFreiFranciscoPinto…»,fl.39v.511.Sobreestejesuítaveja-seIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.297.512.Idem,p.325.JoãoFernandes/ZhongMingli,cujorastoencontrámosemanosposterioresàsuaexpulsão,ter-se-ámantidoemMacaumesmodepoisdesteano.PensamosquedadaaimportânciadafamíliaeasualigaçãoàCompanhiadeJesus,setenhafixadonafreguesiadaSé,àsemelhançadoprimo,oudopai,apesardeem1617estejáseencontrarmuitovelho.Sobreestaquestão,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaças(c.1600–c.1650).513.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaças(c.1600–c.1650).514.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.297.515.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaças(c.1600–c.1650).516.Idem.517.IsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),pp.304–307.518.Idem.519.ArchivoGeneraldeÍndias,Contaduría,fl.197r.PesquisafeitaporDanieleFrisoneElsaPenalvanoâmbitodoprojectoPTDC/HIS–HIS/114992/2009,ProsopografiadasComunidadesLusófonasResidentesedePassagemnasFilipinas(1582–c.1654).520.BA,JA–49–V–7,fl.468.521.Idem.522.Ibidem.523.Idem.524.LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.121.Sobreesteepisódioveja-seidem,p.122.525.BA,JA–49–V–6,«Petiçãoeapontamentos,eprocuraçãoaprezentadospeloReverendoPadreAntonioLeitedaCompanhiadeJESUS,sobrepedirlheperguntemtestemunhaspelocontheudonelles»,de27deJaneirode1623,fl.31–55.526.Idem,fl.39v.527.Ibidem.528.Idem.529.Ibidem.530.Idem.531.Ibidem.532.Idem,fl.40v.533.Idem,fl.41.534.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I«Certificamosnosabaixoasinadosqueordinariamenteouuimosasprega-çõesqueosReligiososdaCompanhiadeJESUSpregãonestacidade…»de31deOutubrode1611,fl.84.535.Referimo-nosaosdocumentosquecompõemacolecção«JesuítasnaÁsia»daBibliotecadaAjuda,cujareferênciaindicamosadiante.elsapenalva

175174536.Idem,fl.84v.537.Idem,fl.85.ParaumacomparaçãocomaassinaturadeSebastiãoFernandesnasuacartaderenunciação,veja-seareproduçãododocumentoinIsabelMurtaPina,JesuítasChineseseMestiçosdaMissãodaChina(1589–1689),p.85.538.CharlesBoxer,OGrandeNaviodeAmacau,FundaçãoOriente,MuseueCentrodeEstudosMarítimosdeMacau,p.55.539.SobreaimportânciadestemercadoremMacau,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).540.Idem,p.71.541.SobreaestadadesteitalianoemMacau,veja-seLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,p.163.542.FrancescoCarletti,Razonamientosdemiviajealrededordelmundo1594–1606,p.140.543.AHM,SantaCasadaMisericórdia,fl.3v.544.Oteordoaverbamentoéoseguinte:«NoLivrodosAcordosasfl.117navoltaestáhumassentoquesefezsendoProvedorBelechorTeixeiranoqualestadeclaradoasditascazasestãoafforadasàditaMartadeAzaredo,emoutravidaofilhooufilhaqualellanomeasseecomoparecedomesmoassentoedospapeisqueestãonoCartorio,aoqualmereporto–HoracioNeretti.»,AHM,SantaCasadaMisericórdia,Legados,fl.3v.545.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I«Certificamosnosabaixoasinadosqueordinariamenteouuimosasprega-çõesqueosReligiososdaCompanhiadeJESUSpregãonestacidade…»de31deOutubrode1611,fl.84.546.BA,JA–49–V–5,«Annode1611»,certidãode30deSetembrode1611,fl97.547.Eramoficiaiscamaráriosnesteano,NunodeAzevedo,Procurador,AlexandreRodrigueseSe-bastiãoRebelloJuizesordinários,ManoelCoelhoeLuisPintodeFigueiredo,vereadores,ibidem.548.BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidamEmcomoosPadrespregarãocontraosCastelhanos,nemaconse-lharãoolançassemfora»,de31deOutubrode1611,fls95–95v.549.Porserumoriginalenãoumacópiasetecentista.550.ARSI,Jap–Sin15–I«Certificamosnosabaixoasinadosqueordinariamenteouuimosasprega-çõesqueosReligiososdaCompanhiadeJESUSpregãonestacidade…»,fl.84.551.Idem,fl.85.552.Ibidem.553.Sobreesteconceitoveja-seJorgeFlores,«Comunicação,informaçãoepropaganda:os“Juru-baças”eousodoportuguêsemMacaunaprimeirametadedoséculoXVII»,«AHistóriadeMacau,séculosXVI–XVII:algunsinquéritosemaberto»,DjanirahCouto,«OPapeldosintérpretesoulínguasnoImpérioPortuguêsnoséculoXVI»,RevistaHelb,Ano5–Nº5–1/2011.554.DicionárioPortuguês–Chinês(ed.JonhW.Witek,S.J),InstitutoPortuguêsdoOriente,BibliotecaNacionaldePortugal,2001,fl.113.555.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fl.229v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.186.556.Nalistade1625éclaraacorrespondênciaentre«homensdaterra»e«çurubaças»,idem,fls229v.,234v,pp.186,197.557.DicionárioPortuguês–Chinês(ed.JonhW.Witek,S.J).558.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,pp.319–322.559.Idem.560.DicionárioPortuguês–Chinês(ed.JohnW.Witek,S.J.),fl.165.561.AbordamosestaquestãonotrabalhoaquepertencemestaspáginasMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).562.BA,JA–49–V–11,«InquiriçãodajustificaçãodealgumascouzasmaravilhozasquesocederãonosmartyriosdetresPadresdaCompanhiadeJesus»,fl.377v.563.Idem,fl.379.564.TheDeshimaDagregisters,(ed.CynthiaViallé&LeonardoBlussé),IntercontinentaNº23,volumeXI,1641–1650,InstitutefortheHistoryofEuropeanExpansionLeiden2001.AgradecemosaoProfes-ssorRuiLoureiroapartilhadestasfontesconnoscoe,emparticular,oempréstimodestevolume.565.Idem,pp.411–423.566.AntónioBocarro,Decada13daHistóriadaIndia.p.725.567.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,Autodeentregadeum«atai»aoMandarimdeSegundaCadeiraporFranciscodeAbreu,juízordináriodeMacau,aos17deMarçode1626,emmercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)Macau,fl.271,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.275.568.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).569.DocumentosRemetidosdaIndiaouLivrodasMonções,TomoIII,pp.99–100.570.GeorgeBryandeSouza,TheSurvivalofEmpire:PortugueseTradeandSocietyinChinaandtheSouthChinaSea,1630–1754,CambridgeUniversityPress,1986(traduçãoportuguesasobotítuloaSobrevivênciadoImpério:OsPortuguesesnaChina(1630–1754),D.Quixote).571.LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaberSéculosXVIeXVII,Lisboa,EditorialPresença,2006,ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).572.Sobreestaproblemáticaveja-seanossaintroduçãoinFontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII(ediçãocomMiguelRodriguesLourenço),Lisboa,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P,2009,pp.13–30.573.BA,JA–49–V–5,«Certificamos,quenenhumReligiozodaCompanhiadeJESUSnosmoveo,neminduzio,nemaconselhou…»,30deSetembrode1611,fl.97.574.20deNovembrode1613,AHM,SantaCasadaMisericórdia,Legados,fls20v–21,inLeonorDiazSeabra,AMisericórdiadeMacauSéculosXVIaXIX,UniversidadedeMacau,2011,p.597.575.AHM,SantaCasadaMisericórdia,Legados,fls.20v–21.576.Idem,577.Ibidem.578.Idem.579.Ibidem.580.Idem.581.Sobreocontextoemquefazestadoação,veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJuruba-çasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).582.BA,JA–49–IV–66,583.Nocatálogode1677encontra-semencionadocomotendodoado«100pardaosdereales»,ARSI,Jap–Sin23«CatálogodosfundadoresdosCollegioseResidênciasdeJapão,edosbemfeitoresdamesmaProuincia»,ElsaPenalva,MulheresemMacauDonasHonradas,MulheresLivreseEscra-vasSéculosXVIeXVII,p.51.584.SegundoCharlesBoxer,foicapitão-mórem1576,1577,1578,e1586,OGrandeNaviodeAma-cau,pp.35,42.Sobreestecapitão-móreasuarelaçãocomBartolomeuVazLandeiro,veja-se,LúciodeSouzaTheEarlyEuropeanPresenceinChina,Japan,thePhilippinesandSoutheastAsia(1555–1590)TheLifeofBartolomeuLandeiro.Nadocumentaçãode1611quesãoreferênciaparaestaspáginas,encontra-setambémmencionadoumAntónioMonteiro,BA,JA–49–V–5,«CertidamemcomoosPadresnãopregarãocontraosCastelhanosnemaconselharãoolançassemfora»,de31deOutubrode1611,fl.95v.585.BA,JA–49–V–5,«TestamentodeMaryaGaya»,de28deAgostode1607,fls75–77v.Estetes-tamentoseráeditadoembrevepornós,juntamentecomregistosdelegadospertencentesàSantaCasadaMisericórdiadeMacau,ecomodeSimoadeTorres,noâmbitodocursodeformaçãocon-tínuadequefomosresponsáveisnoCentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P,em2013,subjacenteaotema«UniversossociaisdeMacaunoséculoXVII».Astranscrições,erespectivarevisão,sãodanossaresponsabilidade,deCatarinaAnselmoSimões,JoãoLuísFerreira,ManuelApóstoloedeRaquelBaptistadosPrazeres.586.ParaalémdeDomingosMonteiroedeManuelCoelho,odocumentodá-nosainformaçãodequePeroMartinsGayo(paidatestadoraeváriasvezescapitão-mórdaviagemdoJapão),Baltha-zarCaldeira,AlvaroLopes,BelchiorTeixeira,BernardoTeixeiraeNunodeAzevedo,seriamhomensligadosàSantaCasadaMisericórdiadeMacau,ibidem.587.ElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).588.Conformereferimosanteriormente,partimosdahipótesedequeohomemcujonomefoiadop-tadopelo«jurubaça»ThoméPereira,eraumdosdois«vizinhos»residentesnestafreguesia.589.Idem,fl.229v,p.16.590.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,PetiçãodeD.FranciscoMascarenhas,capitãogeraldeMacau,aAntónioCameloSerrão,ouvidordeMacau,de7deMarçode1625,einquiriçãodetestemunhasde1deFevereirode1625,emMacau,fls208–216v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.215.591.«RespondendoaoquedisseemcazadosenhorCapitãogeral,diguoqueemDeosEminhacon-çienciaparapas,EquietaçãodosmoradoresdestaCidadequesefaçaauiagemporSuaMagestadecontantoqueorendimentodaditauiagemseiaparaafortificaçãodaditaCidade,eseupresidio»,elsapenalva

177176osublinhadoénosso,BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,ParecerdeToméPereiradadoaD.FranciscoMascarenhas,capitãogeraldeMacau,sobreaviagemdeManila,de1deOutubrode1624,fl.118,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.123.592.Idem.593.Ibidem.594.Idem.595.Ibidem,PetiçãodeD.FranciscoMascarenhas,capitãogeraldeMacau,aAntónioCameloSer-rão,ouvidordeMacau,de7deMarçode1625,einquiriçãodetestemunhasde1deFevereirode1625,emMacau,fls208–216v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.198–216.596.Idem,fl.215v.p.215.597.BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códice2–5,«ListaDeLafenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.598.Idem,fls229v–234,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.186–197.599.Referimo-nosaonossoprojectodesenvolvidonoâmbitodopós-doutoramento,subjacenteaotema«ProsopografiadasEliteseredessociaisnacriaçãoesustentaçãodeMacau(c.1592–c.1660)».600.Referimo-nosao«RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens»,BA,JA–49–V–8,fls245–251v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.378–386.601.Abordamosestaproblemáticanotrabalhoaquepertencemestaspáginas,Mercadores,Jesuí-taseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).602.Idem.603.Ibidem.604.OsquatrodocumentosconstantesdesteapêndicefazempartedonossotrabalhoMercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).605.Dadoaextensãodestequadro,optámosporinseri-lonumapêndice,apesardeserpontodepartidaparaosquadrosnúmeros,1,2,3e5.606.Estatabelafoielaboradaapartirda«ListaDeLagenteEfetiuaqueAyEmestaCiudadeAssy,VesinosComoEstrauagantesforasterosEgenteDellatierra»,BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,fls225–234v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,pp.174–197.607.Emborasaibamosqueaadopçãodeumnomesignificaainscriçãodechineses,mestiçoseasiáticosdeumaformageral,numadeterminadafamília-empresa(Barreto)ou«parentela»,hácasosde«jurubaças»quenãotêmumapelidoouumhomónimo,querentreos«vizinhos»,querentreos«extravagantes»dodocumentoquetomamoscomoreferência.Estesúltimoscasos,talvezcorrespondamaindivíduoscujoslíderes–«cabeças»àdatadafeituradalistajátivessemfalecido,estivessemestabelecidoouactuassemnoutrolugar,nomeadamente,Nagasáqui.FranciscoMartinsohomónimodojesuítaHuangMingshaconstituiumexemplo,entreoutros.Ovínculoadetermina-dacidade,Macau,Nagasáqui,Manila,Macaçar,muitasvezesnãoeraperpétuo.Estamosperantepessoasemcirculação,nomeadamentenaÁsiacentraleoriental.Emtodoocaso,otrabalhoconti-nuaráaserdesenvolvidopornós.ThomedeAndradeeFranciscoPires,dois«jurubaças»aoserviçodogovernocamarárioem1612(veja-sedocumentonúmero1noapêndicedestetrabalho)nãoseencontramnestalista,existindo,noentanto,outrosexemploscujorastoencontrámosemanosposteriores.Sobreestaquestãoveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).608.Emboraapalavra«jurubaça»nodocumentocorrespondaa«homensdaterra»,sabemospelapesquisaquedesenvolvemos,quehaviaindivíduosdeorigemchinesaentreos«vizinhos»dastrêsfreguesias.Sobreestaproblemáticaveja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).609.Trata-sedeumerro.Correspondeàleituraquefizemos.610.Nãoseencontramvizinhosnemextravagantescomesteapelido.611.Nãoháregistosdesteapelidonalista.Conformeavançámos,pensamosqueVenturaNeretteePauloNerettesejam«parentes»deHorácioNeretti,oitaliano,talcomooseuhomónimo,compa-nheirodeSimãoCoelhoem1628.Veja-seElsaPenalva,Mercadores,JesuítaseJurubaçasemMacau(c.1600–c.1650).612.Nãoseencontramregistosdesteapelidoentreosvizinhoseextravagantes.mercadores,jesuítasejurubaçasemmacau(1600-1627)613.Nãoseencontramregistadosvizinhosnemextravagantescomesteapelido.614.Idem.615.Idem.616.Emboranomanuscritoseencontreescritodestaforma,pertenceaesteuniverso.617.Nomanuscritoestenomesegue-seaPeroVaascomaseguinteressalva:«Manoelseufilho»,BADE,PapéisMascarenhas,códiceCXVI/2–5,fl.231v,inElsaPenalva,MiguelRodriguesLourenço,FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéculoXVII,p.395.618.AssinaturaautográfadeIjoJeronimo.619.Segue-seaautenticaçãodoprovincialevigáriodobispadodoJapão,padreValentimdeCarva-lho,escritaeassinadapelopróprio.620.Deverialer-se1626.Errodocopista.elsapenalva

179“Fortisimaginatiogeneratcasum,disentlesClercs.Jesuisdeceuxquisententtres-grandeffortdel’imagination.”(Montaigne,1572–1574)2IntroductionThispaperaimstoprovideananalysisoftherelationshipthatexistedbetweenBeijing,MacauandQianshan前山duringtheProsperousEra3asitemergesfromlocalsources.Appointedofficialstolocalitiesandtheirworkwerevaluablesourcesofinformationforthecentralpolicymakers.Localofficialswereintendedtoactas“theemperor’seyes”,4butmostofthetimetheyconveyedonlythegloriousandmag-nificent[aspects]ofthecity(yizhangyiyizhisheng以彰一邑之盛).5TheamountofinformationthatwastravellingbetweenBeijingandMacau,passingthroughQianshan,reflectedveryvividlybutnotcompletelytheenvironment,thepeoplesandthesubsistencesystemofthePortugueseentrepôt.Toreconstructthehistory,theethnoscape(Appadurai,2001)andthestructureofanycityinimperialChinaonehastorelyondif-ferentkindsofsources.Localsources,whoseaccuracyshouldbecon-The(In)VisibilityRhetoricandtheRelationshipBetweenBeijing,MacauandQianshanintheLocalGazetteersoftheXiangshanDistrictandintheBriefMonographofMacao.1ElisabettaColla1.ThispaperisbasedonpartofmyPhDthesisinCultureStudies(FaculdadedeCiênciasHumanas–UniversidadeCatólicaPortuguesa),thatwouldnothavebeenconceivablewithouttheguidanceofmysupervisorsRoderichPtakandJorgedosSantosAlves.IamgratefulforthesupportofLuísFilipeBarreto(CCCM,I.P.)andWuZhiliang(FM).IamsincerelythankfultoJinGuopingforhisadviceandgenerosity.FinallymygratitudegoesalsotoAntónioBarrentoandSofiaCastroRodrigues,whowerecarefulreadersofthePortugueseversionofmyPhD.2.QuotationadaptedfromMontaigne,1588:35.Astrongimaginationcreatesanevent,saytheschol-ars.Iamoneofthosewhoareverymuchinfluencedbytheimagination.3.ItcorrespondswiththeKangxi,YongzhengandQianglongrins.FormoreonthistopicreadliuHuanxing劉煥性(2003),“Kangqianshengshizhishuodeyoulai康乾盛世”之說的由來”[OriginoftheexpressionKangxi-Qianlongprosperousera],QingshiYanjiu清世研究,1,Beijing:BeijingPeopleUniversity.4.AsKentGuypointsout,theprovincialgovernor’sappointmentwasareallyimportanttask,consequentlywastheappointmentofallthelocalofficers,andthisiswhytheQingemperorstookitveryseriously.Thegovernorsasthelocalofficerswereconsideredimperialeyesandears(2010:3).Governorsandlocalofficersbuiltupalotofprivatebusiness,especiallyintheareaaroundMacau,sodidnotreporteverythingtotheimperialcourt.5.康熙《黎.城縣志》Lichengxiangzhi–凡例日：“志於史不同，史兼褒誅，垂鉴.戒，而志则志其佳境奇跡，名人勝事，以彰一邑.之盛”(Lin,1988:13).

181180firmedbyothersources,6mappedanempireof(in)visiblecities:visibletolocals,butsometimesstrategicallyinvisibletothecentralpowers.7The(in)visibilityrhetoricisinspiredbytheideapresentedbyÍtaloCalvinoinhisbookInvisibleCities(1972).TheItaliannovelpresentsuswithMarcoPolo’sdescriptionsofthe“invisiblecities”oftheKublaiKhan’sempire.Inthisnovel,thecitiesdescribedbyMarcoPolototheMongolrulerareinvisiblebecausetheydonotexist,andneithercantheybelocatedintheKublaiKhan’sempire;infact,theyrepresenttheatemporalMarcoPolo’sstreamofconsciousnessandimagination.8InItaloCalvino’snovel,theInvisibleCitiesarefittedintospecificcatego-rieswhichtrytodefinethespatialandtemporalflowofdifferentcitiesand,atthesametime,differentpartsofthesamecity.AsDaniCavalla-ropointsout“[e]achofCalvino’scitiesfunctionsasmetaphoricalvari-ationonthatunquantifiabledimension,persistentlydrawingattentionnotsomuchtowhatPolo’sdescriptionsencompassastowhattheyleaveout”(2010:87).Calvino’scitiesgiveusanumberofpointsfromwhichtostartreflectingonsomeofthe(in)visibleaspectsfoundinthelocalsourcesregardingthehistoryofMacau.AlludingtoCalvino’sbookandusingitonanintertextual9levelwasameansofprovidinganalternativedescriptionoftherelationshipbetweenBeijing(thecentreoftheimperialpower),Qianshan,wherethemilitarygarrisonwassta-tioned,andMacau.Inofficialdocumentsitispossibletofindatypeofnarrativethatba-sicallyturnscitiesintopoliticalacts.Localgazetteersarepartofthispar-adigm,asthosewhowriteorhavethedocumentswrittenforthem,havethepowertomaketheinvisibleplacesvisible,orvice-versa.Localgazet-teersbecomeinstrumentaltothelocalpowerinrelationtothecourtinBeijing,inthesensethattheymanagetohighlightacertainplaceanditscommunityintheeyesofthecentralpowerand,indoingthis,theycen-sorthemselves,voluntarilystressingonlytheaspectsthatmayenhanceit.Beijing,QianshanandMacauareofcoursephysicalcities,buttheyareatthesametimeconstructedanddeconstructedinthepublisher’s,6.KentGuypointsout“(b)ylateMingtimes,thelocalgazetteershadbecomethefavouredwayinwhichthelocalelitesdescribedtheiraccomplishmentsandlandmarksoftheirsocialandcommunallife”(2010:13).7.CentralpowersinChinaandinEurope.8.JonathanPorteralsoreferstoMacauasanimaginarycity(1996).9.AsJuliaKristevasuggeststhatthetextsarecharacterisedby“severalutterances,takenfromothertexts,[which]intersectandneutraliseoneanother”(1980:36).the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictelisabettacolla10.HereafterreferredtoasMonograph.11.BothsourcesareavailableintheNationalDigitalLibraryofBeijing;therewerenocommentsornotestotheeditionofthefirstsource,however,theBriefMonographofMacaowaseditedbyZhaoChunchen趙春晨in1992–withannotationsandremarks–andofwhichthereareatleasttwotranslationsintoPortuguese:anolderonebyLuísGonzagaGomes,andanotheronepublishedin2009bytheresearcherJinGuoping.12.AgazetteerduringtheMingdynasty,ofwhichthereisonlyonefacsimileJapanesecopy,foureditionsoftheQingdynasty(Kangxi,Qianlong,DaoguangandGuangxu)andtwoeditionsoftherepublicanera.13.Intheprefacetohistranslation,JinGuopingstressesthatthejilüe(fanglüe方略),“isareportthatiswrittenafteranimportantevent,especiallyamilitaryoperation”(Yin;Zhang,2009:X).Para-phrasingJinGuoping(ibid),thisdataisfoundinanotherdocument,amilitarytreatyfromtheQingera,theShuyuanjilüe樞垣記略(BriefMonographoftheGrandCouncil)anditisthedefinitionthatalsosuggeststheHYDZD.14.Anareathat,accordingtothelocalgazetteers,becamexian縣in1152(XSXZ,juan1,Jiaqing).compiler’sandreader’sminds,andexpressedindifferentwaysinthesources.AmongdifferentcategoriesoftextstherearetwoimportantsourcesforthehistoryofMacau:namelythe“LocalgazetteersofXiangshan”andthe“BriefMonographofMacau,”10orAomenjilüe澳門記略,editedin1751byYinGuanrenandZhangRulin.Thislastsource,completedwiththecontributionofvariousChineseliteratiandofficials,isafairlylengthynarrativepresentedinanalternatingsequenceofproseandpoetry.11WhilethefirsttypeofsourceisakindofeditionthathasbeenpublishedquiteregularlysinceJiajing嘉靖(1521–1566),12thesecondsource,theMonograph,isuniquenotonlyforMacau,butbecauseitistheonlyoneofitskind.AlthoughJinGuopingisadamantthattheMonographshouldbeunderstoodasamilitarytreaty(jilüe紀略),13duetotheheterogeneityofthematerialpresentedanditsstructure,itcan,aboveall,beintegratedinthegeneralfangzhi方誌category.Cata-loguessuchastheZhongguodifangzhilianhemulu中國地方誌聯合目錄[TheUnioncatalogueoftheChineselocalgazetteers]provethatforsomeresearcherstheMonographisinthefirstplacealocalrecord.AsZhaoChunchenpointsout,theMonographisbasedbothonoriginalmaterialandoninformationfromotherreportsorolderdocuments,suchastheGuangdongxinyu廣東新語(NewRecordsofGuangdong)byQuDajun屈大均(Yin,Zhang,1992:34).Macau,locatedintheXiangshandistrict,14isdifferentfromothercitiesinMing-QingChina.TheurbanstructureofMacaudescribedbyEuropeanswhowerelivingthereorwhosimplyspentsometimeinMacau,isquiteaccurate,whileitseemsthatitisalmostimperceptible

183182intheChinesesourcessuchasthelocalgazetteers,possiblyforstrate-gicreasons.15TheChinesescholarsalsohavedifferentopiniononMa-cau’sphysicalenvironmentandurbanisation.ThecaseoftheYishiting議事廳(cityhallorSenate),describedanddepictedintheMonograph,isparadigmatic:TangKaijianbelievesthatthecityhalldepictedbyYinGuanrenandZhangRulinwasactuallyimagined(2004c:12–22);whileJinGuopingandWuZhiliangstatethatthebuildingwascon-structedin1783andrepresentedaperfectintegrationofChineseandPortuguesearchitecturalstyles(2004:149–70;2007:284–311).16AnotherexampleistheMacau’sethnoscape:intheMonographthereisawholechapter17dedicatedtotheAofan澳蕃(Barbarians18inMacau),whileifonetakesintoconsiderationthelocalgazetteersoftheXiangshandistrict,therearemanyelementsthatfitintothe(in)visibilitydiscourse,suchasthelife,habitsandcustomsofthe“barbarians”–theforeigners.Foreignersarenotcompletelyabsent,buttheyarenorspecificallyhighlightedeitherpinpointed.Thereisactuallyanevidentcorrelationbetweenhowlocalrealitiesarerepresentedandthewiderhistoric,philosophic,intellectualandpoliticalcontext.Bycompar-inglocalhistoriographywithamoregeneralapproach,wearefacedwithanumberofelementsthatmakeusthinkthatthereisaspecificdesignbylocaleditorswhouselocalhistoriographyasareflectionofaspecificimageoftheplacetothecentralpowerofBeijing.Itisin-terestingtoseethat–consideringthecharacteristicsofMacauanditssurroundingarea–onefindslittlereferencetoforeigners,quotedusinggeneraltermssuchastheyí夷.19Theyí夷isaderogatoryexpressionusedtodefineforeignersthat,assuch,shouldbetreatedseparatelyfromthehanpopulation,becausetheywereconsideredathreattotheideaofculturalunityandidentity.Inthissense,asZhangWenqin章15.Muchmoreintenseanddetailedaretheinformationonegetsfrompoetryorplays.Onecanrecallthevariouszhuzhici竹枝詞containedintheMonograph(Ptak,1986:199–215;Colla,2012:162–166)andtheTangXiangzu湯顯祖’sMudanTing牡丹亭(PeonyPavillion)describingthe“EncountersofForeigntradersinXiangshanAo”,andthe21stsceneoftheplaywhereacharmingWesternladyispresentedbytheplaywright(Cheng,2023:31–33).16.Seealsonote88(Hao,2011:225–226).17.Aofanpian澳蕃篇,“EssaysonthebarbariansinMacao”(Aomenjilüe澳門紀略,juanxia卷下).18.Theterm“barbarian”transmitsthesamesenseofindefinitionwithwhichtheauthorisfacedwhenanalysingthelocalgazetteersandcomesacrossthedifferentexpressionsusedtodefineforeigners,withoutactuallydistinguishingthemfromeachother,asiftheywereallpartofalargesingleethnicgroup,differentfromtheChinese.Itisanexpressionthatintentionallyindicatessome-thingambiguous,asCarlGustavJungsaid,quotedinatextbySpence,awordthatrepresents“col-lectiveprojections”aswellasindividualviews(Spence,1998:127).the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictelisabettacolla19.Yi夷(SWJZ,6581)isaveryoldexpressionthatisfoundinsourcessuchastheZuozhuan左傳(Zhaogongsinian昭公四年),whichspeaksofthemostfearfulenemiesinthewesternterritoriessincetheShangdynasty.FromthedefinitionsintheErya爾雅andlaterintheSWJZ,itisusedtorefertoanyindividualofeasternorigin(dongfangzhirenye東方之人也)andthatdoesnotbelongtotheethnicgroupofthereigningfamily.NormallytranslatedintheEuropeannarrativeas“barbar-ian”,itreferredtoanyforeigner,anypersonlivingoutsidetheChineseborderstobemoreexact,the“other”.Fromasinocentricviewoftheworld,thisexpressionidentifiesallpopulationssubordinatedtothehan(understoodasethnicshereandnotdynasty).AsJinGuoping金國平andWuZhiliang吳志良pointout,tobemoreexact,in“thepastthe‘Xia夏andtheYi夷’”werecharactersusedtoidentifygeographicandethnographicelementsandidentifiedXiaastheinhabitantsofChina,whiletheYiwerepopulationsfromeasternstatesoftheMiddleEmpire(Jin;Wu,2007:486).Inthelocalgazet-teersEuropeanswerealsousuallyidentifiedbyothergenericterms,suchaswaiyi外夷,yi彝,aoyi澳彝,man蠻,Folangji佛郎機,alsointheFolangxi佛朗西,Xiyang西洋,amongothers.20.Womenyingaizhenxizhefenzhenguidelishiwenhuayichan我們應該珍惜這份珍貴的歷史文化遺產.21.Inthistranslation,suggestedbyJinGuoping,guojia國家does,infact,mean‘nation’.AlthoughChinaasanationdidnotyetexist,thefeelingofnationalitybecamestrongthroughlanguage,theunificationofweightsandmeasures,aswellastheaxisofthecartsusedsincethefoundationofthefirstempirein221bc.Duringthistime,andalsooutsideChina,theword‘nation’canbefoundinEu-ropeanmanuscripts,suchasFrancescoCarletti’sCódice1331(1615),wherehementionsthe“Italiannatione”inthe16thcentury(eventhoughtheItaliannationdidnotyetexist),tostressthefactthatitbelongedtoaspecificculturalgroupthatsharedatleastthesamelanguage,thecommonFloren-tine(fromwhichthecurrentItalianoriginates).文钦stresses,localgazetteershadtoshowacertain“national”pride(2004).ZhangWenqin’sdiscourseisobviouslyideologicalandmustbereadaccordingtothecontextinwhichitisproduced.WhateverZhangWenqin’sideologicalpositionorthatoftheeditorsofthelocalgazet-teers,inbothcasesitisevidentthatforeignerscouldnotcontributetowardsthisdiscourse.Thefactthattheforeignersrepresenteda“peril”becameevenmoreevidentwhentheChinesedecidedtobuildtheQianshangFortressduringthe17thcentury.AccordingtothehistorianZhangWenqin,QianshanrepresentedaborderlimitationwiththeGuangdongprov-ince,andontheotheritbecameasymbolofChinesesovereigntyoverMacau.ZhangWenqinaddsthat,inthelateQingperiod,theChinesediscourserepresentedtheonlydefenceofthemothercountry’sdignityandsovereigntyagainstwesterncapitalismand–forthisreason–heurgesthat,Qianshanfortressremainsmustbe“preservedasaprecioustreasureofculturalheritage”(2004:1).20ThisideaisnotveryfarfromaquotationonefindsintheMonograph:“guojiayuneikongwai,dayitongqibuweizai國家禦內控外，大一統豈不偉哉！”:“Our‘nation’,21whichmanagestomaintaininternalorderandtocontrolforeignersinitsterritory,enjoyssuchwonderfulunity!”(Yin;Zhang,1992:27;Yin;Zhang,2009:17).“Foreigners”certainlyreferstotheEuropeansset-tledinMacau,and“unity”shouldbeunderstoodastheunityof

185184thevastempirewhich,thankstoitscentralisingpolitics,managestogenerateastrong“national”22feeling.AquitedifferentapproachtothatoflocalgazetteersisthatfoundintheMonographofMacau.IntheMonograph,besidethetext,onecanfindsomeoftheveryrareChinesewoodblockprinting23depictingthe“barbarians”livinginMacauduringthe17thand18thcenturies.Oneofthekeygoalsoftheseimageswastomakeinvisible“barbarians”fromMacauvisibleacrossdistances.Thesewoodblockprintingsrepresentavisualperceptionofthe“others”24inacontextwhereimageswereconsideredsecondarytowords.25Probablythevisibilitywasintendedtomakethese“barbar-ians”lessunknownandeventuallygovernable,whileinEuropetheproductionofimagesrepresentedacentralpracticeforinvestigatingChina,imperialChinadidnotexperienceanequivalentpictorialturn.Boththeabsenceofimages,andphysicalandmentalbarrierscon-tributedtothe(in)visibilitydiscourse.TherelationshipbetweenQian-shanandMacau–twodistinctcitiesseparatedbytheBorderGate(PortadoCerco/guanzha關閘),whichatsametimealsorememberedtheQingurbanpolicy,theonethatdevelopedanenclosedsitefortheresidentsofthegarrisonandtheresidentialarea(e.g.Elliott,andDing,2003).26Inan“openingandclosingthegate”game,theideaof(in)vis-ibilityinMacauistwofold:thereisthephysicalgate,orBorderGate,thatseparatesMacaufromtherestofChinaandannatural“gate”thatleadstotheseaandseparatesMacau(andImperialChina)fromthe22.Inmostcases“nation”shouldbeunderstoodassynonymoustoempire.Anidealisedcentral(zhong中)empiretowhichtheothercountriesshouldpaytribute.23.ThesewoodblockprintingswereanalysedbyRoderichPtak(1988:277–309).24.AstheauthorMichelCartierstresses,theperceptionof“other”fromtheChinesepointofviewgoesthroughvariousphases:thexiyu西域concept,orwesternregions,mentionedintheShiji史記,MemoriesofaHistorian,bySimaQian司馬遷,andintheQianHanshu前漢書orbookoftheWesternHan.Thereisalsotheexpressionxirong西戎(westernbarbarians)usedintheJinshu晉書，or“His-toryoftheJin”,thenusedintheSuishutoreplacetheexpression“westernterritories”,intheenddefiningtheinternalpopulationsasChineseandtheexternalonesasbarbarian.Thisdiscoursesug-gestedbyCartiermustalsobepartofthealreadybroached“taxsystem”subjectwithinwhichthereareseveraltypesof“other”,notalwaysidentified,thuscreatinganevidentdifferencebetweenthepoliticalandtheeconomicdiscourse(Cartier,1994:63–77).Thefactthattheofficialchroniclesshownocleardivisionintoethnicgroupswithregardtothedefinedgeographicalareasdoesnotmeantherewasnoworkdoneinthissense,astheauthorLauraHostetler(2001),forexample,highlights.25.Thelackofpicturesisintentionalbecauseanimagewasonlyconsideredusefulineducatingin-dividualswhoselevelofliteracywasnotveryhigh,orindividualsconsideredinferior.Inotherwords,withoutgeneralising,theyhelped–aswasknownatthetime–“menandwomenwhowerestupid”,yufuyufu愚伕愚婦(Murray,2005:417).26.BasedonherunprecedentedPhDthesis(2003),DingYizhuang定宜莊(1948–)publishedawholecollectiononthecomplexweboftheManchusociety’spoliticalandculturalrelationshipsandtheirinteractionwithotherethnicgroups.the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictelisabettacolla27.MaybeitisnotbychancethatauthorssuchasJoséMariaBragacalledhiswork“TheWesternPioneersandtheirDiscoveryofMacao”(1949).EvenHaoZhidong,inoneofhismorerecentpubli-cationsonMacaospeaksof“PortugueseMaritimeExpansionandtheStateofAomen:HowMacaoCameintoBeing”(2011:9),inthiswaystressingthatMacaodidnotexistbeforethePortuguesear-rivedandthattheculturalconnectionofitstoponymto“western”cultureemergesbeforeitswrittenChineseform.28.Nominalisationprocessofthesentencebyusingtheparticleqi其.Nevertheless,itdoesnotgiveusanycertaintyonthisstatement’sconsecutiotemporis:didtheexpressionAomen澳門existintheMingdynastyorisitonlyreferredtoatthetimeofthecompilationoftheworkduringtheQingdynasty?29.Vol.325,liezhuan列傳213,Folangjizhuan佛郎機傳,compiledbyZhangTingyu張廷玉(1672–1755,jinshi進士in1700)inthe4thyearofQianlong’s乾隆reign(1739).30.Dated43rdyearoftheJiajingera,1564.31.1524–ca.1581,jinshi進士in1553.32.Formoredetails,seeTang,1999:175;Tang,1996:237;Jin;Wu,2007:446.restoftheworld.AndthusMacauwasan“island”subjecttothetides,themonsoons,andalsotothemoodsandwillsoftheChineseimpe-rialofficialsthatledthecitytowardsanaustereisolation.Whenanyofthose“gates”wereclosedMacauthereforebecame(in)visible.“Citiesandnames”:(In)visibleMacau?Ifonesupposesan(in)visiblilityparadigmforMacau,thischaracteris-ticisembodiedbyitssocial,culturalandeconomiccommunity.Macauisapolycentriccitywithmultipleidentitiesproducedbythecourseofhistory,beginningwiththeoriginofitsname.ThehistoryoftheMacau'stoponymyisquitecomplex.SomescholarsarguesthatitisofEuropean/Portugueseorigin27andseemstohavebeenusedforthefirsttimeinaletterwrittenbyFernãoMendesPintoon20December1555,tothedeanoftheColégiodeGoa(Barreto,2006:17)andtherefore,accordingtoLuísFilipeBarreto,Macau’sbirthcertificatewasthedo-ingofthePortuguese(2006:25–28).BeforearrivalofthePortuguese,Macauhadbeenreferredtobyothernames.ThetoponymofMacauisonlylatermentionedinChinesesources,“Haojingaozhimingzhuyumingshi,qiyueaomen濠鏡澳之名著於明史，其曰澳門[…],”28“TheHaojingbayisregisteredintheOfficialHistoryoftheMing29underthenameAomen澳門[Macau]”(Yin,Zhang,1992:21;Yin,Zhang,2009:11).AsJinGuopingandWuZhiliangpointout,thistoponymyalsoappearsinthe“Fuchuhaojingaoyishu撫處濠鏡澳夷疏(Memo-rialtotheEmperortoPacifyForeignersinMacau)30ofPangShang-peng龎尚鵬,31whowastheCensorofGuangdongProvince(Guang-dongYushi廣東御史),andalsoregisteredintheprovincialGazetteersofGuangdong廣東–amongothers32(madh,vol.5:119–118;Jin;

187186Wu,2004:75).ThetoponymMacauhasgraduallyreplacedallothersofChineseorigin,thuscreatinganewSino–European33identitywithasharedculturethathasgraduallybecamewhatoneconsiderstheMacaneseculture.TheuseofthetoponymAomen澳門/MacauintheChineseandEuropeannarrativetransformedthisareaintoaculturalJanus(Cheng,1999).Theevolutionofaterritory,placeorregion’stoponymsservestodelimitthisareaanddetermineitsidentityandculturaldimension.InCalvino’sworkbasicallyeverytitlehechosetoidentifytheinvisiblecit-iesfitswithMacau’sprofile,becauseMacauisapolymorphiccitywithvariousidentities.These(in)visibleidentitiesonlymanifestthemselvestothosewhorecognisetheelementsthatareclosertotheirculturalprac-ticesandvalues.34Thus,followingthestructureofCalvino’snovel,onecangetdifferentkindofcitiesinMacau:the“cityandmemory”,“thecityanddesire”,“thecityofsymbols”,“thecityofexchanges”,“thecontinuouscities”,“thecitiesandthename”andsoon.35But,amongall,theaspectthatmostshowsMacau'struenatureistheoriginofitsname.InItaloCalvino’sworktheetymologyofthecitytoponymisfrequentlyinaccordwiththestructure,thedescriptionofthecityitself.AsKevinLynchpointsout,“Namesareimportantincrystallisingidentity.[…]theystronglyreinforcesuchsuggestionstowardidentityorstructureasmaybelatentinthephysicalformitself”(1960:108).Macau/Haojing濠鏡36hadanidentitybeforeandafterthearrivalofthePortuguesevessels,andthisisveryclearinthedescriptionsofthisareaonecanfindinlocalsources,especiallyinpoetry.33.ItisnotcompletelyaccuratetoassertthattheoriginofMacao’sidentityisSino–European.DuetothegeographicalpositionofMacau,therewasaconfluenceofmanydifferentcultures,mainlyfromSouthandSoutheastAsia,inadditiontowhichtherewerealsotradersfromtheMiddleEastandPersia.34.AccordingtoHofstede(2005),culturalpracticesincludeanumberofsymbols(words,gestures,images,objectsthathaveaspecificmeaningrecognisedbythosewhosharethesameculture),orheroes(people,deadoralive,realorimaginary,thathavecharacteristicsthatarepraisedandthatworkasabehaviouralmodel),rituals(consideredascollectiveactivities,technicallysuperfluoustosatisfyourobjectivebutconsideredsociallyessencialinaculture),andvalues(thecoreofaculture,hierarchisedpreferencesexpressedindifferentways(ethically,aesthetically,logically,religiously,mystically,economically,politically,andsoon.)35.“Lacittáelamemória”,“lacittáeildesiderio”,“lacittáegliscambi”,“Lecittácontinue”,“Lecittáeilnome”etc...(Calvino,2009).36.MacauandHaojing濠鏡aremostprobablytoponymsofthesameplace:thefirstisthetoponymchosenbyEuropeans,andHaojingisitsChinesename.Thissubjectwillbeanalysedlater.Formoredetailsonthematter,see“TheGodessA-má,theMacautoponymanditsvariants”(Jin;Wu,2007:486).NeverthelessnotallscholarsagreewhetherMacauandHoajingcouldbeconsideredthesameplace.the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictelisabettacolla37.AlsoknownasQuDajun屈大均.IntheopinionofhistorianTangKaijian,thisauthorwas“theonetohavewrittenthemost[uptotheMingdynasty]onMacao”.Evenso,hisphysicalpresenceinMa-caoisnotcertainastherearenodatesthatindicatehisvoluntaryorforcedpassagethroughMacao(Tang,1997:88;94).38.ActuallyinthesourcetheyarereferredastotheonesfromXiyang西洋,orWestOcean.39.AcategorythatiscurrentlyusedtoofficiallydefinetheMacaoarea.ThisandotheraspectsonlyserveasanexampleofhowanautocraticattitudeexercisedbytheemperorsinanimperialerawassomehowperpetuatedduringRepublicanChinaandeveninthepresent.BythisIdonotmeantoagreewithageneralisedpositionthatseesthehistoryofChinaasbeingcontinuousandimmutable.Thisarea,whichgeographicallybelongstoChinabutwhichculturallyisbettersituatedintheSouth-eastAsiaarea,hasalwaysneededatightercontrolonall“non-han”populationseversinceremotetimes,andwiththe“colonial”expansion(Hostetler,2001)ofthehan漢empire.Thisiswhybureau-craticsystemswerecreatedspecificallyfortheseareas.AsYinGuangren印光任outlinesinhispoem“MoonlitNightinHao-jing”,“Haojingyeyueshi濠鏡夜月詩”,thecityisdescribedasanidealplaceincompleteharmonywithnature,anislandsurroundedbythesea,acitywithbuildingssotallthat“theytouchtheMilkyWay”,jiegedoulinghan傑閣都凌漢(Yin,Zhang,2009:14;Yin,Zhang,1992:24),and“starsthatshakeboats”,dixingyudangchuan低星欲蕩船(Yin,Zhang,2009:14;Yin,Zhang,1992:24).HoweverthedescriptionthatShiJinzhong釋今種(1630–1696)37givesofthesameplaceinhis“PoemonMacau”,“Aomenshi澳門詩”iscompletelydifferent.Ma-cauisrecountedasthemostimportantportofGuangzhouProvince,wheretheEuropeans38“havebeenhidingweaponsforalongtime”，Xiyangjiufurong西洋久伏戎(Yin,Zhang,2009:17;Yin,Zhang,1992:24).Haojingisinharmonywiththeempire,whileMacauiscon-sideredafan煩place,whichliterallymeans‘troublesome’andwhichthuscausesluan亂,‘confusion’,inotherwords,itdestabilisessuchhar-mony.AsYinGuangren印光任andShiJinzhong’s釋今種lyricsindi-cate,itwasinMacauandnotinHaojing濠鏡thattheforeignerslivedinexchangeforafee(Yin,Zhang,2009:11;Yin,Zhang,1992:22).Inaway,theuseoftheAomen澳門/Macautoponymmarksachangeinparadigm.MacauisrepresentedwithanewhybrididentitythatwascreatedasthePortuguesestartedarriving.Thisevidentmix-tureofraces,clearbothinthecity’sarchitectureanditspopulation,characterisedbyanewethnicgroup,thepeopleofMacau,becomesaculturallandmarkthatconnectsthiscitytoitsnewtoponym.Aomen澳門/Macauquicklybecomesacknowledgedbothonaninternal–im-perial–level,aswellasanexternalorglobalone,asthewordusedtoidentifyaspecialadministrativearea39ofSouthernChina.This“new”cityneededaspecialcontrol,newregulationsanditsownlawsfrom

189188the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictthemomentitwascreated,asitwaswherethemajormovementoftrade,internationalpoliciesandculturalosmoticprocessestookplaceandwhich,directlyandindirectly,werereflectedonagloballevel,makingthissmallregiononeofthefirstglobalisationlaboratories.Inthisway,Macaubecomesaglocalreality,beginningintheMingeraandbecomingconsolidatedduringtheKangxi,YongzhengandQian-longreigns;arealitythatdoesnotconformtotheEuropeanculture,orthatofSoutheastAsia,andevenlesssototheChineseculturepresentintheterritory,butarealitywithalittleofeachone.Overtime,severalauthorshavehighlightedthecentralityofMacau.Itwasundoubtedlyfortunatethatitwasgeographicallylocatedinaprivilegedarea,which,inaway,enabledittokeepits(in)visibilitythroughoutseveralcenturies:farfromthecentralimperialpower,farfromtheEuropeanpowercentresandexposedtothesea,thecityand“itsworlds”becamevisibleorinvisibleaccordingtotherulesgraduallyimposedbylocalpowergamesintertwinedwithinternationalinterests.BasedontheChineseperspective,atendencyforanautocraticattitudeisevident–atleastintheofficialdocuments–whichservedasanantidoteagainstthis(in)visibilitywhichsofrightenedtheManchusandwhich,inpractice,meantaseriesofmeasuresweretakenaimedatdirectlycontrollingBeijingintermsofmaritimetrade.40SuchmeasuresincludedsettingupthemilitarygarrisoninQianshan,issuingedictsagainstChris-tianity,andlimitingexternalandlocaltrade.Thesemeasureswereestab-lishedwithKangxiemperor,reinforcedbyYongzhengemperorthroughaneventighterbureaucraticsystem,andstrengthenedbytheQianlongemperor.AlthoughtolerantofCatholicmissionaryactivitiesandforeign-ers(1692),Kangxiwassomewhatreluctantinmitigatingmaritimepro-hibitions,showingacertainapprehensionagainstthis“free”circulationofboatsonthesouthernseasofChina.EmperorYongzheng’spositionwasslightlydifferent;hewaslessindulgentofChristianity41andalittlemorevigorousincontrollingforeignboats42andtheChinesewhoin-40.ThereasonforallthisconcernisthefactthattheQing,contrarytotheMing,arenotfamiliarwiththeseaandarealsosuspiciousofEuropeans.Forthisreasontheyconcentratedmostlyonstrength-eningcontroloverthemeridionalcoastalarea,adoptingaseriesofmeasureswhichevenforbadethereturnoftheChinesefromoverseasastheywereworriedthattheymightcreatedisturbances(Fok,2006:37);theyalsoappointedsoldiersforkeypostsinthesouthofChina,aswasthecaseoftheFujianhaiguan福建海關(maritimecustoms),wherejiangjun將軍(generals)weresenttofrom1738totakeoverpositionsthatwerepreviouslyheldbygovernors,xunfu巡撫(Schottenhammer,2010:139).elisabettacolla41.In1724anedictwasissueddeclaringtheChristiandoctrineasaheterodoxsectwhich–inaway–revokesKangxi’s康熙ToleranceEdict.42.AstheMemorialtothethroneoftheGovernorofbothGuang,liangguang兩廣(Guangdong廣東andGuangxi廣西)KongYuxun孔毓珣(?–1730,jinshi進士1695)dated11thDecember1724,states:LiangGuangzongduKongYuxuntibaoqingchaaomenxiyangrenshubingqingxiandingyangchuanshumuben兩廣總督孔毓珣題報清查澳門西洋人數並請限定洋船數目本[MemorialofKongYuxun,gov-ernorofthetwoGuangontheinspectionofthenumberofforeignersandontherestrictiononthenumberofforeignboatsinMacao](MADH,vol.1:144).43.TheChinesewhohadconnectionswiththeEuropeanswerecloselywatched,andthisincludedalltypesofChinese,fromcraftsmeninvolvedinbuildingandrepairingboatstothoseconvertedtoChristianity.44.Issuedon12thAugust1746;seealsoXSXZ,juan8,Qianlong.ThisedictaskedgovernorstorequestthecollaborationofalltheiremployeestolookintothesituationandhaveallChristianswatchedandarrestediftheythreatenedsocialandpoliticalstabilityintheregion.Inthissense,theXiangshanmagistrate,ZhangRulin張汝霖,wasconstantlyunderpressurebecauseofMacau,andafterthisedictthe“hunt”formissionariesandconvertsbegan.45.FuzhoujianjunXinZhuzouwenFu’anxiandengdiyouxiyangrenchuanjiaojihuojiesongqingchigeshengfangjizhe福州建軍新住奏聞副安縣等地有西洋人傳教緝獲解送請飭各省訪緝摺,[MemorialtothethronepresentedbyXinZhu,generalofFuzhou,onthematterofassessingthenumberandarrest-ingtheforeignerspreachingthegospelinFu’anandotherdistricts,12thJuly1746]andFujianxunfuZhouXuejianzoubaonahuochuanjiaoshiBaiDuoludengshenxunbingqingyanjinaomenxiyangrenqianruneitizhe福建巡撫周學健奏報挐獲傳教士白多祿等審訊並嚴禁澳門西洋人潛入内地摺[MemorialbyZhouXuejian,governorofFujian,onthematterofFatherPedroSanzandforeignersinMacaobeingforbiddentoenterChinaillegally,16thJuly1746](MADH,vol.1:211–212;212–216).FatherPedroSanz(1680–1747),Dominican,wasthevicarapostolicofFujian福建andadministratoroftheprovincesofZhejiang浙江andGuangxi廣西.Inthelastdaysofhismission,FatherPedroSanzevangelisedinthesouthofChinaandgavesheltertomanyofthoseconverted,forwhichreasonhewasexecutedin1747.teractedwiththem,whichwaswhyheintensifiedtheterritory’sdefensebyhavingthecoastsofGuangdong廣東,Fujian福建andZhejiang浙江heavilypatrolledbyreformulatingthecustomssysteminCanton(atthesametimefightingthecorruptionthathadbeenincreasinginthisareasincetheMingdynasty).Evenso,Yongzhengdidnotforbidthecirculationofforeignboatsinthearea,butforbadethereturnoftheChinesewhohadtravelledoverseas.43Thereareanumberofmemori-alstothethronebeforeEmperorQianlong’sedict,dated1746,44whichwarnaboutthesituationinsouthernChina:suchasthoseofXinZhu新住andZhouXuejian周學健(datedJuly1746),45whichcallat-tentiontoanumberofdisturbancesintheFujian福建area.Itisnotworthgoingdeeplyintodetailssincethereisalotofbibliographyonthistopic.Itis,however,importanttostressthatthesedocumentsinflu-encethewholesubsequentpolicyandreinforcethecontroloverMacauevenmore.SoastomakeiteasiertokeepaneyeonEuropeans,theywereonlyallowedtoliveinMacauorinBeijing,whichwouldstoptheillegalresidenceofmissionariesinotherprovinces:inMacau,becausetheywouldbeconfinedtoadelimitedterritorywheretheywerecon-

191190the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictstantlycontrolledfromQianshan前山,orinBeijing,wheretheywerebasicallylimitedtotheForbiddenCity.Thiswastrueonlyintheoryasdemonstratethefollowingmemorials.DuringthereignofQianlong,whenZhangZhentao張甄陶startstoencouragethe“dujianfangwei杜漸防微”46policy,Macauismovingintoaphaseofstagnation.ZhangZhentaopressuredthecentralbureaucraticsystemonseveralocca-sionstoorganiseastrategythatwouldisolateandconstantlykeepaneyeonEuropeans.Withinthiscontext,theMemorial(dated13thJune1754)47thatthegovernorofliangjiang兩江48ERong’an鄂容安49pre-sentedtoQianlongisparadigmatic.ThisMemorialcoincideswiththepersecutionoftheJesuitsinJiangnan江南andisfundamentalinun-derstandingthispolicy.ItisinthisdocumentthattheZhangRuose張若瑟50caseisalsomentioned:hewascapturedinSuzhouandtorturedtogetherwithfourotherJesuitsasorderedbyERong’an鄂容安inMay1754.Thegovernoractedthroughouttheregion,persecutingandhuntingdownEuropeansandcondemningmostprisonerstodeath.Inthespecificcaseunderanalysis,thesentencesweremitigatedbyEm-46.Thatis,“preventabusebymeansofenforcementmeasures”.Thisexpressioniscurrentlyusedasachengyu成語(ZGCYDCD,1982)andissupposedtohaveoriginatedintheZhou周eraasthereareexamplesintheZhouli周禮(ZhouRites).–averyolddefencepolicybroughtbackbytheQingdynastytocontrolforeignerscirculatinginChina.47.Thememorial,infull:LiangjiangzongduERong’andengzoubaoshennixiyangrenZhangRuosedengchuanjiao’anbingqingchilingshuiluyaodaofangfanyangrenqianruneidizhe兩江總督鄂容安等奏報審擬西洋人張若瑟等傳教案並請飭令水陸要道防範洋人潜入内地摺,[MemorialtothethroneofthegeneralgovernorofbothJiangERong’anontheinvestigationintoFatherJosédeAraújo’spreach-ingandintoforeignersbeingprohibitedfromcirculating[lit.infiltratingthemselves]inside[China],[established]under[theregulation]ofmaritimeandlandtraffic].ThecaseofFatherJosédeAraújoservedtojustifytheneedtotightendefensivemeasuresonthecoastsandcontrolthecirculationofforeignersonChineseterritoryand,aswaspresentedinthe19thyearofQianlong’s乾隆reign(13thJune1754),itstressestheneedtoadoptapolicythatwouldpreventtheincreaseofabusebyenforcingstrictpreventivemeasuresthatwouldmaintaina“pacific”coexistencebetweenEuro-peantradersandtheChineseinMacao,withspecificmilitarycontrolandespeciallyensuringthattheideaoftheChinesesovereigntyoverMacauwasclear.ThesameideawasoncemorestressedinanothermemorialpresentedtothethroneofQianlong乾隆,reigningforthe22ndyear(1757),byGeneralXinZhu,fromFujian福建andactinggovernor-general(zanshu暫署)ofFujian福建andZheji-ang浙江,withregardtoEnglishtradersthatoverranthecoastofGuangdong廣東(lit.Zanshumin-zhezongduXinZhuzoubaoyingshangchuanbuyuanfuguangdongaomenshizhizhejiangdingmaoyiqingxingzhe暫署閩浙總督新柱奏報英商船不願赴廣東澳門駛至浙江定貿易情形摺,[MemorialbyXinZhu,actinggovernor-generalofFujianandZhejiangontheundesirablesituationoftheEnglishtradingbetweenMacaoinGuangdongandZhejiang].FormoredetailsseeMADH,vol.1:290–292;303–304.48.ThemeaningusuallygiventothisexpressionincludestheJiangnanprovinces江南(Jiangsu江蘇,Jiangxi江西andAnhui安徽).Ifspecifiedasliangjiang兩江,itonlyreferstoJiangsu江蘇andJiangxi江西.49.(1714–1755,jinshi進士in1733).50.FatherJosédeAraújo,S.J.,borninBragain1721,enteredtheSocietyin1741and,accordingtoPfister,diedin1759(1976:863).ThedateofhisdeathisnotcertainbecauseitseemshelivedafewyearsaftertheSocietywassuppressedin1773.elisabettacolla51.TheedictissuedbyQianlong乾隆in1757whichrestrictedforeigntradeinCantonandthefollow-ing“Flintcase”were,withoutadoubt,thefactorsthatcontributedtowardsthisselectivexenopho-bia.JamesFlint,HongRenhui洪任輝(XVIII),representativeoftheEastIndiaCompany(EIC),which,fromtheChineseperspective,wasanythingbutworthyoftrust,seemstohaveovercometheimpe-rialprotocolbyspeakingdirectlytothesonofHeavenandcomplainingaboutthelevelofcorruptioninGuangdong.Thiscasewasparadigmaticoftheconsequencesoflaxpoliciesintermsofcontrol-lingmaritimetradeinNanyang南洋andQianlong’s乾隆concernwiththecirculationofEnglishinthisarea,especiallyaftertheMcCartneyEmbassy(Schottenhammer,2007:33,259,279).52.XunshiAomenji巡視澳門記(RecordofaninspectionoverMacao),inXSXZ,juan9,Qianlong.perorQianlonghimself,whodecreedthatthemissionariesbedeportedtoMacau.Finally,frightenedaboutloosingcontroloverthemovementofforeigners,especiallytheBritishships,51Qianlongissuedin1757animperialdecreetorestrictmostoftheforeigntrade(Schottenhammer,2010:140;Fok,2006:45).Theseareexamplesthatshowthatwhatreallymattered,especiallyfromtheChinesepointofview,wasthetendencytolimittheforeign-ersinspecificgeographicalareaswheretheycouldbebothcontrolledandeventuallycoexistpacificallywithChinesepeople.Accordingtothemagistratesandemployeesatthetime,thiswastheonlywaytoensurethattherulesimposedbytheMandarinswererespected(astheJiaoQinian蕉祈年’srecordindicated)52andtheycould“enjoylast-ingpeace”,changxiangtaiping長享太平(Yin;Zhang,1992:239;Yin;Zhang,2009:331).This“peace”thatwassooftenmentionedinlocalsources,originatingfromapeacefulco-existencewherebybothsidescontinuedtomaintaintheirprofitsandbusinesses,hidanautocraticpositionbythecentralgovernment.However,thispacificclimatebe-comesambiguousbecauseinrealityitappearedthatitcouldonlyen-dureifthe“barbarians”obeyedChineserulesandChinesesuperiority.TheChristianreligionunderminedthissystem.Atacertainpointfor-eigners(thedifferentreligiousorderswereconsideredassuch)becameaboveallapoliticalandculturalproblem,linkedtoconceptssuchasloyalty(zhong忠)and,consequently,aproblemofsovereignty:Emper-or,sonofHeavenversusPope,“son”ofGod.Christianitycanalsofitwiththe(in)visibilityrhetoric,inthesensethattherewasmuchmorebehindtheclaimthattheChristianreligionwasdangerousbecausecouldbringtheChinesetorecognisethejiaohuahuangdi教化皇帝.Accordingtothelocalgazetteers,Macauwasonthesouthernmostborder53anditsnorthernareawasseparatedfromitssouthernpartbyagatewhichformedabarrierbetweenthebarbariansandthe

193192the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictChinese.54AccordingtoJiaoQinian焦祈年55,onhisvisittoMacau,thepresenceofthe“barbarians”/yi夷wasactuallybeneficial56as,inthepast,theseseashadbeencharacterisedas“acomingandgoingofthievesandscoundrels”57daozeichumo盜賊出没;healsostressesthatoncethePortuguesearrived“watersbecamecalmer”，[jin]zifengtianboping[今]玆風恬波平(xsxz,juan9Qianlong;Yin;Zhang,1992:240;Yin;Zhang,2009:332).Denselypopulatedandconfinedtoanareathatisnow30squarekilometres,althoughMacautriestoconquerlandfromthesea,itisaregionthatcanonlygrowinheightand,therefore,givestheimpres-sionofagiantbeehive.AccordingtoJiaoQinian’s焦祈年records,whichin1730describedthehousesofthe“barbarians”:“rufengfangyizhi如蜂房蟻蛭”,asbeehivesorantsnests(xsxz,juan9,Qianlong;Yin;Zhang,1992:240;Yin;Zhang,2009:333),thisproblemhasex-istedeversinceMacau’sterritorialandurbanorganisation.Macauemergedandsurvived58thankstotrade,andduringthe17thand18thcenturiesenjoyedcertaininternalpeaceandstabilitythankstoits(in)visibility.AstheChinesesourcesstate,theinhabitantsofMacautriedtomaintainagoodrelationshipwiththeQingcourt.ThePor-tuguesealwaystriedtorespecttheChinese,asBaoYu暴煜59stated:“weiweihuaide畏威懷德,”“theyfearourprestigeandrespectourvirtues”(xsxz,juan8，Qianlong;Yin;Zhang,1992:240;Yin;Zhang,53.Aomenzhe,guguangzhouzhinanbi,MingJiajingzhongcipanyi,yieifanliye澳門者，故廣州之南鄙，明嘉靖中賜番夷,以為藩籬也.Macao,whichwasinthepastatthesouthernmostborderwithGuangzhou,duringMingJialingerawasgivenasagift(fromsuperiortoinferior)tothebarbarians,sothatitwouldbecomeabarrier,fanli藩籬(GDTZ,Yongzheng,XSXZ,juan9,Qianlong;Yin;Zhang,1992:239;Yin;Zhang,2009:331).54.Cinanbeizhimenhu,huayijiaojiechuyi此南北之門戶，華夷交界處矣.ThiswasthegatethatseparatedthesouthfromthenorthandactedasafrontierbetweentheChineseandthebarbarians(XSXZ,juan9,Qianlong;Yin;Zhang,1992:239;Yin;Zhang,2009:332).55.Jinshi進士em1723.56.ConsideringthepresenceofthePortuguese/EuropeansinMacaoas“beneficial”mustbeunder-stoodinstrumentallybasedonthemodelindicatedinthesourcessincetheSong宋dynastyas“yiyizhiyi以夷制夷”,tocontrolbarbariansthroughbarbarians,asisalreadymentionedintheDengxunchuan邓训传by"Houhanshu后汉书"HistoryofthesubsequentHan(ZGCYDCD,1982:256;Hao,2011:17).57.Daozei盜賊,lit.thieves(MCED:6138),mostprobablyreferstothewokou倭寇,“pirates”,asthetranslationbyJinGuoping金國平indicates(Yin;Zhang,2009:332),whoinfested(andinfest)thiscoastalareaofthesouthofChina.Onthematterofthepirates,seeFan;Tong,2004andJohnson;Valência,2005.58.ThereferenceremindsWuZhiliang’sthesisaboutthesecretsofthesurvivalofMacao(1999)andthesurvivalofthePortugueseempirebyBryanSouza(2004).59.Borninthevillageoftunliu屯留(Shanxi)hebecamejuren举人inthe22ndyearofthereignofQianlong乾隆(1757)andcompiledtheXiangshan香山gazetteerinthereignofQianglong乾隆.elisabettacolla60.Movingthejunminfu軍民府toQianshanin1731wasoneoftheseveralmeasurestakentotighttheadministrativeandmilitarycontroloverMacao.Seefangbing防兵,XSXZ,juan9,Qianlong61.men門means‘gate’,butalso‘strait’,dependingonthecontext.ItwasanexpressionoftenusedinthesourcestoindicatetheborderbetweenChinaandthatwhichwasnotChina,whichwasforeign,Chinaandtheexternalthreat.AnexampleofthisistheHumen虎門(BoccaTigris),Hutoumen虎頭門infull,whichderivesfromHushan虎山(headland/islandofthetigers).Shan山literallymeans‘mountain’,whichinthiscaseshouldbeunderstoodas‘island’becauseinChinesemapsislandswereactually“mountains”emergingfromthesea.InhisreportontheHumen(humenji虎門記),XueWen薛馧himself(Tangdynasty)explicitlymentionsthewordGateasabarrierbetweenthe“exterior”andthe“central”(twoconceptsinperfectharmonywiththeChinesecosmologicalandgeographicalconceptsthatbelievedthattheempirewasinthecentreandthatthe“exterior”,the“other”,wasaroundit):alimitbetweenthe“central”andthe“exterior”,whichwaswhyitwascalled‘gate’,“[...]jiezhongwai,guyuemen界中外，故曰門.”(Yin;Zhang,1992:35),translatedbyJinGuopingas“[…]theborderbetweenChinaandwhatisforeign;whichiswherethename‘Gate’comesfrom”(Yin;Zhang,2009:24).2009:334),evenif,inemperorQianlong’swords,the“foreignersliveafraidofourpoweranddonotdaretodisobey”(madh,1999:236).ThepowerEmperorQianlongwasreferringtowasthemilitarymightrepresentedbystructuressuchastheQianshanzhai前山寨.“CitiesandEyes”:TheQianshanFortressTheQianshanzhai前山寨,60orCasaBranca,wasthewhitefortressbuiltinQianshancun村.TheQingmilitarygarrisonwasstationedtherewatchingovertheforeigners.Qianshan’stoponym(xsxz,juan卷1,Jiajing)startsappearinginlocalgazetteersfromthe27thyearofJiajing’s嘉靖(1548)reign,anditwasherethatQianshanzhai前山寨[theQianshanfortress]wasbuilt,whichderivesfromthevillageofthesamename:Qianshancun前山村,locatedinthesameplaceasitshomonymvillage,Qianshan前山[cun村](xsxz,juan1,Kangxiandamjl,shangjuan).ThisfortressphysicallyblocksthetinystripoflandthatconnectedMacautoChinaproperatxiabaicunshi下白村石.AccordingtothemapsavailableinthelocalgazetteersofXiangshan(xsxz,juan1,Kangxi)thevillageofQianshanisitselffoundwithinafortifiedperimeterbutoutsidethehubofthecity,whichisalsofortified,showingthedouble-wallstructuretypicalofChinesecities(Steinhardt,1999:90;130).OneshouldnotforgetthatbetweenMa-cauandChinapropertherewasalsothe“PortadoCerco”(guanzha関閘)61builtin1574(2ndyearoftheWanli萬曆reign).ItisimportanttostressthattheQianshanFortress前山[zhai寨]wasbuiltatthesametime62astheurbandefensewallofMacau.ThisfactshowshowtheQingdynastyrealisedthattherewereproblematicterritories,definedas

195194the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictfan煩,63forwhichitwasnecessarytoappointsoldierswithexpertiseinseveralfields,and,aboveall,whowereloyaltothecentralpower.Inthepresent-dayofZhuhai珠海,inYixiang[lu]逸仙[路]street,onecanstillvisittheremnantsofthewalloftheoldsub-prefectureofQianshan,partiallyreconstructed,fullofplants,andcircledbyabeautifulavenuewithtreesand1920s-stylestreetlamps.Suffocatedbytallmodernbuildings,thesestonemarksgiveyoujustahintofwhattheoriginalscenariousedtobe.Qianshanhasbecome(in)visibletothemodernpresentandonlyapartofthenorthernwall(about136m)andapartofthemeridionalwall(about24m)64makeitpossibleforanattentiveobservertore-drawtheoriginalurbanfloorplanwiththevisualaidofthemapsintheMonographandtheXiangshangazetteereditedbyShenLianghan申良翰andOuyangYuwen歐陽羽文(xsxz,juan1,Kangxi).Thedocumentalnarrativeinlocalsources,suchastheAomenjilüe澳門紀略andthegazetteers,canmakevisiblewhatisnowalreadyinvisible.Thewallis,infact,theonlypartthathasbeenrebuiltasanopen-airmuseumenpleinair,andleavestherestofthe15,000m2areatoone’simagination,anareawhereyoucanstillfindtracesofhousesandwallscompletelycoveredbyvegetation,andotherswhoseoriginhasnotyetbeenconfirmedbyarchaeologists.Theconstructionandrein-forcementofQianshanwentthroughdifferentphases,asdescribedintheMonograph.Whenthehousesofsoldierspositionedonthe“barrierinthemiddleoftheisthmus”(jingbanshezha莖半設閘65)collapsed,themagistrateofXiangshan，ShenLianghan申良翰66,inofficefrom1671,decidedtoreinforcethewholeareain1673toimprovethe62.WhichcoincidesslightlywiththeconstructionofthecitywallbythePortuguese,duetotheDutchinvasionoftheterritoryinthe17thcentury.Thiswall,whichcanstillbepartiallyadmiredinColedaGuia,originallystartedattheSãoFranciscoFortress,headingwesttowardstheMonteFortuntilitreachedthePortoInteriortothenorth-west.Therewereonlytwoentrancestothecity,onecalledPortaSãoAgostinho(GateofSt.Augustine),closetothechurchwiththesamename,andtheother–PortadoCampo–(closetothecurrentRuadoCampo).Intheevening,theChinesewouldstaybeyondthesegates.63.ThiscategoryappearedinlargemapsdrawnduringthereignofQianlong乾隆(keptinarchiven.1ofBeijing北京)whichmarkedallthedistrictsandwereindicatedinorderofimportance.(Masui,1992:133–134).64.Inthe56thyearofKangxi’sreign(1717)atucheng土城wasbuilt[lit.awallonland,MCED,6532,a1.5km-long,4m-high,and1.35m-thickmudwall,JinGuoping金國平inYin,Zhang,2009:12and57].Thewallwasreinforcedevery60m,totalling24additionalstructures.Accesswasallowedthrough3gates:onetothesouthcalledQianfeng前豐,onetothewestcalledWufu物阜andonetotheeastcalledYanqing晏清.Therewasamountaintothenorth(MADH,vol.6:192)and,asadvisedbythefengshuirules,therewasnoaccesshere.In1986itbecameahistoricalheritagesiteofZhuhai.elisabettacollasurveillancesystem,officiallymakingitabranchofthecentralgovern-ment,orguanting官廳67(Yin,Zhang,2009:12;Yin,Zhang,1992:23).Later,magistrateChenYingji陳應吉continuedthefortificationworksinthesamearea,whichledtoaprocessthatcontinuedovertimeandwhichisthereasonwhythefortresshasmanagedtobesowell-preserveduntilthepresentday.TheconnectionbetweenQianshanandthecityofMacau,whichbeganinthe16thcentury,hasalwaysbeenveryclose,especiallyconsid-eringthatitwasnotpossibletogetintoMacaubylandwithouthavingtogothroughthesub-prefectureofQianshan.DuringtheMingdy-nasty,towardstheendoftheJiajingera,duetothewako倭寇(pirates)incursions,thisareawasmanagedbythehaifangfen海防份(Depart-mentfortheMaritimeDefence)ofGuangdong,whichexerciseditspowersonthreefrontsdistributedoversixareas:acentralone,Guang-zhou廣州;aneasternoneinHuifu慧府andChaofu潮府;andawest-ernoneinGaofu高府,Leifu雷府andLianfu廉府(Zhang,2004:3).In1553thePortuguesesettledinXiangshan(xsxz,juan1,Jiajing)andMacaubecamestrategicallyimportant.In1564,PangShangpeng龐尚鵬(1524?–1581?)68wasoneofthefirsttohavewarnedabouttheneedtoestablishtightercontrolaroundthecityofMacau.In1573,thepersonresponsibleforthemaritimedefenceofGuangdong廣東becameestablishedinthedistrictofXiangshan,inthevillageofYongmo雍陌[cun村],69whichwasabouthalfaday’sjourneyfrom65.Zha閘,alsopronouncedya,isunderstoodasabarrierwhichalsohasanentryandexitgate(kaibìménye開閉門也),andalso“gate”inthesenseof‘border’(SWJZ,7719).However,guanzha関閘isamoremodernexpressionanddoesnotappearinthesourceanalysed,chuzhajinglianhuashan出閘莖蓮花山,[…]leavingthroughthegate[barrier]attheisthmusofthe“LotusFlower”mountain[…](Yin,Zhang,1992:23).66.Havingsuccessfullysurpassedtheimperialexaminationsandachievingthejuren舉人level,ShenLianghan申良翰(?–?),fromJinyang涇陽inShanxi陝西,aBuddhist,wasappointedmagistrateofthedistrictofXiangshaninthe10thyearofKangxi’sreign(1671).HecontinuedhisstudiesinXiangshanand,togetherwithOuyangYuwen歐陽羽,waseducatedaccordingtoConfucius’steach-ings.Hesoonprovedtobeaskilledstrategist,awareoftheneedsoftheterritorythathehadbeenawardedbyimperialorder.AswellasbeingthemagistrateofthedistrictofXiangshanduringthereignofKanxi,itwashewhohadthegatebuilt(portadocerco)(XSXZ,waizhi外志,juan10,Kangxi;XSXZ,juan8,Qianlong;MADH,1999,vol6:167and177).Hisnameismainlyconnectedtothecom-pilationofXiangshan’slocalgazetteerintheKangxiera(1673)whichheeditedwithOuyangYuwen,whoisquotedaszuanxiu纂修,itseditor.Heistheauthorofthe“jijiaoceying犄角策应”[coordinated(military)actionoftheheadland],atreatythatdenouncestheneedtoimprovethesurveillanceoftheisthmus.67.Thisgovernmentalagencyismadeupofagroupofofficerswhoweregivenadministrativepoweratting廳level(sub-prefecture).ItisacategorythatHuckerdoesnotmentionintheDOTIC,insomespecificcontexts,probablybecauseitwascreatedadhocforthisspecificsituation.-

197196the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictMacau,toprovidesupporttothePrefect(zhifu知府)andGuangdong’sDeputychiefofcoastaldefence(haidaofushi海道副使)incoordinat-ingmaritimedefenceandtrade,especiallyillegaltrade,whichintensi-fieduponthearrivalofthePortuguese.Accordingtoafewsources,the“PortadoCerco”70wasbuiltinthatyear,andsoldierswerepositionedinthatsameareatokeepaneyeonMacauanditscoasts.Therewasacontinuousflowofsoldiersoverthecenturiesandin1618theywereconcentratedmostlyinthevillageofYongmo(Zhang,2004:3),afor-tressbuiltinthetimesofWanli.In1621,thegovernment’sPrefecturebecameestablishedabout120lifromXiangshan,whichwaswhyQianshanwasthefirstcandidatetocontrolthedefenceoftheterritoryasitwasabout20li71fromMacau,havingbeensuppliedwithmilitarynavalandlandforces72.AmongthecitiespresentedbyItaloCalvinothereisonenamedasthe“CitiesandEyes”,wheretheauthorpresentsthecityofBauciinapost-modernistandsurrealistdescriptionthroughadialoguebetweentheMongolemperorandtheVenetianmerchant.Bauciissuspendedandinhabitedbyapopulationthatdoesnotlikebeingincontactwiththeground.Ontheonehand,thiscity,whichdoesnot“…touchtheground,withtheexceptionofthoseflamingolegsonwhichitsits…”73givesustheimpressionofacitywatchingfromabove–themoststra-tegicallylocatedspotforamilitarypost.QianshanisfoundhalfwaybetweenBeijingandMacauinordertowatchandtomakeitpossibletoobservewithoutbeingseen,withoutmixingwithwhoorwhatis68.HewasoneofthefirsttobecomeawareofthedevelopmentofMacao.BorninGuangdong,hebecameajinshi進士in1553andsoonbecameRegionalInspectorinseveralregions:Yangzi,JiangxiandZhejiangfrom1553to1560,movingontotheHenanregionin1560.Becauseofhisposition,hetravelledalotandhadclosecontactwiththecourtofBeijing.Hewastheauthorofseveralmemori-alstothethronewhichshowhisdistrustofthePortuguese“barbarians”(DMB:251).ThisattitudemusthavemostcertainlyinfluencedtheDeputyIntendentsoftheMaritimeDefense(haidaofushi海道副使),because,asJorgedosSantosAlvespointsout,initiallytherewasacertainopennessinacceptingMacaowithWangBo,whowasconsideredamajordefenderoftheMacaocause.However,withCensorPangShanpeng,andwithMoYiasIntendent,thescenariochangedbecausePangShan-pengwasnotinfavourofforeigners(Alves,1999:86–87).69.ThisvillagecanbeconsideredakindofWhiteHousepredecessorasitwasthefirstofficialat-temptbytheMingtocontrolthewholesituationinthesouthofChina,whichinsomewaythreat-enedthesecurityoftheempire.70.Thereisnoconsensusonthedateoftheconstructionofthe“PortadoCerco”,withreferenceinthesourcesvaryingbetween1573and1574.71.AMJLmentions15(2009:XX).72.700infantrysoldiersand1,200sailors(Yin;Zhang,2009:XX).73.“…toccailsuolotrannequellalunghegambedafenicottero,acuisiappoggia…”(Calvino,2009:77).elisabettacolla74.ThepanopticanisaprojectsuggestedbyJeremyBenthamattheendofthe18thcentury,aimedareducingthestaffinvolvedinguardingtheprisonersbyusingasurveillancesystemthatdidnotlettheprisonerknowwhenhewasbeingwatched,thustrustingthedissuasivepowerofthesystemitself.Thestructureincludedawatchtowerlocatedinthemiddleoftheprison;hencetheprisonitselfwasbuiltaroundthewatchtower,andfromthereyoucouldwatchtheprisonerswithoutbeingseen.Thissystemcouldalsobeappliedtoothertypesofestablishments,suchasasylumsorhospitals.75.Jobusuallycarriedoutbythecensors(yushi御史).76.ThegovernorsforGuangdong廣東andGuangxi廣西(QDZGNB,juan3)wereappointedin1649.FromthetimeofKangxi’sreign,appointedemployeescouldbereceiveddirectlybytheemperor.beingobserved,asinCalvino’sBaucialike.Beingstationedonthetopofthehill,theviewsfromQianshanfortressconveyasenseofmasteryoverMacau.Qianshanoffersacommandingviewanda“ModeofGuarding”proposedbyJeremyBentham’sPanopticon(1791:202).74Theproject–revisitedbyMichelFoucault(1975),initiallydesignedtobeaprisonstructure–includesasurveillancesystemthatcouldbeap-pliedtotheQianshancase.InthePanopticon,asinQianshan,“the[in-dividual]isseen,butdoesn’tsee;heistheobjectofinformation,neverthesubjectofcommunication.Theorganisationofhisroom[located]ontheoppositesiteofthecentraltower,meansithasaxialvisibility.However,thedivisionofthering,theonethatseparatesthecells,pre-supposesalateralinvisibility,anditissuchinvisibilitythatguaranteesorder”(Foucalt,1998:200).ThosewhoarevisuallyfamiliarwithBentham’sstructurecanunderstandhowthismodelcanbeappliedsowelltoQianshan,afortresswhich,hasasimilarfunctionoftheguardtoweroftheBentham’sstructure.Qianshandoesnothaveauniqueurbanplan,butitisamodelthatcanbefoundinotherChinesecitiesofthetime,withouteverhavingbeenpresentedfromthis“controlling”perspectivewhichsomehowbringsitclosertothePanopticon,anelementthatisclearinthedocu-mentsanalysedviathedifferentmemorialspresentedtothethroneandintheobservationsmadetotheXiangshanmagistrateswhenreferringtoMacau.Qianshanwassupposedtobe“theemperor’seyesandears”(Tianziermu天子耳目)75,andfromQianshanBeijingwasinformedofwhatwasgoingonintheXiangshanarea.Duringtheirreigns,emper-orsKangxi,YongzhengandQianlongimplementedanumberofsolu-tionsaimedatmakingthisareaasunproblematicaspossible.SowhentheQingarmymovedtowardstheSouthernregions,sixnewgovernorswereimmediatelyappointedtoFuzhou福州,Sichuan四川,Guang-zhou廣州,Guangxi廣西,Guizhou貴州andYunnan雲南76,andQing

199198the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictgraduallystartedadaptinghismilitary/politicalsystemtothesystemalreadyinforceduringtheMingdynasty,undertakingthegradualgeo-graphicalandadministrativeorganisationthatwasbeingcarriedoutalittlealloverChinaeversincetheManchushadcomeintopower.Itisnotdifficulttobelievethatintheearlydaystherewasahybridsystemwhichincludedbothsystems(Manchuandhan漢),andthatitcon-tinuedforalongtimeinsomeregions,aswasthecaseofMacau,forexample.Thecontextanalysed,andespeciallyifunderstoodasbeingdominatedbyamilitarystructurehierarchicallyorganisedwithintheBannersystem,whichwasespeciallyaimedataborder-orientedpolicy(Crossley,1999:51),helpsusunderstandwhytherewastheneedtobuildtheQianshanfortressaswellasothermilitaryandadministra-tivefacilities.77Inthiscontext,thesouthernregionshadalwaysneededtheorganisationoftaskforcesthatwouldaddressproblemslinkedtomattersofinternalandexternalsafety.Morespecifically,Guangdongwasstillclosetooneofthemostimportantriversthatwerepartofthecomplexnetworkofrivertransportation:thePearlRiver.Thesearterieswereanimportantmeansofcommunicationandtransportofmerchan-diseandpeople,andthereforeneededaverytightcontrolsystem.ConclusionTheaimofchoosingtomergeItaloCalvino’sworkwiththeseurbanrealitiesistoprovideanewperspective.JonathanSpencehadalreadymentionedItaloCalvino’sworkbuthaddonesoinacompletelydiffer-entcontext(1999).Aswesaw,therelationshipbetweenBeijing,MacauandQianshanduringtheProsperousEracanonlybeunderstoodifseenwithinitsspecifichistoric,political,ethnicandmilitarycontext,acontextcharacterisedbyan(in)visibilitydiscourse–especiallyifwetakelocalsourcesintoaccount–butalsobyaquestionofperceivableidentity,especiallythroughanurbananalysis(immediatelyevidentifwetakeintoaccountthemapspresentinlocalgazetteersandintheMonograph)andamilitarystrategy.Provincialgarrisonswerecon-sideredakindof“homeawayfromhome”where“bannermen”78werepositioned,representingthecentralpowerofBeijing.InordertounderstandtheMacau/Qianshanconnectionanditsrelationwiththe77.Thisisthecaseofthezhilizhou直隸州(eg.nanzhili南直隸),autonomousprefectures,andthezhiliting直隸聼,autonomoussub-prefectures.elisabettacolla78.DerivingfromtheAnglo–Saxonexpression‘qiren’旗人,“bannerman”.Theseinstitutions,whichwereinitiallymilitary,becameconsolidatedinthe18thcenturyandalsoturnedintopoliticalandsocialstructures.MarkElliotspeaksofatruemetamorphosisoftheManchuwhichproducedaun-wethung/transvaluation(inversionofvalues)intheidentificationoftheManchuasthebannermen,qiren旗人(2001:13).Thisconceptnaturallycreatesahomogenousvalueofidentitybut,ontheotherhand,itmakesitdifficulttodeterminetheethnicnetworkthatfeedstheveryBannerwithin.79.PronunciationinCantonese.80.“madirelazionitralemisuredelsuospacioegliavvenimentidelsuopassato”(Calvino,2009:10).centralpower,onehastogodeeperintotheManchusocial,politicalandmilitarystructure.Whatremainsof16thto18th-centuryBeijing,QianshanandMacau/Aomen/Oumun79intermsofmaterialdocumentshasadetermininginfluenceonthepossiblescenariosthataresearcherreconstructsbasedonthewrittendocumentation.Itisonlyasummaryofwhatthecitycouldhavebeenlike,basedonaspecificpointofviewgleamedfrom:localChinesedocuments,butwithoutignoringinforma-tionthatcouldberevealedbynewdocuments,newperspectivesandnewpointsofview.WhatCalvinosuggestsinusingMarcoPolo’sreporttoKublaiKhanistheideaofacityexistinginspaceandtimeandinwhichtimeandspaceitselfmustparticipate,notonlyintermsofitspresentlayout,i.e.,theexistingphysicalcity,butalsoregardingallthepossiblemodelsandthosedependentondifferentpointsofview.LikeCalvino’scities,theyarestratifiedcities,withseverallevels,andthereforehaveady-namicnarrativethatvariesaccordingtothesources.Theyarespatialorganisationsstructuredinaphysicalplace–theterritory–butatthesametimetheyarecitiesthatareconstructedanddeconstructedinthereader’smind,bethatpersonaking,anemperor,atraveller,amission-ary,ascholar,agovernor,etc.Spatialdimensionisimmediatebutnotexclusive,anditdoesnotdeterminethemostauthenticcharacteristicofthecitybecauseacityisnotmadeupofdetails,measurementsinspace,“butoftherelationshipbetweenthemeasurements,spaceandthecity’spastevents,”80becauseitisinspacethattimesettlesandcon-solidatesand,withit,memory.Thecityislikeaspongethatbecomessoakedinmemories,“butitdoesnotspeakofitspast;itholdsontoitlikethelinesonahand,recordedonthecornersofthestreets,ontherailingsonwindowsandstairs,[…]ontheBannerpoles,andeachseg-mentmarkedinturnbyscratches,engravings[…].”81Atimethatturnsintoaproject,thatis“theshapesthatacitycouldhavehadif,fordif-ferentreasons,ithadnotbecomewhatweseetoday.Someonelooking

201200the(in)visibilityrhetoricandtherelationshipbetweenbeijing,macauandqianshaninthelocalgazetteersofthexiangshandistrictatthecityineacherahadimaginedturningitintotheidealcity,butwhilethemaquettewasbeingbuilt[…]thecityceasedtobethesameasitwasbefore.Whatuntilyesterdayhadbeenapossiblefuturehadbecomenomorethanatoyinacrystalsphere[…]amuseumthateachinhabitantvisits,choosingthecitythatmostcorrespondstoone’swishes,andcontemplatesimaginingthereflection”82ofapastthatnolongerexistsexceptinitsmaterialexpression:monuments,churches,cobblestonepavements,etc.WiththisdescriptionCalvinoexplainsthedifferentcitiesthatcanbeimaginedbasedonwhatismoreevidentatfirstsight:thepassingoftimethatleavesmarksonitsidentityandhowthecitycouldhavebeenbutisnot(voidsthatareoftenfilledbylocalgazetteersandbytheMonographofMacau),nothingmorethantheresultofan(in)visibilityrhetoric.81.“Malacittànondiceilsuopassato,locontienecomelelineed’unamano,scrittoneglispigolidellevie,nellegrigliedellefinstre,negliscorimanodellescale,[…],nelleastedellebandiere,ognisegmentorigatoasuavoltadigraffi,seghettature,intagli,svirgole”(Calvino,2009:11).82.ThewordsinitalicreplaceFedora,thecitywhichMarcoPolodescribestoKublaiKhanasthe“cityofdesire”.“InogniépocaqualcunoguardandoFedoraqualera,avevaimmaginatoilmododifarnelacittáideale,mamentreconstruivailsuomodelloinminiaturagiàFedoranonerapiúlastessadiprima,quellochefinoaierierastatounsuopossibilefuturoormaierasoloungiocattoloinunasferadivetro.[…]ilsuomuseo:ogniabitantelovisita,sceglielacittáchecorrispondeaisuoidesideri,lacontemplaimmaginandodispecchiarsi[…]”(Calvino,2009:30).elisabettacollaAcronymsandabbreviationsamjl(Aomenjilüe澳門紀略)dmb[DictionaryofMingBiography]dotic[ADictionaryofOfficialTitlesinImperialChina]gdhycd[GudaiHanyuCidian古代漢語詞典]hydcd[HanyuDaCidian漢語大詞典]madh[MingqingshiqiAomenwentiDang’anwenxianHuibian明清時期澳門問題檔案文獻匯編]qdzgnb[Qingdaiguannianbiao清代職官年表]swjz[Shuowenjiezi說文解字]xsxz[XiangshanXianzhi香山縣誌]zgcydcd[ZhongguoChengyuDacidian中國成語大辭典]

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215TheJesuits’presenceinChinainthepre-suppressionperiod,duringthelate-MingandEarlyQingessentiallymainlytwocentresofscholarlyworkwithconsiderablecontinuityviz.Peking–correctlycalledbyC.Jamia‘lieudesavoir’–andMacau,althoughthelatterwasprob-ablymainlyacentreofinstruction.Anyway,duetotheparticularcir-cumstancesduringtheOboiRegencyandtheresultofthetrialsoftheJesuits,Cantonalsobecame,albeitforashortperiod(1666–1671),aplaceofintensescholarlyactivity,withaconspicuouseditorialout-put.Inthiscontribution,Iwouldliketofocusonthisshortperiodofdetentionandthetextsitproduced,alsolookingattheminthelightofinnerChinesecommunications,andthecontactswithMacauandEuropethattheyreveal,mostlybyimplication.Letmestartbyrecallingthematerialfactsandcircumstances.AfterthetrialsinPekingwerefinished,25missionaries,amongthem20Jesuits,4Dominicansand1Franciscan,weretemporarilybanishedtoCanton,wheretheJesuitresidenceintheDiliupu-streetbecamethesceneofa5-yearlongdetention,aperiodwhichwitnessessub-dividedintothreeconsecutivephases,withanincreasingdegreeof(relatively)freemovement.1WhentheyarrivedinCantonon25March1666,2theyapparentlyfoundtheJesuithouseempty,andwithoutanyfurniture.3Shortlyaftertheirarrival,andinordertoadaptthehousetoitsnewfunctionforsuchalargegroup,theoriginalresidentialTheCanton–MacauAreaasa‘lieudesavoir’:theWesternMissionaries’DetentionintheCantonJesuitResidence(1665–1671)andtheirWrittenandEditorialOutput(22/3/2013)NoëlGolvers1.AccordingtothereportsanddescriptionsfromCanton(inDomingodeNavarrete,pp.230–233ed.Cummins)wecanacceptthefollowingperiodisation:(a)fromthebeginningtoJune1668:veryhardconditions;(b)from24June1668toOctober1669,somesortofreliefwiththepossibilitythattheindividualmissionariescouldgooutofthehouseonoccasion,althoughwithprudence;(c)sinceOctober1669:greaterfreedomofmovement(seeDomingodeNavarrete,pp.232–233Cummins).ItmaybequiterevealingthatallthreeoftheApologetictreatises,withrichbibliographicreferences,werefinishedwithinthesecondperiod(ProsperoIntorcetta:approb.15August1668;FrancescoBrancati:finished25June1669;Approb.4September1669;JacquesLefaure:finishedJuly1669aswell;Approb.4March1670).2.GiandomenicoGabiani,IncrementaSinicaeEcclesiae,Viennae,1673,p.539.3.TheTravelsandControversiesofFriarDomingoNavarrete1618–1686,vol.1(TheHakluytSociety,no.118),ed.byJ.S.Cummins,p.230.

217216buildingwasprovided–atpubliccost–withasecondfloor,includingtwenty-fiveindividualroomsintworowsoneachfloor,andwithcom-monfacilitiessuchasachapel(“sacellum”),arefectory(“triclinium”),andan“aula”.4No‘library’ismentionedonthisoccasion.Amongthefurnituretheypurchased–againwiththemoneytheygotfromthelocalGovernor–was–animportantdetail–a“shelfforbooks”,madeofcane,forthepriceof1“ryal”,whichwassimilartothepriceofonetable.5Assuch,thisenlargedresidentialbuildingprovidedmini-malaccommodationtothe25missionariesuntiltheirfinalreleaseon8September1671.6WhendescribingthedifficultmaterialconditionsinwhichtheJesuitslivedtogetherinthiscompound,andwhichwereconfirmedbyGiandomenicoGabiani(1623–1694)andFrançoisdeRougemont(1624–1676),7theDominicanFriarDomingodeNavar-rete(1618–1686)–oneofthe‘prisoners’–reported:“Inthisconfu-sion,wepass’dourtimeinStudyandPrayer”.8ItisonthisstudyandprayerthatIwouldliketofocusnow.Probablythebest-knownactivitywastheso-called‘CantonConfer-ence’,spanningsome40daysbetween18December1667and26Jan-uary1668,underthepresidencyofChengJili,i.e.FelicianoPacheco,S.J.,(1622–1687),thethenprovincial:followingmanyintensedis-cussions,42articlesorresolutionsweredevised,knownasthe“ActaCantonensia”.9Partlyasareactiononthis,Navarretecomposeda“Declamatio”whichhepresentedon8March1668totheJesuits;thiswasaheavyinvective"againstChineseRitesandthepolicyusedbytheJesuitmissionarieswithregardtotheconversionoftheChinese":theentireritescontroversyinanutshell.DeNavarrete’stextfuelledthepolemictalentsofseveralJesuitspre-sent,andseveral‘apologies’orrefutationswerecomposed:byProsperoIntorcettawhofinishedatexton15August1668;FrancescoBrancati,4.Gabiani,Incrementa,p.581.5.Navarrete,p.230Cummins.6.Jean-BaptistedeMaldonado,inPieterVisschers,OnuitgegevenbrievenvaneenigePatersderSocieteitvanJesus,MissionarisseninChina,vandeVIIdeenXVIIIdeeeuw,metaanteekeningen,Arnhem,1857,p.12.7.G.Gabiani,Incrementa,pp.579–580;F.deRougemont,HistoriaTartaro-SinicaNova,Lovanii,1673,pp.303/304.8.Navarrete,p.234Cummins.9.FortheChinesetextwithacompleteFrenchtranslationofthecompletetext,seeH.Verhaeren,‘OrdonnancesdelaSainte-Eglise’,in:MonumentaSerica,4,1940,pp.451–477;cf.alsoF.Bontinck,LalutteautourdelaliturgiechinoiseauxXVIIeetXVIIIesiècles,Louvain,1962,p.120ff.;Cummins,p.413ff.;J.Metzger,DieSynodeninChina,JapanundKorea1570–1931,Paderborn,1980,p.22ff.thecanton–macauareaasa‘lieudesavoir’10.ThemanuscriptofFrancescoBrancatiisinBVE,FoGes.,1250/5;thatofProsperoIntorcetta,ibid.,1326;thatofJacquesLefaureibid.,1250/3.11.ThisinformationstemsfromIntorcettainasubsequentlycancellednoteinthemsoftheCon-fuciusSinarumPhilosophus,nowinBibliothèquenationaledeFrance[BnF](Ms.Lat.,6277/1and2).Foracomparisonofthems.withthe(muchreduced)printedversion,seemyobservationsin:‘ThedevelopmentoftheConfuciusSinarumPhilosophusreconsideredinthelightofnewmaterial’,in:R.Malek(ed.),WesternLearningandChristianityinChina.TheContributionandImpactofJohnAdamSchallvonBell,s.j.(1592–1666),MonumentaSericaMonographSeries,XXXV/2,pp.1141–1164.12.SapientiaSinica,exponenteP(atre)IgnatioaCosta(…)àP(atre)ProsperoIntorcetta(…)OrbiPro-posita,KienChaminurbeSinarumProvinciaeKiamSi,1662.whosemanuscriptwasfinishedon4September1669[Bertuccioli:25June];andtheprofessionaltheologianJacquesLeFaure(finishedonJuly1669;dateofApprobation4March1670);theautographsarenowinRome(BibliotecaNazionaleCentraleVittorioEmanueleii[bve]:FondoGesuitico);10afterwardstheywereprintedinParis(Pepie)in1700,withsomeeditorialmodifications,ofwhichsomearerelevant.WhatstruckmewhenreadingthesetextsindetailisthelargenumberofreferencestoJesuitmanuscripttextsthatwerecirculatingandac-cessibleintheresidence,andtoaseriesofWesternbooks;thisraisesthequestionoftheprovenanceofthesources,andtheproblemofthecommunicationnetworkbehinditbetweenthefathersunderhousearrestandtheoutsideworld.Iwillreturntothisbasicpointaftermyoverviewoftheotherachievementsduringthesameperiod.Indeed,almostsimultaneouswiththisconference–inwhichallthefatherspresentparticipated–otherprojects,eitherindividualorcollec-tive,werestartedorcontinued.Thefirstofthesewastheepoch-making‘ConfuciusTranslationProject’.Startedaround1660byIgnaciodaCosta,withthesupportofProsperoIntorcetta,adraftversionofthetranslationofthefourbookswasfinishedinoneyear,andtheinten-tionhadbeentohavethewholetextpolishedstepbystep11.Theinitialresultofthiswastheprintingin1662ofthetranslationofboththeDaxueandthefirstpartsoftheLunyu(Analects)undertheoveralltitle:“SapientiaSinica”.12Thepersecutionof1664hadthwartedthecontinuationofthisproject,whichwas,however,resumedafterthearrivalinCanton;whensomemonthsafterhisarrivalDaCostadied,IntorcettatookovertheinitiativeuntilheleftforEuropeinSeptember1668.Sincethattime,theworkofpolishingandtranscribing,insev-eralcopies,wascontinuedbytheAustrianJesuitChristianHerdtrich(al.Henriques),andtwomembersoftheFlemish–Belgianprovince,FrançoisdeRougemontandPhilipCouplet,thisafterhavingdroppednoëlgolvers

219218theMencius-part.ThankstothecorrespondenceoftheFlemishfatherswiththeirheadquartersintheFlemish–Belgianregionwecanfollowthestagesofthework,includingthedeliberationsontheeditorialdetails(towhomshouldtheworkbededicated?Whowouldwriteanintroductorypoem??).ThelastparcelswereonlyshippedtoEuropeinApril1672.13ItisclearthatthisworkoftranslationandpolishingimpliedathoroughstudyofthebasicChinesetextsandtheircom-mentaries,andtheintensivemanipulationofChineseandSino–Euro-peandictionaries,whichisconfirmedbyaseriesofreferencesintheaforementionedapologetictreatisessimultaneouslycomposed.InthisprocessIsupposeChristianHerdtrich(1625–1684)hadanimportantpart,assome15yearslater,whenhedied,heiscalledbyhisfellow-fathersoneofthebest‘connoisseurs’ofChinese,andwaspickedtofinaliseanoverall‘novumvocabulariumLatino–Sinicum”,inwhichhiscolleaguesputmuchconfidence.14Other,wherespecificprojectswereimplementedatthesametimeastheseactivities.ThefirstwasthepreparationoftheratherenormousmanuscriptofGiandomenicoGabiani’sIncrementumSinicaeEccle-siae.Thisisacontinuousnarrativereportofwhathappenedtotheindividualmissionariesandtheirmissionpostsincetheyweresum-monedtoPeking;preciselyforitstopicthereportwasentirelymadeinCantonese,usingtheoralwitnessesofthemissionariespresent,andsomewrittendocumentssuchasthepersonaldiariesofLuigiBuglio(1606–1682)andGabrieldeMagalhães(1610–1677;p.233);thems.wascompletedin1667(ApprobationCanton,8Dec.1667).15AparallelreportwaspreparedbytheFrenchJesuitAdrienGreslon(1618–1696),asweknowfromaletterbyPhilippeCoupleton10November1666:16thismustbeGreslon’sHistoiredelaChinesousladominationdesTartars,publishedinParisin1671.ItmainlyreliedonthebasisofletterssenttoCantonbythethreefathersinPeking(FerdinandVerbiest,GabrieldeMagalhãesandLuigiBuglio),andits13.N.Golvers,‘Confucius’,p.1144.14.HenriJosson&LéonWillaert,CorrespondancedeFerdinandVerbiest,Directeurdel’ObservatoiredePékin,Brussels,1938,p.475.15.ThelastrelatedfactseemstobethedeathofMichaelTrigaulton30September1667(p.606).16.C.F.Waldack,in:Analectespourserviràl’histoireecclésistiquedelaBelgique,9,1872,p.21:“aliasfusissimas(relationes)alteramLatinoidiomateperP(atrem)Gabianio,Gallicoalteramperp(atrem)AdrianumGrelon,prelodignisssimamexquacolligetEuropaquamaltasper80annosradicesfixeritChristianareligio”.thecanton–macauareaasa‘lieudesavoir’17.PreviouslyinCologne,intheArchivderNorddeutschenProvinzS.J.;Abt.0.,no.II,12,2,nowinMunich,ArchivderOberdeutschenProvinzderGesellschaftJesu,withthesamecallnumber.Foracomparativeoverviewoftheextantlettersfromthiscontext:N.Golvers,TheAstronomiaEuropaeaofFerdinandVerbiest,S.J.(Dillingen,1687).MonumentaSericaMonographSeries,vol.XXVIII,1993,pp.165–168.18.In:AnnalesdelaSociétéd’EmulationdeBruges,62,1912,pp.19–22.19.Pr.Intorcetta,TestimoniumdecultuSinensi:”IamlegimusApologiamPatrumSocietatiscontraJanseniumeiusquesectatores,quaeGallicoidiomatetypismandatanuncextatinmanibusPatrisAdrianiGrelon;inealatehaeccalumniacontranoslaterefertur”(f.65r.=p.143intheprintedversion).20.TheautographisinBVE,FoGes.1257/29,andthetextwaspublishedbyH.Bosmans,‘DocumentsrelatifsàlaLiturgiechinoise’,inAnalectaBollandiana,33,1914,pp.274–293(cf.Bontinck,Lalutteautourdelaliturgiechinoise,pp.113–120).contentstallyalmostexactlywiththoseofalongletterinLatinthatChristianHerdtrichwrotetoPhilipMiller(1613–1676),theConfes-soroftheRomanEmperorLeopoldI(1640–1705)inVienna,cer-tainlythroughacommonsourceorprototype.17Inaddition,Greslonproducedotherlongreports,suchastheanonymous‘lettresannuellesof1669”,ofwhichHenriBosmanshasdemonstratedGreslonwasthewriter,18anda“Suitedel’histoiredelaChine”,publishedinParisin1672;otherlettersinBrusselsandParisconfirmthatGreslonwasindeedaprolificletterwriter.Theseletters–andtheirimmediatepub-licationinFrance–provethatalsoduringthisperiodofdetention,thecommunicationroutewithEuroperemainedopen.Thiscanalsobeguessedofbooks,asthesameGreslonapparentlyreceivedfromFranceanunidentifiedbookagainstJansenism.19AnotherhistoricalreportwascomposedbyFrançoisdeRougemont,whichwaspublishedinEuropeasHistoriaTartaro-SinicaNovainLisbon,1672andinLouvain,1673;thems.wasclosedon16Decem-ber1668(ibid.p.327),althoughtheApprobationwasalreadysignedon7October1668.Before,thesameauthorhadalreadycomposed–inhiscapacityas“consultor”–aMemorialtoGeneralGiampaoloOliva,datedCanton,1667,concerningsomeaspectsoftheChineseRites.20Thisisareport“suigeneris”,inwhichacuriousattitudetowardsWesternbooksisex-pressed,viz.theconcernaboutthearrivalof“heretical”books(“Calvi-nialiorumqehaeresiarcharumlibri”:p.287).ThistextalsocontainsanunexpectedandclearreferencetoaWesternbookathand,viz.AeneasPiccolomini’sHistoriaBohaemica,ch.13.AnimportantachievementwasalsotheFrenchtranslationofChinesemedicaltexts,publishedasabrochureandknownunderthenoëlgolvers

221220FrenchtitleLessecretsdelamedicinedesChinoisconsistantenlaparfaiteconnaissancedupouls;printedbyPhilippeCharvys,bookselleretc.inGrenoblein1671.Astheveryfirstdated‘European’publicationonChinesepulsediagnostics,thesmallbookletattractedtheattentionofthehistoriansofChineseandWesternmedicine,asnotedbyMirkoGrmekand,morerecently,EricMarié.21Inapreliminarynotetheanonymousauthor–better:translator–identifieshimselfasaFrenchcitizen(“unFrançaisamoureuxdesonPaïs”)whowastravellingthroughtheworldfor16years,andwas“bannyàCantonparsentencedelaCourdePékindonnéeilyatroisans”.Withtheseclearbutsmallindications,onecanwithcertaintycon-cludethattheFrenchtextwascomposedinthefirstyearsoftheCan-tonbanishment.Ontheotherhand,sofarnoonehassucceededinidentifyingtheauthor.PhilippeCouplet(1622–1693)isnotaplausiblecandidate,despitehisdeclaredinterestinChinesemedicaltextsandhisprobablecollaborationintheLatintranslationsoftheSpecimenme-dicinaeChinensis.22Indeed,despitehisFrenchnameheidentifieshim-selfinallsituationsasa‘Nederlander’–aninhabitantoftheDutch/FlemishspeakingLowCountries,andcertainlynotaFrenchman,“amoureuxdesonpaïs”.ThereforeIamconvincedthattheauthorwasoneoftheJesuitswithFrenchnationalityinCanton,eitherJeanValat(1614–1696),ClaudeandJacquesMotel(1618–1671and1619–1692),AdrienGreslon,HumbertAugéry(1618–1673)orJacquesLeFaure(1613–1675).Noneofthesehadreceived–tomyknowledge–anyspecificmedicaltraining,ortheyhadbeeneducatedinacom-pletelydifferentsense(suchasinthecaseofLefaure,asaprofessionalteacher-theologian),butthisisnotnecessarilyanobstacletolookingfortheauthoramongthem,asthetranslatorinthesameintroductorynotereferstohisownlackofknowledgeofmedicalmatters(“lepeudeconnoissancequej’aydecetart”).Thismayrefermorepreciselytohisminimalknowledgeof‘univer-sitymedicine’,whichdoesnotexcludesome‘practical’knowledgeofotheraspectsof‘informal’medicine,asweknowfromseveralEurope-21.MirkoGrmek,in:Biologiemédicale,vol.LI,Févr.1962(Numérohorssérie”);morerecentlyEricMarié,LediagnosticparlepoulsenChineetenEurope.UnehistoiredelasphygmologiedesoriginesauXVIIIesiècle,Paris,1911.22.Cf.N.Golvers,‘PhilippeCouplet,S.J.(1623–1693)andtheAuthorshipofSpecimenMedicinaeSinensisandsomeotherWesternwritingsonChinesemedicine’,inMedizinhistorischesJournal,2000,Heft2,pp.175–182.thecanton–macauareaasa‘lieudesavoir’23.SuchwereFrançoisdeRougemontandFrancescoBrancati:seeN.Golvers,FrançoisdeRougemont,missionaryinCh’ang-shu(Chiang-nan).AStudyoftheAccountBook(1674–1676)andtheElogium.LouvainChineseStudies,VII,Louvain,1999,pp.529–540.24.Forapartialphotograph:H.Walravens,ChinaIllustrata.DaseuropäischeChinaverständnisimSpiegeldes16.bis18.Jahrhunderts,Wolfenbüttel,1987,p.97.25.Cf.,a.o.,J.Lefaure,inCanton1669,inDeSinensiumRitibus(ms.BVE,FoGes.,1250/3,f°235r./print[Paris,1700],p.425):“’sumhien’offeruntur,atqueiniisdemipsisdiscisseulancibusçuquasvocabulariaEuropaeo-Sinicaappellant‘vasasacrifitii(sic)’”;ibid.,f°244v.(p.457/8oftheprint):“ScimusquaevocesinvocabulariisEuropaeo-Sinicisstrictiususurpataesint,quaeverolatius,de-fectupropriivocabuliSinicorespondentis,inrebusquaevelsupraSinarumcaptumposita,velproculanostromodoloquendimododissitaesunt”.Similar“vocabulariaSinoeuropaea”arealsodescribedatlengthbyFilippucci,inthems.ofhisPraeludium(Macao,1682:cf.BVE,FoGes.,1249/7f°411v.;print[Paris:1700]pp.64–65),stressingtheirincompleteandimperfectcharacter,duetotheparticu-larityofChinesecharacters,whichneedacontexttobeexactlyunderstood:“illa(sc.Vocabularia”)quidemnonessenumerisomnibusabsoluta,nec(utlinguametliterasSinicasapprimecallentibusvidetur)omninoperfectefieriullomodoposse;ratioest,quiaEuropaeaevoces,utplurimumvelunamautpaucas,etdeterminatashabentsignificationes;Sinicaeverolitterae,sisolitariaesumantur,plerumqueplurimashabent,etsaepeindeterminatasetcontrariassignificationes;sicompleximcumaliisinveniantur,multaplurasignificant,etsaepesaepius(sic)asingularislitteraesignificationelongissimedisparatae”.anJesuitsinChina,whoactedas‘physicians’,probablywiththesup-portofChineseconvertswith(Chinese)medicaltraining.23Anyway,ifImayexpresssomepreferences–withouthavingmadeyetmorethor-oughverificationsinthe“catalogi”oftheFrenchprovinces,–IwouldoptwithsomereservationsforHumbertAugéry,amissionarywithanalmostunknownprofile,butborninVienneintheDauphiné,whichcouldexplainwhythebrochurewaspublishedinGrenoble,capitalofthesamearea.TothesecompositionsmayinallprobabilitybeaddedtheFrench–Chinesewordlist(“dictionaireChinois&François”)publishedintheFrencheditionofAthanasiusKircher,LaChined’AthanaseKircheredelaCompagniedeJesus,illustréedeplusieursmonumentstantsacréesqueprofanes(…),Amsterdam:J.JanssonàWaesberghe,1670,pp.324–367,whichislackingintheoriginalLatinedition(Amsterdam,1667).24Therefore,itmayhavearrivedinEurope,andprobablyinFrancebetween1667–thepublicationyearoftheoriginalLatinedi-tion–and1670.The‘Dictionaire’hasnoauthor’snameorotherprov-enanceindication,butIassumeitisacopyof–orselectionfrom–oneofthebilingualChinese-Europeanwordlistswhichwerecomposed,oratleastcirculatinginCantonduringtheCantondetention(1665–1671).25IftheFrenchversionistheoriginalone,andnotatranslationmadeinEuropeafteritsarrival,theauthormayhavebeenoneoftheFrenchJesuitspresentonthespot.TheassumptionthatitwasshippedfromCantontoFranceinthesecondhalfofthe1660sisnotdanger-noëlgolvers

223222ous,aswehaveseenwithregardtotheletterswrittenby,amongoth-ers,AdrienGresloninCanton,whichdidarriveinFrance,andwerepublishedin…1670(seetheaforementionedHistoire).Theseexamplessufficetodemonstratethatthisfiveyearstaywasindeedspenttoalargeparton“studyandprayer”(torepeatthewordsofNavarrete).Ontheonehand,theprayersupposesthepresenceofprayerbooksandthesharedmealswere–acc.tobothNavarreteandCouplet–‘adorned’withthepublicreadingofpious/edifyingtexts,“SpanishandPortuguesebooks,theMartyrologyinSpanish,orthemanuscriptsofAntoniodeGouveia.26Ontheotherhand,itwasespe-ciallythe“study”whichpresupposesthepresenceofbooksandmanu-scripts.Whereaswritingoncontemporaryhistorywouldnot(necessar-ily)haverequiredthepresenceofmanybooks,thecompositionoftheapologies–inascholastictradition–wouldhardlyhavebeenpossiblewithoutaccessto,andpermanentconsultationofaseriesofdocu-ments,manuscripttextsandprintedbooks,bothChineseandWestern.Arelativewealthofthemisalsomentionedscatteredthroughoutthemss.andprintedtextscomposedthere:ChinesetextsofConfucianclassicsandcommentaries,togetherwiththeaforementioned‘word-list’and‘dictionaries’.Inaddition,anentireseriesofothermanuscriptscirculated:themostspectacularexampleswereprobablythemanuscriptsofAntoniodeGouveiaofthetreatisesMonarchiaSinicaandAsiaExtrema(Int.,p.204,293;lf,p.433).StillothermanuscriptsarementionedintheparallelApologiesofFrancescoBrancati(Bra.),ProsperoIntorcetta(Int.)andJacquesLeFaure(lf):manuscripttextsofInaciodaCosta(Int.,p.29;sincethelatter’sdeathon11May1666inthepossessionofGabiani),CaballerodeSantaMaria(Intorcetta,p.298),FranciscoFurtado(Lefaure,p.287),GiandomenicoGabiani(viz.thedraftoftheIncrementaSinicaeEcclesiae:cf.lf,p.31/32;f°150v.),NiccoloLon-gobardo(Int.,p.203a.o.;JacquesLefaure,p.143/4)andPaschasiusMendez(LF,p.143/4).ThesemanuscriptsapparentlycirculatedfreelybetweentheFatherspresent,andmostofthemhadalaterreception,inChinaandinEurope:inadditiontotheaforementionedapologies,whichwerein1700printedinEuropeGabiani’sms.(certainlybrought26.Test.inNavarrete,p.233andCouplet,JS164,f°158v;confirmedbyareferencetothesamemsbyJ.Lefaure,inDeSinensiumRitibusPoliticisActa,ms.BVE,FoGes.1250/3,f°239r./printedver-sion(Paris,1700),p.434.thecanton–macauareaasa‘lieudesavoir’27.JS164,f°158–159,Madrid,26May1689(toTirsoGonzalez):“QuodspectatadoperaP(atris)AntoniideGouveia(quaededicaripossentDucid’Aveiro)mihiconstatfuisseexaminatainChina,etquidemMonarchiaSinicalectafuitinrefectorionostriCantonsiensis,praesenteP(atre)Navarrete,quiexeâdescripsitquaein1àtomosuoinseruit,etc.”(therestofthepassagereferstoDeGouveia’srequesttoCouplettotakecareofthepublication,givinghimtherighttochange/omitwhateverwouldbenecessary).28.JS107:N.Trigault,A.Gouveia,HistoriaMissionisSinensis1610–1625.Progressus&Incremen-tumFideiacChristianaeReligionisapudSinasseuProsecutioAnnaliumSinensiumSocietatisJesuRev(erendi)PatrisNicolaiTrigaultiiaMorteR(everendi)P(atris)MatthaeiRicciiadnostrausquetem-poraconcinnata,maximeexcommentariisR(everendi)/P(atris)AntoniideGoveaeiusdemSocietatisJesu”(theintermediaryperson,andtheauthorofthiscontinuationmaybeMartinoMartini).29.MorepreciselyinTratados,vol.I,pp.245–289,thisaccordingtoKilianStumpfin1701,inhisms.TractatuscontraHistoriamcultus:“PostremoR.P.NicolausLongobardi,S.J.inChinamissionartius,intractatu,quiextatlinguâHispanicâapudIll(ustrissi)mumNavarretemtom/I,p.246hacdereprofes-susdisputansfuseostenditSinaslitterariaesectaeaddictas,verumDeumnonagnoscere,etnomineCaeliseuXamticaelummaterialeaquoresomnesinferioresdependentintellegere”(ARSI,FondoGesuitico,724/5,p.40:“7maProbatioexpatreLongobardo”).toEuropebyPr.Intorcetta),andespeciallyDeGouveia’smanuscripts,weremuchusedandabused:readduringthe‘publicreadingsintherefectory’(cf.above),partsofthemwerealso‘pirated’byDomingodeNavarrete–asPh.CoupletfoundoutwhenhereturnedtoEurope,27andotherpartswerethebasisofananonymousmanuscriptcontinu-ationofRicci-Trigault’sDeExpeditioneSinica,nowinthecentralarchivesoftheSocietyofJesusinRome(arsi),theheiroftheformerTabulariumoftheGeneral.28NiccoloLongobardo’s1623manuscript,titledRespostabrevesobrelasControversiasdoXamtiTienxinLim-hoaneotrosnomesetermosSinicos(…)alsocirculatedinthismilieu,andcameintothehandsofD.deNavarrete,whotranslatedtherem-nantsinSpanish,andinsertedtheminhisTratados.29Ofcourse,manyChinesetextsandmanuscripts,includingletters,werealsotobefoundthere;quiterevealingisapassageinLefaure’smss.,wherehedescribesintellingtermshisworkwithChinesetexts,browsingthroughthevolumes(“indefessapervolutionelibrorum”)duringintensediscussions:NobistandemaliquandounâcumV(estri)sP(atri)busindefessâlibrorumpervolutioneetcreberrimâlitteratorumcuiuslibetor-dinisacreligionisconsuetudineconcessumestrerumpenetraliaingredi,etminutissimaquaequerimandodignoscere,etc./‘Final-ly,wewereonceallowed,togetherwithYourFathers,throughtheindefatigablemanipulationofbooksandaveryfrequentintercourse/conversationwiththe‘literati’ofwhateverorderandreligion,toentertothecoreofthingsandtodiscernbyexamin-noëlgolvers

22522430.BVE,1250/3,f°244v.31.Lefaure,p.112(ms.f°167r.):“AntepaucosdiesincidiinlibrumabemeritoPraetorecivico&doctoreSinico,cuinomenHoelaboratum”.32.SeehismsinBVE,FoGes.1250/3,f°245v.cf.theprintededition,[Paris,1700],p.461.ingthesmallestdetailsthoroughinvestigation’.30Thiscreatestheimpressionofareal‘collection’,ifnot‘library’inwhichtheyfoundlargequantitiesofpapers;thisexplainsalsosuchexpressionsas“somedaysagoIfellona(Chinese)book”(Lefaure),31whichevensuggeststheyhadnorealoverview,norprobablyanyin-ventoryorcatalogueoftheentirecollection,duetothe‘hazardous’characterofthiscollection,destinedtoremaintemporary.Returningnowtotheinitialsituation,withtheJesuitsarrivinginthenightinanemptyresidence,thisraisesthequestionofwhereallthesebooksandmanuscripts,ChineseandEuropeanalike,camefrom.Thequestionisthemore‘dramatic’asallthemanuscriptsproducedinCantoncontainawealthofprecisequotationstoEuropeanworks,includingnumericalreferences,whichisinapparentcontradictionwiththestatementofLefaure,whointhefinalparagraphsofhisms.ApologisesforbeingalmostcompletelydestituteofEuropeanbooks:(…)quodabhomineEuropaeislibris[acmembranis]ipsâqueD(ivi)Thom(ae)Summâdestituto(eonosinopîaepesecutioredegit),exrecordationererumquasanteannoscircitervigintitractaveram,quasitenuissimaequaedametpropeiamemortuaepraeteritorumtemporumreliquiaeprodierint/‘becauseIamamandestituteofEuropeanbooksandparchments(i.e.manu-scripts),even(acopyof)theSummaofDivineThomas(intosuchpovertythepersecutionhadbroughtus!)Ipublishedverythinandalmostdeadremnantsofformertimesfrommyrecollectionofthetopics,whichIhadtreatedabouttwentyyearsago’.32Byitsformulation,thisstatement,whichdatesbacktoJuly1669,seemstoruleoutalmostcompletelythepresenceofaWesternbookcollectioninCanton,especiallyinthefieldoftheologicalandcanonicalbooks.Moreover,itseemstocorroborateanotherstatement,madebyG.Gabianiwho,writinginthesamecontext,echoesasimilarsituationinthefieldofastronomyandcalendars,wheretheabsenceofthethecanton–macauareaasa‘lieudesavoir’33.ChinesewritenletterstoIntorcetta:p.183(“4aut5eiusdemLini[fromHangzhou)epistolae”);cf.Lefaure,p.40:“Sinus(i.e.Linus)scilicetlitterisinsacraLankiaedeadPatremF.Brancatidatis…”.34.Brancati,ms.f°356r.:“ConsuluiegoP(atrem)FranciscumBardistudiorumpraefectuminuniver-sitateCollegiiPanormitanisuperhisConfucianisritibus,quietiamaliostheologosconsuluit.,mihiquesicrespondit,etc.”35.Forthetransferofdocuments,seeJ.Dehergne,‘UndossierbibliographiquedelafinduXVIIesièclesurlaquestiondestermeschinois’,in:Recherchesdessciencesreligieuses,36,1949,pp.25–79(thequotedstatementisonp.27:“Pourutiliserlesloisirsforcésde5annéesetplus[i.e.between25mars1666–1671],ilsfirentvenirdeMacaulesarchivesconservésauCollègedelaCom-pagniedeJésus’;unfortunately,thusfarIhavenotfoundthesourceofthisimportanttestimony).36.See‘Umaresurreiçãohistorica’,in:Ta-ssi-yang-kuo–ArchivosyAnnaesdoExtremoOrientePortuguez,1901etc.,passim(a.o.partIV,p.305(FranciscoMoçoofLubelliwithlettersetc.).noëlgolversappropriatebookspreventedacomparativeappreciationofChineseandWesternhistoricalrecordsoneclipses:Nobisquidem,debitislibrorumsubsidiiscarentibus,tamgravidubitationielucidandaemodusnonsuppetit/‘however,wedidnothavetheopportunitytodisentanglesuchheavydoubts,aswelackedthesupportofthenecessary(i.e.theappropriate)books’.Theexplanationofthisambiguoussituationhastobedifferenti-ated,andistobefoundinacompositesituation.First,fortheChinesemanuscriptsandthedocumentsproducedbeforethetrialinChina:asitisratherimprobablethattheJesuitshadtakenthemtothetrialinPeking,andfromtheretoCanton,IsupposethesewereprovidedbytheirChineseassistantsandvisitors,who–ei-therbyletters33orbytheirphysicalvisits–continuedthecontactwiththeirmission,andtheirregionalbasis,andofwhomwecatchechoesintheCantonesedocumentsofthistime.OnlyinthiswaycanIunder-standthat,forinstance,FrancescoBrancatireferstooneofthelettershegotfromFrancescoBardiinPalermo,inhispossessionduringhisstayinCanton,34althoughBardihaddiedin1661,i.e.severalyearsbeforetheCantondetentionstarted.AsforanentireseriesofJesuitdocuments,lettersandotherarchivalmaterialsalike,ithasbeenproveninthepastthatthesewerebroughtoverfromtheMacauJesuitcollegebyChinese“moços”.Indeed,eventheentirearchivesofthecollegeweretransferredtoCanton.35ThattheintermediarieswereChinese“moços”isnotonlythemostplausibleassumption,butisalsoconfirmedbyanannotationinthesimultaneousdiaryofLuisdeGama,atthattimeresidinginMacau,whomentionstheirpassagefromMacautoCantonandviceversa,36

227226thecanton–macauareaasa‘lieudesavoir’andhowtheybroughtlettersinbothdirections,37exceptduringashortinterruptionintheMacau-Cantoncontactsin1667.38ButwhatabouttheratherheavyreferencestoWesternbooksintheapologies,alsoinLefaure,despitehisowncomplaintonbeingdestituteofWesternbooks?Thesolutiontothismaybecomplex.First,Isupposewehavetotakeacertainamountofexaggerationintoaccount.Thereemergesanotherpossibleexplanation:Lefauremighthaveusedan‘aide-mémoire’,intheformofapersonalcollectionofannota-tionsandquotations,whichthisancienttheologyprofessorattheUni-versityofBourgesmighthavebroughttoChina.Thisassumption‘adhoc’doesnotsolve,however,whyalsoBrancatiand,toalesserextent,Intorcettaadduced–thoughtoalesserextent,withintheframeworkoftheirrefutation,Westernauthoritiesandreferences.Therefore,Ipreferanexplanation,thatwouldsolvetheproblemforthethreeauthorstogether,andthisdoesnothavetoadvocatetheeffectofanallegedpersonalnotebookofLefaure.ThissolutionmighthaveconsistedinanhypotheticaltemporaryloaninMacauofspecific,selectedbooksfromthewell-furnishedJesuitlibrary.Theconditionsforthisassumptionseemtohavebeenrealised,when,afterawhile,thedetentionregimewasmitigated,andmutualcontactsbetweenthetwoJesuitstationswerepossible.Asasubstantialexchangehappenedwiththearchives(cf.above),itseemstobeequallyacceptabletosurmisesimilarexchangeforthebooksneededfortherefutationofdeNavarrete’sDeclamatioaswell.Finally,inaddition,andatrandom,wealsohearofnewbooksar-37.AnotherrunningcorrespondencewasthatbetweenNavarreteandAntoniodeGouveia(BVE,FoGes.1252/5[1669].1.NavarretetodeGouveia:29.XII.1669;answerofthelatter,Canton1Oct.1669(sic);concerningChineserites,withreferencetothediscussionsinHangzhou,in1642;alsorefer-encestoMartyrologiumRomanum,acceptedbyRomantheologiansin1640;onDec.25,theworldchronologyisexplained:5199jaaraftertheCreation,2957yearsaftertheDeluge,2015afterthebirthofAbraham,etc.;2.AnswerofdeGouveia,of3Oct.1669;hementionshavingseenacopyofNavarrete.38.For1667,somesourcesindeedreferto‘broken’contactsbetweenCantonandMacau:seeMu-nichBayHptStA.,Jes.590,no.12(N.SotwelltoL.Mancini):“AccepimusliteraseSinisanni1667exMacau(…).ExortâdiscordiâgraviintermagistratumCantoniensemetMacaensem,prohibitumestadtempuscommerciumomnecumMacaensibus,itauthaeccivitasredactafueritadmaximasangus-tiasetimpeditapermutatiopersonaruminternostros(!)”/‘In1667wereceivedlettersfromChina,morepreciselyfromMacau.BecauseseriousdiscordhadbrokenoutbetweenthemagistratesofCantonandofMacau,everyexchangeofletterswiththeinhabitantsofMacauhadtemporarilybeenforbidden,insuchawaythatthiscity(ofCanton)wasbroughttoverygreatpenury,andthemutualexchange(contact)ofpersonsamongusisobstructed’.noëlgolvers39.Intorcetta,inBVE,FoGes.1326,f°65r.[writtenbeforeAugust1668];cf.editionofParis(Pepié,1700),p.143:QuandamiamlegimusApologiamPatrumSocietatiscontraJanseniumeiusquesecta-tores,quaeGallicoidiomatetypismandatanuncextatinmanibusAdrianiGrelon;ineahaeccalumniacontranoslatarefertur/‘WealreadyhavereadtheApologyfortheFathersoftheJesuitsagainstJanseniusandhisadherents[i.e.theJansenists],whichwasprintedinFrench,andisnowinthehandsofFather(Adrien)Grelon;inthisApologytheauthorreferstothesecalumniesagainstus’.rivingfromEurope.Oneexampleisa–stillunidentified–printed‘reply’totheJansenistanti-Jesuitpolemics,publishedinFrench(inFranceorHolland?),whichin1668was(orcameinto)intheposses-sionoftheFrenchAdrienGreslon,wedon’tknowhow.39Inconclusion:thisCantonepisodeisnotonlyarevealingcaseof‘intellectualconcentration’ofthemission,andthecradleofaseriesofeditorialactivities,ofwhichsomebecame‘epoche-making’,butalsoaninterestingtestcaseforreflectingontheroutesandformsofcom-municationtheJesuits‘exploited’withinChina,fromChinawithMa-cau,andfromthisareawiththeEuropeanbasis,alsoincriticalsitua-tions,thuscreatingthenecessaryconditionsforthemtocontinuetheirmissionaryandscholarlywork.

229228WesternprintedbooksmentionedinthesameApologiesare:Anon.,“Gangrensisin6.SynodoGener(ali)Constantinop(olitano)inTrullo”:lf,f°150r.(p.28);Anon.,HistoriaProvinciaeManilanaeS.RosariiPraedicatorum:Bra.,,f°325v.(i,p.4);Adrianus,Tract.deBapt.,4:lf,f°157r./p.62;Ambrosius,(De)Off(iciis)MinistrorumLibri3,viz.lib.1,ch.5:Bra.,f°326(i,p.6);Ambrosius,(Expositio)inPsalm.118:Bra.,f°470r./v.(ii,p.318);Ambrosius,InLucam,l.9:Bra.,f°382r.(ii,p.7/8);AnacletusPapa,cap.2:lf,f°201r.:p.274;Aristotle,inRhetor.;Bra.,f°342r.(i,p.77);Augustinus,CivitateDei,5,c.8:lf,f°172r./p.143/4;ibid.,lib.10,c.3:lf,f°193v./p.244;ibid.,lib.10,c.19:lf,f°190v./p.229;ibid.,lib.1(0),c.19:lf,f°156v./p.59;ibid.,lib.10,c.19:Bra.,f°346r.(i,p.94);ibid.,lib.11,cap.5:lf,f°196v./p.257/8;Augustinus,Confessiones,lib.6,c.11:lf,f°242v./p.449;ibid.,lib.6,c.64:Bra.,f°392r.(ii,p.47);Augustinus,ContraFaustum,lib.20:lf,f°205v./p.296;Augustinus,DeCuraproMortuisGerenda:Bra.,f°474r.(ii,p.321);Augustinus,DeDoctrinaChristiana,l.2,c.20,co(ntrov.)3:Bra.,f°345r.(i,p.88/89);etc.;Augustinus,Epistulae:lf,f°184r./p.200;Epist.118,c.3:lf,f°242v./p.448;Augustinus,QuaestionessuperGenesim,l.1,q.16:lf,f°228v./p.399;Augustinus,SententiadeGen(esi?),cap.4:lf,f°167v./p.114;Augustinus,QuaestionesinLib(erum)Iudicium,l.1:lf,f°228v./p.397;Augustinus,Sermo5deSanctis:lf,f°211r./p.318:Bra.,f°421v.(ii,p.164);Augustinus,Sermo25“inMatth(aeum)”:lf,f°155v./p.52;Appendixthecanton–macauareaasa‘lieudesavoir’Averroes,doctuscommentator:lf,f°166r./p.105;Baronius,AnnalesEccl(esiastici),adann(um)397:lf,f°242v./p.449;Baronius,Epitome,num.36(adann.44):lf,f°243v./p.452/3);Busenbaum:Bra.,f°418v.(ii,p.146);Bzovius,insuisGallicisAnnalibus,t.14:Bra.,f°419v./420r.(ii,p.155–156);Caietano,“in3(tia)p(arte),q.77,art.1”:lf,f°157v./p.64;Caietano,“q(uaestio)36,art.4”:Bra.,f°356r.(i,p.134/5);Calepinus,Dictionarium:Bra.,f°382r.(i,p.7/8);Chrysostomus,Homil.16:lf,f°150r./p.30;Cicero,DeDivinatione,l.1:lf,f°172r./p.143/4;Cicero,Dedomosuâ,51(131):Bra.,f°382r.(ii,p.7/8):“Curiasedesactemplumpubliciconsilii”;cf.Nizolius,p.1187,s.v.Templum,withreferencetoanothertextsubdivision:“ProDomo139b”;lf,f°205r./p.291;Cicero,(deInventione,ii,161):Bra.,f°335r.(i,p.50):“Veritasestperquamimmutata…dicuntur”;Cicero,deOratore,l.2(morepreciselyii.159[38]):Bra.,f°356r.(i,p.147):“nonaurificisstaterâ…examinare”.Cf.Nizolius,p.1122,s.v.Trutinaandp.1137,referringtoanotheredition(“123a”);Cicero,Tusc(ulanae)Disp(utationes),l.5:Int.,f°91r./v.(p.246):“igi-turesthominicumDeocognatioetsimilitudo”;Icouldnottracethispassage,whichisverysimilartoanotheroneindeleg.i,25(“estigiturhominicumdeosimilitudo;quodcumitasit,quaetandemessepotestpropriorcertiorvecognatio?”);ConciliumEliberinum,can.60:lf,f°243r./p.451;ConciliumTridentinum:lf:f°228v./p.397;Gabiani,G.,ms.ofIncrementa:lf,f°150v./p.32;Gaius:Bra.,f°342r.(i,p.77/8);Govea/Gouveia,Antoniode,MonarchiaSinica(ms.):lf,f°239r./p.433;GregoriusMagnus,Can.(?),dist.45:lf,f°243r./p.450/1;GregoriusMagnus,Re(prae-)scriptumadAugustinumAngliaeApostolum:Lefaure,f°242v./p.447;Gregorius,(Epistula)BonifatioEpisc(opo)Neapolitano:Bra.,f°466v.(ii,p.291/2);GregoriusTheologus,Orat.32:lf,f°245v./p.460;noëlgolvers

231230Hieronymus,Epistulae:lf,f°184r./p.200;Epist.,126“adEuagrium”:lf,f°201r./p;274;Hieronymus,Sententia:lf,f°153r./p.46;Hilarius,(Commentarium)inMatth(aeum),6:Bra.,f°334r.(i,p.43);Hurtado,Thomas,LiberResol(utionum)Mor(alium)Tract(atus)Ulti-mus(=Resolutionummoralium:deresidentiasacraibrixii):Bra.,f°326r.etc.(i,p.5,etc.);Layman,DeSacrificioMissae,tract.5:Bra.,f°386v.(ii,p.25);Layman,DeVitiisOppositisVirtutiReligionis(=TheologiaMoralis,lib.4:“devirtuteetstatureligionis”??),c.2,p.734:Bra.,f°388v.(ii,p.36);Layman,(TheologiaMoralis),lib.1,tract.4,cap.24:lf,f°191r./p.231;ibid.,lib.4,tract.10:Bra.,f°356r.(i,p.134/5);f°418v.(ii,p.146);lf,f°157r./p.61;Lessius,variiloci,withoutexactreference:lf,f°156v./p.59;f°157r./p.60;Lipsius:Bra.,f°342r.(i,pp.77/8),etc.;Luc/go,Juande,DeEucharistiaeSacrificio:lf,f°192r./p.240;ibid.,disp.19,sect.1,num.12:ibid.,f°193v./p.243;Lyra,Nic.de,GlossaOrdinaria:“adidquodGlossaordinarianotatapudLiv.(correctedintheprint:Lyr.)deregibusBabiloniaeBeloetNino,etc.”;cf.Int.,f°6(p.8);Maffei,Giov.Petr.,HistoriaIndica,l.6:lf,f°200v./p.271/2;Marini,G.F.de,MethodusDoctr(inae)Societ(atis)apudSinas,Proem(ium)adLect(orem);Martini,M.,NovusAtlasSinensis:passim,a.o.Bra.,f°383v.(ii,p.13);Int.,f°14v./p.44ff.;lf,p.373(allconcerningtheterm“gymnasium”);MetododelladottrinacheiPadridellaCompagniadiGiesuinsegnanoaNeofittinelleMissionedellaCina,Lione,1665):Bra.,f°326r.(I,p.5/6);Mendez,Paschasius,p.29:lf,f°172v./144;Moralez,“inrescriptoquodadipsiuspostulatadeditS(acra)Congrega-tio”:lf,f°150r./p.29;cf.alsos.v.Rubinus;NicolausPapa,adNicolaumImperatorem:lf,f°201r./p.274;OptatusMilevitanus,Epistolae:lf,f°184r./p.200;Pantoja,Did.:lf,f°163r./p.85;Paulinus,AdAlesium(?):lf,f°242v./p.449;thecanton–macauareaasa‘lieudesavoir’Porphyriusimpius(commentator):lf,f°166r./p.105;Quintilianus,Inst(itutio)Orat(oria),4.2.94:Bra.,f°340r.(i,p.68):“quorundamprobatiosolasit…perseverantia”;Ribadeneira,Pedrode,FlosSanctorum:Bra.,f°413r.(p.147/8);Int.,f°95v./p.265(“inipsiusGregoriifesto”);f°97r./269(“verbaipsa,quaeinVitaDiviGregoriifol.241refert”);f°97v./p.272(whichfeastandeditionwereused?);Ricci,Matth.:cf.s.v.Trigault;Rubino,A.&Morales:Bra.,f°327r.(i,p.9);lf,f°153r./p.47;Rupertus,InGenesim,lib.5,cap.12:lf,f°201r./p.274;Salmasius(Saumaise),InEpictetum:Int.,f°91r./p.246;SanchezdeCienpoçuelos,Gaspar:Bra.,f°356r.(i,p.135);Sanchez,Th.:lf,f°211r./p.318;Semedo,Alvaro:lf,f°163r./p.85;Seneca,Debeneficiis,l.8,tobecorrectedintolib.3.1.3(“Ingratusest…”):Bra.,f°343r.(i,p.82);Seneca,Epist.96:Int.,f°91r./p.246:“Homoestressacra”;infacttobefoundininEpist.95(33):“Homo,sacrareshomini”;Suarez,ContraregemAngliae:lf,f°156r.and228v.(p.55and397:“l.2,c.5,n.4”);Bra.,f°419r.(ii,p.147/8:“l.2,c.5,n.4”);Int.,f°94v./p.7/8(“l.2,c.12,n.9);Suarez,DeDefensioneFidei,l.2,cap.12:lf,f°228v./p.397;lib.2,c.4,n.5:lf,f°156r./p.55;Suarez,DeLegibus,lib.9,disp.4:lf,f°157r./p.62;lib.7:ibid.,f°160r./p.76;Symmachus,ApologiaadversusAnastasiumImperatorem:lf,f°156r./p.55;Tertullianus;Lib.deIdolis,cap.16:lf,f°161r./p.76;ThomasaKempis,DeImitationeChristi:Int.,f°6r./p.15;ThomasAquinas,SummaTheologia,variiloci,quotedbyBra.,,Int.andlf(cf.Repertory);Trigault,Nic.,DeExpeditioneSinica(sic),lib.1,cap.4:lf:f°211v./p.324;ibid.,l.3(print:5!):lf,f°175r./p.161.OnTrigault’sdependencyonM.Ricci’soriginalversion,seeid.,f°163r./p.85:“exmenteetcodi-cibusPatrisMathaeiRiccii”;Ulpianus:Bra.,f°342r.(i,p.77/8);Vasquez,1.2aedisp.182,c.5:lf,f°157r./p.62;Vergilius,Aeneïs,l.2:Bra,f°382r.(ii,p.7/8);tobecorrectedintoAen.noëlgolvers

233232lib.4,vv.457-58:“Praetereafuitintectis(…)coniugisantiqui”;ZachariasPontifex,ResponsumadBonifatium:lf,f°242r./p.447.Comparedtothethreeapologiesorrefutationsexcerptedhere,theothertextswhichtheJesuitscomposedduringtheCantondetentionforaWesternpubliccontaincomparativelyfewreferencestoWesternsources.Thiscaneasilybeunderstoodfromtheirparticularcontents,whichofferedalmostnooccasionforusingWesternbooks.So,thefewreferencestoWesternbooksintheConfuciusSinarumPhilosophus(csph)–themainpublicationpreparedinthisperiod–maycertainlybeduetotheexclusivelyNeo-Confucianistcontents.ItisnosurprisethattheonlyreferencesappearpreciselyinthelongDeclaratioProëmialis,40composedbyPh.CoupletandsentfromCantontoEuropeupto1672:41mentionedtherearesuchnotuncommonauthoritiesasLactan-tius(onp.lviii;lxxv;lxxxiii;xciiioftheprintedversion),ThomasAquinas(p.lxix)andCaietanus,cap.II.V.1(p.lxxiv),butalsoMichelServet,withhis“6thlettertoCalvinus”certainlyalesscommonauthor,andthereforemoresignificant.Finally,thealmostcompleteabsenceofreferencestoWesternbooksintheothermanuscriptspreparedinCan-toncanbeunderstoodfromtheircharacterasreportsonthecontem-porarymissionhistoryinChina.Onthispoint,itisofgreatimportancetostressthatmycheckofthemanuscriptversionsofallthetextsmentionedhasdemonstratedthatthereferencesareallintheautographmanuscript,eitherinte-gratedintothecurrenttextcorpusorputinthemargin,butalwayswritteninthesamehand;thereferences,inconsequence,arepartoftheoriginaltextandwerenotaddedafterwards.Thisnotonlyholdsforthe1668/1669Apologies–themanuscriptsofwhicharenowin40.CSPh,pp….41.ThattheprogressivedispatchtoEuropewasongoingin1672appearsfromareferenceintheletterofJ.B.Maldonado,of15April1672(publ.byH.Bosmans,inASHEB,35,1910,p.81):“MittoadR(everentiam)V(estram)partemdeclarationisproaemialisadOpusConfucianum.Obtemporisbrevitatemsexultimacapitadescribinonpotuêre;sedstatimmittam,peralteramviam,plenam,etillasexcapitapertertiamviam,utV(estra)R(everentia)quoquomododeclarationemintegramhabeat”/‘IsendY.R.[i.e.Pr.Intorcetta,theninEurope]herebypartoftheIntroductoryDeclarationtotheworkonConfucius.Forbrevityoftime,thelastsixchapterscouldnotyetbetranscribed;butIwillsendthewholeDeclarationassoonaspossibleviaanotherway,andthesesixchaptersviaathirdway[i.e.inathirdcopy],inorderthatY.R.willhave,inwhateverway,theentireDeclaration’.thecanton–macauareaasa‘lieudesavoir’42.FortheBrancati-ms.(BVE,FoGes.,1250/5),theoldestquotationsgobacktoMacau,1683,wherethemswaslocatedatthattime,accordingtoF.-X.Filippucci,whousedthems.duringhisstaythereforthecompositionofhisownDeRitibusSinicis(BVE,FoGes.,1248/3;cf.twoliteralreferencestoBrancatiibid.f°301v.–302r.(cf.sub4.1.1).43.ThemsisinBnF,Ms.lat.6277/1and6277/2;IpresentedaphysicaldescriptionofthismsforthefirsttimeinmyarticleintheA.Schallvolume;ImadeasecondrevisioninJune2006,withparticularinterestinthequestionofthereferences.Duringthisrevision,IcouldestablishthattheoriginaltextoftheDeclaratiowasalsodated“80years”afterthebeginningoftheJesuitmissioninChina(seeMs.6277/1,f°1,Iand5IXr.),i.e.ca.1666,i.e.alsothedateoftheletterthatIntorcettahadaddressedtothefuturecandidatesofthemission(p.VIII–IXv.);thenumber“80”hadafterwardsbeencancelledandsubstitutedby“100”,correspondingto1686,theyearthattherevisionofthems.started,inviewofitspublicationinParis.BVE42–butIcouldestablishthesameduringmytwofoldcheckofthemanuscriptoftheConfuciustextsinParis(BnF).43Itseemsthereforecompletelylegitimatetoassume–asitdoesfortheothersimilarcasesdiscussedinPeking–thatthesetitlestoorepresentbooksonhandintheCantonJesuitresidence,whichbytheirnumberconstitutedasmalllibrary.noëlgolvers

235InthisarticleIwillanalysehowtheDutchassessedthestrategicandcommercialsignificanceofMacauwithinthecontextoftheEastIndiestradingnetwork,andhowtheyperceivedtheroleofthePortugueseindenyingtheirmercantilefleetsafirmfootholdinChina.ADirectLinktotheIndiesIn1559theHabsburgKingPhilipii,whohadsucceededhisfatherCharlesvinBrusselsin1555,lefttheLowCountriesforgoodandremovedtheseatofhisgovernmenttoMadrid.ThismoveconfirmedandreinforcedtheriftthathadbeengrowingbetweentheNetherlan-dicprovincesandtheirsovereign.HeavytaxesandincreasinglystrongrepressionofProtestantswerethelaststrawthattriggeredtheinsur-gence,whichgraduallydevelopedintoaprotractedwar,knowninhistoryastheEightyYears’War(1568–1648).In1580thePortugueseandSpanishcrownswereunitedinthepersonofPhilipii.In1585AntwerpwasrecapturedbytheSpanishtroopsunderthecommandoftheDukeofParma.ThisdealtasevereblowtothecommercialbasisoftheLowCountries.Theinternationalmaritimetrade,whichfromthereignofJohn(João)iiionwardshadbeenflourishing,andwhichhingedonthetransportfromLisbontoAntwerpofspicesandotherAsiangoodsbyDutchships,wasdealtasevereblow.Thestaplefunc-tionwhichhadmadeAntwerpahubofinternationalcommercewasnowdivertedtoAmsterdam,butwhenSpanishandsubsequentlyPortu-gueseportswereclosedtoshipsfromtherebelliousprovinces,theDutchandtheFlemishmerchantswhohadtakenrefugeinthenorthafterthesackofAntwerpsawwithdismayhowthesuppliesthatreachedDutchportsweredwindlingdramatically.Theyhadtolookforalternatives.AfterthediscomfitureoftheInvincibleArmada(1588),however,thebalancestartedtiltingslowlyinfavouroftheinsurgents,andthisseemedtocreatenewopportunities.This,aswellasotherfactors,emboldenedtheDutchentrepreneurstostartexploringthepossibili-tiesofadirectlinktoAsia.MaritimeroutestoAsiahadhithertobeenDutchPerceptionsofMacauW.F.VandeWalle

237236dutchperceptionsofmacauajealouslyguardedsecretofthePortugueseseafarers,butthegrowingself-confidenceonthepartoftheDutchwasgivenaboostbyacoupleofDutchreturnees,whohadapprenticedinPortugalandspentmanyyearsinthePortugueseEstadodaÍndia,wheretheyhadhadtheoppor-tunitytocollectvitalnavigationalinformation.JanHuygenvanLinschoten(1563–1611)1hadservedassecretarytothePortugueseArchbishopofGoaformorethanfiveyears(1583–1589)andDirckGerritsz.Pomp(1544/45–1608?)hadmadeextensivevoyagesthrough-outAsiaonPortugueseships.Incidentally,bothharkedbacktothetownofEnkhuizen,andtheyreturnedhomein1592and1590respec-tively,justasplansforexpeditionstotheEastwerebeingcontemplated.1.BiographyinVanderAa1865.Seealsohisbiographyandanalysisoftheworkintheintroductiontothere-editionofItinerario(VanLinschoten1955,pp.xxiii–lxxxiii).GeneralViewofthecityscapeofMacauValentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,plate26w.f.vandewalle2.Itinerario,voyageofteschipvaertvanJanHuygenvanLinschotennaerOostoftePortugaelsIndieninhoudendeencortebeschryvinghederselverlandenendezee-custen…t’Amstelredam:CornelisClaesz.,1596(severalconsecutivere-issues,in1605,1612,1614,1623,1644,1692,inAmsterdamandTheHague,andeditionsinFrenchpublishedinAmsterdamin1610,1619,1638;inEnglishinLondon,andinGermaninFrankfurtamMainin1598).3.Everaert1998,pp.80–94.4.TheauthorhadlikewiseneverbeeninChina,butderivedthedataforhisbookfromreportsoftradersandmissionarieswhohadvisitedChina.ItissaidtobethefirstEuropeanbookcontainingChinesecharacters.ItwasthemostinfluentialbookonChinainthesixteenthcentury,andthefirstEuropeanbookoncontemporaryMingChina.Arealbestsellerinitstime,thebookwentthrough46printsinfifteenyears.5.TherearethreedifferenteditionsofthisDutchtranslationbyCornelisTaemsz,entitledD’historieoftebeschrijvinghevanhetgrooteRijkvanChina:thefirstpublishedinHoorn/AlkmaarbyCornelisClaesz/JacobMeesterin1595;thesecondinAmsterdambyCornelisClaeszin1595andthethirdpublishedinDelftbyAernoldBonin1656.VanLinschotencommittedtowritingupthehugeamountofgeo-graphical,ethnologicalandcommercialinformationhehadcollectedwhileabroad,andpublisheditin1596underthetitleItinerario,VoyageofteSchipvaertnaerOostoftePortugaelsIndien.2AlthoughhehadneverventuredbeyondthewestcoastofIndia,Linschoten’saccountdealtextensivelywithallthecoastalareasofAsia,fromAdenuptotheJapaneseArchipelago.Apartfromtheauthor’spersonalobservations,muchofLinschoten’sworkwasindebtedtoinformationcollectedfromothertravellers,includingDirckGerritszoonPomp,whohadbeentoMacauandJapan,GerritvanAfhuysenandFransConingh,bothfromAntwerp,aswellassoldiersandtraders,diamondmerchantsandJesuitswhohadlivedintheIndiesforyears.3AnothermajorsourceofinspirationforVanLinschotenwasthebookoftheSpanishpriestJuanGonzálezdeMendoza(1545–1618),Historiadelascosasmásnotables,ritosycostumbresdelgranReynodelaChina,publishedin1585inRomebyBartholomeGrassiandprintedbyVicentioAccolti.4In1595aDutchtranslationbyVanLinschoten’sfriendCornelisTaemszwaspublished,itselfbasedontheItalianver-sion,andpublishedbyVanLinschoten’spublisherCornelisClaesz.,aFlemishrefugeewhohadsetuphispublishingfirminAmsterdamandspecialisedinmaritimeliterature,geographyandtravel.5Evenbeforeitspublication,workhadbeenavailableinmanuscriptform,sothatitsinformationwasputtogoodusebyCornelisdeHoutman,commanderofthefirstvoyagetotheIndiesviatheCapeofGoodHope,whichsailedinearlyApril1595.TheItinerarioalsocontainedillustrationsbasedondrawingsVanLinschotenhadmade.TheseplatesfromtheItinerariowerealsopub-

239238dutchperceptionsofmacaulishedseparatelyin1604underthetitleIcones,habitusgestusqueIndorumacLusitanorumperIndiamviventium,etc.,withextensivecaptionsinLatin.ItisunclearwhoVanLinschoten’sChinesemodelsforhisillustrationswere,sincetheChinesedidnotusuallyventurewestofMalaccaandhehimselfhadneverbeenbeyondthewestcoastofIndia.DirckGerritsz.Pomp,ontheotherhand,wasknowninhishometownofEnkhuizenas‘DirckChina.’Hedidnotpublishanaccountofhisown,buthisaccountswereincludedinpublicationsbyothers,suchasThresoorderZeevaert(1592)byLucasJansz.Waghenaer,and,ofcourse,VanLinschoten’sItinerario.6FromAvoidancetoConfrontationEvenbeforehisItinerariowaspublished,VanLinschotenhadbeeninvolvedintwoDutchexpeditionscharged,in1594and1595respec-tively,withexploringtheso-calledNortheastPassageviatheArcticOceanasanalternativeroutetoChina.TheStates-GeneralorderedtheseexpeditionsinthehopeofcircumventingthenumerousPortu-guesestrongholdsthatlinedtherouteviatheCapeofGoodHope.Neitheroftheseexpeditionswassuccessful,butVanLinschotendidreportontheirfindings.7ThethirdandfinalattempttofindtheNorth-eastPassagewasledbyWillemBarentsz.Thisexpeditionendedinthedramaticepisodeofthecrew’swinteringonNovayaZemlyaandthedeathofmostofthem(1596–1597).ItwasbynowclearthattheNortheastPassagedidnotrepresentaviablealternative.MoreorlessatthesametimeafirstattemptwasmadetosendanexpeditionviatheCapeofGoodHope.InApril1595afleetoffourshipsunderthecommandoftheabovementionedCornelisdeHoutmanembarkedonthefirstvoyageviatheCapeofGoodHope.Evenso,DeHoutmantookgreatcarenottoprovokethePortuguese.ThereforehedidnotsailfortheIndiansubcontinent,buttookamorehazardousroute.FromMadagascarheheadedstraighttoJava,takingwhatthePortuguesecalledtheCarreiranovaporfora(“thenewrouteoutside”),thussailingthroughtheSundaStraitandavoidingtheStraitofMalacca.ThiswastheroutethatJanHuygenvanLinscho-tenandDirckGerritsz.Pomphadtakenontheirreturnvoyageto6.AboutPompseeIJzerman1915.7.SeeVanLinschoten1955,pp.XXXVII–XLII.w.f.vandewalle8.Gaastra2003,p.16.9.VanLinschoten1955,p.lxvii.10.Gaastra2003,p.19.Europe,andwhichVanLinschotenhaddescribedinhisItinerario.DeHoutman,anerstwhileresidentofLisbon,washoweverthefirsttosailthatrouteintheopposite,easterlydirection.On22June1596hisfleetarrivedinBantamonJava,theplacedesignatedbyitssponsorsasitsfinaldestination.Thedirectorsofthe‘CompagnievanVerre’,establishedforthatpurposein1594,hadchosenBantamontheWestcoastofJavabecauseVanLinschotenhadtoldthemthattheywouldnotrunintoPortuguesethereandbecauseBantamwasanimportantentrepôtwhereGujarati,JavaneseandChinesecametotrade.Con-trarytoVanLinschoten’sreassurance,DeHoutmandidrunintoPortuguesemerchants.Thesewere,however,nottheonlyrivalstheywouldhavetocompetewith.TheDutchofficers,whowerestay-ingwithChinesemerchantsoutsidethetown,wereimpressedbythewealthoftheChinesemerchantsandtheircentralroleinthepeppertrade.Tradehadtobeconductedundermuchstifferconditionsthanexpected.DeHoutmansailedhomeinAugust1597withthreeoftheoriginalfourshipsandonlyeighty-sevenoftheoriginaltwohundredandfortysailors.Thecargotheycarriedwasbarelyenoughtocoverthecostsoftheexpedition,butthefleethadatleastproventhatitwascapableofsailingtoEastAsiaviatheCapeofGoodHope.8Thereportonthisexpedition,whichisknowninmaritimehistoryasDeEersteSchipvaert(“thefirstvoyage”)waswrittenbyWillemLodewijckszandpublishedin1598byCornelisClaesz.underthetitleD’eersteboeck.HistorievanIndien,waerinneverhaeltisdeavonturendiedeHol-lantscheschepenbejeghentzijn.Notsurprisingly,bothDeHoutman’ssafereturninpatriaandtheimpliedpropagandainLinschoten’sItinerariohadastimulatingeffectontheorganisationofnolessthanfiveexpeditionsintheyear1598alone.9WhatisknownastheTweedeSchipvaert(“thesecondvoyage”),underthecommandofJacobvanNeck,sailedtoBantamin1598andwasbackinHollandthefollowingyear.Thesaleofthecargoreturnedaprofitof400%andtriggeredagoldrushofsortsamongtheDutchtraders.Between1598and1601tendifferenttradingcompanies(voor-compagnieën)equippedanddispatchednolessthanfourteenfleetstotallingsixty-fiveshipstotheIndies.10Itisnothardtoimaginethat

241240StreetmapoftheCityofMacau,withdetailedkeytothesalientfeatures.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,plate27dutchperceptionsofmacaucompetitionamongthesecompanieswasfierceandsoonledtosoaringpurchasepricesontheAsianmarkets,whiletheswellingsupplysentsalespricesinEuropeplummeting.In1602,attheinitiativeofCoun-cillorPensionaryJohanvanOldenbarnevelt(1547–1619),thevariouscompetingcompaniesweremergedandincorporatedastheGeneraeleVereenigdeNederlandscheGeoctroyeerdeOostindischeCompagnie,commonlyreferredtoasVereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie(voc).Asalreadymentioned,whentheDutchfoundedafactoryinBantam,theywerefacingcut-throatcompetitionfromtheChinesetraders,whowerefirmlyestablishedandhadavirtualmonopolyonthepeppertradethere.IntheendtheChinesecompetitionwastoprovetootoughandin1617theDutchfoldedtheirbusinessin11.Blussé1989,p.32.w.f.vandewalle12.Blussé1989,p.34.Bantam.11BantamwastheremotestpointonthejunkroutetoSouth-EastAsia.BecausetheportwassofarremovedfromtheChinesemain-land,theFujianesemerchantspreferredtoputinatportsthatwerecloser,suchasManilaandMacau.IftheDutchmerchantsweretocompetewiththeirIberianrivals,theywouldhavetoputinatChineseportsorportsclosertotheChinesemainland.ThiswouldinevitablyleadtodirectconfrontationwiththeSpanishandthePortuguese.Evenbeforetheincorporationofthevoc,attemptsweremadetotradedi-rectlywithChina.On28June1600,afleetofsixshipsunderthecom-mandofAdmiralJacobvanNeckleftHollandwithorderstosailtoChina.However,thetwovesselswhichhadspecificallybeenassignedtosailtoChinadidnotgetanyfurtherthanthecoastofAnnam.Theadmiralship,accompaniedbyasecondvessel,firstheadedtotheMo-luccas,wherethePortugueseandSpanishusedtoprocurecloves,inparticulartheislandsofTernateandTidore.InJune1601,VanNecklaunchedanattackonthePortuguesegarrisoninTidore,asretaliationforthekillingofthecrewoftheshipTrouw.ThisshiphadleftRotter-damin1598aspartofanexpeditionfleetcommandedbyMahuandDeCordes.ThefleethadsailedthroughtheStraitofMagellan,andaf-terhavingbeenbuffetedoffthecoastofChilehadcontinueditscourseeastward,eventuallyendingupintheMoluccas.Sickandweakened,mostofthesurvivorsoftheTrouwhadbeenslainbythePortugueseonTidore.Subsequently,ontheirwaytotherendezvouspointPatani,VanNeck'sshipswereblownoffcoursebythechangingmonsoon.TheadmiralnowdecidedtosailtotheChinesecoast.TheshipsranintoatyphoonintheSouthChinaSea,butwereabletoweatheritthroughwithouttoomuchdamage.On20Septembertheysightedland.AidedbyChinesefishermen,thetwoshipswereabletofindtheentrancetothePearlRiver.On27September1601,theadmiralspottedthesilhou-etteof“abigcity,builtintheSpanishfashion,…withatopamountainaPortuguesechurchandonitsspireabigbluecrucifix.”ConsultinghiscopyoftheItinerario,VanNeckascertainedthatthiswasMacau.12Hesentascoutingpartyoftwelvemen,ledbythefactorMaartenAap(MartinusApius),totheshore.NosoonerhadthetwelvelandedthantheywerearrestedandputinprisonbythePortuguesetobeques-tionedabouttheDutchretaliatoryactiononTidore.Thenextday,Van

243242dutchperceptionsofmacauNecksentanotherlaunchtoscoutforasuitablelandingsite,butitscrewwerelikewisearrested.Effortstogetthecrewmembersliberatedprovedofnoavail.13Militaryactionwasnotanoption,becausethecommanddeemeditfutileinthefaceofthesuperiorstrengthoftheotherside.OnOctober3,VanNeckdecidedtoweighanchorandleaveMacau.TheadmiralwronglyassumedthathismenhadbeencapturedbytheChinese.InhisdiaryhenotedthattheChinesewerebarbariansandinhumane.14ThegovernorofCantongotwindofthecaptureoftheDutchandsentanenvoytoinvestigatethecase.ThePortuguesepresentedtohimsixprisonerswhodidnotspeakChinese,MalayorPortuguese,andassuredhimthattheywereallprisoners.Notsatisfiedwiththeexpla-nation,thegovernororderedallprisonerstobetransferredtoCanton.InanefforttoavoidanydirectcontactbetweentheDutchandtheChinese,thePortuguesesubsequentlyhangedthesixprisoners,anddrownedelevenothercaptivesinsecret.AttheintercessionofCatholicclergyinMacau,onlyMaartenAapandtwoyoungsailorsweresparedtheirlives.TheyweresenttoMalacca,whereinDecember1601AapmetwiththePortuguesegovernor.Thelatter,fearingDutchreprisals,severelycondemnedthetreatmentmetedouttotheDutchprisonersandcalledtheOuvidor(“judge”)ofMacautoaccount.MaartenAapeventuallymanagedtoreturnintheRepublicastheonlysurvivorinOctober1604.Hewascalledtoaccountbythedirectorsofthevoc,becausetheyfounditstrangethathehadbeenabletoescapealivefromMacauandMalacca.Attheorderofthedirectorshemadeaswornstatementbeforeanotary.15AdmiralJacobvanHeemskerckfoundoutthetruepurportofthecasewhenhecapturedaPortuguesefrigateofftheJavanesecoastinApril1602.InthecapturedshiphefoundlettersfromthejudgeofMa-cautothegovernorofMalacca,relatingwhathadhappenedandjusti-fyingthetreatmentthathadbeenmetedouttotheDutchcaptives.VanHeemskercksworerevengeandon25February1603hecapturedthePortuguesecarrackSantaCatarinainthemouthoftheStraitofMa-lacca.16Thecarrackwascarrying1,200balesofrawChinesesilkand13.Loureiro2009,p.73.14.Blussé1988,pp.647–664.15.ThestatementhasbeenpublishedinTiele1883;seealsoCoolhaas1965.16.Blussé1989,pp.34–35.w.f.vandewalle17.BlusséandWinius1985,pp.73–83;pp.76–77.18.Blussé1988,pp.647–664.19.BlusséandWinius1985,pp.73–83;p.77.20.Encontros2004b,pp.68–70.ahugeamountofporcelain.ThecargowaslaterauctionedinAmster-damforatotalofover2.5millionguilders.Aap’saccountinspiredthelegalscholarHugodeGroottocomposethetreatiseDejurepraedae(“Abouttherighttoloot”,1604),inwhichheprovidedajustifica-tionforthehijackingofthePortuguesevesselbyVanHeemskerck.17In1609HugoGrotius,thenlegalcounseltothevoc,publishedhisMareLiberum‘TheFreeSea’,inwhichheadvocatedtheprinciplethattheseawasinternationalterritoryandallnationswerefreetouseitforseafaringtrade.HisargumentwasdirectedagainstthePortugueseclaimoftheMareclausum,theclaimthattheywereentitledtothemonopolyontheEastIndianTrade.FromacontemporaneousChinesesourceabouttheincidentintheharbourofMacau,ittranspiresthattheChineseauthoritiesinitiallytookaratherpositivestancetowardstheunidentifiedforeigners,buttheirmassacrepreventedtheChinesefrommakingtheiracquaintance.TheChinesewereallegedlyevenpreparedtoallottheDutchapieceoflandelsewhereinthedeltaofthePearlRiver,wheretheycouldes-tablishtheirowntradingpost,18inspiteofthefactthatthePortuguesebrandedthemaspirates.ThehijackingoftheSantaCatarina,however,offeredthePortuguesethewelcomeprooftosubstantiatetheirinitialclaimthattheDutchwereindeedpirates.Therewasnobetterargu-menttomaketheChineseauthoritiessuspicious,andthePortuguesewouldrepeatthistacticonseveraloccasionstocome.ThisincidentmarkedaturningpointintheDutchattitudetowardsthePortuguese.HenceforththelatterwerelumpedtogetherwiththeSpaniardsastheenemy.19ThesecondattempttogainafootholdinChinacameshortlyaf-tertheincorporationofthevoc.TwoshipsofthefirstfleetthevocsenttoAsiaweregiventhebrieftosailtoChinaaftertheirarrivalintheIndies.InJuly1603theErasmusandtheNassausailedunderthecommandofCornelisvanVeenfromPatanitoMacau.Havingarrivedthere,theyattackedaPortuguesemerchantshipthatwasabouttosailtoJapan,impoundeditscargoandsetthevesselablaze,afterwhichtheysetsailstraightforBantam.20VanWarwijck,forhispart,madean

245244dutchperceptionsofmacauattempttoreachMacauwiththehelpofaChinesemerchant,knowninDutchsourcesasImpo,butfailedduetochangingwinds.HethenheadedforthePescadoresIslands,wherehestayedbetween7Augustand15December1604,inabidtosecurepermissionforfreetradefromthegovernorofFujian(calledChincheuinEuropeansources).21Despitethepaymentofhugesumsinbribes,hedidnotsucceedbecauseofrivalrybetweenapowerfulcourteunuch,namedGaoCai,andthelocalChinesemagistrate.IntheendtheProvincialAdmiral(Haidaofushi海道副使;referredtoinEuropeansourcesasthehaitao,ormis-spelledhaitan)senttheadmiralShenYourong沈有容withafleetoffiftyjunkstothePescadorestoprodtheDutchintoleaving.VanWarwijckwasforcedtosailbacktoPataniempty-handed.Besidestherivalrybetweentheeunuchandthelocalauthorities,therejectionoftheDutchrequestwasalsoduetosuccessfullobbyingonthepartofthePortugueseofMacau,whohadsenttwoChinesefromGuangdongtoFujianwithalargesumofmoneytowoothegovernor.22ItwasbynowcleartotheDutchthattheyhadtoworkthroughofficialchannelsandinaccordancewithChinesepracticeiftheywereevertosecurethetradeagreementtheywereseeking.Consequently,onthefollowingtwofleetsfromHollandthevocsentaspecialenvoywithaletterofrecommendationaddressedtotheemperor.Thefirstfleet,commandedbyStevenvanderHaeghen,didnotreachChina.Thesecond,underthecommandofCornelisMatelieff,anchoredon25July1607neartheislandofLamao.23TherefollowedalongwaitwhilethelocalmagistratewascontactingtheauthoritiesinCantontosecurelandingpermissionfortheDutch.Thepermissionfailedtomaterial-iseandon16AugusttheshipsweighedanchorandsailedstraighttoCanton.TheylaymooredfortwodaysinviewofMacau,inordertogatherinformationabouttheshipsanchoredthere,andsubsequentlysailedtotheislandofLinding(Lingding伶仃).FromherefourwarjunksescortedtheDutchtoLantau烂头│大屿山.AletterwassenttoCanton,butthesameeveningtwomessengersfromthemagistrateofLantauvisitedtheDutchwiththemessagethatthemagistrateofLantauwasupsetbecausetheyhadsailedtotheislandwithouthispriorconsent.ThefleetshouldfirsthaveputinatMacau,theysaid.21.Pos2008,p.86.22.Encontros2004b,pp.71–75;Blussé1989,pp.37–38.23.Encontros2004b,pp.77–80w.f.vandewalle24.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.7.25.TranslatedfromtheDutchletterinGroeneveldt1898,pp.34–35.26.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.7.27.TheseattacksarealsodealtwithinLoureiro2009.MatelieffretortedthatthePortuguesewereenemiesandthatthebadweatherhadforcedhimtoseekshelterneartheisland.Bethatasitmay,themagistratedeclaredtobepreparedtointercedewiththeauthoritiesinCantononbehalfofMatelieff,providedhepaid200realsforeachofhisthreeships.On9September,however,anegativemessagewasdeliveredfromCantonandallcontactswerebrokenoff.ValentynnotesthattheChinesehadsimplybeenbuyingtimeinordertofitoutwarjunksandPortugueseships.24Sureenough,thenextdaysixPortugueseshipsappeared.Matelieffwouldnotriskabattleandleftthescene,leavingbehindoneofhisships.Beforeleaving,hehadaletterdeliveredinLantaudestinedforthegovernorofCanton,alongwithtenChinesehehadredeemedfromJapanesepirates.Inthatletterhewrote:“IsailedheretoLantauintheriverofCantonbyorderoftheKingofHollandinordertotrade,forwhichpurposeIcarrymuchmoneyandmanygoods.Arrivinghere,Iwaspreventedfrom(conductingtrade)bythePortuguese,andIdonotknowwhetherthiswasdoneatyourbehest.BecauseIdonotwishtofightthePortuguesewiththreeshipsagainstthemwithsix,andbecausemyshipsareloadedwithmoneyandgoods,whiletheirsareempty,Iamleaving.IfyouwishthattheDutchcometoCantonfortrade,pleasesendalettertoPatani,JohororBantamwiththefirstmail,andwewillcomeherewitha(fleet)sostrongthatthePortuguesewillnotdarechallengeus.HerearetenChinesewhichIhaveredeemedfromtheJapaneseandsendtoyou,becauseIcannotbeofanyserviceotherwise.PleaserestassuredthattheDutchwillalwaysbefriendsoftheChinese.”25On13SeptemberhesetsailfortheislandSanchuan(Shangchuan上川),butwhenhewastoldthathehadalreadypassedit,hesetsailforPatani.26TheletterfromtheChinesethatMatelieffhadhopedfornevercame,nordidhisreachanyChinesedignitary,fortheChinesesourcesdonotevenmentionthevisitofMatelieff.Thusthethreeat-temptsofVanNeck,VanWarwijckandMatelieffallendedinfailure.27

247246dutchperceptionsofmacauTheChineseplayedtheDutchoffagainstthePortuguese,andsincethelatterhadamuchfirmerfootholdandthehistoricaladvantage,theDutchdidnotgetpastthePortuguese.TheChineseauthoritiesinCantonandFujianusedthePortuguesetostavetheDutchoffusingforeignerstocontrolforeigners以夷制夷.ThisdeviceservedboththeChineseandthePortugueseperfectly.Afterthesethreefailedattempts“ournationseemsnottohavethoughtaboutChinaanymoreforalongtime,(whichisratherremarkable)”,notesValentyn.28Inthemeantimethevoctriedtocon-ducttradewithChinathroughitsfactoriesinThailand,VietnamandJapan,buttheseeffortswerenotrewardedeither.Chinesejunkscontin-uedtomaketheirannualvoyagestoBantam,buttheirgoodsweretooexpensivefortheDutch,andtheChinesehadtoreturnwiththeircar-go.29InthefollowingdecadethevocdidnotmakeanynewattemptstoestablishdirectcontactwithChina.Thecompanyturneditsattentiontotheconsolidationofitsbusinessempire.Itsecuredthevirtualmo-nopolyonthespicetradeintheEastIndies(Indonesianarchipelago).TheTwelveYears’Truce(1609–1621)alsobroughtalullinmilitaryengagementsbetweentheDutchandthePortuguese.Oneofthecondi-tionstheSpaniardshaddemandedforthetrucewasthattheRepublicwouldceaseitstradeactivitieswithAsia,whichitclearlydidnot.Since1609thevochadafactoryontheJapaneseislandofHirado.ItservedasabaseofoperationsforDutchprivateeringagainstshipsthatweredestinedforManilaandMacau.ThesilktradebetweenChinaandJapanofferedprospectsofspectacularprofit.ThetotalsilkimportintoJapanwasestimatedataround180tons.AbouthalfofitwascarriedbyPortuguesevessels,theotherhalfbyJapanesemer-chantswhopurchasedtheirgoodsdirectlyfromChinesetradersinportsofTonkinandFormosa.LeonardCamps,theopperhoofdwhoheadedtheDutchfactoryinHiradoin1609,calculatedthattherewasstillapotentialmarketforsilktothetuneof2.5millionguildersperannum,salesofwhichwouldyieldaround2millioninprofit.30ForthisadirectlinkwithChinawasmandatory,andasaresultthepositionofMacaucameonceagainunderscrutiny.28.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.7.29.Blussé1989,p.39.30.Blussé1989,p.41.w.f.vandewalle31.Cheng2000,Pt.II,addendum,p.9.32.Cheng2000,Pt.II,addendum,p.12.33.Blussé1989,p.42.34.Loureiro2009,p.77.TheBattleofMacauTheastutegovernor-generalJanPieterszoonCoen(1587–1629)found-edBataviain1619,inanattempttowrestthevirtualmonopolyofthespicetradefromBantamandtocontrolthetradeintheChinaSea.HeluredtheChinesemerchantsfromBantamandhadtheharbourofBantamblockedbyhisfleet.Inordertocontrolprice,qualityandquantityoftheChineseproductshewantedtosendshipsannuallytoChinaandparalysetradeinManila.31Inaddition,hemadeplansforthecaptureofMacau,whichwastoserveasthebaseofoperationstocontrolthetradebetweenGoa,Malacca,Canton,ManilaandJapan.TheultimategoalwastoseizethemonopolyoftheChinatrade.On6September1622hewrotealettertothedirectorsofthevoc,inwhichheproposedtorolloutasustainedmilitarystrategy:itincludedprotractedattacksonandharassmentofChinesetradersandtheirpositions,tobecontinuedaslongasnecessarytohavethenewsoftheonslaughtreachtheimperialcourtandalarmtheemperor,sothatthelatterwoulddecidetosendanemissarydowntothecoastinordertoconcludeatradeagreementwiththeDutch.32AlthoughthatletterfromCoendoesnotmentionthePortuguese,hisfirstactionwasdirectedagainsttheminMacau.Hedecidedtosendanexpeditiontoconquertheemporium.FromthereasquadronoftheDutchfleetwouldbedispatchedtothePescadorestobuildafortressthere.FromthisfortressthejunksthatpliedtheseasbetweenAmoyandManilawouldbeintercepted.ThustheDutchwouldbeabletocontrolthetradetoandfromFujian.PossessionofMacauwouldalsoenablethemtocontrolthetradebetweenGoaandJapan.33SincethefirstassaultsbytheDutchonMacau,thePortuguesehadbecomekeenlyawareoftheneedtofortifythecity.However,thiswasnoteasy,sincetheChineseauthoritiesinCantonwereverywaryaboutsolidconstructionsarisingonthepeninsula.In1615LisbondispatchedFranciscoLopesCarrascotoMacauwithinstructionstofortifythecity“insuchawaythattheChinesedidnotnoticeanychanges”inanticipationofapossibleattackbytheDutch.However,littlechangedduringhisstintascaptain.34BeforetheDutchattackof1622nosig-

249248dutchperceptionsofmacaunificantdefencesseemtohaveexistedintheemporiumyet,exceptforthosebuiltbytheJesuitsintheSãoPaulocomplexandacoupleofbulwarkswhichoverlookedtheaccessroutestotheharbour.ThisisatleastthestateofaffairsthatwereadfromthesketchymapdrawnbyManuelGodinhodeErédiaca.1610,possiblytheoldestextantcartographicalrepresentationofthePortugueseemporium.35Wemustnote,however,thatthecartographernevervisitedMacauandthathisinformationwaspossiblynotwhollyuptodate.ThatMacauwaspoorlyfortifiedpriorto1622isconfirmedbyRichardCocks,theEng-lishfactorwhowasinJapanaroundthattime.Hewrotethatthecitywasnot“fortifiedwithwalls”,andthattheChineseauthoritieswouldnotletthePortuguese,“Buildthem,norconstructanyfortificationorinstallanyweaponryonanykindofplatform.”36JanPieterszoonCoentoowroteataboutthesametimethat,“Macauwasalwaysanopencity,withoutagarrison,”andthatitonlyhad“someshallowtrenches”and“somebulwarks”,becausetheChineseauthoritiesprohibitedthebuildingofmoreelaboratedefences.37Earlyinthe1620snewsfromJapanreachedtheemporiumaboutanimminentattackbytheDutch.ThealarmedMacanesebeganworkonbulwarksandtofortifytheweakestpointsinthedefence.Intheprocesstheyhadtoswaythereluctantmandarins,bymeansofbribes.AtthesametimeMacausentashiptoManilawithaJesuitfatheronboard,toobtainartillery,gunpowderandammunitionandtoalerttheSpanishauthoritiesabouttheimminentattack.Thisverymuchlookslikeimprovisedpreparationsatthelastminute,butitdidimprovethecity’scapacitytowithstandtheattack.38Nevertheless,Coenwasconfidentabouttheoutcome.Heassembledaninitialfleetofeightships,eventuallyexpandingtothirteenships39,andacrewof1,300men,includingalandingforceof800.40Thefleetalsocarriedtheheftysumof213,558realsaswellasmerchandise,andwasputunderthecommandofAdmiralCornelisReijersen(CornelisReyerszoonvanGouda).On21June1622thefleetmade35.Loureiro2009,p.78.36.Loureiro2009,p.78.37.Loureiro2009,p.78.38.Loureiro2009,p.79.39.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.7counts15ships,ostensiblyincludingtwoEnglishships.40.Boxer1948,p.79.w.f.vandewalle41.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.7.42.Hao2011,p.21.43Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.8,notesthatReijersenwasshotinthebellyatthebeginningoftheaction,buteventuallyrecoveredfromhisinjury.44.TwoPortugueseaccountsaretobefoundinEncontros2004b,pp.89–97.ForthereportbyReyersen,seeGroeneveldt1898,pp.58–90.45.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.8.46.SeeBoxer1948.itsappearanceinviewoftheharbourofMacau.ThePortuguesehadbeeninformedoftheimpendingarrivalofthefleet,andbracedthem-selvesfortheonslaughtasbesttheycould.Afteraroundofcannonvolleysbythenavalgunsintheafternoonofthe23June,theassaultonthecitywaslaunchedon24June.ReijersenwentashoreonthebeachatCacilhaswithsixhundredmen(somesourceshave800men)inlaunchescoveredbytwoyachts.41Thedefenders,whocountedamere150PortugueseandEurasianmusketeersunderthecommandofAntónioRodriguez,werewaitingfortheminatrenchbehindaparapet,hastilyconstructed,andfiredback.Thentheymadeatacti-calretreattotheSãoPaulohillandthehillofNossaSenhoradaGuia,fromwheretheycontinuedfiringcannonvolleysandmusketshotsattheinvaders.Accordingtotradition,itwastheyoungJesuitpriestandastronomerJohannAdamSchallvonBell(1591–1666)whowithawell-aimedshotexplodedthestockofgunpowdertheDutchhadbroughtashore.Thereissomeconfusioninthevariousreportsaboutwhofiredtheshot.SomeaccountsattributeittotheJesuitfathersChristoforoBorriBrunoandGirolamoRho.Moreover,someseemtoholdthatthecannonswerefiringattheDutchshipsandhitanammu-nitionship42,butaccordingtotheeyewitnesswearegoingtoquoteinamoment,theammunitionhadbeenbroughtashore.TheDutchwerepreparingtowithdrawwhenthePortuguesemadeasortieanddrovetheDutch,nowdeprivedoftheirfirepower,backtotheirlandingcraft.OnehundredandthirtysixDutchwereslainand126injured,includ-ingReijersen43,butfiguresvaryandarenodoubtroughestimates,andnotablydonotincludetheAsiansandslaveswhowereinvolvedinthebattle.44Valentynrecordsthattherewere130deadandanequalnum-berofwounded.45ThebattleisdescribedindetailbyC.R.Boxer46onthebasisofPor-tugueseandDutchsources.ItmaybeinterestingtoquoteextensivelyaneyewitnessaccountwhichwasnotavailabletoBoxer,andwhich

251250dutchperceptionsofmacauisquitevaluablebecauseitstemsfromthepenofsomeonewhowasneitherPortuguesenorDutch.HewasaSwissmercenaryinDutchem-ploy,knownasElieRipon.47Hekeptadiary,whichwaspreservedbutremainedunpublishedandunknowntotheworlduntilitwasdiscov-eredandeditedin1990.48ItisratherexceptionaltofindatestimonybyaFrench-speakingSwissofCalvinistconviction,anditgoeswithoutsayingthatitmeritsthehistorian’sattention.49Itisworthrecountinginextenso.On22ndofJune,theDutcharrivedintheharbourofMacauandlookedforaplacewheretheycouldland.Themostconvenientplacetogoashoretheycouldfindwasatrenchandbatteryonthecoast,whichwereguardedbySpanishandPortuguesedefenders.Theattackwaspreparedatnightandthelandingtookplaceinlandingcraftonehourbeforedawnonthetwenty-fourthofJune1622.TheDutchsucceededincapturingthetrenchandthebattery,butaccord-ingtoElieRipontherewasgreatlossoflifeontheirside.CommanderCornelisReijersen(calledReyerbyRipon)wasshotandwashurriedbackonboardhisshipwithouthavingspokenaword.Thisappar-entlyleftCaptainHansRuffijn(calledRefinbyRipon)incommandoftheoperations.Ripondidnotholdthiscaptaininhighesteem,forinhiseyesthecaptainentirelymishandledthesituation.Believing“hehadwoneverythingafterwinningthetrench”,herecklesslysenthistroopsinhotpursuitofthedefenders,whofledintothetown.Insteadofgrantinghissoldiersalittlebreaktorefreshandgivethemammuni-tion,Ruffijninsistedonpursuingtheenemy,whowerewithdrawingtoluretheDutchinsidethetown.Someoftheattackersremainedasarearguardinthevicinityoftheconqueredtrench.Witnessingwhathefearedwasanunfoldingtragedy,Riponcommandedhissergeanttogobackandaskforgunpowderandammunition.ToRiponitwasclearthatRuffijnhadnotmadethenecessaryprovisionstosustaintheadvanceintothetown.Ripontooktoapositionontopofa“mountainnearalargemonastery”,presumablytheSãoPaulocomplex.WhiletheDutchhadgoneofftofetchanewsupplyofammunition,thedefend-ersputupafierceresistance.Afterafewhoursoffiercefighting,thePortuguesesenttheirslavesintothebattle,tothenumberoftwoorthreehundred.Theyhadfirstmadethemdrunk,andhadgiventhem47.Foranassessmentofthehistoricalvalueofthisaccount,seeDenys1996.48.Giraud1990,206pp.AlsoreproducedinEncontros2004bpp.105–110.49.SeeLombard1996.w.f.vandewalle50.AccordingtoLoureiro2009,p.80,theslaves“systematicallydecapitatedenemieswhohadfallenincombat.”51.Thesomewhatmuddledphrasereads:«VintunJavanmalaviséquipensantprendredelapoudre,lefeusevamettrededans,quifitvolerleditJavanenl’air.»52.AccordingtoValentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.7,thePortuguesewereinformedoftheex-plosionbyJapanesedefectors.TherewasindeedacontingentofJapanesefightingontheDutchside.swordsandspearsandallsortsofotherweapons.AcommanderonhorsebackwithalargeswordinhishandcameouttochasetheslavesinfrontofhimtowardstheDutchattackers.AccordingtoRipon,theslavesfoughtfuriously“asiftheywerebeasts”,asaresultofwhichmanyremainedonthebattlefield.50Whentheammunitionarrived,theDutchsoldiersmadeforthebarrelstogetholdofthemuchneededgunpowder.Unfortunately,anill-advisedJavaneseservantoftheDutchwantedtotakesomegunpowder,butfirestruckin,andtheensuingblastcatapultedtheJavaneseintheair.51Ripondoesnotspecifywherethisfirecamefrom,butapparentlytheincidentwasinterpretedbythePortugueseasahitbyoneoftheircannon,operatedbytheJesuitfa-thersChristoforoBorriBruno,GirolamoRhoorAdamSchall.Atanyrate,thePortuguesewitnessingtheexplosion,andthinkingthewholegunpowdersupplyoftheDutchsoldiershadflownintotheair,tookcourage,andmusteringalltheircouragelaunchedthecounter-attack.52Ruffijn’scompanywasdecimatedintheprocess.Therewereonlyeightorninesurvivors,togetherwiththeensignDerrickStatlanderfromMecklenburg,andRiponhimself,whowasonthemountainneartheSãoPaulocomplex,andwasfacinganenemyintentoncuttingoffhisretreatroute.Withallhopeofreceivinganewsupplyofammunitiondashed,andseeingthatothercompanieswerealreadysoundingtheretreat,Ripondecidedtofollowsuit.Whenhismengottothebeachhead,hopingtoboardthelandingcraft,theenemywassocloseontheirheels,thattheywerecutdownevenbeforetheycouldgetintothelaunches.WhenRiponreachedthebeach,hesawthattheboatshadalreadypulledofffromtheshore.Noticingapriest,presumablyaJesuit,whowasstandingontheshoreencouragingthedefenderstokilltheDutch,Riponrushedbehindthecleric’sbackandputhimtothesword,sohenotesgleefully.Hethenatoncejumpedintothewaterandswamforthedistanceofamusketshot,atwhichpointhereachedarowboat.Themusketsandharquebusesfiredarainofhailathim,butthewaterweakenedtheimpactoftheshotsandhesustainedonlybruises.Whenhewaspulledaboardhisshiphefoundfewofhis

253252dutchperceptionsofmacausoldiers:outofeighthundredmenonlytwohundredandfiftyhadsurvived,inadditiontosixcaptains,threelieutenants,nineensigns,andsevensergeants.InRipon’sjudgment,thiscrushingdefeatwasduetothebungledsupplyofammunitionandthepoorcommandanddirectiongivenbyCaptainRuffijn,whopaidforhispoorjudgmentwithhislife,forhediedoneofthefirst.Besides,Riponnotes,theothercaptainswereallmerchants,shipmastersandassistant-merchants,wholackedmilitaryexperience.Afterrecoveringtheirwounded,theDutchweighedanchorandsailedoutoftheharbourofMacau.53ViewsofMacauRiponalsonoteddownafewobservationsaboutMacau.Hewrites:“IsaytwowordsabouttheislandsofMacau.Therearethreeorfourislands,butthebestiswherethePortugueselive,butnoth-inggrowsthereexceptforsomegardeningandsomeoranges.Theothersareuninhabitable,andthereisnothingbutbushesintheshapeofmountains,wheretheyrearallkindsofcattlesuchasgoats,cows,aswecouldseefromtheharbour.TheseislandsarelocatedclosetothecityofCanton,thefirstprovinceofChina.Thereisonlyanarrowstretchofseabetweenthetwo,adistanceoflessthantwohours.They(thePortuguese)tradewiththemeveryday,andmarryChinesewomen.ThereforemostofthemhavesnubnosesliketheChinese.Alltheirsup-pliescomefromCanton,whereeverythingabounds,aswehavefound,ashadtwoprisonersfromMacauwehadintheship,andwhosaidthesame,thatnothinggrewontheislands,exceptsomefruit.ThereisaJesuitmonastery,wheretheysaythereareasmanymastersasservants,twohundredandmore.Werecog-nizedmanyofthemwhofoughtagainstuswiththeirweaponsandweregoodsoldiersandwefelttheirexperiencetoourgreatloss.TheykeeplargenumbersofblackslavestheybringfromGoa.ThereweretwooftheseJesuitswhogrewlonghairandwerelikeChineseandspokethesamelanguageandwroteliketheChinese.TheyhadtravelledtoPeking,wheretheKingmakeshishome,thinkingtospyontheChinese,andpassthemselves53.Giraud1990,sectionon“AttaquedeMacau”.w.f.vandewalle54.Giraud1990,sectionon“particularitésdeMacau”.55.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.7.56.Loureiro2009,p.81.offasprophetsinabidtowinthemfortheircreed.Buthavingbeendiscovered,theywereimprisonedanddiedacrueldeath,soIwastoldbytheviceroyoftheprovinceofChinchau.Alsotheother(Jesuits)inMacauwererunninggreatrisk.TheChinesecallthemseducersandtheyhavetorefrainfromitandreturnmoretotheland,lesttheywouldsufferthesamefateashadthesaidJesuits.”54TheDutchwouldneveragainventuretoattackMacau,althoughfriendandfoeagreedthatinviewofthemilitaryequation,theycouldhavetakenthepeninsulain1622,providedtheyhadplannedtheirattackmorejudiciouslyandhadmoreluck.Valentyn,whohadnoknowledgeofRipon’sreport,writesthat“bysomeincidentfirestruckintothegunpowderstock.”55ThelossoftheirgunpowderstockwasaserioussetbackfortheDutch,eitheranactofProvidenceornomorethanaluckystrikeforthePortuguese.Inpresent-dayMacauamonu-mentintheJardimdaVitória(VictoryPark)commemoratesthePor-tuguesevictoryovertheDutch.CaptainWilliamYsbrantszBontekoewitnessedtheDutchroutfromhisshipGro(e)ningenandincludedabriefaccountofitinhisbestsellerTheJovrnaeloftegedenckwaerdigebeschrijvinghevandeOost-IndischereysevanWillemYsbrantsz.Bon-tekoevanHoorn,publishedin1646.TheDutchattackdidhavetheeffectthatfortificationofthecitywasnowconsideredinearnest.ThePortuguesenowhadconvincingproofoftherisksthatthepoorlyfortifiedcityran,andtheyaccord-inglyfoundtheirChineseinterlocutormoreamenabletotheplansoffortification.Inlate1623,awall“eighteenspanswideandthirtyfivespanshigh”surroundedmuchofthesettlement,“withitsramparts,bulwarksandparapets.”56In1626theSpanishJesuitAdrianodelasCortespassedthroughMacauanddrewadetailedplanofthepen-insula,ofwhichonly27captionssurvive.Theplanreflectsthestateofprogressworkshadmadeinthemeantime.Oneofthecaptions,whichreferstothe“ChapelofOurLadyofGuia”,expresslymentionstheDutchattackonMacau,notingthatpriortothisMacau“hadno

255254dutchperceptionsofmacauwallsofanysort.”57Apartfromthevariousbulwarksandstretchesofwall,thefortificationsalsoincludedtheFortalezadoMonte,knowninDutchsourcesastheSantPaulofortress,which,inaJesuitletterwrit-tenin1627,wasdescribedas“oneofthebest[fortresses]intheworldandsinceitishighupitdominatestheentirecity.”58OfaslightlylaterdateisthedescriptiongivenbyAntónioBocarroinhisworkLivrodasPlantasdetodasasFortalezas,whichliststhebulwarks,walls,forts,fortressesandartillery.59FrançoisValentyn'sOudennieuwOost-IndiënincludestwomapsofMacau(reproducedinthisarticle),whichclearlyshowthefeaturesjustmentioned.Valentyncompiledhismag-numopusbetween1705and1724,butitisunclearwhatpointinMa-cau'shistorythemapsreflect.InviewofthefactthatValentyn(1666–1727)hadaccesstoawealthofsourcesanddata,weassumethathismapsrepresentthesituationasitwasbetween1685,theyearofhisfirstvoyagetotheEastIndiesand1724–1726,dateofpublicationofhiswork.Heisknowntohaveentrustedtheengravingofthenumerousillustrationsinhisbooktoleadingengraversandcartographers,suchastheAmsterdamcartographerandglobemakerJohannesDeur,butitisunclearforwhominparticularthemapsofMacauareintended.Followingthedefeatof1622theDutchconcentratedtheireffortsonsecuringafootholdinthePescadoresandonTaiwan.Moreover,politicalandmilitarydevelopmentsinEuropewerechangingthepow-erequation.InDecember1640aninsurgenceoustedtheSpaniards,andtheeighthdukeofBraganza(Bragança)ascendedthePortuguesethroneasDomJoãoiv.ThismarkedthebeginningofthePortugueseRestorationWar.ThePortuguesekingsentambassadorstoFrance,EnglandandtheDutchRepublicinabidtoseekallianceswiththesecountriesagainstSpain.SinceSpainwasthearchenemyoftheDutchRepublic,theStates-GeneraloftheRepublicwerekeenenoughtoconcludeanagreementwiththePortuguese.On12June1641thetwosidessignedwhatisknownastheTreatyofTheHague.Itincludedaten-yeartrucebetweentheDutchRepublicandtheKingdomofPortugal,aswellasaTreatyofOffensiveandDefensiveAlliancebe-tweenthetwocountries,directedagainstSpain.On18November57.Loureiro2009,p.81.58.Loureiro2009,p.81.59.Loureiro2009,p.81.w.f.vandewalle60.SeeVandeWalle2012.61.Ames1997,p.4.1641,thetreatywasratifiedbythekingofPortugalandon20Febru-ary1642bytheStates-General.However,theimperativesofEuropeanpolicydidnotnecessarilycoincidewiththeinterestsandtheagendaofthevocintheEastIndies.Herewenotethatthevocwasacompany,whichhadacertainautonomyvis-à-visthestate,althoughthiswasbynomeansabsolute.ThetrucewassupposedtogointoeffectintheEastIndiesoneyearaftertheconclusionofthetreaty.Informedabouttheprospectofatruce,theviceroyofGoasentalegationtoGovernor-GeneralVanDiemeninBataviaon27September1641,withaviewtonegotiatingatruce.WhilethelegateswerestayinginBatavia,VanDiemenreceivedthemessageinFebruary1642thatthetrucewouldbecomeeffectiveintheEastIndiesoneyearfromthedateofreceiv-ingDomJoãoiv’sratifiedcopyinTheHague.VanDiementhereuponcoldlyinformedhisPortuguesegueststhathostilitieswouldcontinueuntilthatdate.Althoughthetrucewasoriginallymeanttocoverallterritoriesanddependenciesofthetwoconcludingparties,VanDie-menwasclearlyreluctanttocomplywiththisstipulation.Ridingthecrestofthevoc’sascendingpower;hewasalltookeentoprotractthehostilitiesinabidtosecurepossessionofasmanyterritoriesaspos-siblebeforeananticipatedstatus-quowouldsetin.ThetrucebetweentheEstadodaÍndiaandthevocfinallybecameeffectiveon25Janu-ary1645,butendedinSeptember1652.Thevocprofitedfromtheopportunitytore-openhostilitiesandfurtherstrengthenherpositioninCeylon.60Nevertheless,theDutchnevertriedtochallengeagainthepositionofMacauwithmilitarymeans.DuringthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcenturytheEstadodaÍndialostquiteafewofitsstrongholds.ItlostMalaccain1641;Ceylonby1658;andin1662–1663theremainingholdingsontheMalabarcoastofIndia.WhentheCountofAveirasassumedtheofficeofviceroyin1640,theEstadostillcomprisedsome26coastalstrongholds.By1666,thedeedoftransfertotheCountofSãoVicentelistedonly16places.61ThePortuguesemayhavelostmanysettlementstotheDutch,buttheselossesdidnotmeananendtothePortuguesepresenceinthoseareas.Portugueseculturalandeveneconomicpresencecontinuedforaverylongtime,inmanycasesevenintothetwentiethcentury.ThisPortuguese

257256dutchperceptionsofmacauDiasporaintheIndianOceanhasbeenaptlycalledbyGeorgeWiniusandMarkusVinkthePortugueseShadowEmpire.62Coen’sgrandplantotakeholdofasizablechunkoftheoverseastradeofChinabyoccupyingMacauhadthussorelyfailed.Taiwanseemedtoofferanalternative.Here,indeed,theDutchwereinitiallysuccessfulandestablishedaflourishingcolony,withhugetradingpossibilities,whichenabledthemtodominatethetradebetweenChinaandJapan.However,whentheylostTaiwantoKoxingain1662,theyhadonceagaintofallbackonBataviaandcedetheinitiativeintheChinatradetoChinesetradersfromFujian,whoshippedtheirgoodstoBatavia.Notuntil1728didthevocsendashipdirectlytoCanton.Afewyearslateritfinallyestablishedapermanentfactoryinthatport.JanCoen’sbotchedattempttoinvadeMacauin1622endedDutcheffortstocaptureit.ThesearingdefeatdidnotmeantheendofDutcheffortstogaindirectaccesstoChina,however.Theycontinuedtheireffortsonvariousfrontsandwithdifferentmeans,butneveragainthreatenedMacau.BesidessporadicmilitaryactionsontheChinesecoast,theysentanumberofembassiesorlowerlevelmissionstolocalgovernors.InthecourseoftheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiestheDutchsentthefollowingmissionstoChina:–1596DutchestablishfirstcontactswithFujianeseseamen.–1601JacobvanNecklandsatMacau;DutchmenexecutedbythePortuguese.–1607CornelisMateliefflandsatLamao,offMacau,Linding,Lantau.–1622AdmiralCornelisReijersenattacksMacau.–1653–54ExploratoryvoyagesbythemerchantsSchedelandWagenaer.–1655–57Firstembassyheadedbyvoc-opperkoopliedenPieterdeGoyerandJacobKeyzerdepartsfromBatavia,viaCantontoPeking,ontheorderofJohanMaetsuyker(governor-generaloftheHighGovernmentofIndiafrom1653to1678).–1662,1663,1664AdmiralBort,vice-admiralJanvanCampenandrearadmiralConstantijnNobelslaunchattacksontheSouthChineseCoast.–1666–1667SecondembassyheadedbyPietervanHoorn(fromFuzhoutoPeking).62.VandeWalle2012,p.68.w.f.vandewalle63.Nieuhof1665,p.21b.64.Nieuhof1665,p.22a.65.Nieuhof1665,p.22b.66.Nieuhof1665,p.23.–1680DutchenvoytoFoochow(Fuzhou).–1685–87ThirdembassytoPekingheadedbyVincentPaats,andtheopperkoopliedenJohannesLeeuwesonandLouisdeKeyser.–1727DutchfactoryopenedatCanton.–1794FourthandfinalembassyledbyIsaacTitsinghtotheQingCourt.–1863FirstformalDutchembassyopenedinPeking.OncethenewQingrulersseemedfirmlyentrenched,theDutchjudgedthatthetimewasripeforadiplomaticefforttogainanaudi-encewiththenewQingrulertheShunzhi顺治(1644–1661)emperor.MartinoMartini,afterspendingtenyearsinChinaasamissionary,sailedonaPortugueseyachtfromMacassartoBatavia,andtoldtheDutchthattheTartarshadrecentlyconqueredChinaandopenedupCantonforfreetradetoallforeigners.63ThisnewsgavetheDutchrenewedcourageandinearly1653theHighGovernmentofIndiainBataviaissuedtheorderthatthemerchantFredrikSchedelbesentfromTaiwantoCantonwithavaluablecargoinordertotestthewaters,literallyandmetaphorically.ThusSchedelwenttoCanton.Hewasfirstreceivedbyamandarin,commanderatseaandcommissioneroverallforeigners.Lateronhewastransferredinapooryachttotheothersideofthecity,wherehewasgreetedbyaPortuguese-bornmanbythenameofEmanueldeLuciefierro,whoscoldedhim.64HewasalsoshownaChineseletter,whichhadbeensignedandsealedbythegovernorandcouncilofMacau,which,sotheysaid,revealedthetruetreacherousintentionsoftheDutch.Schedelcouldnotdefendhimself.TheChineseinterpreterTienquawasnotonhand,sohehadtorelyonPortugueseinterpreters,butobviously,thesewouldnotlistentohisprotestations.65Finallyhewasabletoswayamandarinandconvincehimofhisgoodintentions.Schedelwasthenledbeforetheoldviceroy,whoreceivedhimmostfriendlyandhospitably.Hewassubsequentlyledbeforetheyoungviceroy,whoappearedtobemoreinfavourofthePortuguese.66TheChineselettergiventohimbytheChineseauthori-tiesseemstohavecontainedthemessagethattheDutchneededtosend

259258dutchperceptionsofmacauaformalembassytotheChineseemperorwithavaluablepresentbe-foretheycouldevendreamofgarneringpermissiontoconductdirecttradeinChina.67TheHighGovernmentofIndiasubsequentlysentalettertotheheadquartersinAmsterdamrequestingpermissiontosendaformalmissiontotheChinesecapital.NotwaitingforthereplyfromtheGentlemenSeventeen,thegovernmentinBataviamadeyetanotherattemptin1654bysendingthemerchantZachariasWagen-aeraccompaniedbySchedeltoCanton.Hetoowassentbackonthegroundsthathedidnotcarryanofficialletternoranypresentsfortheemperor.AgainValentynnotesthatthePortuguesehadslanderedtheDutchwiththeChinesedignitaries,andhadearnedextragoodwillwiththembypayingthearrearstheystillowedtothelocalgovern-ment.InthemeantimewordcamefromtheGentlemenSeventeengivingpermissiontosendaformalmissiontotheChinesecapital.68ThusJohanMaetsuyker(1606–1678,governor-generaloftheHighGovernmentofIndiafrom1653to1678)decidedin1655todispatchaformalembassytotheChineseemperor.Itwasledbyvoc-opperkoo-pliedenPieterdeGoyerandJacobKeyzer,anditsbriefwastoseekoutafreetradeagreement.On14JuneitdepartedfromBataviaandtravelledviaCantontoPeking.Asiswellknown,thisfirstformalem-bassywasnotasuccesseither.Allitcouldsecurewasthepermissiontosendtributeonceeveryeightyears,whichwasameagreresultin-deed.TheyleftChinaon1March1657andarrivedinBataviaon31March.Themissionhadcosttheheftysumofnearlyonehundredthousandguilders.69JohanNieuhofDuringthismissionJohanNieuhofwascommissionedwiththetaskofsurveyingthepeople,thecustoms,thegeographyandtheeconomyoftheregionstheytravelledthrough.Hewasabletosupplementhisfirst-handobservationswithinformationculledfromthewritingsofJesuitmissionariessuchasNicholasTrigault,authorofDeChristianaexpeditioneapudSinas(Augsburg:1615);AlvarezSemedo,authorofImperiodelaChina(Rome,1642);andMartinoMartini,authorofahistoryoftheManchuconquest,DeBelloTartarico(Antwerp,67.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.8.68.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.8.69.Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.9.w.f.vandewalle70.Nieuhof1665p.208.71.AsMartinoMartini,NieuhofusestheexpressionChamfortheTartarmonarch,atermmadepopularbyMarcoPolo.72.SeeUlrichs2003.73.“…datmenhem[Baron]meesttedankenheeft,’tgeenmenvanTsjinaweet,alzoohydeopstellervanallesis,waarvanzichanderendaarnabediendhebben,zomydooreenHeer,die‘tzeerwelwist,gezegtis.”(Valentyn1724–26,Vol.IV/B,Pt.3,Ch.1,p.9).74.Nieuhof1665,p.6.1654)andageneraldescriptionofthecountry,Novusatlassinesis(Amsterdam,1655).NieuhofhasahighesteemfortheworksofthesethreeJesuits:“mostotherwriterswhobeforeorafterthesethreeJesuitshavecommittedsomethingtopaperaboutChinahavedonenothingmorethannotingdowntriflesandemptydreamsratherthanprobablethingsworthreading.”70Nieuhof,althoughaneducatedman,withconsiderablewritingandsketchingskills,waslimitedinhiscapacitytocapturethecomplexalternaterealityofChina.BothhisnotesandhissketcheswentthroughafairlyincisiveprocessofeditingbeforebeingpublishedbyhisbrotherHendrikandthepublisherJacobvanMeursin1665underthetitleHetgezantschapderNeêrlandtscheOost-IndischeCompagnieaandengrootenTartarischenCham,dentegenwoordigenkeizervanChina.71TheBibliothèqueNationaleinParisholdstheoriginaltravelreportassubmittedbyJohanNieuhoftotheGentlemenSeventeenuponhisre-turninpatria.Comparisonoftheoriginaldrawingswiththepublishedcopperengravingsrevealsaconsiderabledegreeofmanipulationandembellishment.72Moreover,Valentynhassuggestedthatitwasactuallythesecretaryoftheembassy,Hen(d)rikBaron,whowasresponsibleforthenotesonwhichNieuhof’seyewitnessaccountwasbased,andthatNieuhofdidnotgivehimthecredithedeserved.73ToNieuhof’scredititmustbesaidthatheislesscavalieraboutborrowingfromotherau-thorswithoutacknowledgingthemthanmostofhiscontemporaries.HehasgreatesteemforMartinoMartini,whomhecalls“amanofoutstandinglearningandahighbrowintheknowledgeofChineseantiquities”,andheacknowledgeshimasareliablesource.74Amerchant’straveloguesuchasNieuhof’sessentiallyhasitslimitsintermsofintellectualscopeandaccuracy,buttherecordstillcontainsmuchvaluableinformation.Moreover,sinceourmaininteresthereistoexplorehowtheDutchperceivedMacau,thepointofaccuracyisoflessconcern.Since,however,theDutchembassyof1655didnotcallat

261260dutchperceptionsofmacautheportofMacau,Nieuhofcouldnotincludeanyfirst-handobserva-tionsofthePortuguesesettlementinhistravelogue.ForthisparthehadtorelyonJesuitsources,presumablycomplementedwithaccountsofotherDutchtravellerswhohadbeenthere.Nieuhof’sbookappearedasthefirstvolumeinaseriesVanMeurswassubsequentlytopublishonthegeographyoftheworld.In1668hepublishedOlfertDapper’sNaukeurigebeschrijvingederAfrikaen-schegewesten(PrecisedescriptionoftheAfricancountries)andhisNaukeurigebeschrijvingederAfrikaenscheeylanden(Precisedescrip-tionoftheAfricanislands).In1669followedArnoldusMontanus’sGedenkwaerdigegeſantſchappenderOoſt-IndiſcheMaatſchappyin‘tVereenigdeNederland,aandeKaiſarenvanJapan.Theyear1670sawthepublicationofOlvertDapper’sGedenkwaerdigbedryfderNeder-landscheOost-IndischeMaetschappye,opdekusteeninhetKeizer-rijkvanTaisingofSina:behelzendehettweedegesandschapaendenOnder-koningSinglamong…enhetderdegezandschapaenKonchy(intheEnglishtranslationAtlasChinensis),containingtheaccountofthesecondandthirdDutchembassiestoChina.In1671followedanotherbookbyMontanusentitledDenieuweenonbekendeWeereld(Thenewandunknownworld),adescriptionoftheNewWorldandAus-tralia.In1672MeurspublishedDapper’sAsia,ofnaukeurigebeschryv-ingvanhetrijkdesGrootenMogols,eneengrootgedeeltevanIndiën(AsiaorprecisedescriptionoftheempireofthegreatmogulandalargepartofIndia),andmanymoreinthefollowingyears.Allthesebookswererichlyillustratedleather-boundvolumesinfolio.Nieuhof’sreport(actuallycompiledbyhisbrotherHendrik)wasabestseller,andwastranslatedoradaptedintothemajorEuropeanlanguages.AlthoughthesourcesitdrewfromincludedpreviousworksbyJesuitauthors,NieuhofwasalsoconvincedthattheJesuitsattheimperialcourthaddoneeverythingintheirpowertomakesuretheDutchembassywouldendinfailure.Theanti-JesuitslanttohisworkdidnotpreventtheAntwerp-basedCatholicprinterMichielCnobbertfrompublishingapiraticalreprintofNieuhof’saccountasearlyas1666,i.e.oneyearafterthepublicationoftheoriginal.Cnobbert,whosenameisalsospelledasCnobbaert,wasvirtuallythein-houseprinterfortheJesuithouseinAntwerp,textbooksforuseinJesuitcollegesbeinghisstaple.Notsurprisingly,heexpungedtheanti-Jesuitpassage,andaddedfourteennewchaptersundertheheadingw.f.vandewalle“TheProgressoftheChristianFaithinChinaduetotheLaboursoftheFathersoftheSocietyofJesus.”Whatissurprisingisthattheedi-toreventookthetroubletorenderNieuhof’slanguagemoreFlemish.Slightvariationsinvocabularyandsyntaxareperhapsmeanttosug-gestthateventhenitwasfeltthatDutchandFlemishweredifferentlanguages.Atleastitseemstosuggestthattheawarenessofoneandthesamelanguagewasweak.Thustheeditorsucceededinappropriat-ingthisDutchnarrativeandturningitintoagenuine-lookingCatholicSouthern-Netherlandspieceofwriting.75ItisaContra-reformistver-sion,whichsailsundertheflagofNieuhofbutactuallyhasundergoneconsiderableeditorialmanipulations.Theintroductorysectiondif-fersconsiderably,whiletheroleoftheJesuitAdamSchallvonBellinfrustratingtheDutchattemptatsecuringafootholdinCantonisex-punged,andthedescriptionofthemissionisfollowedbythechaptersabouttheintroductionandsuccessoftheCatholicmissioninChina.Thisisplagiarisminreverse,becausethechaptersandpassagesthatweredoctoredbytheCatholiceditorwerefatheredonNieuhof.JacobvanMeurs,theAmsterdam-basedpublisherofNieuhof,shortlyafterhavingpublishedNieuhof’sbook,publishedaprestigiousillustratedcompilationonChinabytheJesuitAthanasiusKircher,ChinaIllustrata(1667).Threeyearslater,thesamepublisherpublishedarichlyillustratedreportbyOlfert(Olvert)Dapper(1636–1689)ofavocmissiontotheviceroyofFujianandoftheembassyofPietervanHoorntotheChineseemperor(1665):HetgedenkwaerdigbedrijfderNederlandscheOost-IndischeMaetschappije,opdekusteeninhetkeizerrijkvanTaisingofSina(1670).Thesemissionslikewisedidnotproduceatradeagreement.“SincetheDutchfirstsailedtoEastIndiatheDutchhavedirectedseveralrequeststotheChinesetobeallowedtotradeChinesegoodsinJapan,buteverytimetheirrequesthadbeenrejected,”76Nieuhoflamentsinthefirstpagesofhisaccount.ItwouldtaketheDutchwellintotheeighteenthcenturybeforetheywouldfinallyseetheirdreamcometrue.PortugueseMisrepresentationsoftheDutchWhentheDutchembassyfinallymadeittoPeking,theystillhadto75.Arblaster2010,p.129.76.Nieuhof1665,p.21b.

263262dutchperceptionsofmacaucopewiththemisrepresentationsthePortuguesehadspreadaboutthemamongtheirChinesehosts.WhentheemissariesarrivedinthecapitaltheyweregreetedbyRijksraden(“councillors”)whomadearollcallofallmembersofthelegationonthebasisofalistsentonaheadfromCanton.Whoeverwasnotonthelistwasexcludedfromthelegation.Moreover,theymadeadetailedinspectionofthegoodsandpresentsdestinedfortheemperor,askingabouttheoriginofeachobjectaswellasitsuse.Theypraisedthequalityandstateofpreserva-tionofthegoodsandaddedthattheprecedingyeartheRyukyuIslandshadsentanembassywithpresentswhichweresorely“corrupted”(de-graded).Forthisreasonthepresentshadhadtobesentback,withoutthelegationhavinghadtheprivilegeofanaudiencewiththeemperor.ThecouncillorsalsoaskedtheDutchabouttheirorigin.TheChi-nesehadapparentlybeentoldthattheDutchdidnothaveacountryandwerelivingonthesea.TheDutchweregreatlyvexedbythisstrangeviewandaskedthecouncillorshowitwouldbepossibleforhumanstoliveonthesea,addingthattheynaturallyhadacountry,commonlycalledHolland,whichhadbeentheirsformanycenturies,alandwhichtheyhadnotrobbedfromanyoneelse.TheyaddedthatonedaythepeoplewhohadplantedthisstrangenotionintotheheadsoftheChinesewouldbeunmaskedasliars.TheChinesemandarinsapparentlyhadtroublebelievingthattheDutchdidliveonsolidlandandthenotionofthemlivingontheseasoratleastonislandsprovedhardtoerase,astheDutchweretofindouttimeandagain.ThereforetheDutchlegatestookoutaworldmaptoshowdevisuthecountrytheywerelivinginaswellastheothercountriesthatborderedontheirs.Themandarinsnoteddowntheplacenamesonlittleslipsofpa-perwhichtheypastedontothemap,andthentookthemapwiththeminordertoshowittotheemperor.TheChinesemandarinsalsoaskedtheDutchabouttheformofgovernmenttheyhad.Thiswasatrickyquestionindeed.HeretheDutchhadtoexplaintheirrepublicansystem,whichwasbydefinitionanathematotheChinesenotionofimperialruleandtheimperialclanenjoyingtheheavenlymandate.TheemissariesexplainedabouttheStatesGeneral,andtheHighCouncilofIndia,sayingthatitwasthelatterbody,givenauthorityoverIndiabytheprince,thatwassend-ingthelegationtocongratulatetheTartaremperoronhisconquestofChina.77Thisnotionkeptpursuingthemhowever.Whenaftertheaudi-w.f.vandewalle77.Nieuhof1665,p.158–9.78.Nieuhof1665,p.180b.79.Nieuhof1665,p.199.80.Haidai海道,shortforxunshihaidaofushi.encewiththeemperortheywerepreparingtodepartfromPeking,theywereofferedafarewellbanquetthatwasspreadoverthreedays.Nor-mallytherewasanintervaloftendaysbetweeneachbanquetsothatthefarewellpartiesactuallycostanembassyawholemonthofsojourninthecapital.AttheinsistenceoftheDutchhowever,theChinesehostsacceptedtoofferthethreebanquetsonthreeconsecutivedays.Ontheseconddayofthefarewellbanquetofferedbytheemperortotheemis-saries,thevice-tutangcalleduponthemtoaskwhetheritwastruethattheDutchcouldliveunderwaterforthreedaysandnights.Nieuhofnotesthattheirenemies,notablythe“PortugueseJesuits”,hadspreadthisrumour.TheyhadalsotoldthattheDutchdidnothaveland,livedontheseaandmadealivingofrobberyandlooting.TheDutchemis-sarieshastenedtoexplainthatthiswasnottrue,andthattheyhadcometoconductcommerce,astheywerealreadydoingwithotherkingdoms.78Onthereturnjourney,theemissarieswerereceivedbythestadhouderoftheyoungviceroyofCantonandtreatedtoabanquet.ThestadhouderblamedthePortuguesepriests(papen)inPekingforthefactthattheDutchmissiontotheemperorhadnotgarneredtheresultstheyhadhopedfor.HeaddedthatthesePortuguesepriestshadspreadtherumourthattherewereonlythreekingsinEurope,oneofthembe-ingDonJoãoIV(reigned1640–1656),thattheDutchonlypossessedalittlepieceofland,andthattheyweretributariesofthePortuguese.79TheroleandmachinationsofthePortugueseofMacauispoign-antlydescribedintheintroductorypassagesofNieuhof’saccount,inwhichhereferstothetreatmentofFredrikSchedelin1653.IquoteherefromCnobbert’sedition:“ThegovernorandCouncillorsofMacau,wantingtoniptheprogressofthistrade[bySchedel]inthebud,hadnotonlysoughttobribetheaforementionedHaitouw(Haidao)80withgiftsandpersuasion,buthadalsosentaconsiderabledeputationtoCanton,todemonstrateindetailedwritinghowthePortu-gueseinMakoa(Macau)hadbeenalertedthatacertainforeignpeople,commonlyknownasDutchmen,hadsentashiptothe

265264dutchperceptionsofmacaucapitalCanton,torequestfreetradeinChina,butthatoutofdutifulobligationtheyhaddeemeditnecessarytoinformthegovernmentthatthesepeoplewereimplacable,mosttreacher-ous,andhadnolandorhabitation,andinadditionearnedtheirlivingbyrobbingandpillagingontheseasandintheland;thatbyvirtueoftheirmanyshipsandformidableartillerytheyhadgrownextremelystrong,andpresentlywereseekingasecurefootholdinChina,withthepurposeofcommittingagreatrob-beryinthatcountrytoo.ThattheyhadconqueredandoccupiedTaiwan,hadstagedanattackonManilba(Manila)andMacau,hadevenlaidsiegetoAunui(Amoy)withahostofships.Theyalsopointedoutthattwenty-threeyearsago,thesepeoplehadappearedaboardtwovesselsofftheCantonesecoast,carryinghugegifts,buthadbeenwiselyrejectedbytheMagistratewhoknewtheirroguetricks,thattheyhadentirelydestroyedtheplaceHautaimon[Heytamon],reducedthehousestoashes,andonthataccounthadneverbeengrantedaccesstoanyoftheChinesekings,andwereconsideredbyallwiseandlearnedmenasharmfulanddetrimentaltotheEmpire.ThattheyhadmadepeacewiththepirateKoxinga,andconsequentlyalsohadtobetakenasenemiesoftheTartarCrown.Finallytheybeggedthatthey[theChinesemagistrates]wouldnotthinkthatthistrue-heartedadmonitionsprangfromanyevilintent,but(recognise)onthecontrarythatitwasinspiredbyasinceredevotionforthewholeEmpire,andthatthis(devotion)shouldbetakenintoconsiderationbytheGovernment.”81IfNieuhofdoesnotmissachancetovilifythePortuguesewhenhedescribestheportofMacau,hedoesnotsparehispraise,althoughhewasforcedtoadmireitfromaboardhisvessel.AgaintranslatingfromCnobbert’sversion:“Aftertwodaysofsailing,onthesixteenthofthismonthwepassedtheexcellentcityofMakoa,situatedatalatitudeof21degreesand10minutesnorth.82Thisexcellentcity,whosemar-81.Nieuhof1666,“Inleijding”,*2recto.Myowntranslation.82.VremanwasthefirsttodeterminethelatitudeofMacauat22°30’in1625(personalcommunica-tionofUgoBaldini).w.f.vandewallevelsfillmanybooks,thoughwecouldonlyseeitfromafar,Icannotpassover.Iincludehereonlywhatthemosttrustwor-thy(sources)toldmeorreported,itnotbeingmyintentiontoamplifymydescription,butIneedtoincludeithereinwhatIhavediligentlycollectedmyselfifIamtopresentadecentwork.Thisplace,nowoneoftheforemosttradingcitiesofallAsia,wasoncenothingbutanout-of-the-waybackwater,onlyknownastheplacewheretheChineseusedtoworshipalocaldeitycalledAma.SincehoweverthisdeitydidnotworkenoughwondersastoluretheChineseintofrequentpilgrimagethere,thePortuguese,havinggrownbusywithtradeinthewatersaroundChina,succeededinwooingtheemperorofChina,orthelocalgrandees,tothepointthatthey[thePortuguese]receivedthisspeckoflandforthemselves.Theygraduallybuiltanden-largedthisspotsohandsomelythat(thiscity)surpassedmanyexcellentcitiesinthearea,andtheyestablishedsuchflourishingtradeinthatcitythattherewerefewthroughoutIndiathattheycouldnotchallenge.ThePortuguese,eversoshrewdinjudg-mentthattheyalwaysknowhowtopickthebest,hadearlieron,beforetheydecidedtobuildsuchpowerfulsettlement,andventurewithsomanypreciousgoodsnearsuchstrangeandforeignnation,foundoutthatthisareaofferedexcellentanchor-ageandasaferoadsteadandharbour.SuchexcellentharboursandroadsteadsarecalledgaobytheChinese.WhencetheplacewasnamedAmagao,afteritspatrondeityoridol,forreasonsofeuphonycontractedintoAmaco,andforbrevity’ssake,intoMakouorMakoa.SinceIdidnotgoashore,Ihavedrawn(asmuchaspossible)itstrue-to-lifefeaturesfromoffshore.Topre-sent(thecity)inabroaderperspectiveonourgeneralmap,bearinmindthatsheislocatedononeofthesemountainousislands,ontopofsuchanimpressiverockclosetothesea,thatherposi-tionseemstobeunassailablebyhumanforce.Onlyitsnorthernsideisconnectedtoamuchlargerislandbyasmallstrip,lettingtheseaeverywhereelsewashitsshores.Itissoblessedbyna-turethatlargevesselscannotapproachit,exceptviaitsharbour,whichisfortifiedsoinvincibly,thatanyforcewhatsoeverisgiventhecoldstare.Sheismostdreadedforherincrediblenumberofheavyartillery,whichismoreexcellentthanelsewhere,itbe-

267266dutchperceptionsofmacauingcastfromChineseandJapanesebrass,whichissoabundant(here)thatsheisthemainsupplierforallofIndia,garneringun-toldprofitsforherinhabitants.Herlandwardsideissolidlyse-curedbytwoimposingcastles,raisedontwowell-situatedrocksoverlookingtheentireprovince,sincetherearenobushesortreesthatmightblocktheview.AndsincethecityistheentrepôtforallexportsfromChinatoEurope,orviceversa,asfarasthePortuguesetradewithChinaisconcerned,herfinemerchanthousesgenuinelyresembleprincelyresidences,whichisnotsur-prising,sincetheycontainroyaltreasures.ForIfoundoutthatwheneverythingwasinaffluence,(thePortuguese)fromtwofreeannualfairsjustinCanton(whichIshalldescribepresently)car-riedhither[toMacau]farmorethantwelvehundredparcelsandchestsfilledwithexpensivesilks,eachofthemworthatreasure,inadditiontotwenty-fivehundrednuggetsofgold,eachweigh-ing10taelsastheysayhere,eachtaelweighingtheequivalentof13silverducatoonsinourcountry;inadditiontherewerepearlsandotherexpensivegems,goldthread,rawsilk,linen,invalu-able,andontopofallthat800poundsofmusk.Alltheafore-mentionedthingsthecuriousreaderwillbelievewhenhereadscarefullywhatweasproperlyinstructedwitnesseswillinaninstantrelateaboutthemarvellouscityofCanton.Subsequently,wereachedGooyer’sIsle,inthosedaysnamedafterH.E.LordPieterdeGooyer.Havingcastanchoratitssaferoadstead,andrestedawhile,andhavingtakencareoftheBloemendaalwhichhadlaggedbehindus,wearrivedatHeytamonharbouraroundsunsetonthe18thofthismonth.ItwasthefirstplaceinChinaproperwevisited,and,asitsillustrationclearlyshows,itissur-roundedbymanymountains,andblessedwithasafeandfinebay,atwhichwedroppedanchoratsixandahalffathom.”83Olfert(Olvert)DapperOlfert(Olvert)Dapper,whocompiledthereportofthesecondandthirdDutchembassiestoChina,butnevertravelledtoChinahimself,alsodealsatlengthwiththeportofMacau.Iquotetherelevantpassageinmyowntranslation:83.Nieuhof1666,p.6b.w.f.vandewalle“Onthe26thofthatmonth,theadmiralsetsailagainwiththetenships,viz.Noteboom,Tertholen,Mars,Vlissingen,Zierikzee,Naerden,Jonker,Meliskerke,Kaneelboom,andNieuwendamandpassedbetweentheUpperandWesternIsland.The27ththeyspottedthesanddunes,andthe28ththeMacauIsles.OnoneoftheMacauIsles,thecityofMacauissituated,whichissaidtohavecomeintobeingasfollows.Atfirst,theChineseallowedthePortuguesetotradetheirmerchandiseonawutheringandunin-habitedisland,SanchanorSancian,locatedthirtymilesoffthecoastandtenmilesoffMacau,wheretheyresidedinhutsmadeofstraw,treebranchesandotherroughages,withouthavingthelibertytobuildasinglehouse.Onthisisland,theChineseandthePortugueseusedtomeetatsettimestoconducttheirbusi-ness.ThePortuguesewerenotallowedtopenetratebeyondthebordersoftheChineseEmpire,despitethefactthat,informedabouttheempire’sriches,theymadetremendouseffortstocon-ducttradewiththeirChinesecounterparts.Theirenterprisemadelimitedandslowprogress,fortheChinese,morethananyotherpeople,arefrightenedbytheveryshadowofsuspicion.[Thisfear]wasaboveallinstilledamongtheChinesesincetheempirewasoverwhelmedbytheTartarsintheyear1208.TheinnatefearofthepeoplewasaggravatedbytheequipmentofthePortu-guesefleet,bytheboomingoftheheavyartillery,andthesizeoftheships,neverseenbeforebytheChinese.TheMohammedansorMoors,livinginlargenumbersinthecapitalofCanton,“at-tachedtheirseals”to[thisfearsomeimage],confirmingthatthesepeoples[i.e.thePortuguese]werecalledFranks:(sinceallEuro-peans,exceptfortheGreeks,arecalledFranksbytheSaracens),bellicoseandstrong-natured,conquerorsofpeoples;(confirm-ing)moreover,thatthey[thePortuguese]drewtheboundariesoftheirempireacrosstheentireglobe.Thegreedforprofithowevergainedtheupperhand,asdidthePortugueseinChina.Fortheprofitoriginatingfromthistrade,bothbeneficialfortheemperorandforthecommunity,wassohugethattheMagistrates,puttingtheirfearaside,nevercompletelyexcludedtrade,butgraduallyallowedit,(extracting)thepromise,however,thatall(Portu-guese)wouldatoncepackthemerchandiseandremovetotheIndiesupontheconclusionofthemarket.

269268dutchperceptionsofmacauSpecifically,thePortuguesemerchantsorganisedeveryyeartwoannualfairs[sic]inordertoprocurethecommoditieswhichtheIndies-boundtradeusedtoexportinJanuaryortheJapan-boundtradeusedtoexportattheendofJune.TheseannualfairswerenotheldintheportofMacauoronthedesolateislandofSancian(Shangchuan上川Island),but,asofold,inthecapitalofCanton,attractingamultitudeofpeople.For,sanctionedbytheMagistrateofChina,thePortugueseleftthecityofMakaoforthecapitalofCanton,anupriverjourneyofabouttwodaysbyboat,andspentthenightinitsharbouraboardtheirship,whileeverythingwasconductedwiththeutmostcautionandwariness,whichshowsthattheChinesestillharbouredtheirtime-honouredapprehension.Eachannualfairtooktwomonths,oroftenevenlonger.Asaresult,thisplace,previouslyuninhabitedandbleak,becameinhabitednotonlybythePortuguese,butalsobytheriffraffofthesurroundingpopulations,withtheconsentandconnivanceoftheChinesethemselves.Thereforethiscity[Macau],helpedbythehugesupplyofallkindsofmerchandisefromEurope,alloftheIndies,andChinaitself,hasgrownintoapopulousandfamouscityinafewyears.Itevenalluredthesilvermoney-hungryChineseintotakingupresidenceinthecity.ThePortuguesenotonlyconductedtrade,butalsocontractedmarriageswiththeChinese,buildinghousesalloverthepeninsulaandestablishingafinemerchantcityuponabarrenrock.ThisplaceisequallynotoriousforitsPapists,duetothehugeinfluxofclericsandpriests,whoadministerthedivineservicetothePortuguesefaithorconvertthenativestotheRomanfaith.Fromhere,allmissionsfortheconversionoftheheatheninJapan,China,Tonkin,CochinChina,Cambodia,LaosandotherregionsarelaunchedbythePortuguese.ThereforetheKingsofPortugalhavegrantedthisplacetheti-tleandprivilegesofcity,andhavegranteditaprelacywithpapalapproval,withthepurposeofaddingmoremajestytothedivineserviceintheeyesoftheforeigners.Ultimately,thecommercialrelevanceofMacauhasdeclinedconsiderably,sincetheexpulsionofthePortuguesefromJapan.84Dapperalsonotes:“Moreover,thetestimonyofthecommissioner,w.f.vandewalle84.NDapper1670a,pp.385–386.85.Dapper1670a,p.7.86.Ikkan一官accordingtoNakamura2002.ThistermwasoftenusedincombinationwithTojin唐人,atermusedinthesixteenthcentury(andIsupposealsolater)todenotepeoplefromChina.AccordingtoNakamura,theJapanesedidnotknowhowtoreadtheChinesenames,sotheyreferredtoChineseas一官二官三官etc.,justinthesamewaytheycalledboysTaro,Jiroetc.SoIkkansimplymeantfirstson,apparently.87.Dapper1670a,pp.52–53.whohadbeeninCantonthreeyearsago,togetherwiththeletteroftheTutang,whowasstillinCantonatthetime,andwhohadbeenbribedwithsilverbytheMacauPortugueseforthatpurpose,instilledsuchkindoffeelinginmanyhearts,thattheDutchwereconsideredtobenothingbutapartlyamalgamatedpeople,lackinglandandexclusivelyengaginginpillageandotherunwarrantedmeansofliving,especiallyatsea.”85AninterestingpassageinDapper’scompilationisthefollowingone:“Next,IwouldliketosketchthewayinwhichKoxingaandhisfol-lowerssnatchedbothCompanyislandsin1661,but,firstIwouldliketoshedsomelightonhisbackground,andhisfather’sremarkableriseandfall.Koxinga’sfatherwasnamedChunchikung[ZhengZhilong郑之龙],andIquonorIkoan86andEquambyforeigners:amanofhumbleorigin,borninasmallvillagenearthesea,intheprovinceofFokien(Fujian),nearthecityofAnnay(Amoy),topoorparents,andaccordingtosome,atailorbyprofession.HefirstservedthePortugueseinthecityofMacau,andwassubsequentlyservanttotheDutchontheIslandofFormosa.Shortlythereafter,hebecameapow-erfulmerchantthankstothetradewithJapan,andeventuallyturnedpirate.Having,afteramodestbeginning,assembledalargefleetofvessels,heeventuallyamassedbyshrewdmanagementandboldat-tackssuchrichesandpowerthateventheChineseemperorwasunabletostanduptohim.For,amongtheChinese,onlyhepossessedthemer-chandisefromallovertheIndies,andconductedbrisktradewiththePortugueseinMacau,theSpaniardsonthePhilippines,andtheDutchonFormosaandinBatavia.HedidlikewisewiththeJapaneseandinotherkingdomsandislandslocatedintheEast-IndianSea.OnlyhismenexportedtheChinesecommoditiesabroad,andimportedIndianandEuropeanproducts(intoChina).Hispowergrewtosuchanextentthathecouldlaunchafleetcountingthreethousandvessels.”87AboutMacauDapperreports:“TheMacauIslesderivetheirnamefromthecityofMacau,whichislocatedonacertainpeninsulet,con-

271270dutchperceptionsofmacaunectedtoalargerone.Instormsandheavyweather,itcanbesailedonfreelyandwithoutfear,anditharboursmanyfinesheltersfromsquallsandroughseas.Potablewatercanbehadinabundanceduringallseasons.”88AnotherpassageinDapper’saccounthasthistosayaboutMacau:“OnthecityofMacau.TothesouthoftheregionofQuancheufu(Quanzhoufu泉州府)alargenumberofisletsliesscatteredinthesea.Onaverysmallpeninsula,orratheracliff,attachedtoalargerisland,liesthecityofMacau,aliasAMacau,Machao,orMakau,ownedbythePortuguese,specificallyabackwaterfortifiedbynatureherselftobenearlyunassailable,thankstoitsadvantageouslocation.Thelatitudeofthecityis22°19’north,anditissurroundedbysea,exceptforasmallstripoflandatthenorthernside.Thesurroundingseaisveryshallow,makingithardtoaccessbyship,exceptviathehar-bouritself,whichissecuredbyadefensiblefortressthatshipssailpastatcloserange,brushingpastwhenenteringtheport.Onthelandwardsidetherearenotreesor(other)obstacles,grantingthecityafreeandwideview.Onthenearbyhillslieonlytwoboldfortresses,whichprovidethecitywithnolittlestrengthofsecurityagainsttheenemy.Onthesitewherethecitywasfounded,thereusedtobeanidol,calledAma.This(word)Ama,combinedwithacertainnearbysafeharbourorbasin,calledgaoinChinese,wascoinedintoAmakaobythePortuguese,asiftorefertoAma’sharbourorbasin.However,itiscommonlyabbreviatedtothespellingMacauandMacou.”89AboutChina’scommercialpossibilitiesDapperwrites:“Anincred-iblenumberofshipsplyingbetweenoneplaceandanothermaybefoundthroughoutallChina.Moreover,theChineseterritoryiswon-derfullynavigableallover,thankstothehugeconvenienceofriverseverywhere,for.theroutefromthecityofMacautotheimperialcityofPeking(astretchofsome300Germanmiles)canbetravelledentire-lybyshipoverriversorcanals,withtheexceptionofaday’sjourneycrossingthemountainrangeofMuilin(Mailing梅岭),betweenthecityofNanhang南雄inQuantung(Guangdong)ProvinceandthecityofNankan南赣,situatedinQuangsi(Guangxi)Province.”9088.Dapper1670a,69recto–70verso.89.Dapper1670b,p.76verso.90.Dapper1670b,p.134verso.w.f.vandewalle91.Forsomebackgroundinformation,seeHesselink2002.92.I.e.thePortasdoCerco(BarrierGate).93.AfairlyheavilymutilatedtranscriptionofLangbaiao,alternativelyalsoknownasLangbajiao浪白滘;LampacauorLampakauinPortuguese.MontanusArnoldusMontanus’sGedenkwaerdigegeſantſchappenderOoſt-IndiſcheMaatſchappyin‘tVereenigdeNederland,aandeKaiſarenvanJapanistheaccountoftheDutchembassyof1649,whichwassenttoJapaninordertothankShogunTokugawaIemitsu(1604–51)forhisreleaseoftenDutchmenwhohadbeenarrestedinnorthernJapaninJulyof1643.Althoughthecentraltopicisallegedlytheexperiencesoftheembassy,theauthortakestheopportunitytoincludemanyinform-ativepassagesonAsia.91HisaccountalsocontainsaninterestingandratherdetaileddescriptionofMacau:“MacauorMaccouwissituatedonanisletatlatitude20°north,infrontoftheChineseEmpire,towhichitisattachedbyasmallreef.Themiddleofthereefisblockedoffbyastonegate,throughwhichnoPortuguesemaypass92.DutiesleviedhereonimportsandexportsfalltotheChineseEmperor.ThePortu-guesehadpreviouslybeensettledontheinconvenientislandofHanpeoao(Langbaiao浪白澳),93buttheCantonesemandarinscededMaccauwtothem,sothattheycouldbuildacity,enclosedwithinstrongramparts.Ontopofthreemountains,positionedinatriangularpattern,arelocatedthreefortifications.Themostimportantone,SantPaulo,fittedoutwiththirty-fourmetal36-pounders,providesresidenceforthecitygovernor.Withinthewallsofboththesecondstrength,theNostraSeignoradelapen-nadeFrancia,andthethird,theNostraSeignoradeGuyl[Guia],monkslive.WheneveravesselappearsfromJapan,Manilaorelsewhere,thebellsontopofthemountainstollasawarningtothecity,whichisdottedwithfourstrongholds(bulwarks),oneatthelandwardsideandthreepointingtowardsthesea.Theforemoststronghold(bulwark),SantJagodelaBarrarepresentsnothinglessthanacityinitself,becauseofitsstatelyhousesandmilitarybarracks.Tworedoubtsfilledwithheavyartillerymakethestrongholdinvincible.Allvesselshavetopassitcloselybytoentertheharbour.Eventhecitygovernorcannotgiveinstruc-

273272dutchperceptionsofmacautionstoitscommander,whoisappointedbytheKing.Thesec-ondstrongholdNoſtraSeignoradelbonpattoislocatedinthesouth-west.Apowder-millislocatedalittleoutoftown.Thisisthestartingpointofacrescent,servingasaseaembankment,linedwithawallontheoutside,andreachingtothestrongholdofFrancisco.Betweenthesetwopoints,statelybuildingsshowtheirfaçades.Thebeachisusedastimbermarket.AtthefootofthethirdstrongholdFrancisco,isaplatformfromwhereaserpentineshoots48-poundironballs,rangingtothecorneroftheIslandofCaccean.FromthissiteawallstretchesinlandtothefourthstrongholdSantJohan,wheretheLazarolandgateistobefound;anditwindsfurtheruphilltowardstheJesuitmon-astery,usuallyrecognisablebylargebuildings.WithinMacau,theJesuits,Dominicans,Franciscans,AugustiniansandClarisseseachhavetheirownmonastery.Threemainchurcheslend(thecity)nolittledistinction.ThebishopissuffragantotheArch-bishopofGoa.TheMacautradeisconductedbyvariouskindsofships,sail-ingtoTonkin,Quinam,Champa,Cambodia,Macassar,Solor,Timor,Manila,andpreviouslyalsoJapan.NoonewasallowedtosetsailtoJapan,exceptthosewhowerelicensedbytheMacauCounciltoundertakethejourney.Majortradinggoodscomprisegold,silver,whitesilk,goldencloth,rubies,pearls,musk,quicksilver,spelter,porcelain,China-root,rhubarbandinnumerablekindsofhandwork.”94AboutthehaplessembassytheMacanesesenttoJapanin1640inadesperateefforttosalvagetheJapantradeMontanuswritesthefollowing:“Macaumeanwhilewasingreattrouble,becauseitslucrativeJapantradewasdeniedher.ItwasthereforedeemedadvisabletodispatchadelegationtotheEmperor,95inordertoinformhimthatthePortugueseneversentpriests(toJapan),andhadnoknowledgeoftheChristianrebellionnearArima.ThedelegatesLouisPaezPa-checo,RodrigoSanchesdeParedes,SimonVaxdePaivaandGonsalvo94.Montanus1669,pp.34–35.95.Actually,therepresentativesoftheShoguninNagasaki.MontanusisnotawareofthediarchytypifyingJapan’sinstitutions,andbelievestheshoguntobetheemperorofJapan.w.f.vandewalle96.Theso-calledemperorToshogu-sama(litt.“thelordoftheToshoguShrine”)denotesthefirstTokugawashogunIeyasu,whodiedin1616.TheincumbentshogunwhenthePortuguesemissionarrivedwasIemitsu,whoruledfrom1623to1651.ViewofMacauinNieuhof1666(Cnobbert’sedition)MonteirodeCarvalhospentanentireyearpreparingthemission.Inmidsummerof1640theysetsailwith69sailorsonboard.WhentheyarrivedbeforeNagasakiharbour,theyweretowedinbythecitygov-ernorBabasuroZayemon(BabaJurozaemon).Thegunswereimmedi-atelyremovedfromtheship,andguardswatchedoverthecrew.ZayemonquicklyalertedEmperorToxogunsama(Toshogu-sama)96,whodispatchedtwodistinguishedlordstoNagasaki,accompaniedbyjustasmanyexecutionersasPortuguesehadcomeoverfromMacau.PrincesCangaChuminimbu[KagaChûminbu]andNouayaManx-imbioye[InoueMasashige],summonedthePortuguesedelegatesandaskedwhohadmadethemsoboldastocometoJapan,incontraven-tionofimperialcommand.Theyrepliedthattheimperialplacardonlyprohibitedtrading.TheirshipdidnottransportanymerchandisetoJapan,butmerelyconstitutedadelegation,seekingaccesstotheEm-perortodiscussthetradeprohibition.Alldelegationsenjoyaninviola-blefreedombasedininternationallaw.ThetwoJapaneseprincesdid

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280cos,Amboina,Banda,Timor,enSolor,Javaenalledeeylandenonderdezelvelandbestieringenbehoorende:hetNederlandscomptoiropSuratte,endelevensdergrooteMogols;alsookeenkeurlykeverhande-lingvan‚twezentlykste,datmenbehoorttewetenvanChoromandel,Pegu,Arracan,Bengale,Mocha,Persien,Malacca,Sumatra,Ceylon,Malabar,CelebesofMacassar,China,Japan,TayouanofFormosa,Tonkin,Cambodia,Siam,Borneo,Bali,KaapderGoedeHoopenvanMauritius.TeDordrecht:byJoannesvanBraam,1724–1726.Re-edition(Fivepartsin8volumes)byFraneker:UitgeverijVanWijnen,2002–4.VanderAa1865A.J.vanderAa.“JanHuyghenvanLinschoten.”InBiographischWoordenboekderNederlanden,part11,pp.490–496.Haarlem:J.J.VanBrederode,1865.VandeWalle2012W.F.VandeWalle.“MalaccaunderDutchRule(1641–1795and1818–1825).”InPortCitiesandInterculturalRelations:15th-18thCenturies,ed.LuísFilipeBarretoandWuZhiliang,p.67–68.Lisbon:CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,2012.VanDyke2008PaulA.VanDyke,ed.Canton-Macaudagregisters,1763.Macau:InstitutoCulturaldoGovernodaRA.E.deMacau,2008.VanLinschoten1955JanHuyghenvanLinschoten.Itinerario,voyageofteschipvaertvanJanHuygenvanLinschotennaerOostoftePortugaelsIndien,1579–1592.Ed.J.H.C.Kern;rev.H.Terpstra.Vol.2,pt.1.TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1955.VanVeenandKlijn2001ErnstvanVeen,andDanielKlijn.AGuidetotheSourcesoftheHistoryofDutch-PortugueseRelationsinAsia(1594–1797).InstitutefortheHistoryofEuropeanExpansion,2001.dutchperceptionsofmacau

2831.UnargomentoelusivoScriverebiografiedettagliateeequilibratedimissionariintellettualmentedirilievo,specialmentesevissutiprimadelsecoloxix,puòcomportarespecialidifficoltà.Vièunaprofondadifferenzatraquellichevisserosoprattuttonellecittàdegliimmigratieuropeiaimarginidelleareeindi-gene‘profonde’–BuenosAires,Luanda,Manila,Goa,Macau–equellichevisseroperdecenniall’internodiquellearee(enonneicentripoliticieculturali,quandoesistevano,mainpiccolecittà,invillaggiagricoliotribali).Iprimioperaronoinambientineiqualialmenoalcuneattivitàeranoistituzionalizzateeregistrate;cosìillorolavoroeiloromeriti(oanchedemeriti)hannolasciatomoltetraccescritte,eincerticasisonoanchedocumentatiindirettamentedarestimateriali:progettidiedifici,strumentitecnicioscientifici,bibliotecheocollezionidilibri,operestampate,ecc.Perisecondituttoquestomanca,almenoingranparte.Inparticolare,comesuggerisceunasempliceriflessioneecomeconfermaunconfrontostatistico,lecorrispondenze–la‘viaregia’dellabiografia–hannoestensionenettamentediversaperiduegruppi.Me-diamente,imissionarivissutinellecittàdegliimmigrationeiprincipalicentriindigeni,favoritidauncontestoarticolato,conretidicomuni-cazionerelativamenteesteseestabili,produsserounadocumentazione(scrittaoditipomateriale)moltopiùampiadiquellichevisseroinunambientequasitotalmente‘orale’etecnicamentemenoevoluto.Questedifferenzepossonogeneraresquilibrinelgiudizio.Unavitanormalemoltodocumentataèunsoggettostoricopiùfacilediunanotevolepocodocumentata;dotinormalicheprodusserorisultatisonopiùvisibilididotisuperioriche–perqualchemotivo–neprodusseropochionessuno,eladifferenzadivisibilitàpuòapparireunadicapa-cità,oalmenodiimpegno.Unmaggioreoutput‘quantitativo’(nelnu-merodegliindigeniconvertiti,deitestiprodottionelgradogerarchicoraggiunto)diventamisuradellivellointellettualeoculturale:traige-suiticheoperarononel‘Tribunaleastronomico’diBeijing,gliautoridiunnumeroconsistentediscrittiscientificisonoconsiderati–anchesoloScienza,missioni,destino:WenceslasPantaleonKirwitzerUgoBaldini

285284scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzer1.Sugliscrittinaturalisticideigesuitiesiliati:U.Baldini,“Lastorianaturaledeicontinentiextraeu-ropeinegliscrittidegliesiliati”,inU.Baldini,G.P.Brizzi(eds.),LapresenzainItaliadeiGesuitiibericiespulsi.Aspettireligiosi,politici,culturali,Bologna2010,pp.247–279.implicitamente–scienziatimiglioridiquellicheneprodusseropochionessuno,e–ancorpiù–deiconfrèresconpreparazionescientificamaisolatiincontestiprovinciali.Inmolti–oquasitutti–icasiquestogiu-dizio(opregiudizio)puòesserevero,mainpuroprincipionullaprovachepercapacitàscientificaSchall,Verbiest,Hammerstein–ochiunquesiainclusosolitamentenell’élitescientificadeimissionari–superasserotuttiglialtri.Siconsideriunaltroesempio,inuncontestototalmentediversoediscalapiùampia.SeilmarchesediPombal(1758)eCarlosiii(1767)nonavesserodecisodiespellereigesuitidaidominidiPortogalloeSpagnaedimandarelamaggioranzadiloroinItalia,moltoproba-bilmentemoltidegliscrittisullastorianaturaledeiterritoricoloniali(soprattuttodell’Americalatina)chepartediloroprodusseinseguito,echesonounapercentualesignificativadiquellidelsecoloxviiisuquestoargomento,nonvisarebberostati.Nellemissioni,quasituttiiloroautorinonavrebberoavutoiltempo,glistrumentieglistimoliperdedicarsiaquelleopere.Cosìèplausibilecheunagrandequantitàdiconoscenzesarebbestataperdutaechelagerarchiaintellettualedeimissionariapparirebbemoltodiversa,perchéillivellodeipochicheavevanoscrittoopubblicatoqualcosadiscientificoprimadell’espulsio-nerisulterebbecomparativamentemaggiore.1Unaltrofattoredidistorsionedelgiudizioètrascurarelecircostan-zeincuioperòunmissionario,oancheilsuostatodisaluteeladuratadellasuavita.L’importanzadelprimoaspettoèovvia,maacquistaevidenzaconsiderandocasicomequellodiPierreJartoux(1669–1720),forseilpiùdotatoscientificamentetraiprimimissionarigesuitifran-cesiaBeijing,dovearrivònel1702.Comescrisseinunmemorialeautobiograficodigrandeinteresse,inizialmentel’imperatoreKangxiloassegnòallaboratoriodicorte,direttodaungesuitaportogheseedaunmandarino,chegliassegnaronomansionidisempliceesecutoremateriale.Questeloassorbironoperanni,ognigiornodellasettima-naedallamattinaallasera,rendendogliquasiimpossibileun’attivitàscientifica,finoaquandounodeifiglidell’imperatore,costatatoilli-vellodellesueconoscenze,glifeceassegnarealtriincarichi;cosìebbelapossibilitàdiincontrareKangxi,cheloapprezzòeprimaloinserìnelugobaldini2.Uncasodiverso,manonmenoesemplare,èl’agostinianoGuillaumeBonjour(1670–1714),notoperlasuaattivitàintellettuale-nonstrettamentescientifica-anterioreallapartenzaperl’Asia,maquasiignoratocomemissionario:U.Baldini,“GuillaumeBonjour(1670–1714):Chronologist,Linguist,and‘Casual’Scientist”,inL.Saraiva(ed.)EuropeandChina:ScienceandtheArtsinthe17thand18thCenturies,Singapore2013,pp.241–294.3.Icatalogidellaprovinciad’AustriaedellemissioniinCinanonindicanomailasuadatadinascita,masolol’etàcheavevainuncertoanno.Alcuneindicazionisonocompatibiliconunanascitanel1588,masembradecisivaunadelmaggio1615,chegliattribuisce28anni:ArchivumRomanumSocietatisIesu(nelseguitoARSI),Austria25II,f.354v.gigantescoprogettodimappaturadell’imperocheavevaaffidatoaglialtrigesuitifrancesi,poilonominòsupervisorecartograficodelproget-to.Seilprincipenonavesseconversatoconluiofossestatomenoper-cettivo,forseJartouxnonavrebbelasciatoquasinessunatraccianellastoriascientificadellemissioni.2Casianaloghisitrovanonellastoriamissionariadituttiicontinenti.Tuttaviagliesempimenzionatibastanoamostrarechemoltedifferenzenellaproduzioneintellettuale(nelsensopiùgenerale)nonfuronofun-zionedirettadidifferenzedicapacità.Unaobiezionesembraessereov-via:lastoriaconsisteinciòcheèstato,noninciòchesarebbepotutoessere,néèpossibilericostruireciòchenonèdocumentatoperchénonèavvenuto.Tuttavia,ancheleragioniperlequalicertiobiettivinonfuronoraggiuntiecertepotenzialitànonfuronorealizzatesono‘storia’,einformanosucontestiosituazioninonmeno–oanchepiù–deglieventiaccaduti.Nelcasodipersonechenonrealizzaronoleloropo-tenzialitàperfattiesterniallalorovolontà,latendenzaaconsiderarel’esiguitàdellorocontributocomeconseguenzadilorolimitiaggiungeun’ingiustiziastoriograficaaquellachesubironodaldestino,eproducerappresentazionidistorte,oalmenoinadeguate.NelprimoperiododellemissionigesuiticheinCinauncasotraipiùinteressantièWenceslasPantaleonKirwitzer(1587/8–1626),perchélanettadifferenzatrailvalorepotenzialecheapparedacertielementiedagiudizidialcunicontemporaneieirisultatidellasuaatti-vitànonderivòdascarsozelomissionarioodaincapacitàdiadattarsiacondizionidifficili.Lesuecausepossonoesserecompresesolosullabasediunabiografia(nonsolointellettuale),cheèdifficilescrivereperlascarsitàdidocumenti;quantosegueèsolountentativoperfettibile.2.LaformazioneKirwitzernacqueaKadan(Kaadenintedesco),nelRegnodiBoemia(ogginellaRepubblicaCeca),probabilmentenel1587.3Lacittàera

287286scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzermoltovicinaalconfineconlaSassonia(oraaquelloconlaGermania),einquellaregionel’elementoetnicoslavoegermanicosimescolavano,cosìlanazionalitàdellafamiglianonpuòesserestabilitaconcertezza:iKirwitzersonostati‘nazionalizzati’siadastoricitedeschichecechi.Questohaun’implicazioneperilsuoprimonome,chepotéessereVáclav(formaceca)oWenzel/Wenzeslas/Wenceslas(formatedesca).Intuttiidocumentinotiegliusòlaseconda(nellalatinizzazioneVen-ceslaus),cheèimpiegataancheinquestosaggio,tuttaviaquestononèunaprova.AncheilfattochestudiònelcollegiodiOlomouc/Olmütz,inMoravia,invececheinunoinBoemia(piùgermanizzata)odiretta-menteinGermania,nonèdecisivo.4Tuttavia,persemplicitàeperrispet-toaldatogeografico,inquestepagineeglièconsideratocomeboemo.L’unicofattonotosullafamigliaècheWenceslasebbeduefratelli.Unopiùanzianodilui,Cyriacus(c1582–1635),dal1600fuanch’egligesuitaeraggiunseuncertostatusnellaCompagnia.Anchel’altro,piùgiovaneedelqualenonènotoilnome,secondoWenceslasdesideròentrarenellaCompagnia,manonsembrachequestoavvenisse.5Alcu-ni,cheperònoncitanofonti,hannoscrittochelafamigliaeraluteranaecheKirwitzersiconvertìalCattolicesimo‘asayouth’.6TuttaviaeglientrònelnoviziatoadiciottoannieilcollegiodeigesuitiaOlomouc,doveavevastudiatoalmenoneidueanniprecedenti,ammettevasolo4.Lasceltapotédipenderedaragionicontingenti;inoltreigesuitiinsegnavanoinlatinoovunque,cosìlasceltadellalocalitàdeglistudinondipendevadafattorilinguistici.UnallievodiKirwitzer,cheannotòlesuelezionidel1615–1616,lochiamò‘Boemo’(vedinota32);maneppurequestofattosipuòconsideraredecisivo,perchéforsel’allievosibasòsolosulfattocheilmaestroavevaprimain-segnatonelcollegiodiPraga.MentreglistoricitedeschiconsideranoKirwitzerunsudetendeutsche,sitiinternetcechiinsistonosullanazionalitàboema.Secondol’anonimoautorediunarticoloinWiki-pedia(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wenceslas_Pantaleon_Kirwitzer:consultatoil14aprile2013)ilnomeKirwitzereraunadeformazionediKürbitzer,cheindicaun’originedaKrbice(oggiKürbitz,nelLandtedescodellaSassonia);tuttaviaanchequelvillaggioavevapopolazionececaegermanica,perciòneppurequestodatoèdecisivo.5.KirwitzeraClaudioAcquaviva,PrepositoGeneraledellaCompagniadiGesù,Graz,20luglio1614:ARSI,FG755,n.3.Cyriacusebbeincarichididattici,digovernoereligiosiinalcunicollegiboemi:L.Lukács,CatalogipersonarumetofficiorumprovinciaeAustriaeS.J.,11vv.,Romae1978-1995,II,p.641epassim;J.Schmidl,HistoriaSocietatisJesuProvinciaeBohemiae,IV/1,Pragae1759,pp.214-5;A.Kroess,GeschichtederBöhmischenProvinzderGesellschaftJesu,II,Wien1927,pp.40,350.VerosimilmenteWenceslauscorrisposeconlui,anchedall’Asia,mal’epistolariodiCyriacussembraperduto.NessunaltroKirwitzerappareneidocumentidell’AssistenzatedescadellaCompagnia,cuiappartenevanoleprovincedell’Europaorientale.6.VediilsitoWikipediagiàcitato.LafontediquestaaffermazionesembraessereunaltrositoInternet(KrálovskémestoKadan:http://www.mesto-kadan.eu/clanek/254/vaclav-wenzel--pantaleon-kirwitzer,1588–1626),cheindicainomidialcuniantenati,almenounodeiqualistudiònell’universitàluteranadiWittenberg.Laconversione,sevifu,fuunadellemoltecheinBoemiaformaronoflussibidirezionalitraprotestantesimoecattolicesimonelperiodoprecedentelaGuerradeitrent’anni.ugobaldini7.Apartelafedereligiosadellafamiglia,l’articoloinWikipediacontieneerrori.UnoèchenelcollegioKirwitzer“attractedattentionofhisprofessorsforhistalentespeciallyfornaturalscience”.Nelcurriculumgesuiticola‘naturalscience’(inognipossibilesignificato)erapresentesolonelcorsodifilosofia,cheegliseguìsologiàdagesuita,eaGraz.Unaltro,piùgrave,èche“AfterashorttimehewascalleduptoRometobeembodiedintheCollegiumRomanum.HewasamemberofthisCollegeinthetimewhenGalileoGalileiwasinRome(1611)tostatehiscaseinthequestionofHeliocentricandPtolemaicsystems”.NullaprovacheKirwitzerstudiasseaRoma,oanchesolochelavisitasseunavolta.AltriserierrorisononelRicciRoundtabledatabase(http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/biography/view.aspx?biographyID=700;consultatoil15settembre2013.8.Lukács,Catalogi,II,pp.77,641(riproduceIcatalogimanoscrittioriginali,esistentiaRomaealtrove).9.Lukács,Catalogi,II,p.82.10.Lukács,Catalogi,II,pp.88–9.11.Lukács,Catalogi,II,pp.100–01.12.PrimadellaRatiolastrutturadeicorsidifilosofiavariòleggermentenellesingoleprovince,pereffettoditradizionieducativelocali.Alcunedifferenzerimaseroanchedopolapubblicazionedellesuetreversioni(1586,1591,1599):adesempio,ancoraneiprimidecennidelsecoloXVIIilcorsofilosoficoaCoimbraeradiquattroanni.Questo,però,nonaccaddenellaprovinciaaustriacadell’AssistenzadiGermania,cheincludevalaBoemiaicattolici;perciòlaconversionesarebbedadatarenell’adolescenza.Inoltre,datocheCyriacusentrònellaCompagnianel1600el’altrofratellovolevafarlo,sembrapiùprobabilechelaconversioneriguar-dassel’interafamiglia,seessarealmenteerastataprotestante.7Comequellidituttiicollegi,conservatiaRoma,icatalogidiquellodiOlomoucregistranosoloinomideisuperiori,degliinsegnantiede-glistudentigesuiti;dunquenonquellodiKirwitzer,chenoneraancoraentratonellaCompagnia.Tuttavia,lenotiziesuisuoistudiimmedia-tamentesuccessivipermettonodiinferirequalepartedelcurriculumavevapercorsoprima:1606–1607:novizioaBrno(fuammessoil2marzo1606)8;1607–1608:studentedelprimoannodifilosofia(logica)nelcolle-giodiGraz9;1608–1609:studentedelsecondoannodifilosofia(physica,cioèfilosofianaturale)aGraz10;1609–1610:studentedelterzoannodifilosofia(metafisica)aGraz.11Com’ènoto,nellaRatioatqueinstitutiostudiorumdellaCompagniailcorsotriennaledifilosofiaseguivaunbienniodi‘rhetorica’:unprimoannodi‘umanità’(letturadeiclassicilatinipiùsemplici)eunsecondodiretoricainsensoproprio(testipiùimpegnatividipoesiaeprosala-tine,etalvoltaelementidilinguaeletteraturagreca).12Duranteilnovi-

289288scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerziatoglistudi‘profani’eranoesclusi;perciò,seKirwitzerseguìilcorsodifilosofiadal1607,aOlomoucdovevaavergiàstudiatoumanitàeretorica,dal1603al1605odal1604all’iniziodel1606.13Inoltre,poichétuttiicontenutiscientificidellaRatio–inclusalamatematica(checomprendeval’astronomia)–eranoconcentratinelsecondoannodifilosofia,laformazionescientificadiKirwitzerfudeltuttointernaallascuolamatematicadellaprovinciaaustriacadellaCompagnia.Questascuola,cheavevarapporticonquelladeicollegibavaresi(so-prattuttoMünicheIngolstadt),14sarebbepoidivenutaunadellepiùavanzatedell’Ordine,differendoinpartedaquellafondatadaClaviusnelCollegioRomano,sebbenealcunepersonalitàimportantifosserocollegateadentrambe.15LafiguraintellettualediKirwitzer–anchesenonlamaggiorpartedell’attivitàchesvolsenellemissioni–ènotevolesoprattuttoinrapportoallamatematica,especificamenteall’astrono-mia;perciòilsuoperiodoaGraz–eparzialmenteaPraga,comesive-drà–deveessereconsideratopiùdecisivoperluidiquelloprecedente13.Inastratto,Kirwitzerpotrebbeaverfrequentatoilbienniodiretoricadal1603al1605,edall’otto-bre1605almarzo1606potrebbeessersipreparatoall’ingressonelnoviziato.Tuttaviaunaprepara-zionecosìlunganoneracomune,el’accessoaunnoviziato–diversamentecheauncollegio–erapossibileinqualsiasimomentodell’anno.D’altrolato,ilprogrammadiretoricaeramoltoricco,gliscrittidiKirwitzermostranounabuonaconoscenzadellaculturalatinae,soprattutto,inseguitoeglifusceltocomeinsegnantediletterelatineinuncollegiodiprimolivello,quellodiPraga:questosembraescluderecheavesseconclusoilcorsoametàdelsecondoanno.14.LaBavieranonappartenevaallaprovinciaaustriacamaaquelladellaGermaniasuperior.Tuttavia,perragionigeograficheeperlerelazionipolitico-dinastiche,ebberapportipiùstretticonl’Austriacheconleprovincepiùanord.Questoinfluenzòanchelecorrispondenzeelerelazioniscientifichedeimatematici.15.Vedilanota69,suJ.Deckers.IlmaggiorematematicodiGraznellaprimametàdelsecoloXVII,PaulGuldin,sieraformatoaRoma,mafuinviatoinAustriasolonel1618(probabilmentepersostitu-ireKirwitzer).Unodeifatticaratterizzantifuronoirapporti,ancheseinparteindirettiesoprattuttoepistolari,conBraheepoiconKepler(M.W.Burke-Gaffney,KeplerandtheJesuits,Milwaukee1944,èsolounaprimaapprossimazionealtema)16.IsuoiprofessoridiumanitàeretoricaaOlomoucfuronoJohannesDrachovius(Drachowsky,1577–1644)eJohannesHeutmont/Heumont(1579-1617).IlsecondoinsegnòfilosofiaaGrazneglianniincuivifuKirwitzer(Th.Binder,R.Fabian,U.Höfer,J.Valent(Hrg.),BausteinezueinerGes-chichtederPhilosophieanderUniversitätGraz,Amsterdam-NewYork2001,p.84).Drachovius,unnotevolestudiosodiprosodiaLatina(O.Koupil,JoannesDrachoviusSJjakoteoretikceskécasomer-népoezie,in“CzechLiterature”,58(2010),2,pp.147–168;Id.,JezuitéDrachoviusaSteyergramatikyceštiny,Praha2012),scrisseun’importantegrammaticadellalinguacecaedebbeunruolonotevolenellafaseinizialedellaGuerradeitrent’anni(C.Sommervogel,BibliothèquedelaCompagniedeJésus,repr.Louvain1960,III,c.171).HeutmontènotosoprattuttocomeautorediencomidegliAsburgo(Sommervogel,Bibliothèque,IV,c.340).Un’altrapresenzanelcollegio(dal1602al1606)chepotrebbeaverinfluitosuKirwitzerfuRaphaelKobentzl(1571–1627),unodeiprofessoriditeologiapiùimportantidellaprovinciad’Austriainqueglianni,ex-allievodiClaviusnell’accademiadimate-maticadelCollegioRomano:U.Baldini,“TheAcademyofMathematicsoftheCollegioRomanofrom1553to1612”,inM.Feingold(ed.),JesuitScienceandtheRepublicofLetters,CambridgeMass.2003,pp.73,93–4n.94.17.Santini(ValdiSole,Trento,1578–Vienna1655)chiesediessereinviatonellemissioniquasinellostessotempodiKirwitzer;il23agosto1614,però,AcquavivaglirisposecheeglieranecessarioinAustria(ARSI,Austria2/II,p.606).InseguitoinsegnòteologiaaGrazeaPraga,efupedagogodelprincipeLeopoldWilhelmvonHabsburg(Lukács,Catalogi,I,Romae1578,p.773;Sommervogel,VII,c.595).InBinderetal.,BausteinezueinerGeschichtederPhilosophieanderUniversitätGraz,cit.,Santinièsolonominatonell’elencodeidocenti(p.87);ancheKirwitzerènominatosolonellastessapagina,comeprofessoredimatematica.Giordani(Gorizia,c.1571–Gorizia,1623:Lukács,Catalogi,I,pp.700–01)sembranonaverpubblicatonullaefuappenanominatonellecronache;tuttaviadal1615al1622fuinviatoainsegnarematematicaanchenelcollegiodiVienna,ciòchesembramostra-recheeraundocenteapprezzato.Anch’egli,tuttavia,èmenzionatodaBinderetal.solonell’elencodeiprofessori(Bausteine,p.85).18.VedilalistadilettereeilnecrologioanonimoinInternet:www.voynich.net/neal/index.html(consultatoil17Aprile2013).19.DellelezioniditeologiadiSantinirestaunaDisputatiodeiustitiaetiuredel1612(Graz,Univer-sitätBibliothek,ms.1110),cheperònonfuascoltatadaKirwitzer,cheiniziòilcorsoditeologiasolonel1613.20.LaletteradiSantini(Graz,20luglio1614)nonèconservata,mailsuocontenutosidesumedallarispostadiAcquaviva(ARSI,Austria2/II,p.606),chemostracheSantiniavevaraccomandatoancheJohannesGans,cheavevafattolastessarichiesta.Comesivedrà,lasuarichiestafuosservatainentrambiicasi,mailloroesitofinalefudiverso.ugobaldiniaOlomouce–astraendodallaformazionereligiosa,ovviamenteessen-zialeperaltriaspettidellasuapersonalitàeattività–anchedelbienniodinoviziatoaBrno.16AGrazisuoiprofessoridifilosofia(logica,filosofianaturaleemeta-fisica)edimatematicafuronodueItaliani,MartinoSantinieGiovanniAngeloGiordani:nonstudiosioriginalioautoridioperesignificative,masempliciinsegnanti,ancheseforsedibuonlivello.17Mancanoreso-contidettagliatidellavitadelcollegioinqueglianniomanoscritticontestidilezioni,cosicchésiconoscepocosull’insegnamentodiSantinieGiordani.Tuttaviailprimononfusolounespositorediligentedeite-stiaristotelici,perchésiimpegnòinricerchechimicheecorrisposeconA.Kircher.18Forseegliebbeun’influenzanotevolesuKirwitzerancheinsensononpuramentescientifico,perchédopoil1612fuprobabil-mentesuodocenteanchediteologia.19Santinistimavailsuoallievo:nell’estatedel1614scrisseunaletteraaClaudioAcquaviva,ilGeneraledellaCompagnia,patrocinandolasuarichiestadiessereinviatoallemissionioltremare.20NelcasodiGiordanilasuaimportanzanellaformazionediKirwitzer(apartel’averlointrodottoaglistudichepoipreferì)nonpuòessereprecisata,maprobabilmenteegliintuìledotidell’allievoel’incoraggiòaoltrepassareilimitidelprogrammausualedimatema-tica,perchégiàdastudenteKirwitzeraffrontòtemiimpegnativi.Questosidesumedaunaletteracheegliinviòneldicembre1614

291290scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzeraChristophGrienberger,l’excollaboratorediClaviussuccedutoalma-estrocomedirettoredellascuolamatematicadelCollegioRomano:Giàdacinqueannihocominciatoastudiareinprofonditàlebasidell’astronomia.HovistocheTolomeoeletavoleastronomichediReAlfonsosonomoltolontanidallaverità,perciòmisonode-dicatocompletamenteallostudiodelleTabulaePrutenicaecoper-nicane,specialmentenellaversionepiùcompletadatadaMagini.Mamentrelestudiavo,cercandodimostrazioniesatte,hocompre-sochelePrutenichecontengonoerrorinonminori,echeicalcolidimoltissimeprostaferesisonosoloapprossimati,pereccessooperdifetto.21Laletteracontieneancheun’informazionesull’attivitàscientificanelcollegio:“Avreigiàiniziatoaosservaregliastriconsistematicitàeprecisione,manonhopotutoavereunostrumentodibuonaqualità.IlnostroMatematicoaGrazhainiziatoacostruireunquadranteconunsemidiametrodi10piedigeometrici,cheperòèfattodilegno;per-ciòtemocheimoltimutamentidell’arialodeformeranno”.22Ilmate-maticoeraWolfgangQuelmetz,succedutoaGiordaninel1611;eglièpoconotoe,aparteledatedelsuoinsegnamento,lafrasediKirwitzerèquasil’unicanotiziaprecisasullasuaattività.Tuttaviaessaèimpor-tanteperché,comeosservòGrienbergernellasuarisposta,ledimensionidelquadrante(circatremetridiraggio)superavanodimoltoquellenormalieladifficoltàdellacostruzioneeranotevole.23Lalettera,inol-tre,suggeriscechel’interessescientificoprimariodiKirwitzerful’astro-21.Vediiltestolatinodellaletteranell’AppendiceI(lafrasecitataèalf.83r).L’operadiGiovanniAntonioMagini,ilSupplementumephemeridum,actabularumsecundorummobilium(Venetiis1614),contenevatavolecheperfezionavanolePrutenicaeusandodatiestrattidalleoperediKepler,echesonostateritenutenonmoltoinferiorialleTabulaeRudolphinae(1627):J.R.Voelkel–O.Gingeri-ch,G.A.M.’s“Keplerian”tablesof1614andtheirimplicationsforthereceptionofKeplerianastronomyintheseventeenthcentury,in“Journalforthehistoryofastronomy”,XXXII(2001),108,pp.237–262.ÈnotevolecheKirwitzerconoscesseilSupplementumnellostessoannoincuifupubblicato.22.Vediiltestolatinodellaletteranell’AppendiceI,alf.84r.23.SuQuelmetz(Meissen1579–Praga1622)esistesolounabrevesintesibiograficainLukáks,Catalogi,II.1601–1640,cit.,p.718.L’osservazionediGrienbergerècitatadaKirwitzernellasuasecondaletteraalui,doveegliprecisòcheallora(giugno1615)lacostruzionedellostrumentononeraancoraterminata(vediAppendiceII,f.90r).Nelgiugno1615,quandoKirwitzerscrisseaC.Grien-bergerealVicarioGeneraleF.AlbercriticandolaChronologiadiunaltrogesuita,J.Gordon(vedinelseguito),QuelmetzscrisseunaletteraaAlbersullostessoargomento.Essaèperduta,edènotasoloattraversolarispostadiAlber,del27giugno(ARSI,Austria2/II,p.665);nonèchiaroseilsuogiudiziosuGordonfucosìnegativocomequellodiKirwitzer.ugobaldininomia,nonlamatematicapuraolemathematicaescientiaeingenerale,equestoèconfermatoinseguitodatuttiidocumentirilevanti.24Nel1610fuinviatoalcollegiodiPragaperinsegnareleletterela-tine,emantennequestoincaricofinoal1613.25LeinformazionisultrienniodiPragasonolimitateeindirette,mamostranocheKirwitzersviluppògliinteressieleconoscenzechesieraformatoaGraz.LepiùimportantisonoancoranellaletteraaGrienberger:ScrivopersuggerimentodegliamantidellamatematicaconiqualifinoadueannifasonostatoinfamiliaritàaPraga,econiqualidiscutevoargomentirelativiallanostrascienza.(…)QuandofuimandatoaPragadaGrazebbil’occasione,forsepervolontàdiDio,divederecheilSestantediCopernico,lostru-mentocheavevausatomaggiormentenellesueosservazionideimovimenticelesti,percertitipidiimpiegoeraimpreciso;questofecediminuiremoltolamiafiduciainCopernico,masoprattut-tonellePruteniche.Così,tentandounanuovaviapermisurareimovimenticelesti,cominciaiacostruireunanuovatavoladeiseniconunsinustotusdi100000000000parti,conl’ideadicalcolarla–conunafaticaestrema–finoa10minuti[digrado],perpoiderivarnetavolepiùesatte,oalmenorendereimovimen-tipiùcerti;mamentreeroimpegnatonell’operaiPadrianzianidiPraga,cheinpassatohannoconosciutoVostraReverenza,midisserocheVostraReverenza,quandoeranellanostraprovincia,avevapreparatounatavolaidentica,emiincoraggiaronoascri-verleunaletteraperaverneunacopia.26Questefrasicontengonodatifinoraignoti.Kirwitzernonsoloavevavistoilsestante(inrealtàunquadrante)diCopernico,maloavevaan-cheusatopiùvolte,comeripeténellasecondaletteraaGrienberger,del7giugno1615:24.Inunaletteradel20luglio1614alGeneraleAcquaviva,consideratainseguito,Kirwitzerdichiaròdiconoscerelamatematica,masoprattuttol’astronomia.25.ARSI,Austria123,f.197r;Lukács,Catalogi,II,p.641.APraganel1610-11insegnògrammatica(elementidellalingualatina),edal1611al1613‘umanità’(testilatinielementari).26.Vedinell’AppendiceIiltestolatinodellalettera,alf.83r.

293292HoosservatoemisuratomoltevolteglistrumentidiTychoeCopernico.QuellidiTycho[sonofatti]diferroeacciaio,masospesisuspiralicontantaprecisionecheilloropesofavorisceleosservazionipiuttostocheostacolarle.IlsestantediCopernico,colqualeeglicompìlamaggiorpartedelleosservazioni,èdile-gnoedèmoltogrande.27Ilfattocheilquadrante–unodeitreprincipaliusatidall’astronomopolacco–esistesseancoraaPragatra1610e1613sembraignotoaglistoricidell’astronomiaeaibiografidiCopernico;essooriginainterro-gativisuchilopossedeva–ilnomediKeplerèsoloapparentementeilpiùplausibile–esuchieranogli‘amantidellamatematica’coniqualiKirwitzeravevadiscusso.PerciòlaletteraaprenuoveprospettivediricercasullaculturaaPraganegliannitralamortediBraheel’iniziodellaguerradeiTrent’anni,sull’ereditàdiTychoesulcontestolocalediKepler,cheènotoquasisoloattraversolasuacorrispondenza.28Un’al-trainformazionenotevolenellaletteraèchegiàprimaditrasferirsiaRoma(1591)Grienbergeravevainiziatoacalcolaretavoledeisenisuperioriperprecisioneallemiglioriesistenti;dunqueletavole,allequalilavoròperannisenzaterminarle,eranoun’operainiziatamoltoprecocemente29.scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzer27.Vedinell’AppendiceIIiltestolatinodellalettera,alf.90r.28.Sull’ambientematematicogesuiticoaPraga:G.Schuppener:JesuitischeMathematikinPragim16.und17.Jahrhundert(1556–1654),Leipzig1999;Id.FormovánímatematickéhovzdelávánívKlementinu,inK.Macák,G.Schuppener,MatematikavjezuitskémKlementinuvletech1600–1740,Praha2001,pp.17–68.IlpiùplausibileinterlocutorediKirwitzertraidocentinelcollegioèJonasNaritius,lettoredimatematicaaOlomouc(1610–1612)eaPraga(1612–1615),ilcuiinsegnamentoèinpartedocumentato(K.A.F.Fischer,Jesuiten-MathematikerinderdeutschenAssistenzabis1773,in“ArchivumHistoricumSocietatisIesu”,XLVII(1978),pp.181–182,210;Schuppener,Formování,cit.,pp.40–43).Mentreènotocheunodei3strumentidiCopernico,il‘triquetrum’,erastatodatoaBrahe,chepoil’avevaportatoaPraga,dovefudistruttonel1619,finoranientediprecisorisultavaperlasferaarmillareeperilquadrante;delsecondoeranosoloconosciuteconapprossimazionelastrutturaelemisure(erafissatoaunatavoladilegnoaltacircaduemetri):vedi,adesempio,lenotediO.ThillallabiografiadiCopernicodiP.Gassendi:TheLifeofCopernicus(1473–1543).TheManwhodidnotchangetheWorld,Fairfax2002,pp.116–125.KirwitzernonnominaKeplerinquestocontestoe,comesivedrà,quandoinseguitoKeplermenzionòun’operadiKirwitzerparlòdell’autorecomepersonachenonconoscevadirettamente.29.LaprimaletteraconosciutadiGrienbergeraClavius,scrittadaViennail15settembre1590,ri-guardaquasiinteramentecalcolideiseni,masolopercasiparticolari;inessa,inoltre,ilgesuitatiro-lesenonaccennòalprogettodelletavole(ChristophClavius,Corrispondenza.VolumeII(1570–1592).ParteI:lettereetesti,acuradiU.BaldinieP.D.Napolitani,Pisa1992,pp.158–162).Tra1593e1595,inunacorrispondenzaconAdriaanvanRoomen,Claviusdiscusseimetodisofisticatidelmatemati-cofiammingoperilcalcolodeiseni,probabilmenteagendodaintermediarioperilsuocollaboratore(Corrispondenza,III1,passim).Irestidell’operaincompiutadiGrienbergersononeimss.600e871delFondoGesuiticodellaBibliotecaNazionalediRoma;nel1630eglipubblicòtavoledeiseni,macalcolateconungradodiprecisionemoltoinferioreedestinatesoloall’usopratico.ugobaldini30."InGermaniaèstatopubblicatounlibretto,chemolticredonosiadiunNostro[gesuita],checitaeindicaVostraReverenzacomeprimoosservatorediquestemacchieeproponemoltimodiperos-servarle.DueannifaaPragainiziaiastudiarleconilmassimoimpegnoecontuttiimetodiprescritti,maottennisoloingannidegliocchiedellelenti”(vediiltestolatinonell’AppendiceI,f.84r).KirwitzersiriferivaalleTresepistolaedemaculissolaribusdiChristophScheiner(Augsburg1612),puntod’iniziodellaquerellediGalileocontroilgesuitabavarese.L’ultimasuafrasemeriterebbeun’analisi,quinonpossibile.EgliscrisseanchecheavevaosservatopiùdiunacongiunzioneSole-Venere,pervedereilpassaggiodelpianetasottol’astro,postulatodalmodellotolemaico,masenzaesito(f.83r).31.ARSI,Austria123,f.253v;Lukács,Catalogi,II,p.176.32.BrevesinuniversamastronomiamcommentariidictatiaR.doMagistroPantaleoneKirbizerBoemoSocietatisIesureligioso.StyloveroexceptisuntàGeorgioDeucKero,FranconeBambergensi,GraeciiinAlmaArchiducaliUniversitateAnnosalutishumanae1616:SanktPaulimLavanttal,StiftsarchivSt.Paul,ms.P.581.o.Ilmanoscrittoèstatolocalizzatodalprof.N.Golvers,chemenehatrasmessounacopia;loringraziovivamentedellagenerositàecortesia.Ladata‘1616’sulfrontespizioègenerica,maitempidisvolgimentodellelezionisiricavanoconsicurezzadaltesto:ap.1unanotainmargineinformachelelezionifuronoiniziateda‘M.PanthaleonKirbizer,Boemus,MenseNov.ao1615’;un’altranotaallafinedeltesto(p.48)confermachelelezionieranostatedettateda‘M.PanthaleonKirbizerBoemusSociet.Iesu,mensemartio1616;quiivitinIndiam’.Indueluoghideltesto,entrambiap.38,Kirwitzersiriferìaun‘trattatoVI’,doveavrebbeesaminatoleteoriesullanaturadellecometeelevariazionidell’illuminazionesolareadiverselatitudinisecondoleosservazionidiBrahe.Ilmanoscrittocomprende2tractatus:ilprimo(pp.3–29)riguardaglistrumentimatematicinecessariall’astronomo(unitàdimisuradelledistanze,proposizionidegliElementadiEuclide,elementiditrigonometriapianaesferica,tavoledeiseni);ilsecondo(pp.29–48)riguardaglielementidell’astro-nomiasferica.Sembraperciòcheegliavessaprogettatodidedicarealmenoaltriquattrotrattatiadalmenoaltrettanteareetematiche,daesaminaretuttetramarzoelafinedigiugnool’iniziodiluglio;sesiassumeamodello(comeprobabilmentefeceKirwitzer)latradizionedeimanualidisphaera,alloraiprimitretrattatiavrebberoriguardatolateoriadel‘primomobile’edeisingolipianeti,mentreilVIavrebbeconsideratocorpi‘irregolari’comelecometeefenomeniastronomicivari(comelevariazionistagionalieregionalidell’illuminazionesolare).Laletteradel1614provaaltrecosenotevoli:KirwitzerconoscevaneidettagliilsistemadiBrahe;distinguevatrailmodelloplanetariodiCopernico(sulqualenonespresseancoraungiudiziodefinitivo)eilgradodiaccuratezzadelleTabulaePrutenicae,cheritenevainsufficien-te;piùingenerale,percepivalaprofondacrisidellateoriaastronomicaclassica.Eglidichiaròanchechenel1612,aPraga,avevatentatosiste-maticamentediosservarelemacchiesolari,maconscarsirisultati.30Nel1613eratornatodaPragaaGraz,doveavevainiziatolostu-dioquadriennaledellateologiaeavevaproseguitoprivatamentequellodell’astronomia,comerisultanonsolodallelettereaGrienbergermaanchedalladecisionedeisuperioridispostarlodall’insegnamentodiumanità,cheavevatenutodal1613al1615,aquellodimatematica(1615–1616),sebbenefosseancorastudentedelterzoannoditeologia.31Kirwitzersvolseilpropriocorsodimatematicasolopercircametà,perché–comesivedrà–nelmarzodel1616ricevettel’ordinedipartireperleIndie.Unacopiadituttelelezionichetenne,scrittadaunostuden-te,indicacongrandechiarezzaillorocontenutoepermettediinferirealcunitemicheegliavrebbetrattatosenonvifossestatal’interruzione.32

295294scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerLelezionisononotevolipersistematicitàechiarezzadidattica,matrat-tanoinmodototalmentetradizionalealcunedellequestioniteorichepiùnevralgicheinqueglianni,einparticolarelatesidelmovimentoorbitaledellaterra,controilqualeKirwitzeresponeinmodoassertoriotutteleprincipalicritichecheteologi,filosofieastronomiavevanode-rivatodallaScrittura,dallacinematicadeicorpisullasuperficiediunasferarotanteedallegrandezzeastronomichecoinvolte.Comesivedrà,nellaletteraaC.Grienbergerscrittaalcunimesiprimadell’iniziodellelezioniegliavevaaffermatochetuttequellecriticheeranoinconsisten-ti.Questooriginadomandeinteressanti,allequaliladocumentazionedisponibilenonfornisceunarisposta.Unadifferenzasignificativatrailcontenutodellelezionipubblichediunoscienziato,lesueconvinzioniprivateeirisultatidellesuericercheerainqualchemisurafisiologica,nonsolopercautelaneiconfrontidellacensuraecclesiastica:l’inse-gnamentopubblicodiGalileoaPadovanonfecesupporrenonsoloilsuoeliocentrismo,maneppurelesuericercheerisultatiincinematica,chepureeraunadisciplinanonarischiodicensura.TuttaviailcasodiKirwitzerèdiverso,perchéeglinonsilimitòataceresulleideediCopernico,aesprimerecritichegenericheoacitareleprincipalitesisull’argomento,malecondannòinmodotassativo.PerciònonsipuòescluderecheeglivolledareaisuperioriunaprovaditotaleortodossiaediobbedienzaalleposizioniufficialidellaCompagniaedellaChiesa.Poichéeglitennelesuelezionitrailnovembre1615eilmarzo1616,quellacorrispondenteallaterzasezionedeltrattatoii,Demotuterrae(p.36),futenutaprobabilmenteinfebbraio,neglistessigiorniincuiiConsultoridellaCongregazionedelSant’Ufficiostavanoperdichia-rarechel’eliocentrismoeraereticointeologiaefalsoeassurdoinfilo-sofia(26febbraio).Nellasecondametàdel1615lanotiziacheGalileoerastatodenunciatoall’Inquisizionedivennenota,enonsipuòesclu-derecheessagiungesseancheaGraz,echeKirwitzer–comelettoreufficialedimatematicaeastronomia–fuquasiobbligatoasostenerelatesiufficiale.Questo,tuttavia,èunpuntoapertoafutureindagini.DallacorrispondenzaconGrienbergerapparechegiàtra1614eprimametàdel1615Kirwitzeravevacompiutounamaturazionescientificadecisiva,avvicinandosiadaccettarel’eliocentrismo(senzaancorasapereche,mentrescrivevalasecondalettera,ladenunciadiGalileoalSant’UfficiofattadaldomenicanoTommasoCaccinistavaperavviareilcorsodieventicheavrebbeprodottoildecretodiproibi-33.LetreletteresonoinuncodicediunasezionedelFondoGesuiticodell’ARSI,checonservalaseriestoricadelleletteredegliindipetae:FG755,nn.3,9,12.LaterzafuscrittaquandoVitelleschiavevagiàdecisodiaccoglierelarichiestadiKirwitzer,ilqualeperònonerastatoancorainformato.34.UnabozzadellarispostadiAcquaviva,datata23agosto1614,èinARSI,Austria2/II,p.606(AppendiceIII,n.2).35.ARSI,Austria2/II,p.697.ugobaldinizionediquelladottrina).Tuttaviail1614e1615furonoancheannidiincertezzasullesueprospettive:mentrelelettereaGrienbergersembra-vanomanifestarel’intenzionedidedicarsiallaricercateoricainastro-nomia,inaltrecontemporaneeaAcquaviva,alVicariogeneraleFerdi-nandAlberealnuovoGeneraleMuzioVitelleschi(20luglio1614,14settembre1615,25gennaio1616)eglidichiaròchelasuaaspirazionemassimaeradiveniremissionarioinAmericaoinAsia.Percercaredispiegarequestaapparentecontraddizioneèutilediscutereseparata-menteiduegruppidilettere,iniziandodaquelleinviatealverticedellaCompagnia,perchélaprimadiquesteprecedettequelleaGrienberger.3.KirwitzerindipetaLelettereaAcquaviva,AlbereVitelleschi,conservateinarsitraquelledegliindipetae(igesuitiche‘chiedevanoleIndie’),33sononotevoliperillorotonoappassionatoeilgradodifervorechemanifestano,supe-rioreaquello–spessogiàelevato–propriodeidocumentidiquestogenere.KirwitzerchiesediessereinviatoinBrasileoinCina(dicendosiperòdispostoaognialtradestinazione),espiegòdiaversaputoche“unpadrevenutodallaCina”(NicolasTrigault)cercavavolontariperlemissioni.Assicuròchelasuasaluteeracosìbuonadapotersuperareognidisagio,cheeradispostoadaccettareconentusiasmoogniinca-ricoecheavevaunabuonaconoscenzadellafilosofiaedellamatema-tica.Comequasisempre,iSuperiorinondetterounarispostaprecisaalleprimeduelettere:Acquavivaelogiòlozelodelgiovaneprofessore,invitandoloperòadattendereconpazienza,mentrel’arsinonconser-vaunarispostadiAlber.34InveceVitelleschi,pocodopolasuaelezioneaGenerale,destinòKirwitzerallemissioniinPeru,comunicandoladecisioneaFlorianAvanzini,viceprovincialedell’Austria,conunaletteradel9gennaio1616.35IlPerunoneratraledestinazionichiestedaKirwitzer,cheperòsieraimpegnatoadaccettareunaqualunque.TuttaviadopolaletteradiVitelleschiaAvanziniiniziòunavicendanonchiaraechecompromiseilrapportodiKirwitzerconJohannesGans,unconfratellocheglieravicinoaGraz.Essaèimportante,anchese

297296scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzeraprimavistaapparemarginaleedidettaglio,nonsoloperchémodificòildestinodiKirwitzermaperchéèunesempionotevoledelletensionipersonalichepotevanonascerenellaCompagnia,anchepermotivino-bilietrapersonedialtolivello.LaformazionediGans,dipocopiùgiovane,eramoltosimileaquelladiKirwitzer;anch’eglisembravaunmatematicopromettente,einseguitolasuacarriera–almenoesteriormenteeinunambitononscientifico–fupiùbrillante.36IlsuoprofessoredimatematicaaGraz,nel1613–14,nonerastatoGiordanimaQuelmetz;tuttavia,datocheancheGanscoltivòladisciplinadopol’annodistudioistituzionaleecheeranellostessocollegiodiKirwitzer,èmoltoprobabilecheavesseundialogoscientificoconunquasicoetaneocheavevaglistessiinteressieprestosarebbediventatoildocentedimatematica.Inoltreidueebberoincarichiconnessi:nel1614–5GansinsegnògrammaticalatinaeKirwitzerumanità;inoltreilprimoeraprefettodeglistudentidelleclassiinferiorinelconvittoannessoalcollegio,mentrel’altroloeraperl’interoconvitto.37UngiudiziodiGanschesaràcitatopiùavantiindicaforsechetraloroesistevaunarivalitàsotterranea.Il20luglio1614(lostessogiornodiKirwitzer)GansscrisseaAcquaviva,chiedendoanch’eglidiesseredestinatoallemissioni,especificamenteinIndiaoinGiappone;rinnovòpoilarichiestainunaletteraaAlberscrittail17settembre1615,soloduegiornidopoquelladiKirwitzerallostessoVicario,ecertamenteportataaRomadallastessapersona.38Percontenutoestrutturalesueletteresonocosìsimiliaquelledelcon-fratelloboemodasuggerirecheessiavesseroconcordatounmodello;lasoladifferenzanotevoleèneltono,cheinGansfumeno‘ascetico’.LasuarichiestaebbeuniteridenticoaquelladiKirwitzer:dopouna36.NatonelWaldeck(nell’odiernoHesse)il19aprile1591;gesuitadal1610;dal1612al1615studidifilosofiaaGraz;nel1615-6insegnòlingualatinaaGrazenel1616–7umanitàaVienna;dal1617al1631dinuovoaGraz(studentediteologia,professorediebreoematematica,predicatore);nel1632tornòaViennacomepredicatore,cappellanodiFerdinandvonHabsburg–allorarediBoemia-edal1638,quandodivenneimperatore,suoconfessore.DurantelaGuerradeitrent’anniUrbanoVIII(Brevedel18settembre1643)lonominòcoordinatoredeicappellaniepredicatorinelletruppecattoliche,conferendoglipoterispeciali;ebbequindiunruoloimportantenelletrattativeconiprotestanti,sostenendounapoliticaparzialmenteconciliativaancheconicalvinisti.MorìaViennanel1662.Peridatisullacarrieragiovanile:Lukács,Catalogi,II,pp.164,175,597;unelencodelleopereèinSommervogel,Bibliothèque,III,cc.1183–1184;unasintesibio-bibliograficadiH.PlatzgummerèinDiccionariohistóricodelaCompañíadeJesús,Roma-Madrid2001,II,p.1568.37.Lukács,Catalogi,II,p.164.38.QuestedueletterediGanssonoinARSI,FG755,nn.5e8.LarispostadiAcquavivafuidenticapercontenutoaquellainviataaKirwitzerefuscrittanellostessogiorno,il23agosto1614(bozzainARSI,Austria,2/II,p.605).L’archiviononsembraconservarelarispostadiAlber.39.Letteradel25gennaio1616inARSI,FG755,n.12(AppendiceIII,n.8).Kirwitzerchiesedipoteressereordinatosacerdoteprimadipartire,cosachegliavrebbeconferitoautoritànelnuovoam-biente;normalmentel’ordinazioneavvenivaalterminedelterzoannoditeologia,cheegliavevasoloiniziato,maperimissionariunanticipononfueccezionale.40.Laletteradell’Assistentenonsembraconservata;ilsuocontenutoeunadataapprossimatasiricavanodaquelladiringraziamentodiGansaVitelleschi,del25luglio1616:ARSI,FG755,n.11.Nonv’eracontrastotraladestinazionespecificaindicatadalGeneraleequellagenericaindicatadall’Assistente:laprovinciadelGiapponesiestendevadaMalaccaall’arcipelagogiapponese;inoltredacircail1612igesuitifuronoprogressivamenteespulsidall’arcipelago,perciòl’attivitàdellapro-vinciasiconcentròsoprattuttosuMacao,Taiwanel’Indocina.41.VitelleschiaKirwitzer,5marzo1616,inARSI,Austria2/II,p.709(vediAppendiceIII,n.9).ugobaldinirispostainterlocutoriadiAcquaviva,Vitelleschilaaccettò,enellastessaletteraadAvanzinigiàcitatadestinòGansallaprovinciadelGiappone.Tuttavia,mentreKirwitzerfuinformatoimmediatamentedelladecisio-nedelGeneraleeloringraziòsubitoconunaletteraditonosolenne,dichiarandosidispostoaogniformadisacrificioeadaccettareogniincarico,ancheumilissimo(ciòcheforsespiegainparteicompitichepoiglifuronoassegnatiinAsia,estraneiaisuoiinteressiscientificieallesueesperienzeprecedenti),39sembracheGansnonfosseinforma-todaAvanzini,masolomesidopodaunaletterainviataglidall’Assi-stentediGermania,TheodorusBusaeus(DerickBuys),chegliscrissegenericamentecheeradestinatoinOriente.40Nessundatonotospiegaquestadiversitàdicomportamentodeisuperioriprovinciali.Tragen-naioemarzoVitelleschiordinòaisuperiorid’AustriacheKirwitzerpartissesubitoperleFiandre(nonèchiaroseperraggiungerediretta-mentedalìlecoloniespagnoleinAmericaoperrecarsiaunodeiportispagnolicheeranoiterminalidellarottaperl’America,comeCadizoquellinellazonadiSevilla),dovedovevaessereordinatosacerdote;aiprimidimarzoloinformò.41PerciòforseisuperioripoteronosoloaccettareladecisioneimperativadelGenerale,maillorodiversocom-portamentopotrebbeanchesignificarecheritenevanolaperditadiGanspiùgravediquelladiKirwitzereperciòcercaronodiimpedirlaodifferirla,equestopotrebbespiegarealcunieventisuccessivi.Ladifferenzadidestinazionee,forseanche,quellaneitempidell’in-formazionesonocentralipercomprenderel’originedellaquerelle.MentrelerichiestedeiduegiovaniprofessorieranoesaminateaRoma,tranovembreedicembredel1614eragiuntonellacittàNicolasTrigault,inviatodalsuperioredellemissionidellaCompagniainCina,NiccolòLongobardi;unodeicompitidiTrigault,comeKirwitzerseppeprestoescrisseadAlber,era–seguendoun’ideaespressagiàda

299298scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerMatteoRicci–direclutarenuovimissionaricompetentinellescienze,einparticolareinmatematica.Comenoto,ancheaquestoscoponel1615enel1616–1617eglivisitòbuonaparted’Europa,esoprattuttol’areagermanica,ottenendol’adesioneanchedifiguredialtolivelloegiàaffermate,comeCysat,ScheinereSaintVincent,poitrattenutiinEuropadaisuperioridelleloroprovince.42DatochelacronologiadeisuoiviaggisiintersecaconlosviluppodellavicendaaGraz,eglipotreb-beaverlainfluenzata;questorendenecessarioconfrontareitempidelsuoitinerarioconquellidellelettereinviatedaRomaaKirwitzereGans.Il13marzo1616,soloottogiornidopolaletterachegliordinavadiandarenelleFiandre,Vitelleschineinviòun’altraaKirwitzer,nonaGrazmaaAntwerp.43Conunmutamentoimprovvisoeimprevedi-bile,ilGeneralel’informòchelasuadestinazionenonsarebbestatailPerumalaCina,ordinandoglidiandareaLisbonaperpartireconimissionaridelgruppodiTrigault.Idocumentitrovatifinorainarsinonaccennanoaimotividelmutamento,chepuòesserespiegatosoloipoteticamente;inoltreessisembranomanifestareunacontraddizioneinterna.Inunalettera-relazioneaimissionariinCina(Bruxelles,2gen-naio1617),cheèlafonteprincipalesuisuoiviaggiinEuropa,TrigaultscrissecheKirwitzer,alloragiàinPortogallo,avevaportatoconséiregaliricchissimiinviatiallamissionecinesedalducad’Austria,FerdinandvonHabsburg(ilfuturoimperatoreFerdinandii).44Tutta-via,seKirwitzererapartitoperleFiandresubitodopol’arrivodellaprimaletteradiVitelleschi(versolametàdimarzo),credendoancoradiessereinviatoinPeru,ilducanonpotevaavergliaffidatoiltrasportodiregaliperlaCina.SeinveceeglipartìdaGrazsolodopolasecondaletteradelGenerale,Ferdinandavrebbepotutodargliquell’incarico,mainquestocasononèchiarocomeKirwitzereilducapotesseroco-noscerelanuovadestinazione,sequellaletterafuinviataaAntwerp.4542.L’arrivodiTrigault,ilsuoitinerarioinEuropaperreclutareaspirantimissionarieraccoglierefondiedotazionistrumentaliperlemissioniinCinaelaqualitàdegliuominicheportòconséinAsiasonotraifattipiùinvestigatidellastoriadellemissionidellaCompagniainAsia,enonènecessariorias-sumerliqui.Lostudioessenziale,dalqualederivalacronologiaquiesposta,restaE.Lamalle,LapropagandeduP.NicolasTrigaultenfaveurdesmissionsdeChine,in“ArchivumHistoricumSocietatisJesu”,9(1940),pp.49–120;vedianchelabibliografiacitatanell’articolodiG.DunneinDiccionariohistóricodelaCompañíadeJesús,IV,Roma-Madrid2001,pp.3838–3839.43.UnabozzadelleletteraèinARSI,Austria2/II,p.713(AppendiceIII,n.10).L’invionelleFiandremostrachel’ordineinviatoil5marzoerastatoimperativo,probabilmenteinprevisionediunapar-tenzaperl’Americanellostesso1616.44.IldocumentoèstatopubblicatoinLamalle,LapropagandeduP.NicolasTrigault….,cit.,pp.90ss.;ilpassosuiregalidelducaèapp.105–106.45.N.GolvershaanchesuppostocheKirwitzerfosseunodeiduegesuitiaiqualifuronoaffidatiidonidelducaMassimilianodiBaviera(LibrariesofWesternlearningforChina:circulationofWesternbooksbetweenEuropeandChinaintheJesuitMission(ca.1650–ca.1750).2:FormationofJesuitlibraries,Leuven2013,p.109n.216).Tuttaviasecondolasuafonteidonifuronoconsegnatiaiduenel1617,dopocircaunannocheKirwitzeravevaattraversatolaGermaniaequandodaalcunimesierainPortogallo.46.Nelpassocitatonellanota44TrigaultqualificòKirwitzercome“insignis(…)mathematicus”;ilBoemo,però,nonavevapubblicatonullaenonpotevaesserenotofuoridiGraz.UnadellefontidelgiudiziopotevaessereGrienberger,ancheperchéèplausibilecheTrigaultchiedessealmatemati-codelCollegioRomanodiindicargligiovanimatematicigesuitiperlemissioni.Inastratto,sipuòpensareaun’operazione‘gesuitica’diGrienberger:il5marzo(datadellaprimaletteradiVitelleschi)laCongregazionedell’Indiceemanòildecretodiproibizionedell’eliocentrismo;cosìilmatematicopotrebbeaverpensatocheseKirwitzerandavainCinalamissionescientificamentepiùimportantesarebbestatapotenziata,echesisarebbeevitatochel’indipeta(elaCompagnia)subisserocon-seguenzeperlesimpatiecopernicaneche,comesivedrà,ilBoemogliavevamanifestatonellasuasecondalettera.Tuttavianientemostrachequestaspeculazioneabbiaunnessoconlarealtà.47.Trigaultricevetteregalieaiutieconomicidaregionichenonavevavisitato(tralequalil’Austria);perciòprobabilmenteegliolaCuriadellaCompagniainviaronorichiestedisostegnoalleprovincegesuiticheedirettamenteaisovrani.Nell’accettarelarichiesta,FerdinandpotrebbeaverinformatoRoma(oTrigault,oisuperioridell’Austria)cheavrebbeinviatoisuoidonitramiteKirwitzer,sapendocheeradestinatoallemissioni,equestoinqualchesensopotrebbeavercostrettoilverticeromanoadaccettarel’indicazionedelduca.Unaverificacompletadiquestaipotesinonèpossibile,perchéinbuonapartequesteletteresonoperdute.48.Vedinell’AppendiceIIIleletterediK.aW.Lamormainidelmaggio1616(nn.11e12).L’ordinazione,comedetto,erastataautorizzatadaVitelleschi,eintuttiicataloghisuccessivial1616Kirwitzerèdettopater.ugobaldiniApparentementeilmutamentod’ideediVitelleschinonsembraattribuibileaTrigault,chenelsuoviaggioeuropeononeraandatoinAustriaeperciònonavevaincontratoKirwitzer.Tuttavianelmarzodel1616ilmissionariovalloneeraancoraaRoma(lalasciòdefinitivamen-tesoloinmaggio),cosìforseilBoemoglifuindicatocomeunindipetadisicuracompetenzamatematicadaChristophGrienberger,cheloconoscevaattraversoleletterecitate.IlGeneraleavevagiàdecisodiaccettarelarichiestadiKirwitzer,eTrigaultpotrebbeaverloconvintoamutarelasuadestinazione.46Altrepossibilitànonpossonoessereescluse.47Indipendentementedalleragioni,però,KirwitzercertamentegradìilnuovoordinedelGenerale,perchélaCinaeraunadelleduedestinazionicheavevachiestoinorigine.NonènotoquandolasciòiPaesiBassispagnoliperLisbona,avendogiàricevutol’ordinazionesacerdotale,mainmaggioeraancoraaDunkerque;48probabilmentealmenopartedelviaggiofupermare,perchéunitinerarioterrestredaAntwerpaLisbonaattraver-soDunkerquenonsembraplausibile.InizialmenteilmutamentodelladestinazionediKirwitzernonsembròinfluiresuquelladiGans,maprestoquest’ultimoricevettesegnaliambigui.Il3settembre,risponden-doallasualetteradiringraziamentodel25luglio,Vitelleschigliscrisse

301300scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzercheavrebbecercatodimantenerelapromessadiBusaeusdiinviarlonellemissioni,“senonnascerannoostacoli”.49Questafrasegenericapotevariferirsiall’ostilitàabitualedelgovernoportoghese(alloracon-trollatodallaSpagna)all’invioinAsiadimissionarinoniberici:traicompagnidiTrigault,infatti,J.Schreck,A.SchalleKirwitzerfuronoiprimimissionariinAsiaprovenientidall’AssistenzadiGermania.50TuttavialarispostadelGeneralenoneradeltuttotrasparente,perchéladestinazionediGansinAsiaerastatacomunicatadaluistessoallaprovinciad’Austria,mesiprimadellaletteradiBusaeus,ilqualeperciònonavevafattounapromessamacomunicatounadecisione;forse,attribuendolasceltaall’Assistente,Vitelleschivollemoderarel’entu-siasmodelgiovaneprofessore,perchénelfrattempoeranataqualchedifficoltàspecifica.Difatto,il24ottobreGansscrisseancoraaVitel-leschicheisuperiorigliconfermavanochesarebbepartitocolgruppodiTrigault;51perciòl’ostacoloallasuapartenzanonpotevaesserel’o-stilitàversoinoniberici(tantopiùperchéappartenevaallaprovinciad’Austria,cioèaundominioasburgico).Nell’estatedel1617,però,Gansappresechelasuadestinazioneeramutata,inunmodocosìim-provvisoeindirettodapotersuscitaresospetti.Il2luglioegliscrissealGenerale52che,mentreneimesiprecedentiKirwitzerl’avevainformatodaCoimbrasullecosecheeraopportunoportarenelviaggio,senzaaccennareapossibiliproblemi,oraconunaletterailp.JuanVazquez,procuratoredellemissioniinPeru,gliavevachiestodiandareconluiinAmerica.53GansavevarispostocheerastatosceltoufficialmentedaRomaperandareinAsiaconTrigault,malasualetteramostrachesospettavacheilcambiamentoeral’esitodiunamanovra,organizzataoapprovatadaKirwitzeralloscopodiessereinviatoinAsia,echeerairritatoconl’excompagnodicollegio.Egliscrisseche,seKirwitzererastatosceltoperlesueconoscenzeedotimatematiche,agiudiziodi‘moltiuominidotti’lesueeranosuperiori,54echenonerainferiore49."modoaliundenullaimpedimentainiiciantur”:ARSI,Austria2/II,p.453.50.Dal1610al1614erastataimpeditalapartenzadiIvanVreman,croatodiSpalato,maprovenientedalCollegioRomanoeappartenenteall’Assistenzaitaliana.Lastessaostilitàvieraperinoniberici(eccettuatigliitaliani)destinatiaterritorispagnoli:iprimimissionaridallaGermaniaperl’AmericalatinapartironocolprocuratoreJuanVazquez(vediinfraneltesto)nel1617.51.ARSI,FG755,n.14.52.ARSI,FG755,n.15.53.LacorrispondenzaVazquez-Ganssembraperduta.CertamenteilprocuratorescrisseaGansconl’assensopreventivodiVitelleschi,mailsuodialogocolGeneralenonèdocumentato.Inognicaso,ladecisionefudiquest’ultimo.54."Egomultorumdoctorumvirorumiudicio,absitverbisgloria,…[sono]…inhocsuperior”.Questaaffermazioneerafacilmentecontrollabile,quindidovevaessereinpartefondata;tuttaviaoggièinverificabile,perchénonènotaunaproduzionescientificadiGanselasuacarrierainetàmaturaebbeundirezionedeltuttodiversa.Trai‘multidoctiviri’potevanoessereQuelmetzeancheGiordani(ilsecondodopoil1612erapassatoainsegnarematematicanelcollegiodiVienna,doveGansinse-gnòumanitànel1615–1616).55.Solonel1692,dopodecennidideplorazionidapartediRoma,laOrdinatioadsuscitandumfoven-dumqueinProvinciaLusitaniaeStudiumMathematicaedelGeneraleTyrsoGonzález(12aprile1692)proibìformalmenteaisuperioridiLisbonadiimporreaimissionaridiinsegnarematematicanellacittà(taloraperpiùanni):U.Baldini,“TheteachingofmathematicsintheJesuitcollegesofPortugal,from1640toPombal”,inL.Saraiva,H.Leitão(eds.),ThepracticeofmathematicsinPortugal,Coimbra2004,p.321;vediiltestodell’Ordinatioap.649.56.ARSI,Austria2/II,p.842.ugobaldinialuiperenergiafisica,coraggio,culturaumanisticaefilosofica.Unaproclamazioneapertadisuperioritàneiconfrontidiunconfratelloel’accennoesplicitoaunamanovraocculta,chenonpotevanoncoin-volgerealmenoinparteilverticeromano,contraddicevanoladisciplinadellaCompagniaeverosimilmentecompromiseroinmododefinitivolaposizionediGans.PerconvincereilGeneralearispettareladecisioneoriginaria,egliaggiunsecheKirwitzergliavevascrittocheisuperioriportoghesigliavevanochiestodirimanereperunperiodoinPortogalloperinsegnarematematicanelcollegiodiS.AntãoaLisbona(illetto-redeglianniprecedenti,l’italianoPaoloLembo,eramalatoedovevatornareinpatria);poichéKirwitzernonavevaaccettato,Ganssidissedispostoatenerequellalettura,purchépoiglifossepermessodipartireperl’Asia.55Manélesueprotestenéquestapropostaebberoeffetto:nellasuarisposta,moltotardiva(7ottobre),Vitelleschinonspiegòleragionidelladecisioneepromisevagamentechesesifosseroapertepossibilitàavrebbecercatodiesaudirlo,masoprattuttoloesortòanonpensareacomplotti.56L’insiemedelladocumentazionesuggeriscecheladestinazionediGanserastatamutatapercompensareVazquezdellaperditadiKirwi-tzer,manonspiegaperchéerastatamutataquelladelBoemo.Inognicaso,nullamostracheegliavesseagitoaidannidelconfratello.NeimesisuccessiviGanscontinuòisuoitentativi;inaltretreletterealGenerale,pienediamarezza,esteseisuoisospettiaisuperioridiViennaescrissechel’ostacoloallasuapartenzaperl’Asianonerailgovernoportoghese.TuttavialerispostediVitelleschidivennerosemprepiùevasive.L’ultima,del19maggio1618,quandoilgruppodiTrigaulterapartitodaLisbonagiàdaunmese,chiusedefinitivamenteildiscorso,ripetendochelapossibilitàdinuovipermessiamissionarinoniberici

303302scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzereraminimaeaggiungendocheinGermaniavieranosfidedaaffrontarenonminorichenellemissioni(quattrogiornidopo,il23maggio,ladefenestrazionediPragaaprìlaGuerradeitrent’anni).57Cosìlesortideidueex-compagnisidiviseropersempre;nonv’ètracciadiunalorocorrispondenzasuccessiva,enellesueletterenoteKirwitzernonno-minòmaiGans.4.LelettereaGrienbergerel’opzionecopernicanaLaprimaletteraalmatematicodelCollegioRomanomostrachegiàallafinedel1614Kirwitzereramoltocriticosullasituazionedelladisciplinaastronomica.Eglinonviesposerisultatiotesipersonalimaelencòaporieteoriche,incertezzeosservativeeinadeguatezzedeglistrumentiallorainuso;ilsuoelencodiproblemiètraipiùcompletieconsapevoliformulatiinqueglianniecontienegiudizipiùradicalidiquasituttiquelliespressipubblicamentedagesuiticontemporanei(inclusoGrienberger).Conuntonoquasipassionale(che–pureinunamateriadiversa–corrispondeaquellodellelettereaiGenerali,eperciòsembrarivelareunaspettoimportantedellasuapersonalità),equasiconsofferenza,Kirwitzerdescrissel’impasseincuisembravatrovarsilaconoscenzaumanaedefinìormaiinsostenibililafisicacelestearisto-telica(insegnataancoraufficialmenteintuttiicollegidellaCompagnia)eilsistemaaundicisferediMagini,accettatodaClaviusneisuoiulti-mianniperevitarelacrisidelgeocentrismo.InoltreegliindicòprecisipuntidicontrastotraisistemidiBraheediCopernicoeleosservazio-ni,glistessicheavevanospintoKeplerarivederecriticamenteipara-metriteorici.Kirwitzermenzionòanche:laquestionedelperigeoeapo-geodiSaturno,GioveesoprattuttoMarte(decisivaperlericerchediKepler);l’inesattezzadelmodelloepiciclicodiCopernicoperlaLuna;l’inesattezzadeglistrumentitradizionali,glierroridimetodoel’assen-zadiconsiderazioniottichepercorreggereidatigrezzidelleosserva-zioni(tuttifattorididistorsioneancheperlemappecelestieterrestri);lostatocosmologicoincertodellecometeedellenovae;l’imprecisionediognistrumentodimisuradeltempoallorainuso;l’accettazioneacriticadelleosservazionidegliastronomigreci,ellenisticiearabi,che57.LeletterediGans(18dicembre1617,12febbraioe9aprile1618)sonoinFG755,nn.17,18,19;lerispostediVitelleschi(29–1–1618,17–3–1618,19–5–1618)inAustria2/II,pp.873,889,912.58.VediinparticolareAppendiceI,f.83r–v.59.Perquesto,oltrecheperisuoicontributiinmatematicaenellateoriaepraticadeglistrumenti(fuanche,subitodopoGalileounodeiprimiperfezionatorideltelescopio),Grienberger(Hall,Tyrol,1564–Roma1636)meriterebbeunamonografia.Sudiluivedi:U.Baldini,Legemimponesubactis.StudidifilosofiaescienzadeiGesuitiinItalia,1540–1632,Roma1992,capp.VeVI;M.J.Gormann,“MathematicsandmodestyintheSocietyofJesus:theproblemsofChristophGrienberger”,inM.Feingold(ed.),ThenewScienceandJesuitScience:SeventeenthCenturyPerspectives,Dordrecht2003,pp.1–120.Ilsuoimportanteepistolario(corrisposeperpiùdiquarantaanniconmoltegrandifigurescientifiche,edopolamortediClaviusfuilpuntodiriferimentodellaretesemprepiùarticola-tadeimatematicigesuiti,inclusiquellinellemissioni),èperdutoquasiinteramente.Unapiccolaparte,conledueletterediKirwitzer,èaRoma,nelms.534dell’ArchiviodellaPontificiaUniversitàGregoriana(unalistainBaldini,Legemimponesubactis,cit.,pp.200–201).ugobaldiniinfluenzavanoinmododecisivolateoriadifenomenidilungoperiodocomelasupposta‘trepidazione’delpuntod’equinozio.58LarispostadiGrienbergersembraperduta,elaperditaègraveperchéessafucertamentedigrandeimportanza:eglieraconsapevoleditutteledifficoltàelencatedaKirwtzerma,comematematico‘uf-ficiale’dellaCompagnia,sulpianoteoreticoeracostrettoamediaretraglisviluppiscientificirecenti,leposizioniufficialidellaChiesaeladottrinacanonicadelsuoOrdine(nellaqualel’aristotelismoeraunostrumentointrinsecoaldiscorsoteologico).Lasuaposizioneoriginòunsuosostanzialesilenziopubblico(soprattuttodopoil1615–6)suipunticentralidelcontrastotracosmologiaeastronomiatradizionalielanuovascienza;59forse,invece,lasuarispostaprivataauncon-fratellogiovaneesinceramenteentusiasta,vincolatoarispettoeri-servatezza,fupiùlibera.Inognicaso,lasecondaletteradiKirwitzerpermettediintuiresoloalcuniaspettigenerali.Grienbergercondiviseilgiudiziodelgiovanecorrispondentesullostatocriticodell’astronomia,emostròdinoncrederecheiproblemipotesseroessererisoltiintempobreve:comequasituttigliespertifinoadopolapubblicazionedellaEpitomeedelletavoleRudolfine,eglinonavevacompresopienamenteilvalorerivoluzionariodell’AstronomianovadiKepler.Quantoaldi-battitoteoricocorrente,egliconsigliòaKirwitzerdientrareinrappor-toconChristophScheineredileggereloscrittopiùrecentedelgesuitabavarese(leDisquisitionesmathematicaedecontroversiisetnovitati-busastronomicis,pubblicateaIngolstadtnel1614colnomediunsuoallievo,J.G.Locher),presumibilmenteperchétentavaditracciareunaviaintermediatracosmologiaeastronomiaclassicheequelledeineote-rici.Quantoallapossibilitàdimisureastronomichepiùesattediquelleusuali,egliaccennòaunmetododiGalileopermisurareisecondid’ar-

305304scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerco.60Quantoinfinealletavoletrigonometriche,suggerìaKirwitzer–chenonleconosceva–diusarequellenell’Opuspalatinumdetriangulis(1596)diG.J.Rheticus,lepiùavanzatetraquellepubblicate(anchesenondelgradodiesattezzacuiaspiravailsuocorrispondente.IltonoecontenutodellareplicadiKirwitzerfuronodiversidaquellidellaprimalettera.Dichiaròchesisarebbededicatoarisolvereiproblemidell’astronomia(senzamenzionarelarichiestadiessereinviatonellemissioni),einunabreveanalisiindividuòcorrettamentel’artificiositàdelleipotesipropostedaScheiner.InoltrepromiseaGrienbergercheinunaletterasuccessivagliavrebbecomunicatolalunghezzadel‘piede’usatocomeunitàdimisurainvariecittàtedesche,alcunesue‘speculazioni’sull’otticadeitelescopi,osservazionisuSole,Saturno,Gioveesuuntipodipietracapacedimantenerealungoilca-loreemessodalSole,einfineloschemadiun‘orologiodelcaldoedelfreddo’(cioè,sembra,diuntermometro).61Tuttavia,seèplausibilecheanchequestaletterafosserecapitataaGrienberger,essanonsitrovaneifondigesuiticiromani;cosìalcunirisultatidellericerchegiovanilidiKirwitzerrestanoignoti.Unpuntocentraledellacorrispondenza,nellaletteradelgiugno1615,èilrifiutodellecritichediScheineralla«hypothesis»copernicana:“credediaverschiacciatoCopernicoconisuoiargomenti,malasua[diCopernico]ipotesirestalapiùvalidaditutte:sperodidissolveretuttequelleobiezioni,emostreròchequelledifficoltànonhannoluogonell’ipotesicopernicana”.62Dunque,mentrenellaprimaletteraKirwitzeravevascrittochel’ipotesicorrispondeva60.QuestainformazionediGrienberger,appenaaccennatadaKirwitzer,meriterebbeunaricercaspecifica(quinonpossibile),perchéunmetododirettoeprecisodiGalileoperlamisuradeisecondidigradononèdocumentato,eneppureèsfioratonellasuacorrispondenzaconGrienberger,oconaltriconiqualiilgesuitaeraincontatto.Questopassoèl’unicointuttigliscrittidiKirwitzerneiqualiegliparlidell’Italiano;ilfattochelonominicomepersonanotafasupporrecheavesselettoilSidereusnuncius.61.MoltoprobabilmenteanchequestaletteragiunseaGrienberger:Kirwitzerscrissechel’avrebbeaffidataaidelegatidellaprovinciad’AustriachesarebberoandatiaRomaperlaCongregazionegeneraleindettapereleggereilsuccessorediAcquaviva,mortonelgennaioprecedente,edifattoidelegatiparteciparonoallaCongregazione,iniziatainnovembre.Laperditadiquestaterzaletteraimpediscedisaperese,einchemodo,Grienbergeravevarispostoallaseconda;neppureènotoserisposeallasuccessiva.62."Copernicumobruisseargumentisvidetur,cuiustamenhypothesisinterreliquasadhucestfirmissima:expediam,utspero,nodosillosomnes,ostendamquedifficultatesillasnullumlocumha-bereinCopernicihypothesi”(vediAppendiceII,f.90r).KirwitzerinformòGrienbergerchegliavrebbemandatoloscrittosuCopernicoeleosservazioniemisurepromessepermezzodeidelegatidellaprovinciad’AustriaallaCongregazionegeneraledell’OrdineconvocatapereleggereilnuovoGenerale.IdelegatifuronoaRomaalmenodal15novembre,mainARSInonvisonogliscrittidiKirwitzercheavrebberodovutoportare.63.Pp.25–28:“Argumentumexmotuetorbeannuo”;pp.28–35:“Argumentumexmotudiurno”.ugobaldiniexactissimeaifenomenimaeradifficileacredere,eavevaaggiuntocheletavolePruteniche,derivatedall’operadiCopernico,eranonotevol-menteinesatteecosìlasuateoriadellaLuna,orasembravanonconsi-derarepiùdecisivequelledifficoltà.KirwitzernonsiriferìgeneralmenteaogniobiezioneconcepibilecontroCopernico,néatuttequellegiàpropostecontrol’eliocentrismo,masoloaquellediScheiner/Locher.Perciò,inlineadipuralogica,lasuacriticadiquelleobiezioninonequivalevaaunaprovadellaveritàdellateoriadiCopernico,néprovaconcertezzacheeglifosseconvintodellasuaverità.TuttaviaèdaosservarecheleobiezioniespostenelleDisquisitioneseranodiviseinduegruppi:uno,dicaratterestrettamen-teastronomico,riguardavaleconseguenzedelsistemasulledistanzeedimensionidegliastri(inparticolare,lemisurediBraheperidiametrivisualidellestelle,l’assenzadiunaloroparallasseannuaeladimen-sionesuppostadelraggiodell’orbitaterrestreportavanoaconcluderecheilvolumediunastelladiprimagrandezzaeracircapariaunasferaaventeperraggioladistanzaterra-sole).L’altro,riferitoallarotazionediurna,avevacontenutofisico(inparticolare,Scheineraffermavachelacausadelmotodirotazioneeramisteriosa,cheessorendevasoloapparenteilmotorettilineo,echenonsicapivacomeilmotodellaterrasitrasmettesseall’ariachelacirconda).63Così,ancheseKirwitzersiriferivasoloagliargomentidiScheiner,lasuanonpotevaesseresolounacriticaadhominem,chenoncomportaval’adesioneallateoriacheeral’oggettodiquellecritiche.Comenoto,moltiastronomidelperiodoavevanodistintotrailvaloredell’eliocentrismocomeschemadicalcoloelasuaveritàfisica;così,segliargomentidiScheinerfosserostatisolodelprimotipo,Kirwitzeravrebbepotutorifiutarliosservandocheunacriticariferitaalledimensioninonhasensoperleorbite,sfereevolumipostulatiinunoschemadicalcolo,chesonosolocurveesolidiastratti.Malasuaaffermazionedivolerdimostrarelafalsitàdituttigliargo-mentidelmatematicodiIngolstadtincludevaquellisulleconseguenzefisichedelsistemadiCopernico,edunquetendevaadaffermarelasuacorrettezzanonsolocomeschemadicalcolomacomedescrizionerealedelcosmo.Vièdunqueun’opposizionenettatraquesteideeequantosileggenellacitatasezioneDemotuterraederivatadallelezionidiKirwitzer

307306scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzernell’annoaccademico1615–1616,chepurefuronosuccessiveallaletteradialmeno6mesi.Aisuoistudentieglinondissesolochel’e-liocentrismocollidevaconinotipassidellaScrittura,machecertesuenecessarieconseguenzefisichecontrastavanoconfenomeninaturalicomunissimi;inbreve,presentòsinteticamentel’interagammadegliargomentiusatidaitradizionalisticontrol’eliocentrismo,einaltresezioniconfermòl’ordinecanonicodeicieliplanetarielaripartizionearistotelicadellospaziosublunare.SoloapropositodellecometeeglisischieròconBraheeineoterici,sostenendolacorrettezzadellemisurediparallasseedunque–control’aristotelismo–laloronaturaastrale(p.38).L’unicaspiegazionepossibileèche,percautelapersonaleoperordinedeisuperiori,eglistabilisseunadistinzioneassolutatraiconte-nutidell’insegnamentopubblico–daiqualiognipotenziale‘perturba-tivo’dovevaessereescluso–elaricercaprivata,chepotevaessereco-municatasoloconriservatezzaesoloapersonedigrandecompetenzatecnicaedialtrettantaconformità‘ideologica’.Tuttavia,fattaquestadistinzioneesenonverranoallalucedocu-mentiprecedentisulleideedialtrimembridell’Ordine,ècorrettodirecheKirwitzerfuilprimogesuitachesidichiaròafavoredell’eliocentri-smoinuntestoscritto:lasualetteraaGrienbergereraundocumentoprivatocheperò,datoilruolodiverticetenutodalgesuitatirolesetraimatematicidellaCompagniaelasuavicinanzaalGenerale,risultavaquantomenosemi-pubblico.Nélaletteranétestisuccessiviindicanoleragionidelcambiamentoavvenutotra1614e1615,mavisonosoloduepossibilità:o,comenellaprimalettera,eglisiriferivasoloaldisegnogeneraledelsistemacopernicano,che–trannecheinpuntire-lativamenteminori–noncontrastavaconleosservazionirecenti,comeinveceavvenivaperquellodiTolomeo(nellaversionediMagini)einparteperquellodiBrahe;oppureintendevaper«hypothesiscopernica-na»laformaassuntadallateoriadopolarevisionediKepler,chesosti-tuendoleorbitecircolariegliepicicliconquelleellitticheeliminandoleimprecisionidelletavole.64Nonvisonoelementicheprovinounadelleduepossibilità;inognicaso,insensogeneraleècorrettodireche–per64.IlfattocheKirwitzernonmenzionasseilcontributodiKeplernell’Astronomianovanonprovacheloignorasse:l’eliocentrismononerastatoancoracondannato,maKeplereraun‘eretico’eKirwitzernonavrebbemaicitatolesueoperepercriticarescienziaticattolici.Difattonellaletteraeglilocitò,masoloinrapportoauntemaneutro,lalunghezzadel‘piede’usatocomeunitàdimisuraindiverselocalitàtedesche.65.P.D’Elia,GalileoinCina.RelazioniattraversoilCollegioRomanotraGalileoeigesuitiscienziatimissionariinCina,Roma1947,pp.VII,36-39.D’eliacitòipassirilevantidellasecondalettera,masenzapercepireglielementidiincertezzachesonostatisegnalati;lostessoèveroperstoricisuc-cessivi,chesolitamentehannoconosciutoleletterediKirwitzersoloattraversoD’Elia(adesempio:J.Needham,ScienceandCivilizationinChina.VolumeIII.MathematicsandtheSciencesoftheHeavenandtheEarth,Cambridge1959,p.445;J.M.Lattis,BetweenCopernicusandGalileo.Chris-tophClaviusandtheCollapseofPtolemaicCosmology,Chicago1994,pp.204-5;N.Sivin,ScienceinAncientChina.ResearchesandReflections,Aldershot1995,IV,p.27).SecondoD’Elia,KirwitzerdichiaròlasuaadesionealcopernicanesimosolonellasecondaletteraperchénellarispostaallaprimaGrienbergersieradettofavorevoleaquellateoria.Questasupposizioneèstataaccettatadapartedellastoriografia,maèirrealistica:Kirwitzernonaccennòaquestaconvinzionedelcorrispon-dente,comesarebbestatonaturale;inoltre,sefossestatocopernicano,GrienbergernonavrebberispostoaisuoidubbiconsigliandoglidileggereleDisquisitionesmathematicaediScheiner,untipicoesempiodeitentatividisalvareilgeocentrismoadeguandoloalleosservazionirecenti.LeunichepresediposizionenotediGrienbergersull’argomentosonolasuaaccettazione–surichiestadelcard.Bellarmino–primadellamodalitàdiproibizionedell’eliocentrismo(marzo1616),cioèdelladistinzionetralasuaadeguatezzacomesistemadicalcoloelasuaveritàfisica,poideldecretodicorrezionedelDerevolutionibusorbiumcoelestiumpropostodaF.Ingoli(1620).Sièsostenutocheinsegretoeglifossecopernicano,mal’evidenzaperquestaaffermazioneèmoltolabilee,inognicaso,eglinonavrebberivelatolasuaconvinzioneaunapersonachenonconoscevadirettamente,echeavrebbepotutodivulgarla.ugobaldiniquantonoto–KirwitzerèilprimogesuitachedichiaròdiaccettareilsistemadiCopernicononcomeunmeccanismodicalcolo,macomedescrizionediunostatofisicoreale.Questoènotodaquando–quasi70annifa–lasualetterafuse-gnalataperlaprimavolta,edopodialloraèstatoripetutodastoricidellascienzagesuiticaedellascienzanellemissioni,masenzaappro-fondimenti:inparticolare,nonsembrachelaletterasiastatalettadaaltridopoilsuoscopritore.65Tuttavia,dopoladichiarazioneaGrien-berger,Kirwitzernonnefecealtre,perchélapartenzadall’Europaegliincarichisvoltidopol’arrivoaMacaolimitaronolasuaattivitàscien-tificaadalcuneosservazioni(oalmenononrestatracciadialtreenun-ciazioniteoriche:comesivedrà,tuttelesuecartedilavorodeglianniindianiecinesisonoperdute).Èprobabilecheeglidiscutesseriservata-mentelaquestioneconglispecialistigesuiticoniqualiebbefamiliaritàdopolapartenzadaGraz:aLisbonaconLembo,duranteilviaggioperl’IndiaconG.Rho,A.SchalleJ.Schreck,aGoaconG.A.RubinoepoiconC.Borri,aMacaoconI.Vreman.Nell’apriledel1616laCongregazionedell’Indiceinviòildecretocheproibival’eliocentrismoaiNunzidivaripaesieuropei,inclusileFiandreeilPortogallo,chieden-dodirenderlopubbliconeicentridistudio;seKirwtzernonloconobbegiàmentreeraaDunkerque,certamentenefuinformatoaLisbona.66Inveceèdeltuttoimprobabilecheparlassedell’eliocentrismoadaltri,esoprattuttoapersonecinesioindiane;cosìun’influenzadirettadelle

309308scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzersueconvinzioni–qualicheessefosseroprecisamente–nellastoriadeirapportiscientificiEuropa–Asiaèplausibilmentedaescludere.67Granpartedellaletteradel7giugno1615,però,nonriguardòstret-tamentel’astronomiamaunadisciplinaall’incrociotraessa,lastoriaelateologia,eperciònevralgicanellaculturagesuitica:lacronologiamatematica,conlesueimplicazioniperlastoriadelleoriginicristiane(e,inprimis,perladatazionedellanascitadiGesù).Itestifondatividellafasemodernadelladisciplina,dallaChronologiadiMercator(1569)all’OpusnovumdeemendationetemporumdiScaliger(1583),eranodiautoriprotestantiodidubbiaortodossia,maproprioperque-stoautoridellaCompagniaavevanocominciatoainteressarsialtemagiàprimadel1580,el’interessefurafforzatodalcoinvolgimentodiClaviusnell’elaborazionedelcalendariogiuliano.Tuttaviaalungogliinterventidigesuitiriguardaronosolopuntispecifici,mentreilprimotrattatocompletodiunautoredellaCompagnia,laChronologiadiJamesGordon,apparvesolonel1611.68L’interessediKirwitzer,docu-mentatosolodallaletteraaGrienberger,eraforsenatodaisuoicontat-ticonJeanDeckers,unconfratellovallonecheaGrazeraCancellieredell’Università.NegliannitrailsecoloxvieilxviiDeckersfuforseilpiùassiduocultoregesuitadicronologia,mailverticedellaCompagnianonglipermisedipubblicareisuoirisultatiinformacompleta,edessi66.LaletteradellaCongregazioneèstatapubblicatainU.Baldini,L.Spruit,Nuovidocumentigalile-ianidegliarchividelSant’Ufficioedell’Indice,in“Rivistadistoriadellafilosofia”,n.s.LVI(2001),4,p.676.LembomenzionòildecretonellesuelezioniaLisbonanell’ottobreonovembredel1616,quandoprobabilmenteavevagiàincontratoKirwitzer(Lisboa,ArquivoNacionaldaTorredoTombo,Livraria,ms.1770,f.122v);inognicaso,comesidirà,essisiincontraronoancora–efeceroosserva-zioniinsieme–all’iniziodelgiugno1617.67.Un’adesionealsistemacopernicanoèstatasostenutaancheperaltrimissionariinCina,comeM.BoymeN.Smogulecki,masoloperquest’ultimoesistonoprove(oindizi)delfattochelodescrivesseamandarini.CopernicofumenzionatonelWuweilizhi,attribuitoprevalentementeaRho,masempreinrapportoaquestionispecifichediteoriadeipianeti,nonallasuateoriagenerale:J.-C.Martzloff,“NotesonplanetarytheoriesinGiacomoRho’sWuweilizhi”,inR.Malek(ed.),WesternLearningandChristianityinChina.TheContributionandImpactofJohannAdamSchallvonBell,S.J.(1592–1666),Nettetal1998,p.599.Questoimportantevolume,chehapiùdi50studisututtiimomentidellavitaegliaspettidellaattivitàdiSchall,confermaquantodettoall’iniziodiquestosaggiosulleinadem-pienzedellastoriografia:KirwitzervisseconSchallperpiùdidueanni,ricchidiesperienzeformativeinsensoumanoescientifico,main700pagineèmenzionatosolounavolta,marginalmenteeinmodoinesatto(p.380).IlcasodiC.Borri,discussobrevementepiùavantiinquestosaggio,èdiversoperchéeglinonaderìalsistemasistemaeliocentricomaaquellodiBrahe,conmodificheeintegra-zionipersonali.68.Chronologiaannorumseriem,regnorummutationes,etrerummemorabiliumsedemannumqueabOrbeconditoadnostrausquetemporacomplectens,Burdigalae1611.SullosviluppostoricodellacronologiapressoigesuitivediU.Baldini,“LacronologiacomescienzaelaCompagniadiGesù:se-coliXVI–XVIII”,inL.M.Carolino,C.ZillerCamenietzki(eds.),Jesuítasensinoeciência.Séc.XVI–XVIII,CasaldeCambra2005,pp.59–97.69.VediAppendiceIII,nn.16e18.Deckers(1560–1619)nonpotéleggerequestelettere,perchémorìil10gennaio.UnelencodellesueopereèinSommervogel,Bibliothèque,II,cc.1870–3,IX,c.180,XI,c.1676,XII,cc.426,1035;unabibliografiasuluièinL.Polgár,Bibliographiesurl’histoiredelaCom-pagniedeJésus.1901–1980,Roma1981ss.,III/1,p.557.ComeGordon,Deckersrifiutaval’«eradio-nisiana»,cioèlacollocazionedellanascitadiCristoalterminedell’anno753diRoma,mailverticedellaCompagniagliproibìdipubblicareunatrattazionecompletadeisuoiargomenti,chesononotiinparteancheattraversoalcunesuelettereaClavius.Datochel’anticipazionedelladatadinascitadiGesùèunadelletesidiGordonpiùcriticatedaKirwitzer,sidevesupporrecheeglinonsapevacheeracomuneaDeckers,ocheevitòintenzionalmentedicoinvolgereilsuperiore.70.ÈimportantedistingueretrailfondamentotecnicodelleobiezionidiKirwitzereilloropossibileintentoconservatore.Inprincipio,latesidiGordon(e,inmododiverso,diDeckers)chel’annodina-scitadiGesùdovevaessereanticipatoeracorretta,mamoltideipassaggiastronomiciecomputisti-ciconcuilasostennenonloerano;l’analisidiKirwitzereradirettaprimariamenteamostrarequeglierrori,ciòchenonequivaleautomaticamenteaunadifesadelladatazionetradizionale.71.ARSI,Austria2/II,p.665.Ènotevoleche,nellastessadata,AlberrisposeaaltreduelettererelativeallibrodiGordon:unadiQuelmetz(nota23)eunadiDeckers.Questerisposte,annotatenellostessofogliodiquellaaKirwitzer,nonchiarisconolaposizionedeiduecorrispondenti,mailfattocheessiavesseroscrittoalVicarionellostessotempofapensareaunatteggiamentocriticocomune,anchesenonnecessariamenteidentico(comedetto,ancheDeckersanticipaval’annodinascitadiGesù).72.PrimadellaletteradiKirwitzerlaChronologiaavevaavutodueristampe,aPoitiersnel1613eaKölnnel1614;inseguitofuristampataaPoitiersnel1617enel1618(Sommervogel,Bibliothèque,III,coll.1612-3).Pocodopocessòdiesserealcentrodelladisciplina,nonperunacensuradell’Or-dinemaperchéfusostituitadall’operadiunaltrogesuita,l’OpusdedoctrinatemporumdiD.Petau,superioreinsensotecnicoeepistemologico(Baldini,Lacronologiacomescienza,cit.,pp.81–87).ugobaldinifuronopubblicatisoloparzialmenteesottoinomidiallievi.Kirwitzererainfamiliaritàconlui,comeprovanoduelettere(forseperdute)chegliinviòdaGoanelgennaioefebbraio1619.69InquellaaGrienberger,tuttavia,egliconsideròsolol’operadiGordon,sottopostaaunesameestremamentedettagliatoedistruttivo,direttosoprattuttoalletesisulladatadellanascitaedellapassionediGesù.Kirwitzernonsilimitòaunacriticatecnica(astronomicaecomputistica),mainsistettesuldiscreditochel’operapotevaprocurareallaCompagnia,perglierrorichecontenevaeperildiscostarsidallatradizionedellaChiesa.70Laperditadellasua(probabile)terzaletteraimpediscedisaperese,einchemisura,GrienbergeraccettòlesuecriticheaGordon.TuttaviaKirwitzernonsieralimitatoadiscuteretecnicamentel’argomentocolmatematicodelCollegioRomano,ma(forsenellastessadata)avevainviatounaletteracriticaanchealVicarioF.Alber;essanonèconser-vatainarsi,maloèlarispostadiAlber,del27giugno.71IlVicarioloassicuròcheavrebbesorvegliatolosviluppodiqueglistudi(inpar-ticolareperimpedirecriticheallemodalitàadottatedaClaviusnellariformadelcalendario),echiesediinviarglituttociòchesarebbestatoscrittosull’argomentoinAustria;tuttavianonrisultacheintervenissesuGordonocheagisseperfermareladiffusionedellasuaopera.72

311310scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzer5.InPortogalloItempidelviaggioperilPortogallosonoignoti,mailfattocheinmag-gioKirwitzereragiàaDunkerqueegliusidellanavigazionenell’epocasuggerisconocheviaggiassenell’estate.Dopol’arrivositrasferìprestoaCoimbra,perchéilcatalogo1616–1617delColegiodasArteslore-gistracomestudentedelquartoannoditeologia.73Dueframmentidiinformazionehannofattoritenerecheinquell’annoeglitenesseancheuncorsodimatematica.Nellagiàcitatalettera-relazioneaimissionaricinesi,TrigaultscrissecheKirwitzererainPortogallo,“mathematicaeprofessioneoccupatus”.Inoltre,nelladedicadiunlibrodimatematicadonatoaKirwitzerdaungesuitaportogheseeglièchiamatopraecep-tor.74Unsuoinsegnamentoèpossibile,maleespressionineiduedocu-mentinonbastanoaprovarechefosseannuoepubblico,ochefossetenutoaCoimbra.Icorsidimatematicatenutidamissionaricheatten-devanodipartireperl’AsiasonoquasisempreregistratineicatalogidelcollegiodiCoimbra,maperKirwitzerquestononavviene.Inoltreicorsineicollegigesuiticiterminavanononprimadellafinedigiugno,mentreladedicaèdatataLisbona,23maggio1617.Infine,ilcatalogusdel1616–17nonregistral’autoredelladedicaaCoimbramainunasedediversa,enonloqualificacomestudentedifilosofiaomatematica.Perciòèprobabilecheilcorsofosseprivatoedibrevedurata,elasuasedepotéessereCoimbramaancheLisbona.75Nelperiodoportoghese,duratotraunannoemezzoequasidue,unfattoscientificointeressanteful’osservazionetelescopicadiunacongiun-zioneLuna–Venere,fattaaLisbonadaKirwitzereLemboil6giugno1617.EssinescrisserounresocontoperJohannesSchreck,chel’inviòperletteraaJohannesRemusQuietanus(Ruderauf);asuavolta,Remus73.ARSI,Lus.39,f.95r.74.PerlafrasediTrigaultvediLamalle,LapropagandeduP.NicolasTrigault….,cit.,p.105.Perladedica:N.Golvers,Addendatotheprosopographyofthe‘foreign’Indipetae-mathematiciansinPor-tugueseSJcolleges(II):P.W.Kirwitzer,S.J.andG.B.Keynes,S.J.,“Archivesinternationalesd’histoiredessciences”,60(2010),165,pp.433–6;Id.,LibrariesofWesternlearningforChina:circulationofWesternbooksbetweenEuropeandChinaintheJesuitMission(ca.1650–ca.1750).1:Logisticsofbookacquisitionandcirculation,Leuven2012,pp.383–4,439.InentrambiquestiscrittiGolversconsideraledueinformazionicomeprovedelfattocheKirwitzerinsegnòmatematicaaCoimbra.75.InmarzoKirwitzereraancoraaCoimbra:vediAppendiceIII,lettera14.PerciòselelezionifuronotenuteaCoimbraessecessaronoentrolametàdimaggio.SeinvecefuronotenuteaLisbonapoteronocominciaredopolametàdimarzo,maanchesvolgersitral’estateel’autunnodel1616,primacheKirwitzerandasseaCoimbraperterminareglistudiditeologia(lafrasediTrigault,deiprimidigennaiodel1617,rinviaadalcunimesiprima).Inquell’annoaLisbonauncorsoufficialedimatematicafutenutodaGiovanniPaoloLembo,maquestononescludecheKirwitzernetenesseunobreveeprivato.76.RemusQuietanusaKepler,20ottobre1618,inJ.Kepler,GesammelteWerke.Band17.Briefe1612–1620,München1955,pp.276–7.LarispostadiKeplernonèconservata,eisuoiscrittiecorri-spondenzaposteriorinonmenzionanol’osservazione.AnchelaletteradiSchreckaRemusèproba-bilmenteperduta;egliarrivòaLisbonail31marzo1618(Lamalle,“Lapropagande…”,cit.,pp.61–62)epartìperGoacontuttoilgruppodiTrigaultil16aprile,perciòlaletteravadatatainquell’intervallo.77.UnabiografiaintellettualediLembo(1578–1618)eunabibliografiasuluisonoinU.Baldini,GiovanniPaoloLembo’slessonsinLisbon.Apartialcontentanalysis,incorsodistampanegliattidelconvegnodistoriadell’astronomiainPortogallo(Lisbona2012).78.AppendiceIII,nn.13,14.ugobaldinil’inviòaKepler,perchéusassel’osservazionepercalcolarelalongitudinediLisbonarispettoaPraga.76LemboeraunexallievodiClaviuseGrienbergernelCollegioRomanoederaunodeiquattromatematicidelcollegiochenellaletteraalcard.Bellarminodel24aprile1611ave-vanoconfermatoleosservazioniespostedaGalileonelSidereusnuncius;quindipotéinformareKirwitzersullevicendeprecedentialdecretodiproibizionedell’eliocentrismodelmarzo1616.77Eglinonerauncon-formista(probabilmentefuilprimoaesporreinPortogalloilsistemadiBrahe,delqualeproposeancheaisuoistudentiunaversionemodificata);perciòisuoiincontricolconfrèreboemopotrebberoesserestatisignifi-cativi,edispiacechediessisianotasolol’osservazionedel6giugno.LeattivitàdiKirwitzertrailgiugno1617elapartenzaperGoanell’apriledel1618sonoignote.IsuoirapporticonLembocessaronoalpiùtardinell’ottobre1617,quandoilgesuitaitaliano,seriamentemalato,partìpertornareinpatria.V’ènotiziasolodidueletterediKirwitzerdalPortogallo,cheperòsonoperdute,anchesepartidelcontenutosiricavanodaaccennideidestinatari,giàconsiderati.78IldatopiùinteressanteèlarichiestadeisuperioriportoghesidisostituireprovvisoriamenteLembocomelettorenellaAuladeesfera:unarichie-stafattadifrequenteaimatematicigesuiti(tuttinoniberici)intransitoperl’Asia,persupplireallamancanzadiquadridispecialistinellapro-vincialusitana.Normalmentelarichiestaavevasuccesso,anchecontrolavolontàdeimissionari,perchéarrivandoaLisbonaessientravanoafarpartedellaprovinciaportoghese,eperciòeranosottopostiall’au-toritàdeisuperiorilocali,eperchéquestiultimipresentavanol’ac-cettazionedellarichiestacomecondizioneperaiutarlipoiasuperarel’opposizionedelgovernoall’immigrazionedinonibericinellecolonieinAsia.79NelcasodiKirwtzer,però,isuperiorinonvollero–ononpoterono–obbligarloperchéeglifacevapartediunaspedizioneim-portante,supportatadalGeneraledellaCompagniaedadiversisovra-

313312scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerni,eperchéeral’affidatarioufficialedeidoniinviatiinAsiadalducad’Austria(dal1617ancherediBoemia).6.DaLisbonaaGoaTrigaultei22giovanigesuitichedovevanoandareconluiinCinagiunseroaLisbonaneiprimimesidel1618(l’ultimoadarrivarefuSchreck,il31maggio).Unapartedelgruppoeralapiùqualificatascientificamentetraquellipartitiperl’Asiafinoaquelmomento,eforseintuttoilperiododiancienrégime.OltreaKirwitzervieranoalmenotrealtrefiguredirilievo:ilmaggioredietà,Schreck,eragiànotoperleattivitàdiricercainGermania,inFranciaeaRoma;ledotiel’impegnodiGiacomoRhoeAdamSchallsisarebberomanifestatipienamentesoloaBeijing.Kirwitzer,SchreckeSchallfuronoancheiprimimissionarigesuitiinAsianonibericioitaliani.Suloro,levi-cendedelviaggioel’insiemedeidoni,strumentielibricheportaronoaMacaoesisteun’ampiabibliografia,cherendeinutileunadescrizionedettagliata.80Inveceènecessariorichiamarebrevementegliaspettipedagogico-scientificidelviaggio,qualeesempioclassicodellalogisticaedell’ottimizzazionedell’usodeltempoinunodeipiùnotevolisistemiditrasportotransoceanicodipersoneecosenellaprimaetàmoderna.81NellanavigazionediquasiseimesiversoGoa(16aprile–4ottobre)34missionarifuronodivisiinduenavi;i23destinatiallemissionicinesi,inclusiTrigaultei‘matematici’,furonosulgaleoneSanCarlos;sull’al-tranaveviaggiaronoquellidestinatiallemissionidellaprovinciadel79.Vedilaricostruzionediquestomeccanismoel’esposizionedeicasiindividualiinU.Baldini,“TheteachingofmathematicsintheJesuitcollegesofPortugal,from1640toPombal”,cit.N.Golvers(Addendatotheprosopographyofthe‘foreign’Indipetae-mathematiciansinPortugueseSJcolleges(II):P.W.Kirwitzer,S.J.andG.B.Keynes,S.J.,cit.)haaggiuntoalcunialtrinomi,inclusoquellodiVer-biest,ipotizzandochevifuronononpochialtricasi,nondocumentatidirettamenteperchélaseriedeicatalogidelPortogalloinARSIhalacuneeperché–comeforsenelcasodiKirwitzer–nontuttiicorsifuronoregistrati.Diconseguenze,Golversritienecheilgiudiziocorrentesull’esiguitàdeglistudimatematiciaCoimbra(oingenerenellaprovinciaportoghese)dovràesserecorretto.Tuttaviaesisteunlimiteintrinsecoemoltorestrittivo.LaseriedegliIndipetaepartitidaLisbonaneisecoliXVIIeXVIII(ricostruitaquasicompletamenteperisingolianniinJ.Wicki,“ListederJesuiten-Indien-fahrer1541–1758”,inSonderdruckausPortugiesischeForschungendesGörresgesellschaft.ErsteReihe.AufsätzezurPortugiesischenKulturgeschichte,7.Band,1967,pp.252–450)mostracheinmoltianniimissionarichepartironoeranosoloportoghesi,ochenonvieraalcunocompetentescien-tificamente.InoltreèincertocheipochicasiresiduisianodaaggiungereallaseriedeidocentidimatematicaaCoimbra.Infine,unasituazionemoltonegativadell’insegnamentomatematicointuttalaprovinciaportogheseèattestataspessodacontemporaneieneigiudizideisuperioriromani;perquestocredochel’aspettativadifuturemodifichesignificativedelgiudiziosiatroppoottimistica.80.MilimitoquiarinviareagliarticolisuognunodiloronelDiccionariohistóricodelaCompañíadeJesús,cit.,cheincludonolabibliografiaessenziale.81.Tralerelazionisulviaggioscrittedamissionaridelgrupposonoimportanti:unadiTrigaultdel20dicembre1618inBruxelles,Bibl.Royale,ms.4169–71,ff.26r–28v;un’altradiTrigault(pubblicatacomePraeambulacompendiosanarratiodesuccessunavigationissuaeetsocioruminIndiamorien-talem,etDestatureiChristianaeapudIapones,SinasetIndos.MissaeportuIndiaeGoanoadsocios,amicosetfautoresEuropaeos.Kalend.IanuariiAnni1619communicata,Mainz1620);unadiSchalldaGoa,9febbraio1619(ARSI,Jap.–Sin.142,ff.1r–3v);unadiKirwitzerdaGoaaignoto,del9gen-naio1619(pubblicatainA.Semedo,NarréveritabledelapersecutionexcitéecontrelesChrestiensauRoyaumedelaChine.ExtraitdeslettresduP.AlvaresSemededelaCompagniedeIesus,captifaumesmelieu,l’An1619,Paris1620,pp.56–68:“ExtraictdeslettresduPereWenceslausPantaleon,delaCompagniedeIesus,escriptesàGoale9Ianvier1619”).UnelencodellealtrerelazionièinA.Väth,JohannAdamSchallvonBellS.J.MissionarinChina,kaiserlicherAstronomundRatgeberamHofevonPeking1592–1666:einLebens-undZeitbild,Köln1933,pp.38–39n.5.82.LostudiopionieristicosulcontributodiRiccieTrigualtfuP.M.D’Elia,“Ilprimodizionarioeuropeo-cineseelafonetizzazioneitalianadelcinese”,inAttidelXIXcongressointernazionaledegliorientalisti,Roma1938,pp.172–178.IlprogrammasettimanaledellelezionirisultadallecartediSchall:illunedìeilgiovedìeratrattatalateologiamorale(casidicoscienza);ilmartedìeilvenerdìlamatematica;ilmercoledìeilsabatolalinguaeletteraturacinese:Väth,JohannAdamSchallvonBellS.J.,cit.,p.41.ugobaldiniGiappone,sottolaguidadelp.GabrielMatos.Lecondizionisanitariedelviaggio,normalifinoalCapodiBuonaSperanza,peggioraronodrasticamenteneltrattotral’AfricaeGoa,nelqualemorirono5dei23missionarisullaSanCarlos(unsestomorìdopol’arrivoaGoa),equasituttiglialtrisiammalarono.Questasituazionedrammaticacoinvolsel’equipaggioeglialtripasseggeri(dicirca600nemorirono40),cosìimissionariancorarelativamentesanifuronoassorbitidacompitidiassistenzamaterialeespirituale.Nelrestodeltempo,però,essiseguironounprogrammadiistruzionereciprocaediricerchesugliambientimarinieterrestricheattraversavano,nuovorispettoaiviaggimissionariprecedentiedivenutounmodelloperisuccessivi.Trigaultpresentòagliindipetaealcunielementidellalinguaescritturacinesi,equestoharilievoperchéalloraeglieraforseilmaggiorespertoocci-dentalesultemaeavevaperfezionatoilsistemadifonetizzazionedelcineseideatodaRicci.82LelezionidimatematicafuronotenutedaSchreck.Lefontinonprecisanoillorocontenuto;tuttaviaSchallavevaseguitoicorsinellaaccademiadimatematicadelCollegioRomano,Kirwitzerstudiavalamatematicadadiecianniel’avevainsegnata,Rhol’avevainsegnataaMilano.Perciònecessariamentelelezioniriguardaronotemiavanzati,enonsolooprevalentementeastronomiciodimatematicaapplicata,maanchedimatematicapura,comemostralasceltadeldocente:Schrecknonerauncultoreabitualedell’astronomia,maavevafrequentatoVièteaParigieavevastudiatolesueopere;inseguitoaRomaavevaavutofa-miliaritàconimatematicidelgruppodiClavioeconLucaValerio,

315314scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerdocentenell’universitàeunodeimaggiorimatematiciitalianidelperio-do.Perciòforsequellelezioniprepararonol’ampliamentotematicoeilsaltodilivelloevidentetragliscrittideimissionarigesuitiaBeijingnegliannidiRicci,RuggierieDeUrsisequellidiSchreck,RhoeSchall.Lericerchesonolapartepiùnotadelleattivitàsvoltenelviaggio,essendomoltopiùdocumentatedellelezioni,tuttaviabuonapartedeirisultatièperduta.Essenonfuronosolo‘matematiche’(geodetiche,astronomiche),maanchefisiche(geografiche,idrografiche,meteoro-logiche)e,insensogenerale,biologiche.83SchreckeKirwitzerfeceroanchemisuredelladeclinazionemagnetica,cheforseinviaronoaRomaassiemeallealtrenel1619o1620;giàversoil1640,tuttavia,A.Kirchernonriuscìatrovarle.84ScrivendoaJ.R.Zieglerl’11febbraio1619,mentreeraancoraaGoa,Kirwitzerelencòsommariamenteitipidelleosservazioni:abbiamomoltealtrecosechesarannomoltograditedaiNostri,maperlascarsitàditempononpossoinviarleora.Ilp.IoannesTerrentiusinquestobreveperiodoharaccolto500erbeignoteinEuropa;oranestafacendoidisegni,eriveleràilorousimedici.Descriveràancheindettaglioanimalicheinteressanolafilosofianaturale.Inoltreabbiamononpocheosservazionifattenella83.Nellarelazionesulleosservazionidellecometeapparsenelnovembre1618,scrittanel1619einviatanellostessoannoinEuropa,Kirwitzerscrissecheduranteilviaggioeglieicompagniavevanodedicatoquasituttoiltempoliberodallacuradegliammalati“inconsiderandisAustra-lisorbissyderibus,meteororumraritate,ventorumvicissitudine,marismotibus,acusnauticaelusu,eiusdemquemirainclinationeetdeclinatione,etmonstrorumvarietatequaeOceanivastitassubministrat,…,multaqueantehacnobisincognitaquibusdametiamnonbeneintellectaanima-dvertimus”:ObservationescometarumAnni1616.InIndiaorientalifactaeaSocietatisIesuMathe-maticisinSinenseRegnumnavigantibusexitinereeodelatis.AdejusdemSocietatismathematicosetaliosamicosEuropaeostransmissae,Ursellis1620,nella‘AdamicosEuropaeospraefatio’.Neltitolo‘1616’èerroredistampaper‘1618’.LeObservationesfuronopubblicatenuovamentenel1621aAschaffenburg,contitoloidentico(ma‘M.DC.XIIX’sostituisce‘1616’:Sommervogel,Bibliothèque,XII,coll.225–6).AschaffenburgfuunaresidenzadiZiegler,perciòquestaristampaèdaattribuirealui,mentrenonèchiarosesiadaattribuirglianchelaprima.UnriassuntodelleObservationesèinR.Streit,Bibliothecamissionum,v.5,Aachen1929,pp.736–7.84.Magnessivedeartemagneticaopustripartitum,quopraeterquamquoduniversamagnetisnatura…multahucusqueincognitaNaturaearcana…recluduntur,ColoniaeAgrippinae1643,p.380.KircherinserìleosservazionidiSchreckeKirwitzer(chechiamòKobitzer)nell’elencodiquellecheeranostatemandateaGrienbergereaaltrimatematicidelCollegioRomano,perciòèplausibilecheavessetrovatounanotiziainpropositoinunaletterainviataaunodiloro.NellaprefazionealleObservatio-nesKirwitzerscrissecheeglieicompagnistavanoperripartireperlaCina,perciòavrebbeinviatolealtreosservazionisuccessivamente(cioèdopol’arrivoaMacao);PoichéeglifuaMacaodalluglio1619eripartìperGoanell’autunnodel1620,avrebbepotutoinviareleosservazioniinEuropaall’ini-ziodel1621(usualmentelenavidiretteaLisbonapartivanodaGoainfebbraio,edifattoegliinviòalloraalcunbelettere).85.“Multaaliahabemusgratissimanostrisfutura,sedtemporisbrevitasmitterenoseanonsinit.P.IoannesTerrentius500herbascollegithocbrevitemporeignotasEuropae,earumdescriptionemnuncadornat,viresmedicinalesaperiet.AnimaliaetiamreliquaquaenaturalisPhilosophiaesuntcopiosedescribet,habemuspraetereamaritimasobservationesnonpaucas,acusnauticaeludibria,aquarumcursus,Oceanimotusetc.dabimusetsuotemporenonnullaGeographica,quiaerroresgra-vesdeprehendereincipimusetexpeririquoddetotaAsiaautparumautnihilsciamus”:AppendiceIII,n.17.86.Trigault,Praeambulacompendiosanarratio,cit.,p.5.87.L’aspettopiùnotodeldibattito(nonnecessariamenteilpiùimportanteinsensopuramenteastronomico)è,naturalmente,lacontroversiadiGalileoconO.Grassi(S.Drake,C.D.O’Malley,eds.,TheControversyontheCometsof1618,Philadelphia1960);peritempidelleosservazioniinEuropavediancheG.W.Kronk,Cometography.Acatalogofcomets.Volume1:Ancient–1799,Cambridge1999,pp.334–339.88.SuRubino(1578–1643)labibliografiaèorarelativamenteampia,mamancaunaveramonografia.Ll’articoloinDiccionariohistóricodelaCompañiadeJésus,cit.,IVcontienesolonotizieessenziali.89.L’interaseriediosservazionidelletrecometefuprecisatadaKirwitzerinObservationescometarumAnni1616,cit.,p.5ss.ugobaldininavigazionesuimutamentididirezionedell’agomagnetico,imovimentidelleacque,lecorrentioceanicheetc.Asuotemponeinvieremoanchealcunegeografiche,perchéabbiamocomin-ciatoascoprireerrorigravieacomprenderechesappiamopocoonullasututtal’Asia.85IlmancatoinviodelleosservazioniduranteilsoggiornoaGoafudovutoancheagliimpegnideimissionari,cheoltreacoadiuvareigesu-itilocalinegliattidicultoenellapredicazioneproseguironoglistudi;86probabilmente,però,fudecisivounimpegnoscientificoimprovviso.Pocopiùdiunmesedopol’arrivoinIndia,imatematiciosservaronolaprimadelletrecometeapparseneltardo1618,chefuronoalcentrodeldibattitoastronomicoinEuropa(essendoancheleprimeosservatecontelescopi).87Laprimafuosservatail10novembreaCochindaGiovanniAntonioRubino,anticoallievodiGrienbergeraLisbona,futuroVisitatoredellemissionidiCinaeGiapponeemartireinGiap-pone;88dall’11novembredaRhoaGoa;dal26novembredaKirwitzernell’isoladiDivar(chechiamaIuari),pressoGoa,assiemeaSchall.L’ultimaosservazionefudiRubinoaCochin,il18dicembre.Lasecondacometafuosservatail24novembredaKirwitzereSchall,ancoraaDivar,eentroil26daSchreck,RhoeRubino.Later-za(lapiùvisibile,ediscussanellaletteratura)il26novembredaRhoaGoa,efinoall’11gennaio1619anchedaKirwitzer,SchalleRubino,inlocalitàpiùnumeroseepiùdistantitralorodelleprecedenti.89L’11febbraio1619,suindicazionediTrigault,cheloavevaconosciutoin

317316scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerGermania,KirwitzerscrisselaletteragiàcitataperilmatematicodellaprovinciarenanadellaCompagnia,J.R.Ziegler,l’editoredei5volumidelleOperamathematicadiClavius.ConessagliinviòleObservatio-nes,chiedendoglidifarlestampareinGermania,perchéunconfrontoconquelleeuropeepotevagiovaresiaall’astronomiacheallageografia.Zieglersoddisfecesubitolarichiesta,maèdubbiocheilpiccololibroavesseunacircolazioneampia,anchesefulettodaKepler,chesiinte-ressòaunpuntodeltestochenonriguardavaleosservazionideimis-sionari,maunadiunacometa,fattaaCochinpiùdiunsecoloprima.90NessunaltroastronomoeuropeogiudicòpubblicamentelasostanzadelleObservationes,l’unicoscrittoscientificopubblicatodaKirwitzer.Piùdiduesecolidopo,inunaletteraalbaronediZachdelgennaiodel1821,ungrandeespertocomeW.Olbersnefeceunacriticadistrut-tiva,scrivendocheleosservazionieranocosì‘mauvaises’,ecosìpienedierrorideicopistiodeitipografichedaessenonerapossibilecalco-lareun’orbita‘tolerable’perciascunadelletrecomete.91Tuttaviasonodoverosedueconsiderazioni:Kirwitzerapparival’autoredellibro,masolometàdellepiùdi60osservazionierasua;all’iniziodell’operaegliinsistettesulfattocheeranostatefatteincircostanzeprecarie(“saepeinterruptosomno,saepeinitineribusterramarique,saepelocisadob-servandumincommodis”)echeglistrumentiusatinonpermettevanoun’esattezzasuperiorealminutodigrado(“nonidpermisereinstru-menta,locus,occupationes;praestitimuseamquampotuimusoperam,scrupolosaminutorumenumerationenoncontendimussisolidisnonerramusgradibusfactumsatis,multumnihilominuslinceosEuropaeo-rumoculosiuvarepoterunt,tantopraesertimintervalloanobisremo-90.“RogoinquirasdescriptorehistoricoLusitano,Jo.DeBarros;isanno1506,13Ian.annotateclipsinSolisCochinivisam(utscribitKirwizerJesuitaindescriptionecometae1618inIndiavisi),quaminvenioa.1507dictodie:anigituretiamHispaniannumin25Martiiinnovent?”(KepleraW.Schickard,Linz,25-4-1626,inJohannesKepler,GesammelteWerke,Band18.BriefeVI,1620–1630,herausgegebenvonMaxCaspar,München1959,p.261).L’astronomosiriferivaallap.24delleObservationes,doveeramenzionatal’osservazionediunacometariferitadaJoãodeBarros,Asia…dosfectosqueosPortuguesesfizeramnodescobrimentoeconquistadosmareseterrasdoOriente,Lisboa1553(onellatraduzioneitalianadiquest’opera,pubblicatanel1561).Analisimodernecon-fermanochelacometaapparvenel1507;chiscrivenonhapotutocontrollaresel’erroreèneltestodiBarrosonellacitazionediKirwitzer.KeplerricevetteinformazionisullibrodiBarros,checitònelleTabulaeRudolphinae,manonperl’osservazionedellacometamaperl’usodicomputaregliannidall’equinoziodiprimavera(TabulaeRudolphinae,quibusastronomicaescientiae,temporumlongin-quitatecollapsaeRestauratiocontinetur,…,Ulmae1627,ap.38della‘Tabularumastronomicarumparsprima’).91.OlbersaF.X.vonZach,Bremen7–1–1821,inCorrespondanceastronomique,géographique,hydro-graphiqueetstatistiqueduBarondeZach,IV,Gênes1820(lett.XIV,pp.475–8).ugobaldini92.VediAppendiceIII,nn.15–19.LetreaDeckerseaLamormaini,duefigurediverticenelcolle-gio-universitàdiGraz,volleroinformarelacomunitàdiprovenienzadiKirwitzersullecircostanzedelviaggioesull’ambienteindiano;quellaaZieglerriguardòsololapubblicazionedelleosservazioniequellaaunignotofuunarelazionedelviaggio.Quantoènotopermoltialtrimissionarirendevero-similecheeglinescrivessealtreadamiciocolleghi,comeanchealfratello.tos,mihisatiseritfidemdatamomniumexolvisse,solidiorasuotem-poredabimus”).NellaletteraaZieglerripetèche“defuerenobislibridefuereinstrumenta,omniaenimnostrasarcinisinclusaperturbata,eteotemporenondumenavibusextracta.Ideoqueminimeexactaesunt,sperotamenGermanisnostrisveleonominefuturasacceptasquiainIndiaOrientalifactae,necetiamomninoàscopoaberrantes,velali-quamsaltemlucemEuropaeisallaturas”.TuttaviaOlberscriticòancheerroridimetodochenondipendeva-nodalluogoodallaqualitàdeglistrumenti;eglirilevòanchecheleosservazionifatteinseguitodaSchallaBeijingfuronopiùsofisticate,econsideròquestofattocomeprovadellasuasuperioritàscientificasuKirwitzer.Tuttavialasuperioritàpotéessereilrisultatodiunamatura-zionesuccessiva,possibileperSchallperchéaBeijingeglipotéconcen-trarsisull’attivitàscientificaepotéusarelibrichenel1618Kirwitzernonavevaancorapotutoleggere.D’altrolato,ilfattochelascritturadellarelazionesulleosservazionifosseaffidataalBoemosembrasi-gnificarecheicompagnigliriconoscevanounacompetenzamaggiore(sesemplicementenonfudesignatodaTrigaultperchécircametàdelleosservazionieranosueeperchéeramaggioredietàdiRhoeSchall:ilruolodiSchreckerastatomarginale,conunasolaosservazione).LelocalitàdelleosservazionimostranoanchecheKirwitzerviaggiòspesso,sebbenesolonelcircondariodiGoa:daalmenoil24novembreal10dicembrefuaDivar;dal13al17fuaGoa;daalmenoil20al23ancoraaDivar,ecosìdaalmenoil27dicembreal9gennaio1619;dal10gennaiofuaSalsete,un’isolaprossimaallacittà.LatestimonianzacitatadiTrigaultmostracheeglieisuoicompagniproseguironoglistudi(probabilmentesoprattuttodellalinguacinese);inoltreoccupòpartedeltemporesiduonelloscriverelettere:lecinquedocumentate,elgennaio-febbraio1619,sonoprobabilmentesolounaparte.927.DaGoaaGoaTrigaultdecisediportareinCinasolocinquedeimissionarivenuticonluidall’Europa.Ilgruppopartìil20maggio1619,suduenavi:Schreck

319318scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerviaggiòsuquelladiTrigault,KirwitzereSchallsull’altra;RhorimaseaGoaperproseguireglistudiditeologiaeandòaMacaosolonel1622.LanavediTrigaultincontrògraviproblemi,giungendoaMacaosoloil22luglio.L’altra,puressendosiincagliataneibassifondidellostrettodiMalacca,rischiandoilnaufragio(ripartìdallostrettosoloil28giugno),laprecedettediunasettimana,arrivandoil15luglio.93Neimesiprece-dentiunadelleperiodichereazioniallapresenzadeimissionariinCinaavevacostrettoalcunidiloroarifugiarsiaMacao.Conduediloro,cheavevanounaqualchecompetenzascientifica(SabatinoDeUrsis,exal-lievodiClaviusaRoma,eManuelDiasjr.)igiovanimatematiciarrivatidall’Indiaebberounrapportocostante,perl’ammirazioneeilrispettocheispiravanoepertrarreprofittodelleloroesperienzeeconoscenzadellecosecinesi.DeUrsis–sebbenemalato–tenneperlorocorsisullalinguaeletteraturacinesie,sembraanche,suiclassiciconfuciani;94probabilmente,inoltre,liintrodusseancheloro,comeavevafattogiàfattoconVreman,aimetodidicomputoealcalendariocinesi.NonmoltodopoilsuoarrivoKirwitzerfuincaricatodiscriverelalitteraannuaperil1620che,comeprescritto,laviceprovinciadiCinadovevainviareaRoma.Nessunafontechiarisceperchéisuperiorisce-gliesseroluiperquestocompito,sempredelicatoeparticolarmentetale93.TuttoquestosileggenellalitteraannuadellaprovinciadelGiapponeedellaviceprovinciacineseperil1620,cheKirwitzerebbel’incaricodiscrivere.L’originaledellalettera,datataMacao,28novembre1620efirmata‘VinceslaoPantaleone’,èinArsi,Jap.-Sin,114,f.234ress.;essafupoipubblicatainRelationedellecosepiùnotabiliscritteneglianni1619.1620.e1621dallaCina,Roma1624,pp.62–100,coltitolo‘Relationedell’annoM.DC.XX’:vediinparticolarelepp.63–67.Questasecondapartedelviaggioèmenodocumentatadellaprima(altrefontisonoelencateinVäth,JohannAdamSchallvonBellS.J,cit.,p.49n.21).94.Nellaletteraannuadel1620(vedilanotaprecedente)KirwitzerscrissecheaMacaoeglieisuoicompagniappenaarrivatidaGoaavevamoincontratoalcunimissionariesulidaCinaeGiappone,“enoigodiamolagratissimaconversazionediessi”.Un’altrarelazionesullaCinaperil1620affermacheaMacaoDeUrsisesponeva“aphilosophiaSinicaaospadreseIrmaosIaponiae,ealgunosoutrosEuropeosdaquellaMissaocomtantasatisfaçaodosqueouviam”;“nomesmotempoensinava…osprincipiosdalinguasinica”(ARSI,Jap.–Sin.114,f.259r–v).Larelazioneperil1621,scrittadaTrigault,aggiunsecheIvanVreman(citatoall’iniziodiquestosaggio)studiòl’astronomiacineseconl’aiutodeimissionariespulsidall’imperochelaconoscevanomeglio(dunquesoprattuttoDeUrsis),echeprimadimorire(3–5–1620)lostessoDeUrsisavevainsegnatolalinguaei‘classici‘cinesi‘aquattrodeinostricheeranovenutidaEuropadifresco’(cioèaimatematiciarrivaticonTrigault):Relationedellecosepiùnotabiliscritteneglianni1619.1620.e1621dallaCina,p.241ss.PoichéRhoeraancoraaGoa,ilquartouditorefuquasicertamenteFranciscoFurtado(1587/9–1653),futurotraduttoreincinesedeiCommentariiadAristoteledei‘Conimbricenses’eviceprovincialediCina(HanQi,“F.Furtado(1587-1653)S.J.andhisChinesetranslationofAristotle’scosmology,”inHistóriadasCiênciasMatemáticas:PortugaleoOriente(HistoryofMathematicalSciences:PortugalandEastAsia)(FundaçãoOriente,2000),pp.169–179).Questoinsegnamentodeiclassicièconfermatoanchedalcatalogodelcollegioperil1617-18,chechiamaDeUrsis‘mestredoslivrossinicos’:vediiltestoinJ.F.Schutte,MonumentahistoricaJaponiae.TextuscatalogorumJaponiae1553–1664,Romae1975,pp.781–784.95.J.Ruiz-de-Medina,“IvanVreman,Split1583–Nanchang1620.ACroatamongtheJesuitMissionariesofJapanandChina”,inV.Pozaic(ed.),JesuitsamongtheCroats.Proceedingsoftheinternationalsymposium:JesuitsintheReligious,ScientificandCulturalLifeamongtheCroats.October8–11,1990,Zagreb2000,p.252.96.IltestolatinoèinARSI,Jap.–Sin.114,f.234rss.;unatraduzioneitalianaapparveinRelationedellecosepiùnotabiliscritteneglianni1619.1620.e1621dallaCina,Roma1624,pp.62–100,enellaristampadellaRelationeapparsaaMilanoconlostessotitolonel1625;nellostessoannovifuancheunatraduzionefrancese(Histoiredeceqvis’estpasséesroyavmesdelaChineetduIapon:tiréesdeslettresescritesésannées1619,1620&1621adresséesauR.P.MutioVitelleschiGeneraldelaCompagniedeIesvs,Paris1625).UnriassuntoèinStreit,Bibliothecamissionum,v.5,cit.,pp.738–740.97.U.Baldini,“TheJesuitCollegeinMacaoasameetingpointoftheEuropean,ChineseandJapa-nesemathematicaltraditions.Someremarksonthepresentstateofresearch,mainlyconcerningsources(16th–17thcenturies)”,inL.SaraivaandC.Jami(eds.),TheJesuits,thePadroadoandeastAsianScience,Singapore2008,pp.33–79,passim.ugobaldiniinunmomentodifficiledellerelazionideimissionariconl’imperocine-seementreinGiapponeproseguivalapersecuzionecontroicristiani.Laragionepotéesserelastessachelefontiindicanoperl’affidamentodellostessoincaricoaVremannel1616:laletteradovevaesserescrittainlatino(o,insubordine,initaliano),maimissionarianzianiricorda-vanosoloillatinodeitestiliturgiciodiquestionidottrinali,equelliitalianiavevanoquasidimenticatolaproprialingua.95Seguendolosco-poelaconsuetudinediquestelettere,KirwitzernarròprimailviaggiodelsuogruppofinoaMacao,poidescrisselostatodell’imperocinese(anchenegliaspettipoliticiemilitari),laprospettivageneraledelcri-stianesimoinquell’areaelasituazionedellesingolemissioni.Laformadelsuotestofuquellapropriadeidocumentidiquestogenerequandononeranosolocelebrativienonenunciavanosolosperanze:essaunivaunainformazionedettagliataerealisticaaunafiduciaprofondanellapossibilitàdimodificarelasituazione,tipicadichicredevadiesserestrumentodeldisegnooccultodellaprovvidenza.96AMacaoinuoviarrivatiincontraronoVreman,chevieradallugliodel1616e,attendendolafinedellacrisiperpoterentrareinCina,viavevatenutoalcunideipochicorsidimatematicadocumentatinellastoriadelcollegiodiSãoPaulo.97EgliavevaanchefattoalcunedellemisurediposizionepiùattendibiliperGoaeMacaoeavevaraccoltoquelledialtri,ancheperilGiappone;perciòèprobabilecheSchreck,KirwitzereSchalldiscutesseroconluiquellemisureel’interostatusdelleconoscenzesullageografiadell’Asiaorientale.ÈincertoseVremanentròinCinaallafinedel1619oallafinedel1620,cosìloscambiodiesperienzepotéavvenireinunperiododicirca5mesioin

321320scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerunodicircaunannoemezzo.98SeeglilasciòMacaonel1620lasuapartenzafuquasicontemporaneaaquelladiKirwitzer,chetuttavianonandòinCina,matornòaGoa.Ilmomentoeleragionidiquestofattoimprovvisosononotisolodacennivaghieindirettiinletteredialtri.Il12dicembre1621ilp.EstevãoCoelhoscrisseaMalaccaunaletteraalGeneraleVitelleschi,informandolocheerastatoinviatolìparaversepossoaquicompraralguafazenda,quedeeren-dimosbastantesparasesustentaramissãodaChina…PorqueopeNicolaoTrigaooccupousseemtrazersojeitos,masnào[…]paraossustentar,…Porqueosseuslivrossàomui-tobonsparapastodosentendimientos,masnàodoscorpos;osseusinstrumentosMathematicossaomuitobonsparatomaraestrella,masnàoparadeixardeavernomeijodia;osseusrelo-giostambensaobonsparadarhoras,masnaoparadarsusten-tacao;porestacausanomesmotempoemqueeuvimparaesta[tierra],veijotambenàGoaopeVenceslaoPantaleonconalgunspecesdasquetraxeopeTrigaoparasevenderemaosMogores,efazeralgund[ineir]o,quememandasseparaemaquicomprarasfazendas,ouseachassealguaoccasiãoboaascomprassenamesmaGoa,ounoNorte;mascomomeescrevaoesseannoopenaosepoderàocomprarnaquellaspartes,porqueasdeGoanàosàobonas,enoNorteou[…]quehaobedienciade[…]ouseespera[…]paranàosecompraremmaisfazendasperlas[…]quealitemaCompaniaegrandescandaloquedesso[tomao]osseculares.99Coelhononful’unicochecriticòTrigaultperaverportatodall’Eu-ropaoggetti(scientificionon),manondenaro;lasuadelusionefuco-munetraivecchimissionari,ancheseforsenonfumanifestataaperta-mente.100Ciòcheinteressaqui,tuttavia,èl’informazionesuKirwitzer.98.MentrealungosiècredutocheVremanpartìdaMacaoperlaCinaallafinedel1620,unostudiorecenteanticipailsuoingressonell’imperoallafinedel1619:Ruiz-de-Medina,“IvanVreman,Split1583–Nanchang1620”,cit.,p.259.99.ARSI,Goa18,f.54r-v..100.PerprotesteanaloghevediLamalle,“LapropagandeduP.NicolasTrigaultenfaveurdesmis-sionsdeChine”,p.68.Lamalleleconsideròeccessive,ricordandocheTrigaultavevaottenutounapensioneperlamissionedaalmenounsovrano;tuttaviaespressionicomequellediCoelhomostra-nocheisuoirisultatieranoapparsideludenti.101.Lalitteraannuaperil1620èdatatadaMacaoinquelgiorno;quindiprobabilmenteeglistessolaportòaGoaperfarlainviareinEuropa.Lapartenzapotrebbeessereavvenutasubitodopoil12dicembre,perchéunaletterascrittaaMacaoinquelgiornofutrasportataquasicertamentedallasuanave:vedilanotaseguente.102.Il12dicembre1620ilp.J.RodriguesscrissedaMacaoalducadiParmaRanuccioFarnese,unodeisovranicheavevanodatoidoni,chiedendogliilpermessodivenderneparteperleesigenzedellamissione:Lamalle,“Lapropagande…”,cit.,p.99n.28.QuasicertamentequestaletterafuaffidataaKirwitzernelviaggiofinoaGoa,enonsipuòescluderechelettereanaloghefosseroinviateadaltrisovrani.L’intenzionedialienarepartedeiregalièconfermatadalfattoche,mentrepartediquellidiFerdinandIIperl’imperatoreWanlifuronoportatiaBeijingdaSchallnel1623,quellidelducadiBa-vieraeranoancoraaMacaonel1624(Lamalle,“Lapropagande”,cit.,p.79n.114.Stranamente,unostoricoespertoeaccuratohascrittochei“peces”(tradottoininglesepieces,cioèsingolioggetti,insensogenerale)erano“Chineseslaves”:igesuitiavrebberoacquistatoschiaviaMacaoeKirwitzereCoelhosarebberostatiinviatiaGoaeMalaccapervenderlie,coldenaroottenuto,acquistareterrecoltivabilicheinseguitofornisserounredditoallemissioniinCina(D.Alden,Themakingofanen-terprise.TheSocietyofJesusinPortugal,itsempire,andbeyond:1540–1750,Stanford1996,p.385).Questoèdeltuttoestraneoaltestodellaletterae,perpiùragioni,èintrinsecamenteimprobabile.ugobaldiniNeldicembre1621CoelhoavevagiàricevutounasualetteradaGoa,nellaqualeKirwitzerloinformavasuattivitàchestavasvolgendolìdauncertotempo,perciòdovevaesserepartitodaMacaomoltimesipri-ma,quasicertamentesubitodopoil28novembre1620,quandodatòaMacaolalitteraannua,101arrivandoaGoainfebbraio,secondoitempiabitualidelviaggiotraleduecittà,impostidalciclodelmon-sone.Il21febbraio,daGoa,scrisseunaletteraaLamormaini,quasicertamenteperduta,chesarebbestatoimportanteconoscereperchéprobabilmenteKirwitzerspiegòalsuoanticorettoreilmotivodelri-tornoaGoa,eforselesueprospettivepersonali.SecondoCoelho,eglierastatoincaricatodivendereaiMoghulpartedeidonifattiaTrigaultdasovranieuropei(presumibilmentealcunidiquellidestinatiaglialtifunzionarieall’imperatoredellaCina,perchéidoniaimissionariera-noessenzialmentelibriestrumenti,cheeranonecessariperloroenonavevanovalorepernonspecialisti).102Comenelcasodell’incaricodiscriverelalitteraannua,laragionecheindusseisuperioriascegliereKirwtzerèignota.Traisuoicompa-gniSchalleFurtadoeranomenoesperti,SchrecknonerapiùgiovaneeilsuoingressoinCinanonpotevaessereritardato,Vremannonerainbuonasaluteedattendevagiàdatreannidientrarenell’impero;inoltre,dopoilsoggiornoaCoimbraeLisbona,probabilmenteKirwitzerparlavailportoghesemegliodeisuoicompagnidiviaggio.Tuttoquesto,però,nonspiegaperchénonfossesceltounodeigesuiticheeranoaMacaodalungotempo.Certamenteilmotivodellasceltafu(osembrò)cogente,perchéduranteilviaggiodall’Europaunoodue

323322scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerdeimissionari-matematicieranomortienonèplausibilecheTrigaultrinunciassefacilmenteaunaltro,peruntempoche–anchesoloperiritmideitrasportimarittimi–nonpotevaessereinferioreadueanni.Inognicaso,dopoilmutamentodidestinazionedalPeruallaCina,unfattoestraneoallavolontàdiKirwitzerfunuovamentedecisivoperlasuavita.EglinonfudestinatoadentrareinCinacomematematico,ilruoloperilqualeerastatoscelto,edopol’arrivoinAsiavissepiùaGoa(quasiquattroanni,sommandoiduesoggiorni)cheaMacau(circadueanni,ancorasommandodueperiodi).LadifficoltàdiKirwitzernelrealizzareilcompitoassegnatogli,ac-cennatadaCoelhoaVitelleschi,fuforseilmotivodellalunghezzadelsecondosoggiornoaGoa,duratodall’iniziodel1621almaggio1624.Lesueattivitàneiprimidueannisonoignote.Se,comescrisseCoe-lho,eglifuincaricatodivendereoggettipreziosio‘curiosi’aimoghul(all’imperatore,aprincipidinasticioagovernatoridelleprovincevici-neaGoa),probabilmentepercorsepiùvolteversonordlacostaoccidentaledell’India.103Tuttaviaquestocompitononpotéassorbiretuttoiltempodiunsoggiornodipiùditreanni,unperiodocheforsefuancheilpiùserenoemenoimpegnatodellasuavitainAsia.Kirwitzeravrebbepotutoproseguireglistudiolericercheinastrono-mia,oinaltrisettoridellemathematicaescientiae;comesivedrà,unafraseinunaletterasuccessivasignificaforsecheorganizzòimaterialidelleosservazionifattenel1618–1619,ochenefecealtre.Madeglianni1621–1622ènotosolounepisodiomarginale:unaletteradelp.ManuelDiassr.aVitelleschi,datataMacao,il10giugno1622,fuinizialmenteinviataaKirwitzeraGoaperchéegliprovvedesseafarlaproseguireperl’Europa.104Laprimanotiziasignificativa,dell’apriledel1623,sitrovainunafontenongesuitica,lanarrazionediviaggiodel103.ForseKirwitzerdescrisseisuoitentativieirapporticonimoghulnellaletteraaFerdinandvonHabsburg(dal1619nonpiùducad’Austriamaimperatore)scrittadaGoail20gennaio1624(AppendiceIII,n.22).104.ARSI,Jap.–Sin.161,ff.61r–62v(AppendiceIII,n.21).Conlalettera(inrealtàunarelazione,pre-cedutadallafrase“RelaçãodoporquenaoforamategoraosSoldadosqueelReydeChinapedioaCidadedeAmacao,mandaaopeManoelDias,aoPeVenceslaopantaleaoprocuradordaqueleMissãoemGoa”)DiasinformòilGeneralechel’imperatorecineseavevachiestosoldatieartiglieriaaiPortoghesidiMacaoperresistereagliattacchideiManchu,echelacittàavevadecisodiconcederli.AggiunsepoicheincambioegliavevaavutoilpermessodientrareinCinaconSchalleRuideFiguereido(1594–1642),ciòcheavrebbefattoil16o18giugno.Questadatapoimutòperchél’attaccoolandeseaMacao,preparatoprimaeavvenutoneigiorniimmediatamentesuccessivi(21–24giugno),costrinseitremissionariarimanerenellacittà,dove-comeènoto–igesuiti,eparticolarmenteSchalleRho,arrivatoilmeseprecedente,furonoimportantinell’organizzazionedelladifesa.105.SuDellaValle(1586–1652),poeta,musicistaeautoreditestiteatrali,cheperisuoilunghiviaggiamòchiamarsi‘ilPellegrino’,vedilasintesibiograficadiC.MicocciinDizionariobiograficodegliItaliani,37,Roma1989,pp.764–770.106.ViaggidiPietrodellaValleilPellegrinodescrittidaluimedesimoinletterefamiliariall’eruditosuoamicoMarioSchipano,divisiintreparticioè:laTurchia,laPersiael’India,collavitaeritrattodell’autore,Volumesecondo,Brighton1843,letteraII(27aprile1623),p.597.Intuttelefontidelpe-riodoasiatico,gesuiticheenon,KirwitzerèchiamatosempreVenceslausPantaleon,senzailnomedellafamiglia;eglistessosifirmòquasisemprecosìnellesuelettere.Borri(1583–1632;Brononeidocumentiportoghesi)avevainsegnatomatematicaincollegidell’ItaliasettentrionaleeeraarrivatoaMacaonel1616insiemeaVreman;poierastatoinviatoallemissioniinCochinchina.Nel1622,permotivinondeltuttochiari,chieseeottenneditornareinEuropa,arrivandoaGoaforseall’iniziodel1623.EglidisseaDellaVallechesecondoicalcolidiT.BrahelalatitudinediGoaera15°40’nord,elalongitudine“circaquattr’orepiùall’orientediFrancoforte”[FrankfurtamOder],cioè60°est(ViaggidiPietrodellaValleilPellegrino,cit.,II,lettera3daGoa,20ottobre1623,pp.601–2).DopoaverlasciatoGoa(febbraio1624)BorriinsegnòmatematicaaCoimbraeLisbonafinoal1629;dopounsoggiornoaMadrid,dal1630/1fuaRoma.Lasuavitaeattivitàscientificasonostatiesaminatipiùvolte,mamancaunaveramonografia(L.PetechinDizionariobiograficodegliitaliani,III,pp.3–4;D.M.GomesdosSantos,VicissitudesdaobradeCristovãoBorri,in“AnaisdaAcademiaPortuguesadeHistória”,s.II,III(1951),pp.119–150;U.Baldini,“ThePortugueseAssistancyoftheSocietyofJesusandScientificActivitiesinitsAsianMissionsuntil1640”,inHistoriadascienciasmatematicas:PortugaleoOriente,Lisboa2000,pp.64–5,n.44).Borriideòunmetodoperlamisuradellalongitudineeloproposealgovernospagnoloepoiaaltri,masenzasuccesso;DellaValle,convintodellacorrettezzadelmetodo,continuòapropagandarloanchedopolamortedell’amico,maancorasenzarisultati(A.Mercati,NotiziesulgesuitaCristoforoBorriesusuedacartefinorasconosciutediPietroDellaValle,ilPellegrino,in“ActaPontificiaeAcademiaeScientiarum”,XV(1951),pp.25–46).107.ViaggidiPietrodellaValleilPellegrino,cit.,v.2,letteraIII:Goa,20ottobre1623,p.598.108.Vedisoprattutto,inViaggi,cit.,lelettere7e8(finoap.787).ugobaldiniromanoPietroDellaValle,giuntoaGoainquelmesedopoannidipermanenzanell’ImperoottomanoeinPersia.105Dal10aprileDellaVallefuospitenellaresidenzadeigesuiti,doveconobbesubitoKirwitzer,chegliapparveunafiguranotevole(“ilP.PantaleonVincislaoalemannogranmatemattico,bellissimoingegno,…procuratordiCina”),eunaltromissionario-matematicodirilievo,CristoforoBorri,colqualestabilìunlungolegamediamicizia(aGoaBorrifuanchesuoconfessore)echeincontròdinuovoaRomadopoil1630.106Il17aprileKirwitzermostròaDellaValleunlibrostampatoincarattericinesicontenenteunadescrizionegeograficadell’imperoeglispiegòlecaratteristichedellescritturecineseegiapponese.107IlprimoottobreilviaggiatoreromanopartìdaGoa,mavifunuova-mentedall’11gennaioal15novembredel1624:intotale,dunque,funellacittàperpiùdisedicimesi,neiqualisembraavereavutoincontrifrequenticonKirwitzer;lesueletteresuccessivedelperiododiGoanonparlanopiùdirettamentedilui,maforniscanounquadromoltodettagliatodelleattivitàreligioseeculturaliedegliinsediamentideigesuitinellaregionediGoa,descrivendoeventideiqualiilBoemofucertamentespettatoreeancheattore.108Inoltreimportantiinformazioni

325324scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzersuirapportidiDellaVallecolmissionariogesuitasononellesuecarte,conservatenell’ArchivioSegretoVaticano.Daquesterisultachenelse-condosoggiornodiDellaValleaGoaKirwtzerglichieseunarelazionegeograficasullaPersia;ilviaggiatorenescrissesubitounaprimaversio-ne(datata1febbraio1624),manonnefusoddisfatto;cosìdopoilri-tornoinItalianescrisseunasecondaampliata,intitolataDerecentioriimperioPersarumsubiectisregionibus(datataRoma,16aprile1628),ilcuimanoscrittoèprecedutodaunaletteraaKirwitzer.109Mentrepreparavaquestotestoperl’amico,DellaVallemantenneirapporticonlui:l’8dicembre1624gliscrisseunalettera,nonconservatamaregistrataneisuoidiari;110larispostadiKirwitzer,datataMacao2novembre1625,èinvececonservatanellacorrispondenzadiDellaValle111eilluminalavitadelGesuitanelperiodotrailmaggio1624eilsettembre1625,cheinaltrefontirisultaquasideltuttooscuro.FinoralastoriografiahapercepitoeconsideratosoloduelatideltriangoloDellaValle–Kirwitzer–Borri,descrivendoseparatamenteilrapportodelviaggiatoreconognunodeiduegesuiti;ilrapportotraBorrieKirwitzerèstatoignoratototalmente,anchesolocomeproble-ma.112Sembraovvioattribuirequestoall’assenzadidocumentazione;tuttavia,seusualmenteunaricercaèsuggeritadaun’evidenzadocu-mentaria,anchel’assenzadiquestapuòessereunostimolo,ofarpercepiresignificatitrascuratiindocumentigiànoti.Laveraragioneèstataladivisionedellecompetenze:glistoricidiDellaValle,perlopiùinteressatiaisuoiviaggieallasuaattivitàletteraria,nonconosco-nointimamentelastoriadellemissioniasiatichedellaCompagniaenonhannoneppuretentatodiidentificare“PantaleonVincislao”;unaidentificazionenonèstatatentataneppuredaibiografidiBorri,perchéDellaValleparladeiduegesuitiinluoghidiversidellesuelettereenon109.IduetestisonoorainModena,Bibliotecaestense,mss.698,699:ilsecondoèquellodel1624.Sull’opera:C.Cardini,Laportad’oriente.LetterediPietroDellaValle.Istanbul1614,Roma2001,pp.270–1.Un’edizioneèinP.DellaValle,DerecentioriimperioPersarumsubiectisregionibus,E.Gamaleroed.,in“Studiiranici”17(1977),pp.287–303;unatraduzioneingleseèinS.Brentjes,V.Schüller,PietroDellaValle’sLatinGeographyofSafavidIran(1624–1628):Introduction,in“JournalofEarlyModernHistory”,10(2006),3,pp.169–219.VediancheS.Brentjes,“ThepresenceofancientsecularandreligioustextsinPietroDellaValle’sunpublishedwritings”,inW.Floor,E.Herzig(eds.),IranandtheWorldintheSafavidAge,London2012,pp.329–333.110.ArchivioSegretoVaticano,ArchivioDellaValle–DelBufalo188,f.50v(AppendiceIII,n.23).111.ArchivioSegretoVaticano,ArchivioDellaValle–DelBufalo51,letteran.13(AppendiceIII,n.26).112.BorrieraarrivatoaMacaonelluglio1616,eeraandatoinCochincinaallafinedel1617onellaprimametàdel1618;perciònonsieraincontratoconKirwitzer,checomedettoarrivònell’avampo-stoportoghesenelluglio1619.113.Ms.Fondogesuitico587:Deastrologiauniversatractatus.ugobaldinicollegamaiiloronomi;infine,nessunodeipochibiografidiKirwitzersembraconoscereleletterediDellaValle(datochequasituttiignora-vanocheKirwitzertornòdaMacaoaGoa,nonavevanomotiviperesaminaregliscrittidell’Italiano).Anchesoloinlineadiprincipio,èaltamenteprobabilecheisupe-rioridiMacaoincaricasseroBorridiportarenotizieedisposizionialprocuratoredellaprovincia,cheeraassentedapiùdidueanni;inoltre,nel1623,traigesuitidiGoaeglieKirwitzereranoisoligesuiticom-petentiinmatematica,perciòèpiùcheprobabilecheavesseroscambidiinformazionieopinioni.Tral’altro,inunannopassatonellostessocollegioèquasiimpossibilecheessinonscoprisserodiessereentrambicriticidell’astronomiatolemaica,anchenellesueversionipiùrecenti,enonconsiderasserocauseeeffettideldecretodiproibizionedell’elio-centrismo(marzo1616).Aquesteconsiderazionidiprincipiosiunisceunacircostanzadifatto.InVietnam,oneimesitrascorsiaMacaoinattesadipartireperGoa,BorriavevaespostoinunlibroilsistemaastronomicodiTychoBrahe,conifenomenieleosservazionisuiqualisibasava,sistematizzando,epresumibilmenteampliava,ilcontenutodilezionicheegliavevatenutoaMilanonel1612,conservateinunmanoscrittodellaBibliotecaNazionalediRoma.113NellelezionidiMilanoBorriavevagiàmessoindubbioilsistemageocentrico,econessolacosmologiaaristotelica,affermandol’esistenzaditresolicieli(lasferadell’aria,quelladegliastriel’Empireo),negandolasoliditàdelsecondo(quindiriutandolesfereplanetarie)edescrivendolealternati-verappresentatedaisistemidiCopernicoeBrahe.NellibroscrittoinAsia,però,egliavevaprecisatoleproprietesi,accettandointeramenteilsistemadiBrahe,inseritonellacosmologiadeitrecieliegiustificatononsoloconosservazionieargomentimatematici,maconun’esegesideitestibibliciepatristicipertinentichetendevaaeliminareleloroapparenticontraddizioniconlanuovaastronomia.Nellanavigazioneversol’IndiaBorriavevaperdutoillibroduranteunatempesta;aGoaegliparlòaDellaValledelleideediTycho,menzionandoancheillibroperduto,eilviaggiatoreglichiesediscriverneunbrevecompendiodainviareaZaynal-Din,unastronomo-astrologopersianocolqualeave-vastabilitoamiciziaechegliavevachiestodiinformarlosullenovitàdell’astronomiaeuropeaediinviarglilibrirecenti.Borriscrisseilcom-

327326scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerpendioinlatino,eDellaVallenefeceunatraduzioneinpersiano,cheinviòsubitoaLar,dovevivevaZaynal-Din.IltestodiBorrièperduto,malaversionepersianadiDellaValle,introdottadaunasualetteraall’astronomopersiano,restainduecopienellaBibliotecaVaticana,unitaaunatraduzioneitalianafattadaDellaVallenel1631,dopoilritornoaRoma.114L’episodio,leformelinguistichedellatraduzioneeilcontenutodelcompendiodiBorrisonostatiesaminatipiùvolte,datalasuaimpor-tanzanelprocessodidiffusioneinAsiadellanuovaastronomiaeuro-pea.115QuisiintendesoloconsiderarepassidellaletteradiDellaValleedeltestodiBorricheforsedocumentanol’interscambioscientificotraBorrieKirwitzer.Nellalettera,DellaVallescrissecheBorriloavevaaggiornatosualcuniprogressirecentidellascienzaeuropea:alcuniinmatematica,inparticolarenelcalcolodeiseni(“coseassaidelicate”);“alcunisopral’istrumentodell’Occhialelungopervederdalontano,contuttal’artesua,econtuttiisecretidellascienza,cheinessositro-vano”(cioèladiottricadellelentielemodalitàcostruttivedeitelesco-pi);“alcunidellaosservazionede’corpilucidi(cioèdelleComete)chenelcieloindiversitempisonoapparsi,eparticolarmentediqueiduegrandi,checinqueoseiannifasividero”.NeltestodiBorri,inoltre,ènotevolel’affermazionecheglistrumentidiBraheesistevanoancoraaPraga,nelpalazzoimperiale.116DiognunadiquesteinformazioniKirwitzerpotevaesserelafonte(ounadellefonti).Quantoallaprima,mentrelecompetenzeegliinteressidelgesuitaitalianoinmatematicapuranonsononoti,sièvistochegiàall’iniziodeisuoistudimatemati-ciKirwitzeravevacompresochetavoledeiseniperfezionatepotevanoessereunostrumentodiavanzamentodellateoriaastronomica.Quan-114.Leduecopiesononeimss.Vaticanipersiani9e10.LanotiziasullibrodiDellaValleelasuaperditadurantelanavigazionedaMacaositrovanellaletteraaZaynal-Din.Inunaletteradel1630o1631alGeneraledeiGesuiti,M.Vitelleschi,Borriscrissechel’astronomopersianoavevarispostoaDellaValle,ringraziandoloperl’inviodeltestoeapprezzandolo(vedilaletterainGomesdosSantos,Vicissitudes,cit.).115.A.Sayili,AnearlyseventeenthcenturyPersianmanuscriptontheTychonicsystem,in“Anato-lia”,3,1958,pp.84–87;O.Dror,K.W.Taylor,eds.,ViewsofSeventeenth-centuryVietnam.ChristoforoBorrionCochinchinaandSamuelBarononTonkin,Ithaca2006,pp.42–3;S.Brentjes,TravellersfromEuropeintheOttomanandSafavidEmpires,16th–17thcenturies:seeking,transforming,discardingknowledge,Farnham2010,pp.411–2;A.Ben-Zaken,Cross-CulturalScientificExchangesintheEast-ernMediterranean,1560–1660,Baltimore2010,cap.2(elarecensionediM.Lejbowicz,S.BrentjesinAestimatio,10(2013),pp.1–24).116.Ms.Vat.Pers.10,f.24r.Nelms.9iltestoèidentico,macuriosamenteifoglifuronolegatiinordineinverso(dalf.27alf.1).117.NeiViaggi,invece,DellaVallescrisse11maggio(p.772).118.SuMorejon(1562–1639)vedil’articolodiR.YuukiinDiccionariohistóricodelaCompañíadeJesús,cit.,III,p.2743.ugobaldinitoallaseconda,nellasecondaletteraaGrienbergeregliavevainclusol’otticaelatecnicacostruttivadeitelescopitraipropritemidiricerca.Quantoallaterza,leCometedel1618eranostatel’oggettodell’unicoscrittoscientificodaluipubblicato;ancheBorrileavevacertamenteosservateinVietnam,mailfenomenoeracosìrecentecheèquasiassio-maticocheaGoaiduegesuitisifosserocomunicatilerispettiveosser-vazioni,echeBorriavesselettoiltestodiKirwitzer.Infine,lasortere-centedeglistrumentidiTychoeranotaapochi;nonrisultacheprimadilasciarel’EuropaBorriavesseavutorapportidiretticonl’ambientescientificodiPraga,eessendopartitoperl’Asianel1615(dall’Italianel1614)difficilmentepotevafareaffermazionisullasituazionedeglistrumentinel1623.Quellioraindicatisonosoloelementiindiziari:nonrisultati,madirezionidiricercafutura.Questapotràsvilupparsisoloapprofonden-dolefontisulcollegiodiGoaneglianniventidelsecoloxvii:untemaindagatomoltopocoinrapportoallasuaimportanzapotenzialeperlacomprensionedell’interscambioculturaleEuropa–Asia.8.IldifficileritornoaMacaoLaletteradiKirwitzerdel2novembrecontieneunacronistoriapiutto-stodettagliatadeisuoispostamentidopolasuapartenzadaGoa,chedataal18maggio1624.117Formalmenteilsuocompitodiprocuratoreeraterminato,cosìsarebbedovutotornareimmediatamenteaMacaodove,presumibilmente,avrebbeiniziatoun’attivitàpropriamentemis-sionaria.Lasorte,tuttavia,introdusseundiversivonellapersonadelp.PedroMorejón,chetornavadaRomadov’eraandatocomepro-curatoredelGiappone.MorejóndovevaviaggiaresullastessanavediKirwitzer,perraggiungereMacaoedalìilGiappone,doveerainattolapersecuzionedeicristiani.118Oltrechesuperioregerarchicamente,eramoltopiùanzianoederaunafiguraautorevoleperl’azionemis-sionariasvoltainGiapponeeinquantostoricodellapredicazionecristiananell’arcipelago.NonsipuòdimostrarerigorosamentechelapersonalitàdelprocuratoreelasfidarappresentatadaunasituazionedrammaticaavesserouneffettodecisivosuKirwitzer;tuttavia,da

329328scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerquelmomentoeglisembraaverdefinitivamentesceltodidedicarsiaun’azionemissionaria‘sulcampo’rispettoaunafocalizzatasulpianointellettuale(cheforseerailsuoprogettooriginario).Lalettera,ealtridocumenti,suggerisconocheilviaggiolotrasportòinunadimensionediversadaquellacheglieraabituale.ComescrisseaDellaValle,dopol’arrivoaMalacca,il15luglio,lasuanave,inseguitadagliOlandesiepoiarrivataquasianaufragareinunatempesta,fucostrettaprimaarifugiarsiaSumatra,poiatornareaMalacca.Durantequestedevia-zionilastagionefavorevolepernavigareversolaCinaterminò;MorejóndecisediandareinSiam,dovesperavaditrovareunanaveperilGiappone,eKirwitzerloseguì;tuttavialacostanteminacciade-gliOlandesilicostrinseadaspettarepertuttol’inverno1624–1625,nelqualepercorserogranpartedellaregione,entrandoancheinstatipiùomenoindipendentidalregnodelSiam(‘omniaearegna’),dove–egliscrisse–ottenneromolteconversioni.NellaletteraKirwitzerfornìmoltidettaglisugeografia,organizza-zionepolitica,usireligiosiecivilidiquell’area.Inoltreinformòilcor-rispondentecheinseguito,conunanavigazionefaticosaepericolosa,eglieMorejóneranoandatiinCambogia,ottenendoaltreconversioni;poi,mancandonaviperMacao,eranoandatiaManila,dinuovoaffrontandopericoliesofferenze,chesieranoripetutinelviaggiodaManilaaMacao,doveeranoarrivatiinsettembre.Questasuccessionedifattieracorretta,maKirwitzernonspecificòmoltolacronologia;soprattutto,però,eglievitòdiparlaredidueelementicentralidellasi-tuazione:unopoliticoedistrategiamissionaria;unopiùpersonale.Quantoallacronologia,iltrasferimentoinCambogiaavvennenell’apriledel1625elapartenzaperManilaingiugno/luglio;119lasostaaManila,traluglioeagosto,durò20giorni;120iduegesuitiarrivaronoaMacaol’1settembre.121Ladimensionepoliticaècom-plessa.MorejóneKirwitzereranoarrivatiinSiamduranteunacrisi,dovutaauncontrastotrailrelocaleeungruppodisoldatispagnoli,degeneratoinscontroarmato;circa30spagnolieranostaticatturati119.J.Ruiz-de-Medina,“Camboya”,inDiccionariohistóricodelaCompañíadeJesús,cit.,I,p.611.120.MorejonalP.AssistentedelPortogallo,NunoMascarenhas,Macao,10novembre1625(ARSI,Jap.–Sin.18,ff.53r–54v).NellaletteraMorejonscrissecheavevapensatodiandaredirettamentedaManilaalGiappone,manonerastatopossibile.InoltremenzionòunasualetteraaMascarenhasdalleFilippine,contenenteunresocontodeisuoiviaggiconKirwitzer;lalettera,tuttavia,nonsembraessereinARSI.121.Yuuki,art.cit.122.J.Burnay,NoteschronologiquessurlesmissionsjésuitesduSiamauxviiesiècle,in“ArchivumhistoricumSocietatisJesu”,XXII(1953),43,pp.178–202.123.Burnay,ibid.124.Adesempio,inunaletteraaignoto,scrittaforseallametàdel1625(AppendiceIII,lett.26),deploròchegliSpagnolinonavesseroapprofittatodiunavittoriasugliOlandesinelmaredelleFilippineperespellerlidallaregione,echesottovalutasseroitentatividiespansionedeiDanesinellastessaarea.ugobaldinieeranodetenuti,elatensioneconseguenterendevaincertalasituazio-nedeglieuropei(oalmenodegliiberici)nelregno.LetterediMorejónmostranochefuquestaragioneaindurreiduegesuitiaspostarsiinCambogia.122DopoilloroarrivoaManila,ilviceréspagnolochieseaMorejónditornareinSiampernegoziarecolrelaliberazionedeiprigionieri,quasisubordinandoaquestoilpermessodiraggiungereMacao.LadesignazionediMorejóneradovutaalfattochegliSpa-gnolinonavevanoespertinellalinguaecostumilocali,mentreinSiamvieraunaconsistenteeinfluentecomunitàgiapponese,comprendenteanchesoldatimercenarichecostituivanolaguardiadelreeavevanopartecipatoalcombattimentocongliSpagnoli.Morejóndovetteaccet-tare,subordinatamenteall’approvazionedeisuperioridopoilsuoarri-voaMacao;ilpermessoglifudato,conlacondizionecheall’incaricodiplomaticoegliassociasseuntentativodifondareunamissionelocalestabile.123QuantoaKriwitzer,lesueletteremostranoche,neisuoispostamentiattraversoambientiesituazionidiverse,edopofrequenticontatticonpersonalitàdivertice,sianellecolonieeuropeecheneglistatiasiatici,egliavevamaturatounavisionepersonaledelladinamicapoliticaemilitarenell’areacompresatraMacao,Indocina,IndonesiaeFilippine:dubitavadellacapacitàdeiPortoghesidifrenarel’espan-sioneolandeseeritenevachegliSpagnoli,pureavendolepotenzialitànecessarie,nonagivanoconlarisolutezzanecessaria.124Ladimensionepersonalefudolorosa.Kirwitzerlarivelòsoloinunaletteraaundestinatarioignoto,scrittaforseaManilanell’estatedel1625.PartendodaGoaavevaportatoconséildenarocheavevaraccoltoinIndianeglianniprecedenti(“quoddamexIndiasubsidiumamesuperioribusannisprocuratum”)perlamissionecinese,plausibil-mentevendendopartedeidonideisovranieuropei.PrimadipartiredaMalaccaperilSiamloavevainviatoaMacaosuun’altranave,assiemeatuttelesuecarte(“cumomnibusmeisscriptis”),maquellanaveerastatacatturatadagliOlandesietuttoerastatoperduto.Kirwitzerrappresentòséstessoconun’immaginechecolpisce,quella

331330scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerdiunuccellochetentidivolaredopocheglisonostatestrappatelepenne(“nuncavissinepennisvolito”).Inoltreevidenziòuncontrastoperluidoloroso:all’atteggiamentofavorevoledimoltireasiaticiversolaCompagnia,chepotevapermetteregrandisuccessinelleconversioni,corrispondevaunascarsitàassolutadiuominiemezzifinanziarinelleprovincedell’Asiaorientale.125ConoscerelacomposizionedegliscriptaperdutisarebbeessenzialeperognivalutazionediKirwitzerscienziatoedelleragionipercuinonrealizzòneppurepartedellepromessegiovanili;tuttavianéquellalette-ra,néaltresuccessiveindicanoilcontenutodegliscrittiperduti.Èplau-sibilechetraessi,oltreallacorrispondenzaeadocumentirelativiallavitadell’Ordine,vifosseroleosservazioninonastronomichedel1618–9,chenellaObservationescometarumegliavevapromessodipubblicare:lecartesuperstitidiSchalledeglialtrisuoicompagninelviaggiodall’Europanonmenzionanomaiquelleosservazioni,cosìèplausibilechefosseroinpossessodiKirwitzer.Tragliscrittipotevanoperòesserviancheosservazionioricerchefatteinseguito:ilgiudiziodiDellaVallesuKirwitzer‘grandematematico’probabilmentefuinfluen-zatoanchedallasuareputazionetraigesuitidiGoa,edopocinqueanniessaplausibilmentenonderivavasolodalleosservazionidellecometedel1618.Alritornonellacittànel1621KirwitzerviincontrònuovamenteRho,chesarebbeandatoaMacaosolol’annosuccessi-vo;perciòèplausibilecheiduecollaborasseroinqualchericerca.LabrevitàdellasuavitasuccessivareselaperditadegliscrittidiKirwitzerdefinitiva,ecancellòognipossibilitàdiassegnargliunruoloscientificoprecisonellastoriadellemissionidell’EstremoOriente.9.Lafineprimadell’inizioNel1625Kirwitzeravevacirca38anni,emalgradoquellidedicatialsuoincaricodiprocuratoreavrebbeancorapotutoiniziareaoperarecomespecialistascientificoaBeijing,raggiungendoisuoicompagninelviaggiodel1618,oanchealtroveinCina:Schreckeraentratonell’im-peroall’etàdi45anni.Ma,ancoraunavolta,ipochidocumentipost-1624cheloriguardanononaccennanoaquestapossibilità.Nellalette-ragiàcitatacheinviòaunignotoametàdel1625Kirwitzerscrisse:125.Bruxelles,Bibl.RoyaledeBelgique,ms.4169–71,ff.58r–59r.126.Bruxelles,Bibl.RoyaledeBelgique,ms.4169–71,f.58v.LaletteraealtridocumentidellerelazionideigesuiticolSiaminquegliannimostranochenessunmissionarioconoscevalalinguaThai,echealsuopostoerausataquellagiapponese,conosciutainSiamperlapresenzadimoltiimmigratidall’arcipelago.127.L’originaleèinARSI,Jap.–Sin.114,ff.387r–401v.IltestofupoipubblicatoinLettereannuedelTibetdelMDCXXVIedellaCinadelMDCXXIV,scrittealM.R.P.MutioVitellschi,generaledellaCom-pagniadIGiesù,Roma1628,pp.59–130.UnatraduzionefranceseapparvecomeHistoiredecequis’estpasséauroyaumedelaChineenl’année1624,tiréedeletresécrites…auR.P.MutioViteleschi,généraldelaCompagniedeJésus[parleP.W.P.Kirwitzer],traduitedel’italienenfrançoisparunpèredelamesmeCompagnie,Paris1629.UnriassuntoèinR.Streit,Bibliothecamissionum,V,Aachen1929,pp.756–759.ugobaldiniSistapreparandoanchelaspedizioneperilSiam,eilVicerédelleFilippinechiedeunpadrecheconoscalalinguagiapponesepertrattaremoltequestioniconquelRe.Credocheviandràilp.Morejón,eforsesaròioilsuocompagno,ecreeròunanuovamissioneinquelregnoeinquellodelLaos,situatonelnordalcentrodialtreterre.126Questafrasesembradenotarelasceltadeliberatadiun’attivitàreli-giosarispettoaunascientifica;inrealtà,però,nonvisonoelementiperdecidereseladeliberazionefuspontaneaorazionalizzòaposteriorilasituazione:dopol’ingressodiRho,nel1623,forseisuperioriconsi-deravanosufficienteilnucleodeimatematicipresenteinCina,ol’esi-guitàdelnumerodeimissionariqualificatiesigevacheKirwitzerfosseimpiegatonell’organizzazionedelleattivitàdiconversione,che–dopotutto–eranoloscopoprimodellemissioni.Inognicaso,eglisembravaprontoadabbandonaredefinitivamenteladimensionedellaricerca.NelperiododipreparazionedellaspedizioneperilSiam,dasettem-breall’iniziodidicembre,Kirwitzerassolseavariimpegni.Il2novem-bre,quandorisposeaDellaValle,avevagiàscrittolalitteraannuaperl’anno1624,terminatail27ottobre;127forsecontemporaneamente,lavoròallatraduzioneincinesediuncatechismopopolare,scrittodalp.JoãoRodrigues(Tsuzu,‘l’Interprete’);certamenteiniziòlatraduzio-neinlatinodiunoscrittosullageografiadelGiapponedellostessoRodrigues.L’annuadellemissionicinesiperil1624,‘scrittapercom-missionedelP.Provinciale’,comesileggenellaclausolafinale,fuco-struitacomequellaperil1620,malasceltadeicontenutifuinpartediversa.L’aggravarsidelconflittotraiMingegliinvasoriManchurichieseunmaggiorspazioperquestoargomento.InoltreKirwitzerevidenziòilcreditoacquisitodaSchallnellacortecinesepredicendo

333332scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzeresattamentel’orad’iniziodidueeclissidilunanel1623e1624,128ciòcheavevamostratolasuperioritàdeimetodieuropeiepreparòilsuoingressoufficialenell’ufficioastronomicoimperiale.LatraduzionedelcatechismodiRodriguesnonèattestatadadocu-mentirelativiaKirwitzer,masolodaunaannotazionedelsuonomealterminedellapartecineseinunacopiadientrambeletraduzioni,trova-tanel1919daJosephDahlmannnellaBibliotecaImperialeUniversita-riadiTokyo.129QuestamancanzadinotiziesullagenesidellatraduzionecostituisceunaltroimportantelimiteallapercezionedelruolodiKirwi-tzernellavitadellacomunitàgesuiticadiMacao.IltestodiRodriguesavevainiziatoafareemergerealcunideiproblemiteologici,linguisticieconcettualicheinseguitoportaronoallaquerelledeiriticinesi,cosìilfattochelatraduzionefosseaffidataaKirwitzer,chenonerastatonellaCinainterna,erastatoaMacaosoloperunannoemezzoeavevaunaconoscenzadellalinguaedellecredenzelocalicertamenteinferioreaquelladialtrimissionari,sembraindicarecheisuperiorilogiudicava-noilpiùadattoquantoacapacità.Ilperiodoincuieglisiapplicòaquestolavoroèignoto;tuttavialasuatraduzionesibasòsultestopor-toghesediRodrigues,cosìèplausibilecheeglilavorasseincontattoconlui(ancheperchélatraduzionecinesedovevaarmonizzarsiconquellagiapponese,chel’Interpreteavevagiàterminato).130NonrisultacheKirwitzerincontrasseRodriguesprimadel1625,mentreinunaletteradell’ottobrediquell’annolomenzionò.131Perquesto,Macaoeimesidasettembreanovembredel1625sembranoilluogoeilmomentopiùprobabilidellatraduzione;tuttavialabrevitàdiquestoperiodoeilfattochealloraKirwitzerebbealtriimpegninonbrevieintellettualmenteim-pegnativinonautorizzanoatrasformarel’ipotesiincertezza.Anchel’iniziodellatraduzionelatinadelloscrittogeograficoèatte-statosolotardieindirettamente,inunaletteradiRodrigues(Macao,30novembre1627)all’AssistentediPortogallo,NunoMascarenhas.128.Pp.90–91.129.J.Jaksch,Sudetendeutscherinderweltmissiondes17.unddes18.Jahrhunderts,Königstein1957,pp.171,203.130.Lacomposizionedelcatechismoèstatadatatatra1611e1612:M.Cooper,RodriguestheInterpreter.AnEarlyJesuitinJapanandChina,NewYork,Tokyo1974,pp.278–9,287–8.Sorprenden-temente,CoopersembraignorareilnessotralaversionecinesedelcatechismoeKirwitzer.131.Kirwitzeralp.SebastiãoVieira,inRoma(Macao,30ottobre1625;AppendiceIII,n.24).All’iniziodellaletteraunarchivistascrisseerroneamente30–X–1615,eCooperaccettòquestadata(sebbenenell’ottobre1615KirwitzerfosseancoraaGraz).132.M.Cooper(ed.),JoãoRodrigues’sAccountofSixteenth-CenturyJapan,London2001.LaletteradiRodriguesaMascarenhasèinARSI,Jap.–Sin.18,ff.88v–89r);vediancheCooper,RodriguestheInterpreter,cit.,p.331.133.HistoriaSocietatis43,f.63r:“P.VincislausPantaleonisMacai22Maii1626”.InpassatoquestodocumentoelaletteradiRodriguessonostatilargamenteignorati,cosicchélamortediKirwitzerèstatacollocataanchenellaCinainternaoinGiappone,edatataanchemoltiannidopo:secondoA.Huonder,DeutscheJesuitenMissionäredes17.und18.Jahrhunderts…,FreiburgimBreisgau1899,p.189(seguitodaV.Ryneš,JesuitasbohemicostrabajandoenlasmisionesdeAméricaLatinadespuésde1620,in“Ibero-americanaPragensia”,5(1971),p.194),‘forse’KirwitzereramortoaKai-fung-funel1642.134.ARSI,Jap.–Sin.18,f.65r.135.Vedisupra,nota124.136.VediBurnay,NoteschronologiquessurlesmissionsjésuitesduSiamauxviiesiècle,cit.,p.178–183.ugobaldiniRodriguesscrissecheKirwitzer,autorizzatodaisuperiori,avevagiàtra-dottoilprologoealcunicapitolidell’opera,dedicandolatraduzionealGeneraleVitelleschi,maerastatofermatodallamorte.Eglinonindicòiltitolodell’opera,cheperòsembradaidentificareconquellasugeo-grafia,societàecostumedelGiapponerimastaineditapersecoliinvarimanoscritti,epubblicatasolorecentemente.132Dellatraduzioneparzia-lediKirwitzernonrestanotracce,malaletterafissauntermineantequemperlasuamorte,checoncordaconundocumentodell’arsicheladataaMacao,il22maggio1626.Sonocosìcancellateipotesieaffer-mazionidiverse,ripetutealungosebbeneprivediognifondamento.133Laletteraeildocumentoarsinonaccennanoallecausedellamor-te,maunaletteraprecedentediRodriguesaMascarenhas(26aprile1626)aggiungeunterminepostquem,cheugualmenteavvaloraladatadel22maggio.Egliinfattiavevascritto:“EsteCollegio[diMacao]ficanopresentecomhumsodoentegravementeedepertodecincomesesqueheop.eVenceslaoPantaleon”.134Seallafinediapriledel1626Kirwitzereramalatoda5mesi,lasuamalattiaerainiziataallafinedinovembreoall’iniziodidicembredel1625,pochigiornidopocheavevascrittolaletteraaDellaValle.Unaconfermapuòessereilfattocheil13dicembreMorejónpartìpertentaredicostituireunamissioneinSiamnonportandoconséKirwitzer,comeilBoemoavevaipotizzatonellaletteraalcorrispondenteignoto,135maungesuitapor-toghese,AntónioCardim,eunogiapponese.136Lanotiziadiunamalattiagraveèsolonellaletteradell’aprile1626,enessundocumentoaccennaalperiodofinaledellavitadiKirwitzer.QuestosilenziononfucomunenellaCompagniaperunreligiosodelsuolivello,eoriginainterrogativi.Laregistrazionedellamorteinun

335334scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzercodicedellaseriearsiHistoriaSocietatisprovacheessafucomuni-catadaMacaoaRoma,mailmessaggiochelatrasmisenonsembraesserenell’archivio.IlcanaleditrasmissionepiùplausibileèlalitteraannuadellaviceprovinciadiCinaperil1626,perchéusualmenteidocumentidiquestotipoelencavanoigesuitimortiinunannoinunaprovincia,spessoaggiungendonotiziebiografiche;tuttavial’annuanonèconservatanell’archivioromano(cheinveceperquell’annohaquelladelGiappone).Inoltre,datocheKirwitzernonavevaavutocompitimissionariodigovernodiparticolarerilievo,nonerastatoaRomaenonconoscevapersonalmentealcunodeigesuitichevierano,lesueattivitàelasuamortenonebberorisonanzaalcentrodellaCompa-gnia,enonlasciaronoquasinessunatraccianellamemorialisticaenel-lastoriografiadell’Ordine.137IlfattocheDellaValle–inrapportoconigesuitieconilCollegioRomanogliscrisseunaletteranelsettembre1627,piùdiunannodopolasuamorte,138èspiegabileperché–datiitempidellecomunicazioniAsia-Europa–lanotizianoneraancoragiuntaaRoma.Tuttaviaquellachegliscrissenell’aprile1628,allegataallaversionedefinitivadellarelazionegeograficasullaPersia,provachefuoridell’ambientegesuiticolamortediKirwitzerebbepocaonessunarisonanza.139Ilsilenziosiesteseallasuacorrispondenzaeaipossibilimanoscritti(apartequelliperdutinel1624),maimenzionatiinseguitoedeiqualinonv’ètraccianeifondibibliotecarioarchivisticicollegatiallaresidenzaealcollegiodiMacao.10.AlcuneriflessioniconclusiveIlritornoaGoanel1620etuttociòcheeraseguitofinoalritornoaMacaonel1625eranostatiglisviluppidiquellachedovevaessereunaparentesioccasionale,ounadeviazionemomentaneaimpostadanecessitàorganizzativediversedaunaattivitàpropriamentemissiona-137.QuestorisultaevidentesesiconsiderailcasoquasicontemporaneodiVreman.Ilgesuitadalmataavevaavutoincarichianchepiùmodestiedisecondalinea,maperlamortetragicanellemissionicinesilasuafiguradivenneesemplare:l’ARSIconservadiverserelazionisull’ultimoperiododellasuavita,chefuanchedescrittoindiversestoriedellemissioniscrittedagesuiti,finoallaCinadiDanielloBartoli.ForseunacomunicazionefuinviataanchealcollegiodiGrazoalpadreprovincia-led’Austria,maunaricercainquestosensonell’archiviodellaprovinciaaustriacaoinbibliotecheearchividiGraznonèmaistatafatta.138.AppendiceIII,n.28.139.Laletteranonfuspedita,perciòforseDellaVallefuinformatodellamortedell’amico;maquestoprobabilmenteavvennesoloquandoeglichieseaigesuitiromanidiunirelasualetteraaquellecheessiinviavanoinAsia.ugobaldiniria.Mailmezzosieraprolungatofinoadiventareloscopo,elafinearrivòprimadell’iniziodiun’attivitàstabile.IntuttiidocumentidiKirwitzer,orelativialui,successivialsuoarrivoaMacaonel1619nonunaparolariguardalascienza;sesiastraedalfattocheDellaVallelogiudicòun‘granmatematico’,gliunicielementievidentidicontinui-tàconlasuavitaprecedentesonoilnomeel’appartenenzaallaCompagnia.Èinevitabilechiedersisequestosarebbecambiatoconlafinedellasuaattivitàcomeprocuratoredellaprovincia(quasisempre,ecertamentenelsuocaso,questacaricaavevaoriginecontingenteeduratalimitata).Nonvisonoelementiperunarisposta;ilsuounicoaccennoalfuturo(lapossibilepartecipazioneaunamissioneinSiam)sembramostrarecheeglipensòaunaattivitàreligiosafuoridellaCinapiuttostocheadivenireunmissionario-matematicocomeisuoiexcompagninelviaggiodall’Europa,ilcuiruoloeramoltoparticolareedeccentricorispettoaquellitipicidegliuominidellaCompagnia.SipuòancheosservarecheilruolodiProcuratorenonsololosottrasseperannisiaallavoromissionariocheaquellodiricerca,magliprecluseanchel’ascesagerarchica:perlamaggiorpartedelsoggiornoinAsiafuaGoa,doveistituzionalmenteeraunospite,appartenendoallaviceprovinciacinese;nelpocotempochefuaMacaoglifuronoaffidatiin-carichiintellettualmentequalificati,maestraneiallapiramidedigovernodellaviceprovinciaodelcollegio;quandosiammalònonerastatoan-coraammessoallaprofessionedeiquattrovoti,sebbenelasuaetà(tren-tottoanni)superassequellamediadellaprofessione,chesolitamenteav-venivaattornoai35.LascarsaecodellasuamorteneidocumentidellaCompagniaenellestoriemissionariemostrache,seancheerastimatointellettualmente,lasuafiguranonavevaacquisitoiconnotatidipresti-gioodiesemplaritàreligiosacheoriginavanoampiecommemorazioni.NonsipuòescluderecheilcontattoprolungatocheKirwitzerebbeaMacaonel1623conBorri,chenellamissioneinCochinchina–secondoilmetodoteorizzatodaMatteoRicci–avevausatoanchelesuecompetenzematematicheperacquistareprestigiopressoisovranilocali,glisuggerissedireplicareinSiaml’esperimentocheaBeijing,dopoRicci,eraproseguitoconDeUrsiseproseguivaconSchreck,SchalleRho.TuttaviainSiamnonesistevaunastrutturacomeilTri-bunaleastronomico,utilizzabileperlaricercaecapacediconferirleunprestigioistituzionale,eledotazionistrumentalielibrariesarebberostatedacostituireinteramente.Forseilcarattereentusiastaelareligio-

337336sitàquasifebbrilecheappaiononellesueletterediindipetainclinaronoKirwitzerapercepirequestasituazionecomeunostimoloinvecechecomeunostacolo;edèanchepossibilechelasuareligiositàglifacesseapparirel’aperturadiun’interanuovaareamissionariaun’impresapiùcoinvolgentedelconsolidamentodiunagiàesistente.Tuttavia,inque-stocaso,lapassioneperleproblematicheteoricheespressanellelettereaGrienberger,l’opzionecopernicana(conlapossibilecrisipersonaledeterminatadaldecretodel1616),l’interesseperilperfezionamentoconcettualeestrumentaledell’astronomianonavrebberoavutopiùspazio.Questaevoluzionefucertamenteilrisultatodellainterrelazionetraunamaturazioneindividualeelalogicadicircostanzedifficilieapriorideltuttoimprevedibili;soloricerchefuture,colritrovamentodinuovidocumenti,potrannodeterminarel’influenzadiciascunodeidueelementi.scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzer83rPaxChristiR.deinX.oPaterIgnotusrvscribo,licetmihiobDisciplinarumMathematicarumexcel-lentemcognitionemrvsitnotissima.ScriboincitatusàMathematicaeamatoribus,quibuscumPragaeantebienniumfamiliariusversabar,etderebusadscientiamnostrampertinentibusconferebam.Scribocon-fidentius,eoquodnepotemrv(quiplurimumrvsalutat)praeteritoannoinPoeticisinstitutumhocannoadRhetoricamtranscripserim.ScribodeniquenecessitateetIgnorantiacoactus:Ignorantiaquidem,utàrvinstruar:Necessitatevero,quiaAstronomiaesolideperitus,quibuscumconferampaucosapudnosvideo,nisifortassesuperbulosquosdamhaereticos.Quinquenniumiamelapsumestp.r.cumAstronomiaefonda-mentapenitusinspicerem,vidiPtolomaeumetAlphonsumRegeminsuistabulisAstronomicisproculàveritateaberrare,totummeitaqueCopernicodetabulisPrutenicisaddixi,illispraesertimquasMaginusauctioresreddidit.IniisautemdumversoretDemonstrationesexactasrequiro,videoetiamnonpaucioribusPrutenicasscatereerroribus,pro-staphaeresespraeposterecomputatusesseplurimas,hicauctioresibiminores:insupercumGraecioPragammissusessem,Deoforteitadi-sponente,vidiSextantemCopernici,quoilleplerosquecoelestesmotusobservarat140multisinrebusnonexactum,utproindenonimmeritononparumapudmeauthoritasCopernicimaximetamenPrutenicarumtabularumceciderit.Novamergorationemcoelestesmotuscomputan-diaggressusconstruerecoepinovamsinuumtabulam,cuiussinustotusessetpartium100000000000eandemquead10usqueminutanimisimprobolaborededucerecogitabam,utindevelexactiorestabulas,velcerteipsosmotuscertioreseruere;ineolaboredumversarer,PatresSenioresPragenses,quiolimrvnoverantmihiretulerunt,r.v.aolim,duminnostraprovinciaeandemtabulamelaborasse,hortatiqueuteamAppendiceIKirwitzeraChristophGrienberger,inRoma(Graz,26dicembre1614)[Roma,ArchiviodellaPontificiaUniversitàGregoriana(APUG),ms.534,ff.83r–84r]140.“observarata”:sic,for“observabat”,or“observaverat”.ugobaldini

339338perliterasàrvexorarem.Destitiàlaboreincoeptonectamentantummunusàrvpeterehucusqueausussum,donecdesiderioexactissima-rumtabularumincredibiliinstigatus,simuletiamdervinhocstudiumamoreethumanitatepraesumens,literashasadrvdirigerem,quibusomnibusquibuspossemprecibustantumbeneficiumimpetrarem.Fa-cietcerteomnibushacinProvinciaMatheseosstudiosisremgratissi-mam,etveroreiMathematicaenonparvumaddetincrementum.EtliceatpriamsemeldepositafrontecumtantoMathematicoage-reconfidentius.Quibushypothesibusutidebeam,nescio,Communesillae,quaeterramincentrouniversicollocant,quasMaginusillustravitfalsaesunt.NamutdeapogaeoetperigaeoSaturniIovisetpreacipueMartistaceam,VenereminfraSolemcollocant,cuiusconiunctionisnullasmaculasinSoledeprehendimus,licethisceannisaliquotconiun-ctionesanimadverterimus,utsuspicionobis,etnonimmeritooriaturVeneriscumSoleconiunctioinaliaparteanobisremotiorecontingere,nequeobstat,quodparallaxiumquidammagnitudinemobiiciunt.Om-nesenimfereilliquihaecadferuntRegiomontanimoduminquirendiparallaxessequuntur.Quemnonsatistutum,etimoaliquandolongis-simeàveritaterecederedemonstravitTychoinsuisfundamentisAstro-nomicis.Copernicihypothesisquaeterrammobilemcircumfertdiffici-liscredituest,quamvisphaenomenaservetexactissime:inillanihilo-minusetiamdisplicet,quodterramsolammobilemnonetiamaerem,etquicquidsublunareasserat,praetereaLunaehypothesisapertoerroriobnoxiaest,propterduosquosponitEpicyclos.NamsiLunaEpicyclocircumfertur,necesseerit,utmaculaequaeorientemrespiciuntaliquan-dooccidentemintueantur,cuiustamencontrarium[83v]experientia.Tychonovamexcogitavitrationem:Terramimmobilemponit,circahancorbitametSoliscoelummaximum,itautineiuscoeloreliquiPlanetaeomnestanquaminEpyci[clis](quiquidemtantaesuntmagni-tudinis,utorbemterrestremetlunaremsuaperipheriainclu[dant)]inSoletanquamcentrocircumferuntur:sedeademsententiaPhilosophiaeetcommuniDoctorumopinionirepugnat,quiacoelosfacitpenetratio-niobnoxios,utperigeumMartisinfraapogeumSolisdescenderepossit.NamMartisperigeumlongeinfraSolisapogeumdescendere,liquetexobservationibusRodulphaeisetlibrosumptibusRodulphiImperatoriseditoquemMartemcaptivuminscri[…].ReliquorumMathematicorumobservationibusvixacquiesco,cumvideam,eosnecexactamlocorumlatitudinemproferre,ethocquidem,utmihivideturvariasobcausas.scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerImprimisraroill[orumper]manumsuntinstrumentaelaborata,etsiquaefortasseconficiuntminutasunt,etobidexactisobservationibusnonsatisidonea;deindeelevationempolicommuniterexSolecolli-gunt,quaeratioobservandilongeestincertissima.NamDeclinationemSolismaximamferesupponuntpartium2328’quamtamenTycho23,31’30”essedemonstrat.Rursumnullamfereparallaxeosrationemha-bent,cuiustamennonparvamhabendamEclipsesostendunt.3°observationssaepefiuntSoledecliviore,inquosituradiiSolaresobintervenientesexalationesetvaporesrefractionespatiuntur,utdu-dumdemonstraruntAlhazenetVitellio,coeteriqueperspecti[vi][haec]omniaquotusquisqueestvulgariumMathematicorumquivelintelligat,veletiamsi[…]nonignoret,tantamindustriametemendationemsuisobservationibus[non]adhibeat:Etverovereoretiamnefortasseve-terumAstronomorumobservationesnonomneshiscautionibus[fue]rintmunitae,undefortassefit,utnobisretroactasresconsiderantibus,nonomniaminutis[et]horisexacterespondeant,praesertiminPtolo-maeiobservationibus:quamvisetinaliosdefectusretroactatemporacomputantesincideremihivideantur;utimurenimprostaphaeresibusadhaecte[mpo]ra,ethancexcentricitatemdeductis,cumillotempo-relongealiafueritSolisexcentricitas:deindeinlocorumlongitudinemagnaincertitudoest,quaenobisaliquiddifficultatisadferrepotestpraesertimcumEclipsesadalialocatransferimus;acceditdemediimotusSolisdiurniincertamagnitudo.Putoenim,etsifortassetempuspateretur,demonstraremsingulisseculisalios[et]aliossimplicesSolismotusassignandosesse,etfereprorationeannitropici,quodsiverumest,calumniamfortassealiquampatienturEpactaeClavianae.IamquiddeCometissentiendum?Quiddenovisstellis?CometasincoelestiregionegenerariiamolimcontraAristotelemsensitDe-mocritus,Anaxagoras,Albumasar,Proclus,etposthosMathematicirecentioresfereomnes,interquosMatheseosGloriaTycho,Appianus,TaddaeusHagecius,Helisaeus,Gemma,Squarcialupus,Graminaeus,aliique,interquosetiamIllustrissimusHassiaeLandtgraviuscumsuoMathematicovirodoctissimo.ProcluscometamsupraIovem,AlbumasarsupraVenerem,incoeloMercuriiTychoillumtotiorbiformidabilemAnno1577etalium1585,AlbategniusquoqueiamolimaliuminorbeVenerisobservavit,utiamferealiterphilosophiscircacoelorumincorruptibilitatemsitsentiendum.Quidquod[etiam]multiNeotericorumRegiomontaniCometamAnnougobaldini

3413401475observatum,etIohannisVogheliniAnno1532,etJohannisHome-liiAn.1556,aliumque1527,etilluman.1505incoelisponendoscense-ant?LicetparallaxissecundummodumRegiomontaniobservataabnuat.Vitiumenimestinobservationeparallaxeos,etsibenecorrigatur,supraLunamCometamconstituet.VideantnuncAristotelici,utrumsitexhala-tioaccensa.Namuthocobiteraddam,siCometaeexhalationesaccen-saesuntetinaërearegione,curcaudamsaepiusadterrasaliquandoinaliascoelipartesdemittunt?Ignisnaturasuasursumtendit:caudaeergoqauetanquamflammaesuntnaturalemsuumlocumappeterent:obser-varuntautemolimetiamobservantMathematicicaudasferriinopposi-tasSolipartes.Stellaeetiamtot[84r]novae,numsempermiraculasineullonotabilieventu?ObservavitHipparchussuotemporenovamstellamtestePlinio,visanovainsignoCassiopeaetemporeOttonisImperatoris,etaliaitidemAnno1264testeLeovitio,nostrotemporenonnemultasdifficultatespeperitstellanovaCassiopeaeAnno1572,etaliainCygno,aliaqueinOphiuco?Inhisdifficultatibushaereo,etquidferesentiendumsitignoro,rv,utspero,mihilumenaliquodostendet.Observassemiamdudumsidera,etserioetsolide,sednunquaminstrumentumalicuiusmomentiadmanusmeaspervenit,incoepitquidemMathematicusno-sterGracensisQuadrantemconstruere,cuiussemidiameter10pedumGeometricorumest,sedcummaterialigneaconstet,timeonemultisauraemutationibusfacilecorrumpatur;Etlicetetiaminstrumentisnoncarerem,aliatamendifficultasmepremeret,undenimirumpetendaessetaccuratahorarumminutorumquedistinctio,quaesummoperenecessariaest.Exhorologiorotabili,qualiamultihabentquaeetiamsecundaminu-taindicentsuminonpotest.Nametibimagnareperiturhorarumdiffe-rentia.Velenimponderibusconstant,ettuncmotisponderibusquicquidfunisinfrarotasdescendit,augetillicopondus,ethorasposteriorsbre-vioresfacitprioribus:velCalybemoventurhorologia,eteodemmodoinitioquidemlabunturfortius,circafinemremissius.Eademdifficultasestinclepsydris,plenaeenimclepsydraepropterpondusaquaevelare-naeincumbenscitiusfluunt,tardiusminutoaliquantulumpondere,utexhisomnibusnihilcertipetipossit.ConsideravithancdifficultatemTychoetsumptuosolaborequintamMercuriietSaturniessentiamquaesivit,sedetillainaequalitatemquandamattulit.rvsiquidinhacresubtiliter,utsolet,aliquandoinvenit,nosfaciatparticipes.LongiusiamquamvoluerammeaprogressaestEpistola,necdumtamenomnespropositaedifficultates.Quidergo?Nolorvoneriesse,scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzertacebointerimalias,fortassehisintellectis,facilioreritmihialiarumspeculatio.Unumtamenrvadderenongravetur,quidnimirumdema-culisSolaribussentiat.EdituslibellusestinGermania,utmultiputantàquodamnostro,inillorvtanquamprimusharummacularumobser-vatorcitaturetproponitur,multietiammodi,quibusmaculaeobserva-ripossintetdebeantpraescribuntur.EgoPragaeantebienniumomnisedulitateeasdeminvestigareaggressussumomnibusillismodisquipraescribuntur,sednihilpraeteroculorumetvitrorumludibriareperi.rvquomodotandemaliquandoeasdemsinefraudedepraehenderequaeamusnobisaperiat,sedulosnoshabebitearundemobservatores.Sedhaechactenus.Nuncnihilaliudrestatquamutrvproptertemeritatemmeamdeprecar,utmihiignoscat,quodtalibusliterisrvinterpellareausussim:scioquodRVdifficultatesàmepropositaepuerilesvidebuntur,mihitamenpropterexiguamadhucAstronomiaecognitionemsuntmaximae:etlicetfortasseresponsioneetresolutionetantiMathematicinonegeant,faciettamenrvhumanitas,utiniisinstituar.CaeterummesanctissimisrvSacrificiisetorationibuscom-mendo.GraeciiinfestoSanctiStephaniAnno1614.rvServusinChristoWenceslausPantaleonKirwitzerugobaldini

34334290rPaxChristiR.deinChristoPaterLiterasrvomnidoctrinaethumanitaterefertas,nonsinesingularigaudioetvoluptateaccepi,exiisquefacileperspexi,quantisdifficul-tatibusobnoxiaeetiamapudrvAstronomicaedisciplinaehabeantur,etiisquidemdifficultatibus,quibuspraesensseculumfinemminimeimpositurumvidetur.Laborabimustamenprovirili,siitaDeovisumfuerit,utaliqualissaltemveritatisfaculaoriatur.Impenditinhancremnonsegnem,utvideo,operamP.ChristophorusScheinerus,quemmihirvsuisliterisetlaudaveratetcommendaverat;verumillinondumoboccupationesscriberelicuit.Thesesipsiusnecdumvideram,comparavitamenocius,ubiillumedidisservscribentecognovi.Nondisplicetlibellus.MultaillecontraHypothesesaliorumdisputat,nullaspropriasstatuit.Copernicumobruisseargumentisvidetur,cuiustamenhypothe-sisinterreliquasadhucestfirmissima:expediam,utspero,nodosillosomnes,ostendamquedifficultatesillasnullumlocumhabereinCoper-nicihypothesi,quodubiperfecero,perPatresProfessosnostrosRo-mamproficiscentesrvaetanquamMathematicarumrerumPalaemonitransmittam.Motumipsiusaeternumquadrantemcirculinunquamabsolventemingeniosumputo,mirortamencurSoliillumapplicueritcuminSolenullusmotusrectusnecfinginecexcogitaripossit.Alterummotumperpetuumcircauniversicentrumpenitusputoesseimpossibi-lem:sedhaecfortassepluribusP.Scheineroscripturussum.TabulasPa-latinasnondumvidi,agamtamencumrvRectorenostro,uteasnobiscomparet.Galilaeimodumminutasecundahorariaobservandimirumquantumdesiderem.rvubieumresciveritmeietiammemorsit.Mathematicinostriinstrumentumnondumperfectumest.Miraturrveiusmagnitudinem;sedtantaetmaiorafuereTychonisetCoper-nici,quemadmodumegoipsemultotieseacontemplatussumetmen-scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerAppendiceIIKirwitzeraChristophGrienberger,inRoma(Graz,7giugno1615)[Roma,APUG,ms.534,ff.90r–91r]141141.Ifoglidiquestaletterasonodanneggiati,elaletturadinonpocheparoleèincertaoimpossibile.Kirwitzerusòlargamenteisimboliastronomicideipianeti,costellazioni,opposizioni,congiunzionietc.Inquestatrascrizione,perchiarezzaefacilitàdilettura,essisonostatisostituiticoniloronomi.suravi.TychonisquidemexferroetChalybe,seditacochleisexaxctedisposita,utgravitasobservationibusprodessetpotiusquamobesset.Copernicussextantequopleraqueobservavitususestligneoetmaximo,quadransaillenostriMathematiciadpedisRomanimensuramfactusest(hocenimfereinscholisutimur)usualesnostrosquospetitmittamperProfessosnostrosnonsolumCollegiorumProvinciaenostraesedetaliquarumaliarumcivitatumGermaniae,addamqueillisspecula-tionesaliquasmeascircatubumopticum,et[etiam]novaSolis,Saturni,Iovisphaenomena,quemadmodumetdelapidelumenSolisretinente,ethorologiocalorisetfrigoris.AudioenimSerenissimonostroàKepleroaliquasimiliaoblata,sednondumquicquamcertihabeo.FeruntetiampassimquodrvmultaetGeometricaetMechanicascripserit,faciatutaliquandolucemvideant,expectanturetiamànostratibusavidissime.CaeterumcausaquaemeintercaeterasadhasscribendasimpulsitnonpostremaestP.CortoniChronologia,quaepaulatimnonsolumnostrorum,sedetiamacatholicorummanusteritur,inquamirumquan-tumAstronomiae,CalendariiGregorianiEpactis,etUniversaeMathesiiniuriaminferat.EtvereornenonlongepostHaereticorumscriptis,etmeritoimpetatur:iienimprudentiusagunt,etComputumChronolo-giaeoculummeliusetiamsuisnoruntoculis,illumquetanquamcertissi-mamhistoriarumregulaminomnibussuisscriptisadhibentetadhiben-dumdocent,aliorumquelucubrationesadpolicleteamvelutinormamexaminant.PaterautemGortonusCyclosomnesannorumCharacteres,abomniEcclesiaeantiquitateusurpatosreiicit,damnat,nihilqueexiiscertidemonstraripossearbitratur.Eclipsesnihilifacit,quibusnihilcertiusullahumanaadferrepotestscientia.UndefitutinmultosetiamhistoriarumincidaterrorsetLabyrinthos.EgoquidempaucaquaedamexcerperecogitavietsuaertranscribereuteaAdmodumrpVicarioetiisquorumintereritproponatetademendationemaliquamhorte-tur,nerisuisitP.Cortonushaereticis,putantqueClavioevivisereptoinuniversaSocietateneminemessequiintelligatComputum.Ethocquidemnoneadecausaquodputemrvhaecipsaanimadverterenonposse(persuasumenimcertohabeosilibrumobliquooculoaspexisset,gravissimosComputierrorestarasseetreprobasset)sedutrvmagnisoccupationibusdetentamaliquolaboresublevem.ImprimisitaqueChristumpassumdicitAnnoaetatis34,Iuliano77,1aAprilisferia6.Inquaassertione1°falsumestetcontraomniumMathematicorumsententiamAnnumIulianum77esseChristi34.1.ugobaldini

345344QuodidemestAnnumpmChristivulgarisEpochaeesseIuliiCaesaris44utposteaclarissimedemonstrabimus.DeindeestcontraomniumAntiquorumPatrumSenatum,quicommunicalculoChristuminMartiopassumastruuntimocontra1amSynodumquaepostApo-stoloscelebrataestquae23MartiiChristumpassumdocet.SedilludmultoapertiusveritatirepugnatprimumAprilisfuisseferiam6.EsteniminconfessoapudomnesComputistarumTyronesAnno34ChristifuissecyclumLunae16Solis15Epactam22literamDominicalemC.quaecumcadatin28Martii,velinipsisdigitisnumerandoinveniemus1mAprilisfuisseferiam5amnonvero6am.PraetereasieotemporeChri-stusestpassus,nonestpassusinPaschate.CumverumEpactaAnni22cadatin9Martii14Lunacadetin22eiusdem.IudaeiigitursecundumP.CortonumcelebrassentPaschasuum6diebusantenovilunium,Ec-clesiaquoquequaeeotemporePaschacumIudaeisadhuccelebrabatmagnumerroremincurrisset.AdstipulaturhuicdemonstrationiCom-putisticaeAstronomicuscalculuscertissimus.Fuitenim1aAprilisSolin8p.51’3”Arietis.Lunaveroin9p.Aquarii47’23”.Distabatitaquesignis10àSoleetlongeaberatàplenilunio.QuodaAnnus77Iulianusnonconveniatcum[90v]34ChristivulgarisEpochae,velquodidemestannuspsChristicumannoIuliano44indema-nifestum.EclipsisSolisfactaestNatalidieClaudiiImperatorisquamImperatoripsepraedixeratAnnoIuliano901aAugustitesteDioneli-bro66.HaececlipsissecundumBaronium,GordonumetaliosasseclasinciditinannumChristi47.VeritasverodocetcontigisseetvisamesseRomaeannoChristi45illosveroerrasseduobus.Quodcalculusastro-nomicussicdemonstrat.EratenimpraecessioaequinoctiorummediaannoChristi1aAugusti6p.9’43”.Anomalia11p.21’3”.SimplexSolesexag.1p.32’7”.CompositusSol7p.41’50”.AnomaliaSolisannua1sex.0p.22’18”.LongitudoLunaeàSole5sexag.56p.36’58”.AnomaliaLunae3Sexag.9p.22’58”.Latit.Lunae4Sexag.28p.17’44”.praecessio[ergo]veraaequinoctii5p.42’.AequatcentriSolisaddenda1p.17’18”.Scrupulaproportionalia59’29”.Ano-malSoliscoaequata1sexag.[…]39’36”.Absolutaaequatioorbissubtrahenda2p.3’26”.ErgoSolinnodoascendentep.510’52”.LongitudoLunaeàSoleduplicata5sexag.53p.13’56”.Aequatiosecundiepicyclisubtrahenda1p.51’5”.Scrupulaproportionalia16”.AnomaliaLunaecoaequata3Sexag.7p.31’53”.AbsolutaaequatioprimiEpicycli[…]42’31”ergoLunainnodoascendentiscienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzerp.433’47”.AdiectaparallaxilongitLunaeàSolequaefuit37’5”Lunapraecise[est]invisibiliconiunctionecumSolinLeonep.510’52”.MotuslatitudinisLunaecoaequatus4Sexag.29p.0’15”.NodusascendensLeop.533’32”.AbfuitergocaputaLuna59’45”latitudoergoveraLunaeaustralisdecrescens5’14”inaequa-litatemdierum[naturalium]adtempusaequaleaddenda10’horaeetpropterdiversitatemmeridianorumRomanoauferendasunt42’horae(computataenimestadmeridianumtabularumPrutenicarumhaecEclip)Romaevisaestpost8hormatutin43’hocesthorisantemerid317’.ParallaxislongitLunaeaSolisclimate37’5”.LatitudinisLunaeàSole19’3”.ErgolatitudoLunaeapparensAustralisdecrescens20’17”.Semidiam[…]16’.Semi-diameterLunae17’49”.Sullautriusque33’49”,ablatalatitudLunaevisibili[fiunt]reliquascrup9’31”.DiameterLunaeappa-rens32’digitiergoecliptici334’.Defecitergo3.aferediametriparsabAustro.Incidentia23.HorariusLunaeaSole35’4”duravitergodefectusHor.120’.HuicconsentitComputusEcclesiasticus.Erantenimcharacteresanni:CyclusLunae8.Solis26.Epact.24.litDominC.CaditEpactahaec[…]24inpaAugusti.FuitergonoviluniumetEclipsispossibilisferia1a.Econtrarioveroipsorumsententi[ae]repugnatComputusetAstronomia.Characteresenimanni47sunt:CyclusLunae10.Solis28.Epact.17lit.A.1aitaqueAugustidiesestferia3.EtquiaEpact.16caditin11Iulii1.aAugustieratLuna22longeànovilunioimopostplenilunium.FieriitaqueminimepoteratLunaeeclipsis.Siastronomiceeratdi[scus]SolisinLeonep.451’20”;LunaveroinArietep.234’37”.ErgonisiquishiccaecutiatEclipsinvidebitminime.AmpliuseclipsisSolisalia,testePlinlibro2°observataestpri-dKal.MaiiAnnoIul.104,quamill[e]annodomini6[…]veritasautem59ponit.Calculusastronomicusveritatispartessequitur.Eratenimpraecessiosimplexaequinoctiorum6p.21’13”.Anomal12p47’33”.Solsimplex29p.29’0”.Compositus35p50’14”.Ano-malannua[…]28p13’21”.LongitLunaeàSole5Sexag.56p34’55”.Anomal4sexag.18p11’6”.Latitudo1Sexag.2[2’]55”ergopraecessiovera[Aequinoctio]5p50’24”.AequatcentriLunaeAdd.1p27’0”.Scrupproport59’21”[…]Solcoaequat5Sexag.29p40’21”OrbisaequatAdd.1p9’42”ergoSolin[Ariete]p629’6”.Long[itudo]LunaeaSoleduplex5ugobaldini

347346Sexag.53p9’50”.AequatEpicycli2.isubtrah.1p52’12”Scrup.proport.17”abs[que]aequat.1.iEpicycliadd.4p53’34”.ErgoLunainAriete6p47’53”ablataparallaxilongitLunaeàSole18’4[..]”LunaetSoleruntinoppositionevisibili.Nodusascendensin[Scorpio]p.939’24”.NodusdescendensinArietepartibusoppositisabfuit.ergoLuna[…]Nodusdescendenscontrasignorumordinem2p51’31”.MotusigiturlatitLunaecoaequatur1Sexag.27p8’29”.Veraergo[latit.][Lunae]borealisdecrescens14’57”.VerilociSolisAscensiorectaTemp.349’10”.AddigituradTempusaequale14Scrup.horaeetpropterdiversitatemmeridianiinCampa-niaauferendaiterum4’horae.[…]inCampaniahaececlipsisvisaest¼horaeante2ampomeridianam.P[arallaxis]longitLunaeaSolein[…]5°18’47”latitudoSolis1[..]’30”.ErgolatitudoLunaeapparensaustralis,crescens4’33”.SemidiameterSolis15’46”Lunae16’34”.Summautriusque32’20”.AblataergovisiibliLunaelatitu-dabhacsummaremanentscrup.27’47”.Diameterapparens31’32”.Ergo[digito]ecliptici1°35’,scrup.incidentia32.MotushorariusLunae3112’.Duravithor.2.CalculumAstronomicumindividuaco-messequiturarsComputistica.ErantenimcharacteresanniilliuscycliLunae3Solis12.Epact29LitDomG.eratitaqueultimaAprilisfer2inquam[…]caditepacta29Novilunii.[Illorum]assertioninecAstrorumcursusnecComputistarumno[tae]favent.SoleratdieillainAriesp.655’34”.LunainCapricor-nusp2537’38”.CoelumitaquehicpotiusTerrae[…]gereturquamLunaSoli.ComputistaeponuntciclumLunaeAnnoaeraevulgarisChristi615Sol14Epact.2[1]Litt.Dom.[D].EratergoultimaAprilisferia5.EtquiaEpact.21adscribitur8ApriliseratultimaAprilisLuna23etnihilminusquamEclipsisSolis.Placetneplura?BellumIudaicumcoepitAn.[…].PaschaIudeorumfuit8Apriliset7Septem[bris]Sabbathum.EthocnonsolumIosephuslib.2°cap.81724.HegesippusinAnacephaleosietlib.5deexordioUrbisHierosolymitanaec.44,S.Hieronymus,Epiphaniusetc.;sedetiamipseGordonusetcumipsosentientesfatentur,ponunttamenAn-numChristi68[…]annusnumsitveritaticonforme.Anni68bissextiChracteressuntCyclusLunae12,Solis21.Epact.[…][91r]Lit.Dom.CetD.SeptimaigiturSeptembriscuiadscribiturLiteraEfuitfer3,nonSabbathum.ItemcumEpact.8conveniatcumdie23Martii,ple-niluniumPaschalecadetin5Aprilis.Quaeomniahuicsententiaecon-scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzer142.“Iocobum”:sic,for“Iacobum”.tradicunt.SiveroannusilledicaturesseChristi65mirumquambellecunctaconspirentilliusanni.CyclusLunaeest9Solis18lit.Dom.FEpact.5.[F]caditin8Septemb.praecedensitaquediesestsubtractum,ite,Epacta5apponitur26Martii.14[a]ergoLunamon-strabit8Aprilisquonihilestveritatimagisconsonum.Addosimile.DeletaeademUrbsHierosolymitana8Septemb.inSabbhato[eo]annoquoPaschaIudaeorumfuit14Aprilisutiidemau-ctorescitatifatenturpropalam,eratqueisannusIulianus115illifalsodicuntfuisseannumChristi72.MeliuscommunisDoctorumopinio70.Anno72eratcyclusLunae16,Solis25Epact.22lit.DomsD.8itaqueseptemb.quinotaturlit.Feratferia3nonSabbathumetcumEpact.22cadatin7AprilisPaschaIudaeorumfuit20Aprilisnonvero14eiusdem.Atveroanno70eratcyclusLunae14Solis23’Epact.*lit.Dom.Gadscribitur[…]haeclitera9Aprilis,8itaSabba-thum.Itemepact.*indicatnobis31MartiietquodSolemeridianoclariusestLunampaschalem13Aprilis.CoronidislocoaddoP.nostrilClaviietdoctissimiScaligerisententiam.Fatenturilliinsuisaltercatio-nibusexantiquissimaEcclesiaetraditioneetMarmorumRomanorumadstipulationeprimumannumAlexandriMam[…]fuisseannumIuliiCaesaris267annumveroChristi222eodemqueannofuissePaschaeDominicam21Aprilis,Lunamvero14incidissein13Aprilis.Claviumtamquamparentemsequiturcomputus.CyckusLunaeanno222est14.Solis7.Epact.*litDom.Fquaeadscripta21AprilisindicateamdiemfuisseDominicametEpact.*cadensinultimamMartiisimiliterdemonstratLunam14incidisseinAprilis13.BaroniusGordinius[…]danusetilliusasseclaecontendunteumannumfuisseChristi224.Ne-gatcomputus.Custodesilliusanni224suntCyclusLunae16Solis9Epact.22lit.Dom.Ditaquedies21Aprilisest[fer.]322Epact.Osten-ditdie13AprilisfuisseLuna7non14.HisetsimilibuserroribuseodevectusestCordonusutduopariaConsulumexAlboRomanorumConsulumexpungeretetcumBaroni[us]nolletexpunxitnobilioressecutusOnuphrium.BreviariumappellosiChristusnonsitBaptizatusIan.6,illeprimatradit.EtcontratraditionesetPatresnonessepassosApostolorumPrincipesannaChristicruce37,Iocobum142fratremDominianno30sedisHierosolymitanae[di]visionemApostolorumquaefactaestanno2°Claudiicontigisse12àredemptomundoimougobaldini

349348nequePaulumvenisseRomamanno12°NeronispostChristumoc-cisum25.NequeTitumHierosolymamdelevisseanno40àpassioneChristiettaliainnumeraquaebrevitatis[causa]transeo.SatisenimhaecipsiuserroresindicarevidenturquamvislongeturpissimumsitquodChristumannoaetatis38passumasserat.Quodnullaunquamsomniavitantiquitas.SedhaecdeCordonilibrishactenus.Scripsi[enim]haecomniaeapotissimumdecausautCalendariumGregoria-numabEcclesiaCatholicatotiorbipropositumdifenda,quodever-tereHaereticiinnostripartibusnimiumlaborant,quibuspatrocinarivideturCordonuscumEpactasreiicitinillisquenullamcertitudinemastruit,efficitqueutCalendariumànostriquasiconfectum,nostrorumlibrisoppugnariqueat.R.V.prosuoinveritatemstudiohaecomniaexaminabitluculentius,etproamoreSocietatisnostrae,Ecclesiae,etCalendariiGregorianiproponetefficacia.HismeR.V.commendoplu-rafortassedealiisrebusscripturusubiPatresnostriRomamiverint.Valeat.Graecii7Iunii1615.scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzer143.QuestoindicecomprendetutteleletterescrittedaKirwitzeroinviatealuidellequalisihano-tiziacerta,conservateenon.Diquelleconservatesonoindicatiilluogodiresidenzadeldestinatario(quandoèconosciuto)elacollocazione;perlealtreèindicatalafontechelemenziona.144.LetteramenzionatanellarispostadiAlber(n.6).145.Questalettera,comealtresuccessive,fusegnalatainSommervogel,Bibliothèque,IV,col.1084/B,comepresentenellaraccoltaprivatadeicontiApponyi,aBudapest;lasuasegnalazioneèstataripetutadaautoridiscrittisuKirwitzerosupersonealuicollegate,comeSchall,apparen-tementesenzachealcunodiloroabbiavistolelettere.NelperiodotraledueguerremondialilabibliotecaApponyifudivisa:partefuassorbitanellaBibliotecaNazionaleSzéchényidiBudapest,parterimasediproprietàdellafamigliaedèoranelcastellodiOponice,inSlovacchia.Attualmenteentrambelebibliotechedichiaranocheleletterenonsononellelororaccolte.InprecedenzaunapartedeimanoscrittidellacollezioneApponyi(forsecomprendentelelettere)erastataoggettodiunaopiùauzioni;lalorolocalizzazioneattualeèignota146.GiànellabibliotecaApponyi:vedilanotaprecedente.AppendiceIIIIndicedellacorrispondenza1431.20–7–1614:K.alGeneraleC.Acquaviva,inRoma(arsi,fg755,n.3)2.23–8–1614:ilGeneraleAcquavivaaK.,inGraz(arsi,Austria2/2,p.606)3.26–12–1614:K.aC.Grienberger,inRoma(Roma,apug,ms.534,ff.83r–84r)4.7–6–1615:K.aC.Grienberger,inRoma(Roma,apug,ms.534,ff.90r–91r)5.1615[Iniziodigiugno?]:K.alVicariogeneraleF.Alber,inRoma1446.27–6–1615:ilVicariogeneraleF.AlberaK.,inGraz(arsi,Austria2/2,p.665)7.14–9–1615:K.alVicariogeneraleF.Alber,inRoma(arsi,fg755,n.9)8.25–1–1616:K.alGeneraleM.Vitelleschi,inRoma(arsi,fg755,n.12)9.5–3–1616:ilGeneraleM.VitelleschiaK.,inGraz(arsi,Austria2/2,p.709).10.13–3–1616:ilGeneraleM.VitelleschiaK.,inAntwerp(arsi,Austria2/2,p.713).11.6–5–1616:K.aW.Lamormaini,inGraz14512.20–5–1616:K.aW.Lamormaini,inGraz146ugobaldini

35135013.[primimesidel1617]K.aJ.Gans,inGraz14714.8–3–1617:K.aun“Serenissimus”(Ferdinandii,inWien?)14815.7–1–1619:K.aJ.Deckers,inGraz14916.9–1–1619:K.aunignoto,in[?]15017.11–2–1619:K.aJ.R.Ziegler,(inAschaffenbourg?)(Bamberg,Kreisarchiv,L451,1)15118.21–2–1619:K.aJ.Deckers,inGraz15219.21–2–1621:K.aW.Lamormaini,inGraz15320.(1621):K.aE.Coelho,inMalacca15421.10–6–1622:M.Diassr.aK.,inGoa(ARSI,Jap.–Sin.161,f.61r–62v)22.20–1–1624:K.all’imperatoreFerdinandoii,inWien(Bruxelles,Bibl.Royale,ms.4169–71,f.44r)23.8–9dic.1624:P.DellaValleaK.,inMacao15524.30–10–1625:K.aSebastiãoVieira,AssistentedelPortogallo,inRoma(ARSI,Jap.Sin.16(ii),ff.229r–230v)25.2–11–1625:K.aP.DellaValle,inRoma(Roma,ArchivioSegretoVaticano,ArchivioDellaValle–DelBufalo,51,n.13)26.[metàdel1625?]K.aunapersonaignota,in(?)(Bruxelles,Bibl.Royale,ms.4169–71,ff.58rss.)27.[?]K.all’imperatoreFerdinandii,inWien(Bruxelles,Bibl.Royale,ms.4169–71,ff.44–46)15628.7–9–1627:G.B.DellaValleaK.,inMacao157scienza,missioni,destino:wenceslaspantaleonkirwitzer147.MenzionatadaGansnellasualetteraalGeneraleVitelleschidel2luglio1617:vedinota51.148.L’uniconobilecuispettavaquestotitoloecolqualeKirwitzerrisultaaveravutorapportierailducad’Austria.LaletterafugiànellabibliotecaApponyi:vedilanota145149.GiànellabibliotecaApponyi:vedilanota145.150.Diquestaletterasiconoscesolounampioestratto,pubblicatoinA.Semedo,NarréveritabledelapersecutionexcitéecontrelesChrestiensauRoyaumedelaChine.ExtraitdeslettresduP.AlvaresSemededelaCompagniedeIesus,captifaumesmelieu,l’An1619,Paris1620,pp.56–68.151.Unafotocopiadell’originalemanoscrittoèstatapubblicatainH.Boberach,E.G.Franz(Hrg.),InderGemeinschaftderVölker.DokumenteausdeutschenArchiven,Koblenz1984,p.37.152.GiànellabibliotecaApponyi:vedilanota145.153.GiànellabibliotecaApponyi(nota145).ForsequestaletteraeraquellapoieditacomeLitteraedemartyrio…Machado,pubblicatanel1622:vediAppendiceIV.154.QuestaletteraèmenzionatainunadiCoelhoalGeneraleVitelleschi:vedinota99.155.Kirwitzercitòquestaletteranellasuarispostadel2novembre1625(n.25);essaèanchemenzionatadaDellaVallenell’elencodelleletteredaluiscritte(Roma,ArchivioSegretoVaticano,ArchivioDellaValle–DelBufalo,188,f.50v).156.Chiscrivenonhapotutovederequestalettera;lacollocazioneindicatarisultadaicataloghi.157.Questalettera,scrittadopolamortediKirwitzereinviataquasicertamenteaMacao,nonècon-servata.DellaVallelamenzionònell’elencodelleletteredaluiinviateadaltri:Roma,ArchivioSegretoVaticano,Arch.DellaValle–DelBufalo,188,f.87r.158.Vedinota93.159.QuestotitoloèinseritotragliscrittidiKirwitzerinSommervogel,Bibliothèque,IV,c.1384/2.Esso,tuttavia,nonsembraessereneicataloghidelleprincipalibibliotecheeuropee(ochiscrivenonèriuscitoalocalizzarlo).Pubblicatoono,questoscrittosembraconnessoallenotiziesulmartiriodiMachado,cheKirwitzercommemoròinunadellesuelettereaW.Lamormaini(vediAppendiceIII,lett.19).160.Vedinota127.AppendiceIVScrittiObservationescometarum(1620,1621);LitteraannuadellaviceprovinciadiCinaperil1620158;LitterademartyrioPatrisJ.B.Machadi,quianno1617,passusest,Antverpiae1622159;TraduzionecinesedelcatechismodiJoãoRodrigues;Traduzionelatinaparzialedell’operageograficadellostessoRodrigues(perduta);LitteraannuadellaviceprovinciadiCinaperil1624160.

353Ficheiros,catálogos,repertórios,corporacombasenosespóliossis-temáticosdefundosearquivossãoinstrumentosfundamentaisparaqualquerinvestigador.ParaosJesuítasnaChinatemosapossibilidadederecorrer,entreosoutrosinstrumentosbibliográficos,aosrepertóriosdeJosephDehergneeLouisPfister1quenosfacultamdetalhadosdadosbiográficos.OsnossosprimeirospassosparaacatalogaçãodosJesuítasitalianosemMacauforamportantodadosapartirdestasduasgrandesrecolhas;depois,paraenriquecerecompletarainvestigação,recorre-mosaoutrasfontesdirectas,sobretudoosCatálogosTrienais,tendoapossibilidadedeconsultaromaterialnecessárionoArchivumRomanumSocietatisIesu.AlgunsJesuítasitalianosforamatéagoraamplamenteestudados,comoAlessandroValignano2(1539–1606),MatteoRicci3(1552–1610),ClaudioFilippoGrimaldi4(1638–1712),MartinoMartini5(1614–1661),JesuítasItalianosdaProvínciadaChinaemMacauMariagraziaRusso1.JosephDehergneS.J.,RépertoiredesJèsuitesdeChinede1552à1800,InstitutumHistoricumS.I.–Letouzey&Ané,Roma–Paris,1973;LouisPfister,Noticesbiographiquesetbibliographiquessurlesjésuitesdel’anciennemissiondeChine(1552–1773),parleP.–,Impr.delaMissioncatholique,Shanghai,1932:utilizámosamplamenteestescatálogosparaassintéticasfichasbiográficasdosjesuítasaseguir(recorremosàsseguintesabreviações:ca.cercade;E.entradanaCompanhia;Emb.embarque;m.morte;ms.manuscrito;n.nascimento;P.padre;prov.província;V.votos).Alémdisso,nopresenteensaioindicámosnoartigoonomeporextensocomasdatasdenascimentoemortenaprimeiraocorrência,paradepoispassaraidentificarcadajesuítaapenascomoapelido.Porquestõesdeespaçonãoseindicamreferênciasbibliográficasespecíficasporcadajesuítacitado,nãosendoesseoobjectivodestapanorâmica.2.OuValignani,Valignan;n.Chieti(Abruços)inícioou20Fevereiro1539;m.Macau20Janeiro1606;mestredenovícios;ProvincialdasÍndiasOrientais;fundaamissãodaChina;E.29Maio1566(Roma);mestredenovícios(entreelesRicciqueenviaparaaChina);P.25Março1570(Roma,Laterano);V.12Fevereiro1570(Roma,porSãoFranciscodeBorja);V.8Setembro1573RomaporP.GeralMercurian);ca.20Setembro1573saideRomaparaMilãoeEspanha;emLisboainstituiocargodeProcuradordasmissõesorientais;24Setembro1573partedeItáliaparaLisboaechegao21Março1573;1Janeiro1574audiênciadoReiD.Sebastião;Emb.21Março1574naChagascomovisitadordetodasasmissõesdesdeasÍndiasatéaoJapão(excluíndoasFilipinas);6Setembro1574chegaaGoa;6Setembro1578até7Julho1579-25Julho1579Japão;1582–1590primeiramissãodiplo-máticadoJapãoparaEuropaorganizadaporele;9Marçoaté31Dezembro1582Macau;Outubro1583atéOutubro1587ProvincialdasÍndiasOrientais;10Novembro1583chegaaGoa;início1587novamentenomeadovisitadordaÍndia(1587–1596);28Julho1588até23Junho1590Macau;23Junho1590parteparaJapãocomoembaixadordoVice-reidasÍndias;21Julho1590até9Outu-bro1592Japão;24Outubro1592eficaaíaté16Novembro1594;Macau;4Março1595Goa;29Abril1597Cochin;20Julho1597até16Julho1598Macau;5Agosto1598até15Janeiro1603Japão;10Fevereiro1603atéàmorteMacau;1604independentizaamissãodaChina.

355354masnuncaatéagorafoitratadooconjuntodeformaunitária,comoprodutodeumasensibilidadereligiosacomum,quenospoderiaforne-cermaioresinformaçõessobreocontributomissionáriodositalianos,ofuncionamentodaCompanhiaemItáliaeasrelaçõesqueItáliatevecomoOrienteatravésdomundolusitano.Algumaspremessas.Qualquertipodetrabalhoquequeirainvesti-garsobreumgrupoidentitárioteminevitavelmentequetraçarlinhasdelimites,necessáriasparaindividuarocorpusdomaterial.Mas,aomesmotempo,qualquerdemarcaçãosupõeexclusõeseinclusõesdeci-didasnabasedecritériosparcialmentearbitrários.Aidentidadeitaliana,aindaporcima,possuiumproblemainicialbastantecomplexo,porque–comosesabe–aPenínsulaItálicapade-jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacau3.N.Macerata(Marcas)6Outubro1552;m.Pequim11Maio1610;SuperiordamissãonaChina;escrevenumerosasobras;demãemarquesaepaifarmacéutico;E.16Agosto1571(noviciadodeS.AndréemRoma);18Maio1577partedeRoma;Junho–Julho1577estudaportuguêsemCoimbra;Março1578érecebidopeloreiD.SebastiãonoCastelodeAlmeirim;Emb.24março1578naS.Luís;13Setembro1578chegaaGoa;P.25Julho1580(Cochinondecelebraasuaprimeiramissa26Julho);7Agosto1582Macau;Agosto1583Cantão;10Setembro1583Shiuhingondefundaumaresidência;Outubro1589residênciaaShiuchow;21Maioaté15Junho1595Nanquim;V.1Janeiro1596(Nant-chang);28Junho1596até25Junho1598Nantchangfou;5Julho1599Nanquim;19Maio1600parteparaPequim;24Janeiro1601Pequim;1601fundaamissãodeHopei;Agosto1597atéàmorteSupe-riordamissãonaChina;1609CongregaçãomarianaPequim;introduzocalendáriocristãonaChina.4.OuGrimaldo(ouNavarrete);n.Cuneo(Piemonte)27Setembro1638;m.Pequim8ou9Novembro1712;Vice-provincial;ReitorColégioPequim;VisitadordeChinaeJapão;engenheiroconstrutor,PresidentedoTribunaldosMatemáticoseMandarim;E.13Janeiro1658(Chieri);P.entre1660e1665;Emb.15Abril1666;1669Cantão(tomanomeelugardePadreNavarretequefugiu);1671Pequim(engenheiroconstrutor);V.15Agosto1675;1683e1685acompanhaKangHinaTartária;25Maio1685Cantão;1Agosto1685Macau;7Novembro1685Pequim;inícioNovembro1686Cantão;1686nomeadoProcuradorparaRomaparteemmissãoparaMoscovo;Roma;França;4Fevereiro1690Mónaco;Outubro1690Viena;Janeiro1691Marselha;1692Smirne(Pérsia);Maio1693Goa;28Agosto1694Pequim;9Abril1688nomeado(nasuaausência)PresidentedoTribunaldosMate-máticoseMandarim;29Junho1695–98Vice-provincial;1696propostocomoBispodePequim;1700ReitorColégioPequim;1703–20Maio1706VisitadordeChinaeJapão,depostodoPatriarcadeTournon;3Agosto1707propostocomobispocoadjutordePequimporJoãoVaopapaClementeXI(oPaparejeita).5.OuMartinusdeMartinis,MartinhoMiz’,MarthinoMartis,MartinusMartins;n.Trento(TrentinoAltoAdige)1614;m.Hangchow6Junho1661;pedeumseminárioparaaChinaepropõechegaràChinaviaterra;entreassuasobras:6Fevereiro1639Évora,escreveaoKircherdasuaprimeiraviagemàChina;8Novembro1639escrevedeCoimbraaoKircherdoseutentativoparapartirparaoOriente;16Março1640escrevedeLisboaaoKircherantesdepartirparaoOriente;1654AnversapublicaNovusAtlasSinensis;Gramática;E.8Outubro1632(Roma);nooutono1637emLisboaparaestudarteológia(1637–1639);Emb.26Março1640paraaChina;1643chegaHangchow;Shangai;Venxui;1646Ningpo;enviadocomSmoguleckiePascoalFernandezaYen-PingondeestavaacortedeLong-Wou;1648SuperiorresidênciadeHangchow;Pequim;1650eleitoprocurador;1653chegaaRomaatravésFoukien,Filipinas,Batáviaondeépreso;31Agosto1653Bergen,Noruega;Hambur-go;1654AmsterdameAnversaondepublicaNovusAtlasSinensis;finais1654Roma;V.15Agosto1655(Roma,CasaProfessa);8Janeiro1656saideGênovaparaRomacominstruções;23Março1656obtémodecretosobreosritosdepoisdeterexpostoassuasdúvidas;4Abril1657emb.naBomJesusdaVidigueira,atacadapeloscorsários;11Junho1659chegaHangchow;1660Hangchowfundanovaigreja.mariagraziarusso6.N.Bastia(Córsica)14Outubro1643;m.20Abril1673“initinereadJapon”(morreduranteaviagem);E.5Novembro1658(Milão);Padreantesde15Março1673;Emb.15Março1673(comIntorcetta).7.OuFranki;n.Bressanone(TrentinoAltoAdige)ouBrescia(Lombardia)30Março1667;m.Tsinanfou13Fevereiro1718;E.24Dezembro1687;25Dezembro1694pedeChina(Graz);Emb.1699;9Setem-bro1701chegaàChina;18Dezembro1701deixaCantãoparaNan-chang;1703Kiangsi;Kanchowondepassadamissãofrancesaàvice-provínciaportuguesa;1705–1713Tsinanfou,Shantung;V.16Junho1715(Tsinan).8.N.Tramin,Trento(Tirolo),1633;m.1673(morreduranteaviagemdepesteportertratadoenfer-mos);professordeMatemáticaseHebráico;antesdeembarcarparaaChinaeramissionárionoBrasil;emb.15Março1673comIntorcetta.ceuaolongodotempomuitasmudanças.Oprimeiroaspectoé,por-tanto,adefiniçãodoslimitesgeo-políticos,queinteressamossujeitosemquestãoepeloqualoptámosemfavordocritériodaextensividade,ousejadainclusãonadefiniçãode“italiano”paraosJesuítasquenasceramquernaszonasquenaépocapertenciamaumaidentidadepolíticadaPenínsulaitálica,mesmonãosendohojeemdiaáreasitalia-nas,quernasáreasquesóhojepertencemaItáliaequenaaltura,pelocontrário,podiampertenceraoutrasesferaspolíticas:istoquerdizerqueincluímostudooquedequalquermaneirapoderiaestarligadoaoconceitode“italiano”.Emparticular,problemasdeclassificaçãosurgi-ramemrelaçãoaJesuítasprovenientesdaIlhadaCórsica,actualmentefrancesa,queemtodaaépocadenossointeresseeraporémdeinfluên-ciagenovesaeque,portanto,achámosjustoincluirnalistadosJesuítasitalianos(trata-seemparticulardeFrançoisBelgoder6,1643–1673);daSabáudiadoscontesSabóia,aoqualterritóriopertencia,alémdoPiemonte,acidadedeNice,quehojeentranosterritóriosdaFrança:nós,assimcomoDehergne,optámosporincluirosJesuítasprovenien-tesdestasáreasnoâmbitoitaliano.Aocontrário,umasáreasquenaépocadealgunsJesuítasnãoper-tenciamaItáliafazemhojeemdiapartedoterritórioitaliano,comoporexemploavastaáreaasbúrgicadoTiroloqueincluitambémoTiroloAustríaco,queaquinãofoiconsiderado,aoqualpertenciamSimonGumb(1708–1761)eAloysMoriz(1738–1805);oSüdtirol,aactualprovínciamaissetentrionaldeItálianoAltoÁdige,eoWels-chtirol(ousejaoTrentino)dosquaisincluímososJesuítasGirolamoFranchi7(1667–1718)provavelmentedeBressanone,AdamAigenler(1633–1673)8eojácitadoMartinideTrentoouprovíncia(escolhaderestofeitatambémporDehergne);àmesmaáreatirolensepertenciaacidadedeGoríciaactualmenteitaliananoFriulVenezaJúlia

357356jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacauedaqualconsiderámosGianbattistaMessari9(1673–1723)ePhilippZefferin10(1630–1666).SemfalarmosdovastoterritórioitálicodedominaçãoespanholaoudaamplaregiãodoestadoPontifícioqueincluíamuitasmaisterrasemrelaçãoàpequenaáreaactual.Conestaspremessaspodemosportantodizerqueadoptámosumcritériogeo--políticoomaisextensivopossível.Nacontagemincluímosobviamentetodosositalianosquemorre-ramduranteaviagemparaaChina,assimcomotodososque,dequalquermaneira,foramligadosaestedestino:aparecemportantonestasconsideraçõesJesuítascomooirmãocoadjutorGiuseppeBrassanelli11(1658–1728),destinadoàChinacomoescultormasquefoi,pelocontrário,enviadoaoParaguaycomoartista,tornando-semé-dicoecirurgião;ouopadreGiovanniAntonioGrassi12(1775–1849),queembarcoucomNorbertKorsak(1773–1846)paraaChinadesdePolotosk,masquefoiobrigadoavoltarparaatrásescolhendonumse-gundomomentoosEstadosUnidos;ouumdosdoisirmãosMagnani13(Agostino,1746–1794,ouGiovanniNatale,1747–1794),destinadoàChinacujatentativaporémnãotevebomêxito;ouaindaGiuseppeBruno(1658–1724)14eGiovanniBattistaPallavicini15(1667–1718),osdoisdeCúneo,consideradosdignosdeiràChinanosegundoanodeteologia,semterconcluídoporémoiterprevisto.Ainclusãodestas9.OuJohannBaptist;n.Gorizia(Friul-VenezaJúlia)12Agosto1673;m.Tonquim,naprisão,15ou23ou25Junho1723;E.7Dezembro1701;P.1701Graz,Austria;Emb.1706paraChinaouJapão;1707chegaaMacauondetemqueficarcomoutrossacerdotesporvontadedeTournon;23Junho1711Lienchow;1712Cantão;1714Macau;V.8Dezembro1714Macau(IgrejaMadredeDeus);1715Lienchow,Tonquim;1721–1726persecuçãonoTonquimduranteaqualelemorreem1723.10.N.GoriziadelFriuli(Tirolo)30Abril1630;m.Constantinopla2Maio1666;E.3Novembro1648(Viena);1654e1655pededuasvezesaChina;depoisde1660parteparaaChinacomoPadreGrueber;V.15Novembro1665(Galata,bairrodeIstambul,naIgrejadeSãoBento).11.OuBressanelli(irmãocoadjutor);n.Milão(Lombardia)6Janeiro1658;m.missãodeSantaAna,juntoaosGuaranis17Agosto1728;escultoremosaísta,arquitecto,depoiscomosGuaranismédicoecirurgião;E.25Dezembro1679;destinadoàChina1690,masnuncachegouaembarcarparaaChina;enviadonoParaguay;V.15Agosto1690Sevilla.12.N.Schilpario,prov.Bergamo(Lombardia)10Setembro1775;m.Roma12Dezembro1849;E.16Novembro1799(Colorno,Torino);V.15Agosto1801(Colorno);Emb.14Janeiro1805emPolotoskparaaChinacomopadreNorbertKorsak(foramobrigadosamudardecaminho:1810EstadosUnidos);20Abril1806(Nápoles);15Agosto1812emJorgeTown;ReitordePropaganda.13.N.Bolonha(Emília-Romanha).Agostino:29Agosto1746;GiovanniNatale:25Dezembro1747;m.Agostino:Czerczerse21Abril1794;GiovanniNatale:Polotsk22Outubro1794;E.Agostino:12Outubro1762;GiovanniNatale:25Outubro1763;destinadoàChinasemconseguir.14.N.Cúneo(Piemonte),21Janeiro1658;m.Chieri,prov.Turim17Setembro1724;E.10Outubro1680(Chieri);1690segundoanodeTeologiadestinadoàCortedePequimmasficaemItália;V.22Maio1695(Aiaccio,Córsica).15.OuPallavicino;n.Ceva,Prov.Cúneo7Março1667;m.Ceva27Julho1718;E.27Dezembro1676;1690nosegundoanodeteologia,juntamentecomBruno,épropostoparaaChina.mariagraziarusso16.E.2Dezembro1680(Gênova);Emb.8Abril1690paraaChina;Kanchow;1694daChinaaMacau(enfermo);1695deMacauaGoa;V.Kanchow1697.17.OuAtemis,Athemis,D’Attimis,diAttimis;famílianobredoscontesAttimis;E.28Julho1725(29NovembroemBolonha);P.Setembro1736;V.2Fevereiro1741(Piacenza);Emb.1743;12Janeiro1745escrevecartacomdestinoNankim;11Dezembro1747presonaigrejadeTongko.18.OuBouglio,Bulhio,Bulius,Bullio,Bullius;n.Mineo,prov.Catânia(Sicília)26Janeiro1606;m.Pequim7Outubro1682;Mandarim;numerosastraduçõesemchinês(comoaSumadeS.Tomás;missaisebreviários);muitasobraspublicadasporváriosestudiosos;defamílianobre(filhodobarãoMariodelBurgioedafilhadomarquêsdeFrancofonte);E.dedevoção,feitapelospais,18Maio1612,comosCavaleirosdeMalta;E.19Janeiro1622(Palermo);Emb.13Abril1635;1636chegaaMacau;1639Kiangnan;1640fundaamissãodeChengtu;1643-1646desordensemassacres;1647Sian;22Feveriro1648prisioneiroparaPequim(comGabrieldeMagalhães);V.27Março1649(Pequim);1651postoemliberdade;1655fundaaresidênciadeTong-tangemPequim;1662institui-çãodaigreja;1664presoduranteapersecução;1669postoemliberdadeporKanghi.19.OuProana;n.Nice(Piemonte)23Outubro1662;morrenaviagempertodoCabodeBoaEsperan-ça7Fevereiroou15Março1720;E.15Fevereiro1678(Milão);P.1691(Lião);Emb.1694;4Outubro1695chegaaMacau;1696Kiangchow,Chan-si;1700Honan;V.25Maio1702Chan-si;Agosto1705saideChan-siparaPequimparaserviropatriarcadeTournon;14Janeiro1708saideMacaucomoembaixadordeKang-HiparaRoma;1709chegaaRoma;1713até1717MilãoeTurim;Março1719embaixadorparaaChinacomP.LouisFan.ÀsvezeséidentificadocomFrancescoValladoqualnãoseconhecemdatosbiográficos,tendoporémemcontaquedelesesabe,contrariamenteaProvana,quechegouàChinaem1694.20.OuVanhoni,Banone,Vagnon,Vagnoni,Vanhone,Vanhnoius;n.Trofarello,prov.Turim(Piemonte)Janeiro1568ou1569;m.Kiangchow9ou19Abril1640;FilhodocondeNiccolòdeiVagnonideTrofarelloeCelle;E.24Outubro1584;P.antesde1597;Emb.9Abril1603noS.João;Julho1604Macau;finaisdeFevereiroinícioMarço1605Nanquim;V.13–14Agosto1606(Nanquim);1609supe-riordeNanquim;30Abril1617exiladoaCantãoparaapersecuçãodeChenkio;1618chegaaCantãodepoisMacau;Março1624regressaàChinaparaChansi;Dezembro1624Kiangchow;1633Foutcheou,Chensi.pessoaspoderiapermitirentendermelhor,mesmotendoelaspercorridooutroscaminhos,asestratégiasdemissionaçãodaCompanhia.Ocorpusassimorganizadoprevêonúmerototalde115jesuítasitalianos:52partemnoperíodoMing(1368–1644)antesdeKangHi(18deFevereirode1662),54noperíododeKangHi(18deFevereirode1662–5deFevereirode1723)eapenas9noperíododeKienLong(12deFevereirode1736–8deFevereirode1796),nãotendonenhumitalianoaembarcarparaaChinanoperíododeYong-tch’eng.Sesecal-culaonúmerocomplexivoindicadoporDehergnede920JesuítasdaChina,ositalianosrepresentariamo12,5%dototal,ousejaoterceirogrupoeuropeuporquantidade(depoisdeportuguesesefranceses).EmtermosbiográficosassinalamosofactodealgunsdelesseremorigináriosdefamíliasnobrescomoLodovicoAntonioAdorno16(1655–1699ou1701)deGênova,TristanoAttimis17(1707–1748)quenasceunoseuprópriocastelo,LodovicoBuglio(1606–1682)18,parentedebarõesemarqueses,AntonioFrancescoGiuseppeProvana19(1662–1720)deumafamíliadecondes,Riccidemãemarquesa,AlfonsoVag-none20(1568–1640)filhodocondeNiccolòdeiVagnonideTrofarello

359358jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacaueCelle;oudeilustresantenatoscomoLuigiGonzaga21(1673–17118)deMântuaeGiovanniMariaGuicciardi22(1621–1658);outambémalgunsligadosaimportantespersonalidadeseclesiásticas,comoAles-sandroCicero23(1639–1703),parentedopapaInocêncioxi(Odes-calchi),ouGiandomenicoGabiani24(1623–1694)aparentadocomafamíliaDeLascaris,GrãoMestredaOrdemdeMalta.AproveniênciadestesJesuítasébastantevariada,envolvendoain-teiraPenínsuladesdeaSicíliaatéaoAltoÁdige,desdeaSardenhaatéàcidadedeGorícia.SegundooscânonesactuaispoderíamosestruturaraproveniênciadosJesuítascomoseguinteplano,ouseja–tirandoos6ou7jesuítasdosquaisnãoconhecemosaproveniência–podemosrepararque,dasáreasgeográficasactuais,foioPiemonte,antigoReinodeSabóia,quedeumaisJesuítasàChina(18).TambémaIlhadaSicília(15)eaárealombarda(14)forneceramumamplonúmerodemissio-náriosparaasterrassínicas.Considerandoasdivisõesgeo-políticassegundooperíodoemquenasceucadareligiosodaCompanhia,pode-ríamosavançaroutrasconsiderações,sabendodefactoqueoReinodeNápoles(comAbruços,Basilicata,Calábria,Campânia,Pulhas:15Jesuítas)eoReinodaSicília(mais15),incluíndoaSardenha,sobodirectocontrolodeEspanhaaté1713,ocupandoumterritóriomuitoextenso,foramosqueenviaramomaiornúmerodemissionáriospara21.N.Mântua(Lombardia)21Outubro1673;m.Macau7Maio1718;matemático;E.17Outubro1690(Bolonha);P.1704(Roma);Emb.1706paraaChina;1707chegaaMacau;2Dezembro1707,decretoparairaPequim;1708chegaaPequim;V.8Dezembro1708Pequim;28Setembro1716Nanquimporsaúde;finaisde1717Macau.22.OuGuizzardus,Guicciardus;n.PonteinValtellina,prov.Sondrio(Lombardia)1621;m.Laraneum(ilhasCelebes)10Maio1658;E.13Setembro1651(Gênova);Emb.4Abril1657noBomJesusdeVidigueiraparaChina.23.OuCiceri(Monsenhor,bispodeNanquim);n.Como(Lombardia)28Maio1639;m.Nanquim22Dezembro1703;Visitador,procurador,bispo;médico;cartadesdeLisboa12Novembro1685dizendoqueiriaaLivornodentrode15dias(JS19,138);E.18Outubro1655(Chieri,Turim);P.antesde1669;V.15Agosto1672(Como);Emb.2Abril1674;ca.1675chegaaÍndia;2anosemCantão;1682–1685vi-sitadordasprovínciasdeGoaeMalabar;missionárioKwangtung;deputadocomoprocuradoraGoaeaRoma;5Fevereiro1689nomeadovisitadordoJapãoedaChina;Emb.desdeLisboa8Abril1690;em15Julho1691regressoaMacau;15Outubro1691parteparaPequim;25Janeiro1694nomeadobispodeNanquim;5Fevereiro1696consacradobispo;26Junho1696chegaaNanquim.24.N.Nice(Piemonte)23Abril1623;m.Yangchow24Outubro1694;ViceprovincialMacau;historia-doregramáticolatinista;escreve:Delatinaelinguae…,Bontinck,1695;Deritibusecclesiaesinicae…,1680(ms.);aparentadocomafamíliaDeLascaris,GrãoMestredaOrdemdeMalta;E.15Setembro1639(Gênova);P.ca.1653;Emb.30Agosto1654desdeBordeauxparaLisboa;Emb.Lisboa23Março1655destinoChina;1656chegaaMacau;1659emmissão;V.16Fevereiro1659(Macau);1660Kiang-nan,Yangchow,Chinkiang;1665–1671exiladoaCantãoondechega25Março1666;1672–1680Sian;1680–1683e1689–1692ViceprovincialMacau;1684NankimondefundaoSeminário;1690–1691Pequim;1691Nanquim;1692Yangchow.mariagraziarussooOriente,seguidospeloReinodeSabóia(18),peloEstadoPontifício(querecolhiaasMarcas,aÚmbria,oactualLácioealgumaszonasdaEmíliacomoBolonha,FaenzaeRímini,17ou18),pelaRepúblicadeGênova(10ou11)epeloDucadodeMilão(9,10ou11).MasparaamissionaçãonoOrienteconcorreramtambémoGrãoDucadodeToscânia(7ou8),osterritóriosestensesdosducadosdeMódenaeReggioedeFerrara(3),aRepúblicadeVenezaqueincluiatambémBérgamo(3),oTrentino(2ou3),osterritóriosasbúrgicosdeGorícia(2)eMântua(1),e,afinal,oducadodeParmaePiacenza(1).Regiãoactual(númerodeJesuítasnascidosemcadaregião):esferapolíticanaépocadosJesuítasCidade[eventualprovínciaouáreadereferênciaoudiocese](nomesdosJesuítas,datadenascimento)Abruços(1):ReinodeNápolesChieti(Valignano,1539)Basilicata(1?:poderiaserdaCampânia):ReinodeNápolesAtella[Pistóia](Gianpriamo,1686)Calábria(4):ReinodeNápolesCosenza(Sambiasi,1582),Longobucco[Cosenza](Ferrario,1537),MottaBovalino[antigaterranaáreadaactualReggioCalábria](Costanzo,1571),ReggioCalabria(Parisi,1625)Campânia(5):ReinodeNápolesNápoles(Brandi,1610;Cinamo,1609;Cola,1560;Fuciti,1625),Aversa[Caserta](Gianpriamo,1686)Côrsica(1):RepúblicadeGênova(Belgoder,1643)Emília(10ou11)com:a.ducadodeParmaePiacenza(1)b.ducadodeMódenaeReggio(domíniodafamíliad’Este)(1)c.ducadodeFerrara(mesmodomíniodafamíliad’Este)(2)d.EstadoPontifíciocomBolonha(3ou4),Faenza(1)eRímini(1)Bolonha(talvezAzzi,1635;Cavallina,1589;Magnani,1746;Pasio,1554),Faenza(Villiani,1715),Ferrara(DeMonte,1528;Gerardino,1543),Módena(Grassetti,1558),Piacenza(Costantino,1613),Reggio(Vallareggio,1529),Rimini(Belmonte,1654)Friul-VenezaJúlia(4):a.RepúblicadeVeneza(Udine)(2)b.Domínioasbúrgico(Gorícia)(2)Attimis[Udine](Attimis,1707),Gorizia(Messari,1673;Zefferin,1630),Udine(Antonini,1701),Lácio(3):EstadoPontifícioAbbaziadiFarfa(DePetris,1562),Orte[naépocaeraToscânia](Laertio,1557),Roma(DeMagistris,1656)Ligúria(9ou10):RepúblicadeGênovaGênova(Adorno,1655;Canevari,1596ouLombardia;Fieschi,1634ou’36;Paramino,1661;Serra,1667;Spinola,1654),Sanremo(Amoretti,1739),Sarzana[entreLigúriaeToscânia](Cattaneo,1560ou1568;Tudeschini,1598),Taggia[Gênova](DeMarini,1608)

361360Oexamepormenorizado,quandoosdadossãoconhecidos(em66casosousejamaisdoqueo57%),dasorigensdestesJesuítaspermitejesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacauLombardia(12,13ou14):a.ducadodeMilão,incluíndoBrescia,Como,Pavia(ducadodafamíliadosSforza,1521-1535;depoisdomínioespanhol,1535-1796;desde1707domínioasbúrgico)(9,10ou11)b.ducadodeMântua,sobafamíliadosGonzagaaté1707quandopassouaodomínioasbúrgico(1)c.Bérgamo:SerenissimaRepúblicadeVeneza(1)d.Sôndrio:territórioemconflitoentreFrançaeEspanha(1)Bréscia(Aleni,1582;Faglia,1662ou’63;talvezFranchi1667),CastoValSabbia[Brescia](Gnecchi-Soldo1532),Como(Cicero,1639),Insubria[regiãohistóricalombardacomváriossignificados,talvezsignifiquedaáreadeMilão](Turcotti,1643),Mântua(Gonzaga,1673),Milão(Arrigoni,1622;Brassanelli,1658;Castiglione,1688;talvezCanevari1596),Pavia(Rho,1592),PonteinValtellina[Sôndrio](Guicciardi,1621),Schilpario[Bérgamo](Grassi,1775)Marcas(7):EstadoPontifícioAscoliPiceno(Cappelli,1679),Fano(Amiani,1661),Macerata(Filippucci,1632;Marchetti,1638;Ricci,1552;Simonelli,1680),Montecorsaro[Macerata](Laureati,1666)Piemonte:ReinodeSabóia(18)?(Ceaglio,1693),Asti(Gaiati,1593;Gatinara,1641),CasaleinPiemonte[naáreadoMonferrato](Gozani,1659),Chieri[Turim](Pluro,1696),Cúneo(Baudino,1657;Bruno,1658;DeFerrariis,1609;Grimaldi,1638),Nice(Barelli,1653ou’56;Gabiani,1623;Pallavicini,1667;Provana,1662),Saluzzo(DellaRocca,1612ou’14),Sabóia(Carrocci,1646),Strambino[diocesedeIvrea,Turim](Rubino,1578),Turim(Rovida,1611),Troffarello[Turim](Vagnone,1568ou’69),Pulhas(4):ReinodeNápolesLecce(DeUrsis,1575;Lubelli1611),Maglie[Lecce](Costa,1679),Spinazzola[Bari](Ruggieri,1543)Sardenha(1):domínioespanholCagliariouCùglieri[Nuoro](Sanna,1668)Sicília(15):ReinodeSicíliaAssoro[Enna](Valguarnera,1608),Caltagirone[Catânia](Longobardo,1565),Caltanissetta(Gravina,1603),Caltavuturo[Palermo](Cipolla,1736),Mineo[Catânia](Buglio,1606),Módica[Ragusa](Laurifice,1646),Palermo(Brancati,1607;Candone,1636;Carruba,1572;Castiglia,1635;Posateri,1640),PiazzaArmerina[Enna](Intorcetta,1625),Messina(Morabito,1691),Siracusa(Minaci,1654;Trigona,1687)Toscânia(7ou8):GrãoDucadodeToscânia(excluímosLaertiodeOrteclassificadonoLácio)Fivizzano[MassaCarrara](Tedeschi,1572),Florença(Folleri,1699;Moggi,1684;Panzi,1734),Lucca(Azzi,1635ouBolonha;Cittadella,1603),Siena(Capacci,1646;Rocchi,1572)Trentino-AltoÁdige(2ou3):Tirol,domínioasbúrgicoBressanone[Bolzano](Franchi1667ouBrescia),Trento(Aigenler,1633;Martini,1614)Úmbria(2):EstadoPontifícioNorcia[diocesedeSpoleto,Perúgia](Lucci,1661),Orvieto(Torrente,1616)Ignoto(6ou7)(Deli;Finocchiaro;Fiori,1672;Pinnacius;Raffaele,1644;Tanaglia,m.1673;VallatalvezProvana)mariagraziarusso25.OuAmmiani;n.Fano(Marcas)6Janeiro1661;m.Macao22ou23Fevereiro1723;E.Roma12Maio1679;Emb.8Abril1690;ChegaaMacauem1694;30Outubro1695Tingchow,Fukien;1696–1707Kanchow;V.2Fevereiro1697;1709e1714Macau.26.OuAlessandroPhilippucci,Philipucius,Phlipuchi,Filepuzzi;n.Macerata(Marcas)5Janeiro1632;m.Macau12Agosto1692;SuperiordaresidênciadeCantão;ProvincialdoJapão;VisitadordaChinaedoJapão;CartasARSIeAjuda(maisde400);E.26Janeiro1651(Roma);1658nocolégiodeMacerataérestabelecidomilagrosamenteporS.FranciscoXavieretomaonomedele(descriçãoporPossini,Macerata,1658);P.1659;Emb.21–23Abril1660;13Junho1661chegaaGoa;em1663chegaaMacau;1671–1679Cantão;2Novembro1673–1679superiordaresidênciadeCantão;V.15Agosto1676Cantão;1°Dezembro1680–Dezembro1683ProvincialdoJapão;1682Macau;1688–1691visitadordaChinaedoJapão;1690–6Janeiro1692novamenteprovincialdoJapão.27.OuLaureate;n.Montecosaro,prov.Macerata(Marcas)27Abril1666;m.Macau15Fevereiro1727;VisitadordeChinaeJapão;E.20Novembro1682(Roma);Emb.8deAbril1690paraChina(embarcanãopadre);P.ca.1690(?)(Goa);1698Shensi;1700Fatshan,Kwangtung;SuperiordaResidênciadeCantão;V.2Fevereiro1700(Macau);Sanchan;1702Filipinas;FoochoweAmoy,Fukien;1709Hinghwa,Foukien;Outubro1711Kaifeng;1715Yen-p’ingfou,Foukien;1718-1721VisitadordeChinaeJapão(residênciaemPequim);28Fevereiro1720BrevedeClementeXIparaele;enviadocomolegadodoImperadoraCantão;1722–1725Nan-tchangfou,Kiangsi;1725exiladoaCantão.28.N.Macerata(Marcas)25Abril1638;m.Florencça20Janeiro1709;E.2Junho1656(Roma);desti-nadoàChinamasasuasaúdenãolhepermitiupartir.29.OuTorrens;n.Orvieto(Umbria)ca.1616;m.Hainan30Março1681;superioraHainan;E.28Maio1633(Sant’AndreaemRoma);Emb.26Março1640;P.antesdeSetembro1641;Setembro1641chegaaSalsette,Índias;1646Malaca;1647–1659Tonquim;V.7Maio1651;1659Macau;1660KouangTong;1660Hainan:ResidênciaTingan;Kanchowfou;1664superioraCantão;superioraHainan;1668Cantão;1673–1681Hainan.30.OuLuci,Lucio,Tucio,Lucius,Luchi,Loutchi;n.Norcia,Perúgia(Umbria)14Abril1661;m.Tonquim4Novembro1719;médico;doutoremfilosofia,teologiaemedicina;1705–1710escrevecartasanuais;E.7Setembro1689(Roma);Emb.8Abril1690;15Julho1691chegaaMacau;12Março1692enviadoàcortecomomédico;P.22Maio1692CantãoporMonsenhorDellaChiesa;12Julho1692chegaàcorte;8Julho1693enviadoparaMacau;13Setembro1693chegaaMacau;1694Tonquim,ondeserásuperiordamissão;chamadoporPropaganda;V.2Fevereiro1700.31.OuDiPietri;n.AbbaziadiFarfa(Lácio)1562;m.Shiuchow5Novembro1593;E.15Agosto1583,Roma;P.ca.1586;Emb.11Abril1586;13Abril1586deLisboacomosembaixadoresjaponeses;29Maio1587chegaaGoa;22Abril1588saideGoa;28Julho1590Macau,destinoJapãoedepoisàChina;finaisDezembro1591Shiuchow.verificarqueexisteumaaproximadacorrespondênciageográficaentreolugardenascimentoeolugardeentradanaCompanhiaesobretudoqueosColégiosdeondesaempessoasdestinadasàChinafuncionamprevalentementeporfaseshistóricas.Ocentromaisfrequentadore-sultaserRoma(com23presenças),ondechegamdetodooEstadoPontifíciocomodasMarcas(terradeRicciqueabreasportasaCarloAmiani25,1661–1723,FrancescoSaverioFilippucci26,1632–1692;GiovanniLaureati27,1666–1727;eAnnibaleMarchetti281638–1709),daÚmbria(deondeprovémStanislaoTorrente29,1616–1681,deOrvieto;eIsidoroLucci30,1661–1719,deNórcia)eobviamentedaAbbaziadeFarfa(FrancescoDePetris31,1562–1593).DosAbruçosprovinhaValignano.MasemRomachegavamtambémpessoasdeoutrasáreasitalianassobretudodonorte,dacidadedeTrento(comoMartini),daLigúriacomoéocasodalocalidadedeSarzana

363362jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacau(comLazzaroCattaneo32,1560ou1569–1640,eAgostinoTudeschini33ambosdoprimeiroperíodo)edeGênova,mesmotendoestacidadeoutrocentroJesuítico(comPietroCanevari34,1596–1675,eGiovanniFilippoDeMarini35,1608–1682,deTaggia);daToscânia(onde,alémdeFernandoBonaventuraMoggi36,1684–1761,deFlorença,doperío-dodeKangHitodososoutrossãoanteriores:BaldassarreCitadella37,32.OuCataneo;n.Sarzana(LigúrianolimitecomaToscana),1560ou1568;m.Hangchow,19Janeiro1640;E.27Fevreiro1581(Roma,noviciadoemsant’Andrea);P.1587;Emb.barcoS.Tomé1°Abril1588;1589chegaaGoa;1593Macau;ShiochowcomRicci;V.Cantão26Maio1596;7Setembro–5Novembro1598Pequim;Agosto1599Macau;Março1600Nanqum;1601e1602Macau;1604MalacaeMacau;Setembro1608–1610,ShangaieKiating,invitadoporPauloSiu;8Maio1611fundaoutraresidênciaaHangchow;1620Kiating;1622e1631Hangchow.33.OuTodesquino,Tudescino;n.Sarzana,prov.LaSpezia(entreasRepúblicasdeGênovaedaRepúblicadeLucca)1598;m.afogado,pertodeFouchow1643;E.27Novembro1622(Roma);P.antesde1627;Emb.paraaChina1627naSantiago;Emb.3Abril1629noSacramento;1631chega;1631–1634Shangai;1637–1639Chan-sieChensi(Siam);1639(Foukien).34.OuCanevare;n.“«Mediolanus,patriaGenuensis»,Gênes”(Dehergne)pensamos,pelocontrário,quesetratedeMilão,masdeorigemgenovesa,Milão(Lombardia)ouGênova(Ligúria)1596;m.Nanchang1675;E.3Outubro1622(Roma);P.antesde1627;V.10Maio1637;1627–1629Lisboa;Emb.3Abril1629;1630chegaàChina;1631Hangchow;1648,Kaifeng;ca.1635e1648Chüanchow,Fukien;1651Changchow;Nangchang,Kiangsi;28Junho1665persecuçãoPequim,exiladoaCantão;1671regressaaNanchang.35.17Julho1682;ProcuradoremMacaudaVice-ProvínciadaChina;BispoeleitodoJapão;ProvincialdoJapão;AdministradordobispadodeMacau;escrevecomomissionárioemTonquimDellemissionide’PadridellaCompagniadiGiesu,Roma,1663;IstoriaerelazionedelTunquinedelGiappone,Marziano,1967;E.18Fevereiro1625(Roma,Sant’Andrea);P.ca.1637;Emb.26Março1640nobarcoNossaSenhorad’Atalaia;1649ProcuradoremMacau;ProcuradordaVice-ProvínciadaChina;missionárionoTonquimdurante14anos;V.7Maio1651;22Janeiro1656ReitordoColégiodeMacau;1658expulsodeTonquim;naufrágiopertodeHainan;1661chegaaRomacomoprocurador;Emb.15Abril1666nobarcoNossaSenhoradaAjudacomoprocuradordoJapãoebispoeleitodoJapão;13Outubro1666chegaaGoa;1670–1673provincialdoJapão;1671eleitobispodeMacauporPedroIImasnãoconfirmadopeloPapa;1671–1676administradordobispadodeMacau;Setembro1673expulsodoTonquim;Novembro1673Siam;Dezembro1675Macau;6Dezembro1677chamadoporPropaganda;10Outubro1678brevedepapaInocêncioXI;1680–1682VisitadorChinaeJapão.36.OuFerdinandoMoge(irmãocoadjutor);n.Florença(Toscânia)14Julho1684;m.Pequim27Agosto1761;pintoreescultor;E.13Dezembro1711(Roma);Emb.1720naNossaSenhoradoCabo;6Setembro1721chegaemPequim;pintoreescultor;24Julho1721constroiaigrejaS.JosédePequimcomFridelli(decoraçãodeCastiglione);V.2Fevereiro1727Pequim.37.OuCitadelli;n.Lucca(Toscânia)1603;m.naviagemdesdeGoaparaEuropa3Dezembro1651;Mestredenovícios;escreveacartaanual1641–42(JS118);E.6Fevereiro1623(Roma,noviciadoemSant’Andrea);P.1631ou1632;Emb.13Abril1635;V.31Julho1647(Macau);1650reitordocolégiodeMacauondetrabalhacomosnovícioschineses;15Agosto1650eleitoprocuradorparairaRoma;12Fevereiro1651oPadreGeralPiccolomininomeia-oPdreGeraldoJapãoignorandoaeleiçãoaProcurador.38.OuLaerzio,Laercio;n.Orte(Toscânia)1557;m.Cochin11Setembro1630;Vice-provincialedeGoaadinterim;ProvincialdeMalabar;VisitadorJapãoeChina;E.8Setembro1576(Roma);Emb.4Abril1579noChagas;P.1580;V.9Julho1595(Goa);1597Goa;12anosmestredeNovíciosnasÍndias;1600nomeadoprocuradorparaRoma;25Março1602chegaaRomacom59missionários(entreosquais35padres);1602vice-provincialedeGoaadinterim;13Dezembro1604–1611provin-cialdeMalabar;16Janeiro1620visitadorJapãoeChina;14Outubro1621chegamaspatentesemMacaumaselejátinhaidoparaEuropacomoprocuradoreleitoparaasÍndias;Emb.25Março1624;1625–1629novamenteProvincialdeMalabareencarregadodeorganizaramissãoaoTibet;1628naufrágio:preso.mariagraziarusso1603–1651,deLucca;AlbertoLaertio38,1557–1630,deOrte;MuzioRocchi39,1572–1605,deSiena;BartolomeoTedeschi40,1572–1609,deMassaCarrara),daEmília(talvezGiovanniGerardino41,1543–1596,deFerraraouAlessandroValla42,1529–1580,deReggioEmíliaosdoisdoperíodoinicial),mastambém,maisaosulousejadasPulhas(comoMicheleRuggieri43,1543–1607,deSpinazzola)edaSicília(comoGa-brieleMinaci44,1654–1722,deSiracusa).IstoquerdizerqueRomanoperíodoantesdeKang-Hifuncionavacomocentrodereferênciasobre-tudoparaosqueprovinhamdaRepúblicadeGênova,daToscânia,daEmília,dasPulhasedaSicília,equesódepoisdeValignanoedeRicciéqueseabriutambémaosAbruçoseàsMarcas.EmRoma,aIgrejadeSantoAndré,centrorelevantedenoviciado,eraprepostaàpreparaçãoparaoOriente:DehergneforneceexplícitareferênciaaestecentrodemissionaçãoemrelaçãoaCitadella,DeMarini,Ricci,TorrenteeValig-nano(administradordomesmonoviciado).39.OuMutiusRochi,Roqui,Rochius,Roque,Rhodio;n.Siena(Toscânia)1572;m.Macau7Novembro1605;matemático;Janeiro1602escrevedesdeMacauparapedirlivrosdematemáticasparaamissãodaChina;E.8Novembro1590(Roma);Emb.(nãopadre)5Abril1597noS.Martinho;1601deGoa,paraMacau;1603primeiroanodeteologiaemMacau.40.OuTedesqui,Tedesche,Tudeschi,Tidesqui(consideradoporDehergnecoincidentecomBarto-lomeoTudeschini,m.25deJulhode1609naChina,masestechegaàChinaem1604);n.Fivizzano,prov.MassaCarrara(Toscânia)1572;m.ChaoTcheou25Julho1609;E.6Novembro1594(Roma);deRomaparaCoimbra;Emb.4Abril1600(nãopadre)naS.Valentim;Setembro1600chegaaGoa;P.1600Goa;1Maio1601partedeGoa;1Setembro1601Macau;18Outubro1603ChaoTcheou;Outubro–Novembro1608Nanquim;ChaoTcheou.41.OuGherardino,Guardino;irmãocoadjutor;n.Ferrara(Emília-Romanha)1543;m.Macau1596;segundoPfister:pintor(masDehergnenãoconcorda);E.1561(Roma?);V.25Abril1569ou1570emRoma;Emb.24Março1578paraoJapãonobarcoBomJesus(talvezestudante)desdeLisboa;1583–1589Japão;1596doJapãoparaMacau.42.OuValla-Reggio,Vallareggio;n.ReggioEmília1529;m.Ceuta11Fevereiro1580depeste;PrimeiroProcuradordasmissõesdePortugalaLisboa,único–peloqueparece–queestivesseemMacauantesdesernomeado;E.7Maio1560(Roma);P.5Abril1561(Recanati);23Novembro1573estáemLisboaetorna-seprocuradordasmissõesportuguesas;Emb.1564;1565Goa;1568Macau;28Junho1568Japão;1571Cochin;1572PortugaleRoma;23Novembro1573Lisboa;Procuradordasmissõesportuguesas;1578segueoreiD.SebastiãoparaÁfrica:presonabatalhadeAlcácerQuibir;1580regressaparaoresgatedospresos.43.OuPompilioRogerio,Rogeiro,Rouger,Jogerius;n.Spinazzola(Pulhas)1543;m.SalernoouNápo-les11Maio1607;Doutoremdireito;escreveuoCatecismoeoDicionáriocomRicci,maisprovavel-mentetrabalhodeconjunto;E.28Outubro1572(Roma);P.12Março1578(Lisboa),primeiramissa;dosvotosnãosesabenada;Emb.24Março1578,noS.Luís;ca.20Julho1579chegaaMacau;fundacatecumenadodeS.Martinhoparaaconversãodoschineses;Abril1580atéOutubro1581etc.bre-vesperíodosemCantão;Junho–Dezembro1582Shiuhing;Macau;1Janeiro1583primeiravezmissaaTchaoking;finais1585fundaamissãodeTchaokiangcomPadred’Almeida;1587outratentativaemKouei-lin,Kouang-si;1587fundaamissãodeHoukouang;Novembre1588chamadoparaRomaparaprojectarumaembaixadadoPapa.44.N.Siracusa(Sicília)22Junho1654;m.Rachol14Setembro1722;E.13Abril1675(Roma);V.15Agosto1685(Roma,CasadeJesus);Emb.1692paraaChina;1695ProvínciadeGoa;1706ColégiodiRachol,Goa(enfermo).

36536445.OuBrando;n.Nápoles(Campânia)1610;m.Macau13ou14Dezembro1681;E.18Agosto1627(Nápoles);Emb.26Março1640;V.25Março1650(Goa);22Junho1656chegaaHainan;1660residên-ciadeTinganemHainan;1665ColégiodeMacau(reitorem1668);1671–1673Siam.46.OuSinamo;n.Nápoles(Campânia)1609;m.Goa27Fevereiro1676;E.13Outubro1623(Nápoles);P.antesde1643(?);V.1°Janeiro1643(Nápoles,CasaProfessa);Emb.12Abril1644paraaChina(compadreSemedo);ficaemSalsette,Canari;fundaamissãoMaïssour;1662superiordaquelamissão.47.OuFacitto,Facittus,Focitta;n.Nâpoles(Campânia)1625;m.Macau18ou19Outubro1696;E.10Novembro1638(Nápoles);P.eGeneralCaraffaentrega-lheduaspatentes:umaparaPérsiaou-traparaCochinchina;P.ca.1650;Emb.Outubro1654aVannes(Bretanha);Emb.emLisboa23Março1655nobarcoCapitaina;Agosto1655chegaaÍndia;1656emtrêsmesesvaideGoaparaMacau;1658Cochinchina;1664persecução;1665colégiodeMacau;V.13Abril1665(Siam);1668Cochinchi-nacompatentedeVicáriogeraldadiocesedeMalaca;1669Tonquim;1679Tonquimpresopelafé;1684depoisde7anosnamissãodaCochinchinae16anosnoTonquiméchamadopelaCongregaçãoporcausadasdificuldadescomosvicáriosapostólicos;23Dezembro1684chegaaBatávia;23Setembro1685Siam;22Janeiro1693OrdemdoPapaqueoreintegranasuamissão;Macau.48.Irmãocoadjutor;n.Maglie,prov.Lecce(Pulhas;naalturaeraReinodeNápoles)ouCalábria6Agosto1679;m.Pequim28Fevereiroou1°Março1747;Cirurgião;E.11Março1700(Nápoles);V.15Agosto1710;Emb.12Abril1714;Agosto1715chegaaPequimcomomédico,cirurgiãoefarmacêutico.49.OuSabbatino,SebastianoDegliOrsi,desUrsins,Deursis,d’Orsi;n.Lecce(Pulhas)1575;m.3Maioou20Abril1620;astrónomoehidráulico;introduznaChinaafarmacopeiaeuropeiaeadestilaçãodasessências;E.6Novembro1597(Nápoles);residebrevementeaCoimbra;Emb.25Março1602;1603chegaaMacaudestinoJapão;1606deixaMacauporNanChang;1607chegaaPequimenviadoporRiccicomoastrónomoehidráulico;18Março1617expulsodePequim(comPantojaparaCantãoeMacau);V.17Fevereiro1618Macau.50.OuLobelli,Lobello,Lubely;n.Lecce(Puglia)1611;m.Macau2Novembro1685;vice-provincialdaChina;ProvincialdoJapão;Visitador;ocupa-sedosneófitaschineses,dascriançasabandonadas;superiorderesidência;E.30Março1628(Nápoles);P.1639ca.;Emb.26Março1640paraMacaunoNossaSenhoradaAtalaia;3anosemSalsette,Índia;Macau;26Fevereiro1646naufrágio;1647Hainan;emmissãopor6anos,presopelosheregesdurante8meses;ocupa-sedosneófitaschine-ses(Macau?);V.15Agosto1649;Tonquim;1659–1665Cantãoondeseocupadascriançasabandona-das;Março1659fundaigrejaeresidência;1664superiordaresidência;1665persecução:presoeconduzidoaPequim;1674–1676vice-provincialdaChina;1676–1680ProvincialdoJapão;1680–1684Visitador;Shansi,Shensi;Hukwang.51.N.MottaBovalino(Calábria)1571;m.mártiremTabira,ilhadeFirando,Japão,15Setembro1622(beatificado7Julho1867porPapaPioIX,festividade15Setembro,depois6Fevereiro);estudiosodasreligiõesdoJapãoedaChina;cartaanual1617Macau;E.8Setembro1591(Nápoles)pedeaChina;Emb.9Abril1603nobarcoNossaSenhoradeBetancourt;chegaàÍndiaedepoisaMacau,masosportuguesesnãolhepermitemdeentrarporqueestrangeiro;porissoparteparaoJapão(chegaaNagasaki17Agosto1605);1614exiladopelapersecuçãovoltaaMacau;emMacauestudaasreligiõesdoJapãoedaChina;V.21Outubro1615.AlémdeRomaoutrasgrandescidadesondeconfluemmuitosmissionáriosparaaChinasãoNápoleseGênova.EmNápoles(10)entramalgunsnapolitanoscomoGianbattistaBrandi45(1610–1681),FrancescoLeonardoCinamo46(1609–1676)eDomenicoFuciti47(1625–1696),eoutrosquetêmorigensnasPulhas(comoGiovanniGiuseppedaCosta48,1679–1747;SabatinoDeUrsis49,1575–1620;Andrea-GiovanniLubelli50,1611–1685),naCalábria(comoCamillodiCostanzo51,1571–1622;BernardinoFerrario52,1537–1584;eGiovannijesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacau52.OuFerrari;n.Longobucco(Calábria)1537;m.Amboine25Setembro1584;VisitadordamissãodeMalacaedasMolucas;MestredeArtes;E.20Janeiro1556(Nápoles);P.1564Roma;V.Novembro1570(Sassari,Sardenha);chegouaLisboaem1574paraaprenderportuguês;Emb.nobarcoS.Gre-gório14Março1575destinoChina;chegatardeemCochimeésubstituidopeloPadreRuggieri;IlhasMolucas;1579tentaentraremJavaondeamaioriadosseuscompanheirossãomassacrados.53.OuParigi;n.Reggio(Calábria?)1625;m.morreduranteaviagem(mar)1658;E.15Novembro1640(Nápoles);P.ca.1654quandoestavanoterceiroanodeteologia;Emb.4Abril1657destinadoàChinanoBomJesusdaVidigueira.54.OuBrancato;n.Palermo(Sicília)1607;m.Cantão25Abril1671(masenterradoemShangai);car-taanual1647;E.14Agosto1623(Nápoles);Emb.deLisboa;Emb.13Abril1635;1636chegaaKiang-nan;1647chegaaXangai(2000–4000batizadosporano);escrevecartaanual1647;V.1°maio1649,Shangai;1665(persecução)noSungkiangtem70igrejase5000cristãos;18Julho1665conduzidoaPequim;edepois7Setembro1665paraCantão.55.OuFlisco,Fiesqui,Ficoqui;n.Gênova(Ligúria)24Maio1636ou20Maio1634;m.9Outubro1697;ReitordoSemináriodeMacau;ProvincialdoJapão;VisitadordaViceprovínciadaChina;E.5Setembro1652(Gênova);P.antesde1665;Emb.Abril1666;ou19Outubro1666paraGoa;12Dezembro1668chegaaGoa;1669Tonquim(1ano);Siam(2anos);1673ReitordoSemináriodeMacau;V.15Agosto1675(Macau);1687–1690ProvincialdoJapão;17Dezembro1695,masdefacto16Julho1697atéàmortevisitadordaVice-provínciadaChina.56.OuSpinula;n.Gênova(Ligúria)5Ab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36736659.N.Strambino(dioceseIvrea),prov.Turim(Piemonte)Março1578;m.mártireaNagasaki22Março1643;visitadorJapãoeChina;E.21Setembro1596(Arona,Novara);Emb.(nãopadre)25Março1602naNossaSenhoradaPaz;15Setembro1603chegaaGoa;P.1605Goa;V.26Maio1613Cochin;9Janeiro1638nomeadovisitadorJapãoeChina,defacto15Outubro1639;2Novembro1639Macau;30Setembro1640separaaProvínciadeHainandaprovínciadaChinaparaaatribuiràProvínciadoJapãoeportantoaospadresdeMacau;Julho11Agosto1642NagasakiporManila;Outubro1642presoetorturado;tomouposiçãosobreaquestãodosritos.60.OuRaudentis,Raudezis,Rhoch,Ro;n.Pavia(Lombardia)29Janeiro1592;m.Pequim26Abril1638;astrónomo;assinamuitosdocumentoscomJohannAdamSchallvonBell(1592–166);escreveumaobrasobreamortificação,publicadaem1937;Tratadodeanatomiacom57figuras;E.7Maioou24Agosto1614(Arona,Novara);14Junho1616(Milão)fazpedidoparaaChina;P.1617(pelocard.BellarminoemRoma);Emb.metadedeAbril1618naS.Carlos;1622chegaaMacauatacadapelosholandeses;1626Chan-si;V.28Agosto1628(Kiangchow,Shansi);11Maio1630morreSchreckeelevaiparaPequimemseulugarcomoastrónomo;trabalhanacorreçãodocalendáriochinês.61.N.Saluzzo(Piemonte)ca.1612ou1614;m.Cantão10Junho1670;E.13Fevereiro1628(Chieri);P.1640ou1641;1641parteparaaÍndia;Emb.30Março1643paraaChina;1646Cochinchina;1647–1658Tonquim;1658exilado;Hainan,Cambója;Macau;Hainan;V.10Novembro1659(Salemi,Trapani).62.OuBarli,Varrelli;n.Nice(Piemonte)15Novembro1653ou9Agosto1656;m.Hangchow29Janeiro1711;E.21OtubroouNovembro1673(Milão);V.1691Goa[entãonãoembarcaem1698?];Emb.8Abril1698;chegaaMacauantesdofimdoano;1702e1708Hangchow.63.OuSoldi-Gnechi,Soldo;n.CastoValSabbia,prov.Brescia(Lombardia)1532;m.Nagasaki22Abril1609;SuperiordaresidêncaideMacau;escrevesobreaMissãodaChinadesdeMacau(28Ourubro1559e1570);E.Dezembro1556(Ferrara)jápadre;Emb.17Março1567naAnunciada;1567GoanodestinoMacau;V.30Novembro1568(Goa);1568Macau;1559-1570superiordaresidênciadeMacau;18Junho1570Japão;1570–1606trabalhaemMijako(capital);1589pedeJesuítasitalianosebelgas;1598–1606Nagasaki.64.OuGraçeti,Gracette,Garcete,Garzetti;n.Módena(Emília-Romanha)1588;m.Kiang-si1647(duranteainvasãotártara)[contradiçãoemDehergne];E.21Janeiro1617(Novellara,ReggioEmília);P.entre1625e1629;Emb.3Abril1629;chegaemOutubro1630;1631Nanchang,Kiang-si;V.25Junho1640(Nanchang);1648Nanchangduranteainvasãotártara.colherJesuítasdestinadosàChina,comGiovanniAntonioRubino59(1578–1643)eGiacomoRho60(1592–1638),osdoisdoperíodoinicial;eChieri(provínciadeTurim)comBruno,CarloDellaRocca61(1612ou1614–1670),Grimaldidamesmaáreaedamesmaépoca,mastambémCicerodeComodosegundoperíodo.PareceserumapropagaçãodosSabóiasocentronovíciodeMilão,sédeAgostinoBarelli62(1653ou1656–1711)eProvana,osdoisdeNiceedaépocadeKangHi,edeBelgoderdaCórsicadaúltimafase.OutrosnúcleosJesuíticosestãolocalizadosnaregiãoemiliana:Colorno,naprovínciadeParma,comGrassi(jánafasefinal)quede-poisrenovaráosvotosemNápoles;emFerraraondeentraOrgantinoGnecchi-Soldo63(1532–1609);emNovellara(prov.diReggioEmília)cujaIgrejadosSantosMártiresaindarecordaapresençadosJesuí-tasdesde1500,ondeconfluiumapessoadamesmaárea,TranquilloGrassetti64(1588–1647)deMódena,eoutroqueprovémdalombardaBrescia,GiulioAleni65(1582–1649),todos(querosdeFerraraquerosdeNovellara)doprimeiroperíodo;emBolonhaondetêmacesso,emjesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacau65.OuAlenis,DeLeni,DeLenes,Anhelis,DeElenis;n.Brescia(Lombardia)1582;m.Yen-sam,Yenping,Fukien,pertodomontedaCruz,10Junho1649;denominado“oConfúciodoOcidente”;célebreastrônomo;trocoucorrespondênciacomTicoBraheeKeplero;cartógrafo;noAHSI,Ven37,231catálogodassuasobras;CartaspublicadasporA.Favaro;Globochinês;existeumretratonaBibliotecaNacionaldeFrança;E.1°Novembro1600(Novellara),pedindoasmissõesparaPeruououtrodestino;P.ca.1608;Emb.23março1609nanauNa.SradaPiedade;Janeirode1610observaumaeclipseemSalsette;1610emMacaupedeparapartirparaCantão;1611–1612observaoutraeclipseemMacau;1613Pequim;Kaifeng(sinagoga);Nankin;Shangai;Yangchow;1619Hangchow,Chekiang(250batizados);1620Kiangchow,fundaamissãodeChan-si;1623Changshu;V.MarçoouAbril1624;1625fundaamissãodeFukien;1639exiladoaMacau;1641vice-provincialdaChina;1648Fukien,duranteaconquistatártara.66.N.Udine(Friul-VenezaJúlia)29Março1701;m.Pequim7Novembro1739;E.24Abril1718(Veneza);Emb.2Abril1734destinoChina;1737chegaaMacau;12Janeiro1738deixaMacau;8Abril1738chegaaPequim;V.7Dezembro1738,Pequim.67.N.Caltanisetta(Sicília)1603;m.Chamxo4Setembro1662;E.3Novembro1618(Palermo);Emb.13Abril1635;chegaem1637;1637Hangchow;Shangai;1648Chamxo;V.18Dezembro1648(Chamxo);ca.1660Kiangnanfundaaigreja.68.OuCandoni;n.Palermo(Sicília)30Outubro1636;m.Cochinchina(prisãodeHué)21Janeiroou28Maioou24Junho1701;Visitador;E.1°Fevereiro1652(Palermo);Emb.15Abril1666;mestredenovíciosemGoa(umano);missionárionaCamboja(3anos);Cochinchina(11anos);1678Faifo,enviadoporPropaganda;V.antesde1682;1684parteporMacau;Outubro1685oReidePortugalobriga-oavoltarparaLisboa;1692autorizaçãodoregressoàCochinchina;Emb.1694;10Janeiro1699visitadoredestinadoàChina;12Março1700presonaCochinchinaprisãodeHuéondemorre.69.OuPosatery,Pusateri,Possateri;monsenhor;n.Palermo(Sicília)30Abrilou1Maio1640;m.Tai-yuanFou,Chan-si13ou18Janeiro1705;E.22Outubro1656(Palermo);viveuemLisboaporumbreveperíodo;V.12Março1674(Lisboa);Emb.paraBrasil2Abril1674;P.antesde1675;4Novembro1676chegaKwangtung;1684Shangai,Nanquim;1691Chan-si;Kansou;20Outubro1696primeirovicárioapostólicodeChan-si;1700Song-Kiang;20Junho1702BrevedeClementeXI.70.OuLongobardi,Lombard;n.Caltagirone,Catânia(Sicília)10Setembro1565;m.Pequim11Dezembro1655(95anosdeidadecom58naChina);superiordamissãodaChina;superiordePequim;escreveunumerosasobras;E.1582(Messina);P.entre1590e1593;Emb.10Abril1596;20Julho1597chegaaMacau;28Dezembro1597até1611Shiuchow;V.12Novembro1599(Xaucei);1610–1622superiordamissãodaChina;3Maio1611Pequim;1619fundacomVanSpieremissãodeShensi;1621Hangchow;1623–1640superiordePequim;1636Tsinanfou,Shantung;1645Tsinanfou;contestaaposiçãodeRiccisobreosritos..71.N.Messina(Sicília)30Dezembro1691;m.Túscolo31Outubro1769;E.7Dezembro1706(Messina);Emb.16Abril1718;1718jánoterceiroanodeteologiaemGoa;Agosto1720chega;P.ca.1720;24Maio1721aCantão;Kiang-nan;enviadopelovisitadorporqueentrousemopiao,exigidoporKangHi;V.2Fevereiro1725,Ham-cheu,CheKian;1748emMacau;5Julho1762presoemMacau;1764até6Setembro1767presoemLisboa,FortedeS.Julião;deportadoparaItália.mariagraziarussoperíodosdiferentes,doisnobrescomoAttimiseGonzagadeMântua(oquefazpensarserumasémuitoprestigosa).EmVenezaentra,comoeradeesperar,GiacomoAntonini(1701–1739)66doFriulVenezaJúlia,masnãoAttimis,seucontemporâneoeorigináriodamesmacidadeque,comodissemos,vaiparaBolonha.NaSicíliaexistemoscentrosnovíciosqueparecemprevalentementedestinadosapessoasdailhadasprimeirasduasfasesdemissionação:Palermo(ondeentramossicilianosBuglioeGirolamoGravina67,1603–1662;GiuseppeCandone68,1636–1701,eAntonioPosateri69,1640–1705)eMessina(ondeestãopresentesossicilianosNiccolòLon-gobardo70,1565–1655,eAntonioSaverioMorabito71,1691–1769).

369368jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacauParaacabar,MessarieZefferindeGorícia,osdoisdoperíododeKangHi,entramemViena.PeranteestequadropoderíamosdelinearumpanoramadoscolégiosJesuítasemItáliadestinadosàpreparaçãodenovíciosquevêoscen-trosdeRoma,Nápoles,AronadeNovara,Ferrara,Novellara,MessinaePalermotalvezcomoprimeirospontosdereferência,paradepoisdeixarmaiorespaçoaGênovaeChieri,MilãoeBolonha,reforçandotambémaspresençasemRoma,paraconcluircomColornoeVenezanafasefinal.Nãosabemosseestascidadeseramrealmentelugaresondeapre-paraçãoeclesiásticaerajáorientadaàmissionação,masalgunsdessesnomesaparecemjácomaindicaçãodeumpedidoexplícitoparaodestinonemsempreatendido.Porexemplo,AlenipedeamissãodoPeruououtrodestinoepelocontrárioem1609embarcaparaaChina;Brassanelli,aorevés,destinadoàChinaéenviadoparaoParaguaycomosGuaranis:carênciadeJesuítasnumadeterminadaárea,factoresso-ciais,conveniênciashistórico-políticas,mudançasdeprojectosnaCompanhiaounosmesmosindivíduospoderiamserascausasdeal-teraçãodeopiniõesoudeprogramaçãodaOrdem,masporenquantoaindadesconhecemosaorigemdocâmbioespecíficododestino;oqueporémresultabastanteclarodoscatálogoéqueamaioriadospedidoserasatisfeitaequeasmudanças,esporádicas,eramdetodaformaacei-tespelosJesuítasqueseiamembarcarparaqualquerdestino.OsJesuítasitalianosentramnaCompanhiacomumaidademédiadeca.de19anosemeio,sendoaidademaisfrequente16anos(com14Jesuítas)72etendocomoreligiososlimitesFilippo-FeliceCarrocci73(1646–1695),queentracom9anosdeidade(eDehergnenãonosavi-saqueaentradafoifeitapordevoçãopelospaisassimcomoaconteceuporBugliocom6anos),e–noextremooposto–oirmãocoadjutorPanzi,queteveacessocom34,eopadreAlessandroValla,ditoVallareggio,quedáentradacom31anos,assimcomoGiandomenicoParamino74,1661–1709,outroirmãocoadjutor.72.OsdadosemrelaçãoaidadequeseconhecemdosJesuítasitalianosqueentraramnaCompa-nhiaequeforamdestinadosàChinasãoosseguintes:13pessoasentramcom17anosdeidade;11com18;10com19;8com15;7com21;6com20;4com14;edepoisosoutrosnumericamentereduzidos(um,doisoutresporcadaano),desdeos13aos31..73.OuCarocci,Carrossi,Carrozio,Carroccio;n.Sabóia(Piemonte)1646;m.duranteaviagementreKiangchoweTaiyüan,Shansi,China25Dezembro1695;E.1655;V.2Fevereiro1685(Ponti,Valtelli-na);Emb.1687;chega1687;1688Cantão;1689Kiangsi;1690Haiman;1691CantãoeviagemparaSancian;1692HukwangeKaingsi;1695Shensi.mariagraziarusso74.OuParamini(irmãocoadjutor);n.Gênova(Ligúria)29Setembro1661;m.PequimprincípioDezem-bro1709ouGoa1ou2Maio1713;cirurgião,médico;E.1°Julho1692;Emb.1696;1697chega;10Abril1704saideMacauparaPequim;Junho1704chegaaPequim;V.8Dezembro1704;médicodeKangHi;Novembro1709,enfermo,nãoconsegueserenviadoparaMacau.75.Baudino,Brassanelli,Carruba,Castiglione,Ceaglio,Costa,Fiori,Folleri,Gerardino,Minaci,Moggi,Panzi,Paramino,PinnaciusePluro.76.Aleni,Attimis,talvezBelgoder,Canevari,Cattaneo,Cicero,Citadella,DellaRocca,DeMarini,DePetris,Ferrario,Fieschi,Filippucci,Fuciti,Gabiani,Gianpriamo,Gonzaga,Gozani,Grassetti,Grimaldi,Intorcetta,Laurifici,Longobardo,Lubelli,Messari,Parisi,Provana,Rho,Ruggeri,Serra,Simonelli,Trigona,Tudeschini,Vagnone,Valguarnera,ValignanoeValla.77.Fizeramosvotos:Attimis,Barelli,Baudino,Brassanelli,Capacci,Carrocci,Cinamo,Costa,Ferrario,Gerardino,Grassi,Minaci,Posateri,Sanna,Simonelli,Spinola.78.Barelli,Baudino,Brassanelli,Capacci,Carrocci,Costa,Gerardino,Grassi,Minacci,Posateri,Spinola.79.N.Palermo(Sicília)1635;morreunaviagempertodalinhadoequador;E.1663;restabelecimentomilagroso10Agosto1663(quepermitiráaositalianosdevoltarapartirparaasmissõesnãoobstan-teaproibiçãodeAfonsoVI);P.Lisboa9Março1666;Emb.15Abril1666destinoJapãocomDeMarini.80.N.Macerata(Marcas)25Junho1680;m.NC1754ou1755;E.31Outubro1703(jápadre);P.antesde1704;V.2Fevereiro1714;Emb.16Abril1718;30Outubro1719chegaaMacau;Pequimastrónomo;26Novembro1722,enviadoaTsimanfou,Shantung;1725exiladoaCantão;1731Kiamg-nan;1735Kiang-si;1741Macau;1732–1734,1738–1741–1751trêsvezesvisitadordaChinaedoJapão;1748consultadopelasituaçãodaChina;1749Kanchow,Kaing-se;6Março1751partedeMacauparaTonquim;1753Macau.Dos115Jesuítaspornóscalculadosapenas15eramirmãoscoad-jutores75portantoo13%;orestoeramouchegaramaserpadresqueprofessaramantesoudepoisdeembarcaremparaaChina:exactamen-te37fizeramaprofissãoantesdasaída76(o33%),16tomaramtam-bémosvotosantesdepartir77(quaseo14%),tendonalgunscasos(11ouseja9,5%)informaçãoapenasdosvotosenãodaprofissão.78SódepoucosJesuítasquefizeramaprofissãoantesdeembarcarsa-bemosolugardaprofissão(apenas8pessoas)edestassóValignanoprofessanamesmacidadeondetinhaentrado:Roma.Osoutros7en-tramnumacidadeeprofessamnoutra.ProfessamemRoma:FerrarioquetinhaentradoemNápoles;GonzagaquepertenciaaoColégiodeBolonha;eRhoqueestavaemNovara.PelocontrárioRuggierieValla-reggioquetinhamentradoemRomaprofessamrespectivamenteemLisboa(assimcomo91anosdepoisFrancescoCastiglia79,1635-m.naviagem)eemRecanati,nasMarcas.Enfim,ProvanaentradoemMilãoprofessaemLião,eMessari,entradoemViena,professaemGraz.Dosoutrosnãotemosreferências.Aprofissãoacontece,namédia,depoisde8anosemeiorespeitoàentradanaCompanhia,masosdadosvariammuito,tornando-seprofessosalgunsdepoisdeapenasumano(comoocasodeGiacomoFilippoSimonelli80,1680–1754ou1755,queentranaCompanhiacom23anoseprofessacom24,ouAlessandroVallare-

371370jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacauggio,queentrandojáadultocom31anos,professanoanoseguinte)eoutros,pelocontrário,ficandoàesperadurante14anos(Gonzaga,entradocom17anos;Gabianicom16;GiampaoloGozani81,1659–1732,eParisicom15).IstofazpensarquenaCompanhiaseprocedes-seaumaprofissãomaduraquenãoinvolvessepessoasantesdos24anos,tendoemcontaqueamaioriaprofessaentreos26eos29anos(26anos:Aleni,Cattaneo,Filippucci,NiccolòGianpriamo82,1686–1759,EmanueleLaurifice83,1646–1703;27:talvezGrimaldieFerrario;28:talvezLongobardo,GiacintoSerra84,1667–1712,eAntonioMariaTrigona85,1687–?;esobretudo29anosAttimis,Citadella,DellaRocca,DeMarini,Gozani,ProsperoIntorcetta86,81.OuGozano,Grozano,Gozzani,Gozalo;n.CasaleinPiemonte(Piemonte)2Dezembro1659;m.Macau23Agostoou6Setembroou4Outubro1732;escreveoMemorialoferecidoaKang-Hi;E.15Outubro1674;P.1687ou1688;Emb.8Abril1690paraaChina;19Dezembro1694chega;1698Kaifeng(sinagoga);1698Mons.Ciceronomeia-ovicárioparaadiocesedeNanquim;1699–1702Foochow,Fou-kien;V.21Novembro1700Foochow;1703Kaifeng;1708–1714visitadordaChinaedoJapão;1711–1713Kaifeng;relaçõescomJesuítasfranceses;ReitordoColégiodePequim;1722Kaifeng;1724exiladoemCantão,esconde-seaKanchowdeKaing-si;1725Cantão;1725–1726ViceprovincialdoJapão(estandooProvincialnoTonquim)Cantão.82.OuGiampriami;n.Aversa(Campânia)ouAtella(Potenza)22Outubro1686;m.Nápoles14Abril1759;escreve:MemorialaoPapaInocêncioXIII(ms.);E.21Julho1702;P.antesde1712;Emb.12Abril1714;17Setembro1714chegaaGoa;16Maio1715partedeGoaparaMacau;16Agosto1715chegaaMacau;22Outubro1716Cantão;2Janeiro1717Pequim;V.1°Novembro1719(Pequim);1720entregalivroscristãosaosmandarinscoreanosemPequim;13Março1721saidePequimcomumacartadeKangHiparaoPapaClementeXI(defacto,entraga-la-áaInocêncioXIII);6Maio–9Junho1722Moscovo(únicomissionárioautorizadopelotzar);19Outubro1722emRoma;até4Maio1726emItália,naprovínciadeNápoles.83.OuLaurefice,Lorifici,Lorefice,Lavrifici;n.Módica,Ragusa(Sicília)31Maio1646–Cantão17Março1703(naenfermeriadosfranciscanosextramuros);VisitadordeChinaeJapão;E.11Novembro1660;P.antesde1672(ounamesmadata);Emb.2Abril1674paraaChina;9Novem-bro1679chegaàChina;1680Shangai;1684Kiangchow,Shansi;Honan;V.2Fevereiro1685Pequim;1686Si-nganfou;1688Sung-kiang;1693Nanquim;1697–1700Hangchow,Tchokiang;25Outubro1701–atéàsuamortevisitadordeChinaeJapão.84.OuHyacinthe;n.Gênova(Ligúria)12Maio1667;m.Goa3Abril1712;E.30Julgo1685;P.ca.1695(Milão);Emb.1697;1697ministrodacasaprofessadeGoa;missionárioaMysore;V.15Agosto1702nonoviciadodeGoa.85.N.Siracusa(Sicília)19Dezembro1687;m.logodepoisdeterchegadoaMacau;teólogo;E.21Junho1710;P.ca.1715;exiladodaSicíliaparaRomaondeem1716éteólogodosegundoano(jápadre);Emb.16Abril1718;13Setembro1719chegaMacau.86.N.PiazzaArmerina(Sicília)28Agosto1625;m.HangChow3Outubro1696;ProcuradorparaRoma;Visitador;historiador;E.31Dezembro1642;P.1654Messina(Sicília);partiuparaLisboa8Janeiro1656,masnaalturadeAlicanteonaviofoiassaltadoporumcorsáriofrancês;chegouaLisboaaofimdeOutubroinícioNovembro1656;Emb.4Abril1657noBomJesusdeVidigueira;1659chega;V.16FevereiroMacau1659;Kienchang,Kiangsi;1665persecução;28Julho1665deportadoaPequimcomCanevari;Outubro1666eleitoProcuradorparaRoma,masficamaisdeumanoemCantão;3Setembro1668Macau;21Janeiro1669saideMacau;1671Roma;Agosto1674regressaàChina;1676-1684Visitador;1678HangChow;1686-1689ViceProvincialdaChina;1691HangChow;2Agosto1692incéndiodaIgrejadeHangChowamaislindadaChina;10Janeiro1698novamentenomeadoVisitadordesdeRoma,masjátinhafalecido..mariagraziarusso87.OuBaudin,Baudouin,Bordin,Bodin(irmãocoadjutor);n.Cuneo(Piemonte)20Outubro1657;m.Pequim24Dezembro1718;médicoefarmacéutico;deixouumdiáriodeviagem(Mónaco,ms.590,591);E.11Agosto1680(Gênova);V.2Fevereiro1691(Milão);Emb.1692;chegaaMacau11Julho1694;1694nobarcodeCantãoparaPequim;emPequimmédicoefarmacéutico;1699acompanhanoSuldaChinaKangHicomomédico;tratavaosdoentespobres.88.OuCapacchi;n.“«SenensisNapol.»,àSienne”Siena(Toscânia)[talvezdeorigensnapolitanas]Julho1646;m.Macau28Julho1715;mestredenovícios;E.21Novembro1672;V.2Fevereiro1688(Tropea,Calábria);Emb.8Abril1690;1692chegaàChina;1695–1701Hainan;LuichoweFatshan,Kwangtung;1704Hainan;1712mestredenovíciosemMacau.Parisi,Provana,TudeschinieVagnone).Casoslimitesqueultrapassamos30anossãoGabiani(30),CanevarieGonzaga(31),Simonelli(33),Ruggieri(35),eGrassettieMessari(37).Poucossãoospadresquefazemosvotos(osprimeiroseossegun-dos)antesdeembarcar:temosnotíciadeapenas14casos(portantoumapercentagembastantebaixade12,17%).OslugaresondeosJesuítasitalianostomamvotossãoquasesempredesconhecidoseonde,pelocontrário,seconhecem,diferenciam-sedossítiosondeospadresentraramnaCompanhiaouprofessaram.Apenascincoexcepções:umaéCinamoquefezoseupercursojesuíticocompletamenteemNápoles,suacidadedeorigem;entreosoutrosquatroquetomamosvotos,nãonacidadedeorigem,masondeentraramouprofessaram,contamosGrassideBérgamoqueentrouefezvotosnamesmacidadedeColorno;oferrarêsGerardinoeosicilianoMinaci,quefizeramvotosemRomaondeentraramnaCompanhia;eValignanoquetomaosvotosemRomaondeentraraeprofessara.Pelocontrário,osoutrosreligiososnãotomaramvotosemsítiosaelesanteriormenteligados:AttimisdoFriulfezvotosemPiacenza,tendoentradonaCompanhiaemBolonha;GiuseppeBaudino87(1657–1718)piemontêsemMilão,tendoentra-doemGênova;PietroFrancescoCapacci88(1646–1715)deSienafazvotosnacidadecalabresadeTropea;CarocciemPontinaValtellina;CiceroemComo,umacidadelombarda,tendoentradonapiemontesaTurim;FerrarioorigináriodaCalábriaentraemNápoles,professaemRomaetomaosvotosemSassarinailhadaSardenha;ogenovêsSpinolaqueentranasuaprópriacidade,apresentaosvotosantesemSulmonanosAbruçosedepoisemRoma.DogrupodositalianosoúnicoquefezvotosemLisboaéAntonioPosateri,siciliano,entradoparaaSociedadedeJesusemPalermo.OutrositalianosfazemosvotosemMacau:sãoIntorcettaeGabiani,nomesmodiade16deFevereirode1659,Fieschi,a15deagostode1675,eLaureatia2deFevereirode1700.IstodemonstracomoosmembrosdaCompanhia,apartealguns

373372jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacauqueseencontravamnasgrandescidadesdeRomaeNápoles,defacto,viviamnoprópriointeriorumagrandemobilidadeemrelaçãoaolugardeorigem,deentrada,deprofissãoe,afinal,detomadadosvotos.Aquitambémtemosdeconsiderarqueentreaprofissãoeosvotosintercorreumperíodoentreos10eos20anos(comumamédiade14anosemeio),calculandocasosexcepcionaiscomoCarroccique,entradocom9anosdeidade,fezosvotosaos39,depoisde30anosdepresençanaCompanhia,eodeGrassiqueapresentouosvotosde-poisdeapenas2anosdaentradanonoviciadodeColorno.AoladodestesJesuítas,quefizeramumpercursomaisoumenosregular,nãopodemosporémesquecerpersonalidadescomoadeGnecchi-SoldodeBrescia,quequandoentrounaCompanhiaem1556erajápadre;AdamAigenlerdoTirolo,queantesdeembarcarparaaChinaeramissionárionoBrasil;eGiambattistaSanna89(1668–1726),quetrabalharanoMéxico,tomandoosvotosem1701emQuitonoEquador,antesdaaventuraparaoOriente.Alémdisso,antesdeembarcarparaaChina,algunsJesuítasitalia-nosassinalamasuapresençanaEuropa:encontramos,porexemplo,ValignanoemEspanha,em1573,umanoantesdeembarcarparaoOriente;ouFranchiemGraz,em1694,cincoanosantesdasuasaida.EmParismarcamasuapresençaquerSpinolaqueescrevedes-deestacidadeumacartaem16deNovembrode1686,querLuigiCipolla90(1736–1805?),quenodia15deAgostode1769assinadaíumamissiva.OmesmoSpinolaficaráumanointeiroemLisboaparadaraulasdematemáticas,insistindo,em1689,comD.PedroiiporquefizesseentrarosfrancesesnasáreasdoPadroadoportuguês.VinteeseisanosantesdestepedidodeSpinolaaD.Pedroii–pedi-doorientadoàentradadeoutrasforçaseuropeiasqueosportuguesesconsideravamcomdesconfiançapormedodeperderoprópriopadroa-do–umacontecimentoparecidoocorreucomopadrepalermitanoCastiglia,quenodia10deAgostode1663teveumrestabelecimento89.N.CagliariouCùglieri,Nuoro(Sardenha)30Abril1668;m.CambójaouFaifo(17Fevereiro?)1726;médico;E.11Fevereiro1682;TrabalhanoMéxico;V.8Maio1701(Quito,Equador);Emb.1713paraaChina;1717Cochinchina;1722Cantão;1724médiconacortedoReidaCochinchina.90.OuCibolla;n.Caltavuturo,prov.Palermo(Sicília)6Outubro1736;m.após1805(?);estudouvidrariaemedicinaantesdeentrarparaaCompanhia;E.5Novembro1757;15Agosto1769emParis(assinaumacarta);Emb.20Março1770Lorient(Bretanha)(comP.dePoirot);chegaaCantãoem20Outubro1770;1771Pequim;1776depoisdasupressãodaCompanhiaune-seaosPropagandistasdePequim;ca.1805pedeoregressonaCompanhia.mariagraziarusso91.OuPassio,Pacio,Paccius,Pasius;n.Bolonha(Emília-Romanha)NovembroouDezembro1554;m.Macau30Agosto1612;procuradordaProvínciadeGoa;E.25Outubro1572;aferece-separaamissãonaEtiopia;18Maio1577partiuparaLisboa;1577Coimbraparaestudarteológia;Emb.24Março1578,noS.Gregório;P.1578;13Setembro1578até26Abril1582procuradordaProvínciadeGoaondemora;Junho1582Malaca;7Agosto1582Macau;27Dezembro1582Shiuhing;Março1583Macau;25Julho1583Nagasaki(enviadoporValignano);V.30Junho–1Julho1591Kazzucae,Japão;Agosto1600–1611viceprovincialdoJapão;9Dezembro1608nomeadovisitadordoJapãoedaChina,defactodesdeJulho1611-1612;31Julho1611chegaodecretodacriaçãodaprovínciadoJapão:éoprimeiroprovincialdoJapãoantesdepassarocargoapadreValentimCarvalho;22Março1612saideNagasakiparaMacau;inícioAbril1612chegaaMacau;15Julho1612enfermo.92.OuNiccolò,Nicolao,Nicolaus,Nicola;n.Nápoles(Campânia)1560;m.Macau16ou24Março1626;Escoladepintura;E.Dezembro1577;chegaaÉvoraduranteapestede1579;desde1580estáemLisboa;Emb.8Abril1581nobarcoReisMagos;7Agosto1582chegaaMacaucomRicci;fundaescoladepinturaMacau;P.antesde1601;V.8Junho1603;1603Nagasaki;1614Macau.milagrosoatribuídoaSantaRosalia.OdesejodedifundirocultodestaSantafezcomqueAfonsoviaceitasseaaberturadasportasaosmissio-náriositalianos:epoucoimportaaosefeitosseCastiglianãoconsegui-ráchegaraodestino,morrendonaviagempertodalinhadoequador,oimportanteéovalordasuapresençanaquelacontingênciahistóricaparticular.OutroacontecimentomilagrosoéligadoaFilippuccique,tendosidorestabelecidoporintervençãosobrenaturalporS.FranciscoXavier,em1658,mudaopróprionomecomodeFrancescoSaverio:depoisdedoisanosembarcaráparaaChina.DuranteaestadaemLisboaoscontactoscomoReisãoconsidera-dosumpassoimportanteantesdeembarcar,sobretudonoprincípiodamissionaçãoitalianaaoOriente,comofoiocasodeValignanoantesedeRiccidepoisque,respectivamentenosanosde1574e1578,tive-ramumaaudiênciacomoreiD.Sebastião.Aesterespeitonãopode-mosesquecerocontributooferecidoporVallareggioque,deregressodamissãoparaoOriente,seguiuem1578oreiD.SebastiãoparaÁfrica,tentando,depoisdetersidopresoemAlcácerQuibir,umatratativaparalibertarospresos,encontrandoporémamorteporpesteemCeutanodia11deFevereirode1580.AochegaremaPortugalosjesuítasitalianosinserem-senascomu-nidadesportuguesasparaestudarprincipalmenteteologiaelíngualusitana:oscentrosprincipaissãoLisboa,ondeporexemploMartiniestudateologia;Coimbra,ondeRicci,DeUrsiseFrancescoPasio91(1554–1612)aprendemteologiaeportuguês;eÉvora,ondeviveMartiniumanoantesdepartir,escrevendoaKircherdasuaprimeiraviagemàChina;eGiovanniCola92(1560–1621)parafugiràpestede1579quetinhachegadoàcapitalportuguesa.

375374jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacauOembarquerealiza-senormalmentedepoisdeumatrintenadeanosdepresençanaCompanhia(bem14pessoaspartemdepoisde35anose11depoisdos32,oscilandoorestoentreos19eos47anosnaCompanhiamascomnúmerosdecisamenteinferioresdemembros).SãopoucasasrelaçõesdeviagemquetemosdestegrupodeJesuítasitalianos:BaudinoeVincenzoCarruba93(1572–1630)deixamrelatosdeviagemqueenriquecemaodepóricamissionária.AlgunsJesuítas,mesmodestinadosàChina94,nãoconseguirampar-tirporvariadasrazões:dePietroDeli95(?–?)nãotemosinformaçõesarespeito,pelocontráriodeMarchetti,entradonaCompanhiaem1656,sabe-sequepormotivosdesaúdenãoconseguiuembarcar.AviagemparaoOriente,pelaqualtemosregistadas55ocorrênciasdesdeodia9deMarçode1561atéaodia14deJaneirode1805,tinhaasduasviasdeterraedemar.AviagemdeterraexperimentadaporCarloGiuseppePluro96(?-1696)eGrimaldinosfinaisdoséculoxviinãoteveêxito,vistooimpedimentodoTzarquerejeitouaentra-dadeles,contrariamenteaoqueaconteceracomJohanGrueber(1623–1680)eZefferinporvoltade1660,quechegaramaMacau,passandoporSmyrne,Ispahan,Surate,Ormuz.OutrogénerodedificuldadesfoicriadoemoutraépocaaGrassieaopolacoNorbertKorsak(1773–1846)viaPolotosk,osquaistiveramquemudardecaminhosemcon-seguirchegaraodestinodesejado.Muitomaisfrequentadaera,obviamente,aviapormar.Asimbar-cações,dedicadasaSantos(SãoFelipe97,SãoLuís,SãoTomé,SãoMar-tinho,SãoJoão,SãoValentim,SãoCarlos,Santiago)ouapersonagensevangélicas(ReisMagos,massobretudoàVirgem,NossaSenhoradeBetancourt,NossaSenhoradaPiedade,NossaSenhoradaPaz,NossaSenhoradaAtalaia,NossaSenhoradaAjuda,NossaSenhoradoCabo,93.OuCarrubba;n.Palermo(Sicília)1572;morrenáufragopertodacostadoMalabar1630;Carta/relatóriodeviagem,25Janeiro1602desdeMacau(JS141,96sq);cartade2Janeiro1617emquecomunicaaoP.MuzioVitelleschi(1563–1645)afelicidadedasuamissãoparaJapão(JS17,43);E.1592;Emb.4Abril1600nobarcoS.João;1602emMacau;2Janeiro1617comunicaaviagemparaJapão.94.Emrelaçãoa(Michelangelo)DeMagistris(n.Roma29Setembro1656;m.Roma3Fevereiro1727)E.30Outubro1671eEmb.1690destinadoàmissãodaChina,existemdúvidasnaidentificação.95.Dúvidassobreasuarealpartida;em1692destinadoàChina.96.Irmãocoadjutor;n.Chieri(Piemonte)NC;m.antesde1696(nãoaparecenosCatálogos);E.20Janeiro1688;destinadoàChina,viaterra;1690CracóviacomGrimaldi;oTzarrejeitaapassagempelaRússia.97.NestanauembarcouGiovanniBattistaDeMonte;n.Ferrara(Emilia-Romanha)ca.1528;m.Hira-do,Japão,7Setembro1587;Emb.nobarcoS.Felipe9Março1561;P.Setembro1561(Goa);14Agosto1562chegacomLuísFrois(1532–1597)aMacau;6Julho1563Japão;V.18Outubro1581.mariagraziarusso98.OuValgarneira,Valcarenas,Valcarnera,Valguarnero,Valgarnier,Valgrenier;n.Assoro,prov.Enna(Sicília)1608;m.Siam19Janeiro1677;E.6Março1627;P.antesde1640;Emb.26Março1640;V.15Agosto1649(Macau);1653presopelos“heréticos”por8meses;1655saideMacauporJuthia,Siamondeaindaestápresenteem1668;1669ColégiodeMacau;1670–1674visitadordeChinaeJapão;23Março1675regressanoSiam,ResidênciadeAyuthia(Odia),acapital;chamadoporPropaganda;10Outubro1678brevedeInocêncioXI.99.OuFollery,irmãocoadjutor;n.Florença(Toscânia)9Fevereiro1699;m.depois1767;ProcuradoremMacau;engenheiro;E.11Março1718;Emb.1720comobarcoNossaSenhoradoCabo(comfr.FerdinandoMoggi);6Setembro1721chegaaMacaudestinoPequim;Novembro1728deixaPequimenfermo;V.18janeiro1733(residênciaS.José,Macau);1737Macauadjudantedoprocuradordamissão;1751procuradoremMacau;5Julho1762preso;14Outubro1764prisãodeS.JuliãoLisboa;9Julho1767soltodaprisão.eaJesus–BomJesusdaVidigueira–eàssuasChagas)partiamnosmesesdaprimaveralisboeta(MarçoouAbril).OsJesuítasàsvezeschegavamaLisboadepoisdeterembarcadonaFrançacomoéocasodeCipollaqueembarcaaLorient(naBretanha)nodia20deMarçode1770comPadreLouisAntoinedePoirot(1735–1813);edosdoisJesuítasFucitieGabianideNice(oquejustificariaoseupercurso)quepartemem1654deVannes(naBretanha)edeBordeauxparaembar-carnodia23deMarçodomesmoanoemLisboa:aparteaidade,umadiferençadedoisanos,nãoencontramosnadaemcomumentreosdoisJesuítas,masajunçãoemLisboaparasairnomesmonaviocomdestinoChinapoderianãosercasual.Deresto,detectámosalgunscontactosnosseguintescasos:1.noSãoLuísnodia24deMarçode1578embarcamemLisboaGerardinoePasio(osdoisdemesmaorigememiliana),RiccieRuggieriqueentraramnovíciosnaCompanhiaemRoma,ondeGerardinotambémtomaraosvotos;2.a16deAbrilde1635partemdeLisboaBrancati,BuglioeGravina(aosquaisseacrescentaCitadelladoqualnãoperce-bemosaconexão)quesãotodossicilianos;3.comoNossaSenhoradaAtalaia,nodia26deMarçode1640,saemBrandieLubelliqueentraramemNápolesnomesmoperíodo,DeMarini(nasuaprimeiraviagem),MartinieTorrentequefrequentaramomesmocolégiodeRoma,sendoMartinieTorrentequasecoetâneos(comestegrupopartetam-bémTommasoValguarnera98,1608–1677,sobreoqualtemospoucasinformações);4.noNossaSenhoradoCabo,em1720,vãoparaoOrienteosdoisflorentinosFrancescoFolleri99(1699–1767)eMoggi.

377376jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacauAssimsendo,ousejaexistindoporalgunsmembrosdaCompanhiaumaligaçãoquefazcomquesepossapensaraumprojectodecoesãoentreelesedeeducaçãoeculturacomum,onossotrabalhodepesquisateráqueseconcentrarsobreosoutrosgruposquepartemedosquaisnãotemosinformaçãosuficienteparaosconectarunsaosoutros.Detodaformaéimportanterelevarquebem17viagensforamfeitaspelomenosemgruposdedoiselementos(alembrarafraseevangélicaondeJesusexortaaconvertirsempreindodedoisemdois):NossaSenhoradaPiedadenodiade23deMarçode1609partecomAlenieFrancescoSambiasi100(1582–1649);SãoCarlosa16ou17deAbrilde1618comPaoloCavallina101(1589–1618),GiovanniDomenicoGaiati102(1593–1628?)eRho;nodia3deAbrilde1629partemCanevarieCicero;a12deAbrilde1644embarcamCinamo,talvezGirolamoFinochia-ro103(?–?)eRaffale;nodia2deAbrilde1674Cicero(nasuaprimeiraviagem)eLaurifice;a8deAbrilde1690saemAdorno,Amiani,PietroBelmonte104(1659–700),Capacci,Gozani,LaureatieCicero(nasuasegundaviagem);em1692vãoparaChinaBaudino,Deli,AntonioFaglia105(1662ou1663–1706),CristoforoFiori106(1672-?)eMinaci;em1706AgostinoCappelli107(1679–1715),GonzagaeMessari;a12deAbrilde1714Castiglione,Costa,GianpriamoeTrigona;nodia16deAbrilde1718MorabitoeSimonelli.100.OuSambiaso,Sambiaci,Sambiagio,Sanbiasius,S.Blasio,Blasio,SamBlasius;n.Cosenza(Calábria)1582;m.CantãoJaneiro1649;mestredopovo;Mandarim;escreveoelogioparaoImpera-dor;E.Outubro1602;Emb.(nãopadre)23Março1609naNossaSenhoradaPiedadeparaasÍndias;1610chegaaMacau;1613até1616Pequim;P.entre1616e1621;1622Kiating,depoisShangai;mesmaépocaprojectaumaviagemaCoréia;V.2Fevereiro1625;1628Kaifeng,Honan;Shansi;Shantung;1631até1643Nanquim;Março1645EmbaixadaaMacau;1646Yonglinomeia-omestredopovo;1647Yonglinomeia-omandarim;1648ResidênciadeCantãofundadahápoucoporele;contribuinareformadocalendáriochinês.101.N.Bolonha(Emília-Romanha)1589;morreunaviagem1618(ofereceaprópriavidaparasalvarJohannTerrenzSchreck,1576–1630);E.12Outubro1604;Emb.nobarcoS.Carlos16ou17Abril1618paraaChina.102.OuGayati;n.Asti(Piemonte)1593;m.NC(talvezfalecidoantesde1628);E.1610;19Junho1616pedidodamissionaçãoàChina;Emb.16Abril1618paraaChinanobarcoS.Carlos;V.8Dezembro1627.103.OuPhinocchiaro;NC–NC(dúvidassobreasuarealpartida);Emb.12Abril1644paraaChina.104.N.Rimini(Emilia-Romanha,masnaalturaeraprovínciavéneta)10Abril1659;m.Cochinchina(naprisão)27ou28Maio1700;E.4Novembro1673;Emb.8Abril1690(comCicero);chegaaMacauem1692;Cochinchina;nãosesabesetrabalhounaChina;nãosesabequandofezvotos.105.OuFalha,Failla,Falia,Valia;n.Brescia(Lombardia)3Novembro1662ou1663;m.Kashingfou15Dezembro1706;E.27Janeiro1683ou1684;Emb.1692;11Julho1694chegaaMacau;Pequim;1695Cantão;Tchö-kiang;1697e1700Shantung;1704Macauporqueenfermo;regressoaTcho--kiang;V.29Agosto1706(Sungkiang).106.Irmãocoadjutor;n.NC6Janeiro1672;m.NC;pintor;E.1691Goa;E.6Novembro1692Lisboa;Emb.aindanovício1692;21Julho1694chegaaMacau;finaisdeOutubro1694Pequim;1697Macau,prefeitodoseminário;16deOutubrode1705saidaCompanhia.mariagraziarusso107.OuCapelli;n.AscoliPiceno(Marcas)28Agosto1679;m.Malabar8Setembro1715;E.10Março1695;Emb.1706paraoJapão(comMessarieopolacoJanBaptistaBakowski,1672-1732,destinoChinadoSul);enviadoaoMalabarporqueTournonnãopermiteasuaentradanaChina(1°Dezembro1709:cartaded’AmmianidesdemacauaoPadreGeral);V.8Setembro1712,Madurai(Índia).108.OuSassi;n.Lucca(Toscânia)ouBolonha30Dezembro1635;m.Macau(contrariamenteaPfisterquecolocaamortenaÍndia)16Julho1690;arquitecto;Emb.15Abril1666;chegaaocolégiodeMacauem1668;1669Siam;1673Macau;V.15Agosto1675;1679–1682;missãodeCantão(comoarquitectoaoserviçodoRégulo).109.OuGattinara;n.Asti(Piemonte)1641;morreduranteaviagem11Abril1673;E.21Novembro1664;Emb.15Março1673paraChina.110.OuTanailha;n.NC;m.naviagem(nomarparaasÍndias)19ou21Abril1673;Emb.15Março1673comIntorcetta(talvezdestinadoaoMalabar).111.OuCostantini;n.Piacenza(Emília-Romanha)1613;m.naufrágioparaHannan26Fevereiro1646;E.18Outubro1629;Emb.30Março1643;1644chegaaGoa.112.NãoseencontrareferêncianosCatálogosdeItália.113.OuRuida;n.Turim(Piemonte)ca1611;m.naufrágiopertodoTonquimnomar25Fevereiro1646;E.28Fevereiro1637;1640Roma;Emb.30Março1643comMichael-PierreBoym(1612–1659).Trêsviagensparticularmentetristesforamaquelasfeitasporalgunsitalianosqueencontraramamorte:aprimeiraocorreunoBomJesusdaVidigueiranodia4deAbrilde1657comGuicciardieIntorcetta(nasuaprimeiraviagem),ondeParisicom33anosmorreduranteopercurso;asegundafoinoNossaSenhoradaAjudanodia15deAbrilde1666comLodovicoAzzi(1635–1690)108,DeMarini(nasuasegundaviagem),Fieschi,GrimaldieosdoissicilianosCandoneeCastiglia,oúltimodosquais,comodissemos,morreduranteavia-gem;e,emfim,aterceiranodia15deMarçode1673comIntorcetta(nasuasegundaviagem)queviuquatrocompanheirosmorrerdepeste:Aigenler,Belgoder,FrancescoMariaGatinara109(1641–1673)eLorenzoTanaglia110(?–1673).AlémdestesJesuítasitalianosquemorreraminitinere,contam-setambémPaoloCavallina,quefaleceuparasalvarPadreSchreck,queseencontravanasuamesmaembarcação,Antonio-MariaCostantino111(1613–1646),quemorreunáufragoparaHannan;eGiovanniRaffaele112(?–1644)oqual,embarcadoparaaChinaa12deAbrilde1644,per-deuavidaduranteaviagempoucosdiasdepoisnodia2deMaio.OutrosperderamavidasemprenomarmasdurantedeslocaçõesinternasouregressosaLisboa:éocasodeCarruba,quemorreupertodacostadoMalabarem1630com58anosdeidade;deTudeschini,queafogoupertodeFouchowem1643;deCostantino,quecaiunumnaufrágioparaHannannodia26deFevereirode1646;deFrancescoAscanioRovida113(1611–1646),queafogounumnaufrágiopertodeTonquim,nomesmoanode1646;deCitadella,quefaleceudurante

379378jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacauaviagemdeGoaparaEuropanodia3deDezembrode1651;dePietroPaoloArrigoni114(1622–1658),queacabadeviverduranteaviagemdepoisdeapenasummêsdasaídadonaviodeLisboa;doirmãoAles-sandroCeaglio115(?-1693),queperdeuavidanomarpertodeGoaem1693;deSpinola,queterminouosseusdiasinitinereaMacauounaviagemnomardaCochinchinaa28deJunhoou7deJulhodoanoseguinte(1694);edeProvana,queexpirounopercursopertodoCabodeBoaEsperança,em1720.Nomar,portanto,perderamavida16Jesuítasitalianos,umapercentagemde13%.Goa,comosesabe,representaaprimeiraetapaantesdeentraremMacau,deondeosJesuítasteriamseguidoporoutrasterrasdemissio-naçãoouparaficarnaprópriacidade:otempodestaestadanãoébemdefinido,sendoàsvezesbastantebreve,outrasmaisdilatado.Peloqueconstatámos,ositalianosnãoficammuitotempoentreGoaeMacau,masparecemseguirrapidamenteparaosdestinosprefigurados.AparteocasodeCostanzoaoqual,em1604,nãofoipermitidoentraremMacau,normalmenteosJesuítasitalianosdemoramcercadeumanonaviageme,dentrodeumtempoquesepodeprolongarentreosdoiseosquatroanos,jáestãoemMacaudepoisdeGoa/Salsette:oquesignificaqueapermanênciagoenseébastantereduzida.Casosdetem-pomaisextensopoderiamserosdeLubelli,quesedetém3anosemSalsetteem1640;deCandonequeficaemGoaumanointeirocomomestredenovíciosantesdepartirparaCambojaem1666;domédicoParamino,que,desembarcandoem1697,chegaaMacausóem1704.Alémdisso,aviagemdeGoaparaMacauprolonga-seporcercadetrêsmeses.EmMacauháquemcomeceocursodeteologiacomoRocchi,em1603;quemobserveeclipsescomoAleni,denominado“oConfúciodoOcidente”,em1612;quempassealgumtempo–normalmenteumano–antesdepartirparaamissionação(cujosdestinossãoespalha-dosportodooterritório);quemregresseduranteoperíododamesmaevangelizaçãoparadesenvolverváriasfunçõescomoValignano(quemarcaasuapresençaemMacauemnumerososeprolongadosmomen-tosdeumoudoisanos),Cattaneo(queregressaem1599e1602desde114.OuArrigone;n.Milão(Lombardia)1622;m.duranteaviagem,nomar,19Maio1658;Emb.19Abril1658destinoChina.115.OuCealio;n.(Piemonte)NC;m.Goa3Junho1693(mortoduranteaviagem);Emb.3Junho1692paraaChina.mariagraziarussoPequim),DeMarini(váriasvezesnocursodasuapermanêncianaVice-ProvínciadaChina),Fuciti(em1665desdeaCochinchina),Filippucci(em1682desdeoJapãodequeeraProvincial),Grimaldidepoisde19anosnaChina,ondeem1669tomaonomedePadreNavarrete;Intorcetta,queficaquasecincomesesemMacau(3deSetembrode1668até21deJaneirode1669)antesdepoderpartirparaRomacomoProcuradorouEmbaixador.PorqueéaindaemMacauqueche-gamaspatentes(veja-seocasodeProvanaque,em1708,saideMacauporvontadedeKang-HiparaRoma;eaomesmotempoésin-gularoepisódiodeLaertioquerecebeaspatentesemMacauquandojátinhasaidodacidadecomoprocuradoreleitoparaasÍndias).EseRuggieriserá,em1581(naauroradeumaPenínsulaIbéricapoliticamenteunida),oprimeirojesuítaaabrirumacapelacatólicaemCantão,serãoporémRuggierieRicci,em1583,afundaraprimeiraresidênciajesuítanaChinaemShiuhing,seguindoospassosdopróprioRuggieriedePasio.Numerosassão,deresto,missões,igrejas,residên-ciasesemináriosefundadosporitalianos:Ruggieri(aoqualé-lheatri-buidatrambémaprimaziadoprimeirocatecismochinêsem1584),de-poisdeShiuhing,funda,em1585,amissãodeTchaokingedoisanosmaistardeadeHouKouang;RicciasresidênciasemShiuchow(1589),Nantchang(1596),Nankin(1599),Pequim(1601),Hopei(1601);Cattaneo,em1611,umaresidênciaemHangchow;Longobardo,em1619,amissãoaShensi;Aleni,em1620,adeChan-siemJiangchowe,em1625,adeFukien;Buglio,em1640,fundaadeChengtue,em1655,aresidênciadeTong-tangemPequim;Cinamo,em1644,amis-sãodeMaissour;Sambiasi,em1648,aresidênciadeCantãoeLubelli,em1659,aigrejanamesmacidade;Martini,em1660,umanovaigrejaemHangchow;nomesmoanoGravinaumaigrejaemKiangnam;Gabiani,em1684,oSemináriodeNankim;emfim,TurcottioutrasduasigrejasemCantãoeemFatshan(1697–1699).Entreositalianoscontam-se,assim,algunsVice-provinciaisdaChina,comoRicci(1597–1610),Longobardo(1610–1622),Aleni(1641–1649),Lubelli(1674–1676),Gabiani(porduasvezes:1680–1683;1689–1692),Intorcetta(1686–1689)eGrimaldi(1695–1698)porumperíodototaldequase55anos;SuperioresdamissãodaChinacomoRicci(1597–1610)eLongobardo(1610–1622),osquais,mes-monãoconcordandosobrealgumasatitudesperanteosritoschineses,marcaramapresençaitalianaaolongode26anos;superioresde

381380jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacaumissõesdeáreasmaisreduzidascomoadeNanquim(Vagnoniem1609),Pequim(Longobardo1623–1640),Maissou(Cinamoem1662),Cantão(porTorrenteem1664),Tonquim(Lucciem1694);superioresderesidências(comoadeMacauporGnecchi-Soldo,1559–1570;adeCantãoporSambiasiem1648,Lubelliem1664,Filuppucciem1679easeguirLaureatiem1701;adeHangchowporMartiniem1648;adeHainanporTorrente,depoisde1664);reitoresdocolégiodeMacau,separadodaprópriaresidência,comoCitadellaem1650,quetrabalhacomosnovícioschineses,DeMarini,em1656(DeMarini,em1671,foitambémeleitobispodestacidadeporD.Pedroii,masnãochegouaserconfirmadopeloPapa,encontrando-secomoadministra-dordestebispadoentre1671e1676),Brandi,em1668,depoisdetrêsanosnacidade;Fieschi,em1673,quetomaosvotosnamesmaMacaudoisanosmaistarde.AlgunsJesuítasitalianosforamVisi-tadoresduJapãoedaChinacomoValignano(1574–1606oqualpreparaosmissionáriosparaaChina),Pasio(1611–1612),Lubelli(1680–1684),Filippucci(1688–1691),MonsenhorCarloGiovanniTurcotti116(1643–1706)(Visitadornoperíodo1698-1701),Grimaldi(1703–1706),Gozani(1708–1714)Laureati(1718–1721)eSimonelli(1732–1734;1738–1741;e1745–1748),cobrindodestaformaquase74anos.HouveentreitalianosprocuradoresemMacaucomoDeMa-rini,em1649,eGiovanniFrancescoDeFerrariis117(1609–1671),entre1657e1659.AlémdissoLubelli,em1648,eCapacci,em1712,forammestresdenovícios;assimcomoTurcottifoivicárioapostólico(aindaquenãoconsagrado)emKouetcheou,em1696.Ositalianostinhamváriasfunções-chavenasociedadeoriental.Cola,quechegoucomRicci,em1582,fundaemMacauumaescoladepintura;outrospintoreseescultoresforamPaolo-Agostino116.OuTurcot,Torcotti,Turcottus;n.Insubria(Lombardia)9Outubro1643;m.Fatshan,pertodeCantão,ouaKoueitcheou15Outubro1706;E25Março1660;Emb.paraManila1671;P.antesde1674(Filipinas);1674missãodeCelebes;4anosnoSiam;capturadopelosholandeses:ficapreso3anos;1680Macau,destinadoàChina;1681,etc.CantãoeFatshan,Kwangtung;2Fevereiro1685Cantão;20Outubro1696nomeadobispodeAndreville;22Outubro1696vicárioapostólicodeKouetcheou(masnãofoiconsagrado);1697–1699funda2igrejasemCantãoeemFatshan,ondeficaca.16anos;15Outubro1698-finaisDezembro1701visitadorChinaeJapão;19Novembro1700monumentoaSãoFranciscoXavieremSancian;1701fundaamissãodeKoueitcheou.117.OuGianfrancescoFerrari;n.Cuneo(Piemonte)1609;m.deregressodoexílioemAnking1671(sepultadoemShensi);3cartaspublicadas;E.22Outubro1624;Emb.13Abril1635paraaChina;1640Shensi;1648sozinhonoShantung;V.9Maio1649Pequim;1657–1659procuradoremMacau;1659Siam;ca.1662Kansu;1665presopelaperseguição;exiladoaPequim;1668exiladoaCantão;8setembro1671regressodoexílio.mariagraziarussoAmoretti118(1739–1783),Castiglione(pintordeCorteearquitecto),Fiori,Moggi,GiovanniBattistaPinnacius119(?–?)etalvezGerardino.MasosJesuítasitalianoserambastanteecléticos,manifestandoasprópriashabilidadesdentroeforadestacidade:entreositalianoscon-tam-sedefactoprofessoresdematemáticas,comoAigenler,queeratambémprofessordehebraico,GrimaldieRocchi;astrónomos,ojácitadoAleni(tambémcartógrafo),DeUrsis(quefoitambémestudiosodossistemasdehidráulica)eRho(quetrabalhouaocalendáriochinêsassimcomoSambiasi);engenheirosconstrutorescomoFollerieojácitadoGrimaldi;médicos,cirurgiõesefarmacéuticos,comoBaudino,Cicero,Cipolla,Costa,Lucci,Paramino,Sanna.Entreosestudiososdasciênciashumanaslembram-seCostanzo(especialistadasreligiõesdoJapãoedaChina),Gabiani(historiadoregramáticolatinista),Intorcetta(historiador),Lucci(filósofoeteólogoalémdemédico),Ruggieri(doutoremdireito),Trigona(teólogo).Macau,centrodeculturamuitopróximodomundoocidental,re-presentaparaosPadrestambémumlugarondepodertratardaprópriasaúde:assimnãoécasualquenestacidadeserefugiemPasioem1612eAdornoem1694enquantogravementedoentes;etenteirinvãoPara-minoem1709.EMacau,foitambémterradeexílio,assimqueseen-contram,nosmeadosdoséculoxvii,porcausadapersecuçãodeChenkio,osJesuítasVagnone(1618),Aleni(1639),DellaRocca(1658),Fu-citi(1665),DeMartini(1675),Lucci(1693);foilugardepermanênciaobrigadaporCharlesThomasMaillarddeTournon(1668–1710),éocasodeMessari,1707,edeCappelli,1706;foioportodeondepartiramosexiladosparaLisboaduranteaexpulsãodosJesuítasporobradoMarquêsdePombal:destes,GianpriamomorreuemNápolesem1759eMorabitofaleceunoTúscolo,pertodeRoma,em1769.En-treosúltimosJesuítasitalianosconta-seOnofrioVilliani(1715-?)que,em1755comdestinoTonquim,demoroubastantetemponaChina,tornando-sedepoiscapuchinhocomonomedeLorenzodaFaenza120.118.N.25Setembro1739Sanremo(Ligúria);m.Cochinchina12Maio1783;pintor;E.26Novembro1758;chegaemNovembro1773comdestinoPequim;nãoconseguechegaraTonquim;CochinchinaeCambogia;depoisdasopressãodaCompanhiadeJesusentranasMissõesEstrangeirasdeParis.119.Irmãocoadjutor;n.NC;m.NC;pintor;nacortedePequimem1690comopintor.120.N.Faenza(Emília)17Novembro1715;m.NC;escreveApologiaSJemTonquim1784–1785queseconservanaPropagandaFide;E.16Outubro1731;Emb.1755paraTonquim,masviveualgunsanosnaChina;16Agosto1763padreEspinhaescreve-lhedesdePequimparaTonquim;8Novembro1768emCantão;depisentranosCapuchinos

382Macau,enfim,étambématerraondealgunsitalianosacabamosseusdias:17Jesuítasitalianosfaleceramnestacidadedesde1596(Gerardino)até1732(Gozani).Sãoelesemordemcronológica,depoisdojácitadoGerardino,Rocchiem1605,Valignanoem1606,Pasioem1612,Lubelliem1625,Colaem1626,Brandiem1681,DeMariniem1682,Azziem1690,Filippucciem1692,Fucitiem1696,Capacciem1715,Gonzagaem1718,Trigonaem1719,Amianiem1723,Laureatiem1727e,emfim,Gozaniem1732.AcomunidadedosJesuítasitalianosdestinadosàProvínciadaChinaque,passaramouviveramemMacaufoiportantobastantemarcantequernumericamentequerpelodinamismoreligiosoesócio-culturalporelespraticado,distinguindo-sepelopioneirismo,pelasresponsabili-dadestomadasaolongodamissionaçãonaChinaepelavariedadedasactividadesdesenvolvidaspelosseusreligiosos.jesuítasitalianosdaprovínciadachinaemmacau

385I.IntroductionÁlvaroSemedo,sonofFernãoGomesSemedoofLeonorVazForçada,wasbornin1585inNisainthedioceseofPortalegre.Thisisrecordedinthe“SecondRegisterofEntries”oftheJesuitSeminaryofÉvora,wherehewasadmittedinApril1602.1Sixyearslater,aftercompletinghisPhilosophydegree2attheageof23,SemedosetsailfromLisbononNossaSenhoradoVencimento.HewasboundforGoaandarrivedtherethatsameyear.3HewasordainedtothepriesthoodinGoain1611andfromthereleftforMacau;thiswascertainlywherehecom-pletedhiscourseinTheologyin1612.Inthissameyear,hewasap-pointedbyVisitorFrancescoPasio(1611–1612)totheChinamission,4whichheenteredin1613.5Thereafteranduntilhisdeathin1658,Se-medoremainedassociatedwiththemission.Duringthese45years,thisJesuitpriestwouldprovidesignificantinformationaboutChinaboththroughhishandwrittenletters,6andalsothroughhisprintedworks.ThelatterconferreduponSemedoanunusualdistinctionamongstthePortugueseJesuitsofChinaasoneofthemostrecognisedandinflu-entialmembersoftheSocietyofJesus.ThefirstcontributionofnoteMacauintheTimeandWorkofÁlvaroSemedoIsabelMurtaPina1.“SecondRegisteroftheentriesofthisseminaryofÉvora,1596–1619”,ÉvoraPublicLibrary,cod.CXXX/I–I,p.47v.2.MostofthemissionarieshadalreadycompletedtheirPhilosophycoursewhentheysetsailforGoa.Some,however,onleavingLisbon,hadalreadystartedthenextcycle,thatofTheology.SeeUgoBaldini,“TheJesuitCollegeinMacauasameetingpointoftheEuropean,ChineseandJapanesemathematicaltraditions.Someremarksonthepresentstateofresearch,mainlyconcerningsources(16th–17thcenturies)”inLuísSaraiva&CatherineJami(eds.),TheJesuits,thePadroadoandEastAsianScience(1552–1773),Singapore:WorldScientificPublishingCo.,2008,pp.41–42.3.JosephWicki,“ListderJesuiten-Indienfaher1541–1758”inAufsätzezurPortugiesichenkulturgechichte7(1967),p.286.InthefleetofthenewViceroyofIndia,D.JoãoPereiraFrojas,whohadmeanwhilenotsurvivedthevoyage,havingsuccumbedjustoveramonthaftersettingsail.SeeManueldeFariaeSousa,ÁsiaPortuguesa,vol.III,p.174.4.SeeannualletterofManuelDiasSéniortoAntónioMascarenha,Macau,11/11/1612,ARSI,Jap.Sin.15II,p.188;NiccolòLongobardi,annualletterfromChinaof1613,ARSI,Jap.Sin.113,p.336v.5.NiccolòLongobardo,AnnualletterfromChinaof1613,Nanxiong,1/8/1613,ARSI,Jap.Sin.113,p.338.6.Upuntilnow,ithasbeenpossibleforustoidentifyandassemblesome40ofSemedo'sletters,themajorityofwhicharesignedandwerefoundinvariousarchivesandlibrariesofLisbon,Évora,RomeandBrussels.

387386macauinthetimeandworkofálvarosemedocamewiththeannualletterfromChinaof1622,whichhesigned,7andwhichcirculatedinprintedforminEurope,inItalian,inaneditionof1627.8ButtheworkImperiodelaChina,byManueldeFariaeSousa,wasofparticularimportance.Theauthorhimselfstatedthatitwaspreparedfrom“variouspapersandannualletters”thatweregiventohimbySemedowhentheymetinMadridin1640.9PublishedforthefirsttimeinCastilianin1642inMadrid,thebookhadasecondedi-tioninthatsameyear.Inthefollowingyear,anewversionappearedinItalianunderthetitleRelationedelaMonarchiadelaCina;thiswaspreparedbyGiambattistaGiattini,whometwithSemedoinRome.EditionsinFrench(1645)10andEnglish(1655)11quicklyfollowed,asiswellknown.12Focusingourattentiononthiscollectionofprintedworkandman-uscriptsbySemedo,ouraiminthisarticleistoanalyseafrequentlyneglectedaspect,namelytheirMacaudimension.II.SemedoandMacauSincewewillbefocusingontheaspectsrelatedtoMacaupresentedbySemedo,itshouldbestressedthathepassedthroughthecityanumberoftimesduringthealmosthalfcenturyinwhichhewasassociatedwiththeChinamission.Someofthesevisitswerequitelongandoc-curredatcrucialmoments;intotal,hemusthavespentaroundeighttotenyearsthere,whichnaturallyconfersaddedinteresttohistestimony.Duringtheseyearsofcomingsandgoings,whenmerelypassingthroughorduringlongerstays,Semedowasabletoobservethevari-ousmetamorphosesthatthecityexperienced:fromwhathedescribed7.ÁlvaroSemedo,annualletterfromChinaof1622,Hangzhou,23/6/1623,ARSI,Jap.Sin.114,pp.345–367.8.ThissmallbookalsobroughttogetheranothertwoannuallettersfromChinaandJapan.LettereAnnuedelGiapponedell’AnnoMDCXXIIedellaCinadel1621.&1622,Rome:perFrancescoCorbellet-ti,1627,pp.249–310.9.SeeManueldeFariaeSousa,ÁsiaPortuguesa,Porto:LivrariaCivilização,1975(1666),vol.I,pp.48–49.Vol.III,p.223.LetterfromÁlvaroSemedotoSuperiorGeneral,Madrid,31/12/1640,ARSI,Jap.Sin.161,pp.224–224v.10.HistoireUniverselleduGrandRoyaumedelaChine(translatedbyLouisCoulonfromtheItalianedition),Paris,1645.11.TheHistoryoftheGreatandRenownedMonarchyofChina(withBellumTartaricumbyMartinoMartini),London,1655.12.DonaldLachalsoreferstoaDutchedition,dated1670.However,wedidnotcomeacrossanysignofit.DonaldLach&EdwinJ.VanKley,AsiaintheMakingofEurope,vol.III,ACenturyofAdvance,Chicago-London:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1993,p.349.isabelmurtapina13.Materialisedintheimpositionofthecodeof1617,withfivearticleswhichinclude:theforbiddingofhavingJapaneseslaves;theforbiddingoftraffickingpeople;theforbiddingofmilitaryvesselsbeingfalselydeclaredbeforethefiscalauthorities;theforbiddingofthepurchaseofcontrabandgoods;theforbiddingofanyclandestinework.14.Aftertheimperialproclamationof1617,resultingintheexpulsionofthemissionaries.15.Onthesubjectofthismilitaryaid,seethearticlesofCharlesR.Boxer,“Expediçõesmilitarespor-tuguesasemauxíliodosMingcontraosmanchus,1621–1647”inEstudosparaaHistóriadeMacau,vol.I,v.I,Lisbon:FundaçãoOriente,1991,pp.119–133;andofTerezaSena,“PowerWeaponsintheServiceofTradeandGod.MacauandJesuitsupportfortheMingcause(1620–1650)”inDaxiyangguo,2010,n.15,pp.177–240.16.ThatisalsotheopinionofRuiLoureiro,Fidalgos,MissionárioseMandarins.PortugaleaChinanoséculoXVI,s.l.:FundaçãoOriente,2000,pp.563–564.asthestillprosperousportonhisarrivalin1611,tothecityhesawasfightingforitssurvivalinthe1640sand1650s;fromthecitywhich,between1614and1617,witnessedthetighteningofbureaucraticcon-trolbytheChineseauthorities13whenSemedoreturnedthereasanexile;14thecitywhichhadtofacegrowingcompetitionfromEuropeanpowers;thecitywhichwasaffectedbytheChinesedynastictransition,andwhichstartedbysupportingtheMingdynasty,15providingthemwithmilitaryaidintheirresistanceagainsttheManchus,butwhichlaterswiftlyadaptedtothenewpowersoonaftertheconquestofCantonin1650.Semedoborewitnesstoalloftheaboveandwasinvolvedinmuchofit,whileatthesametimeinformingandcommen-tatingontheevents.InSemedo’sworkasawhole,twopointsseemtostandoutinrela-tiontoMacau,andonwhichIshallbefocusing:(a)thequestionoftheoriginsofMacau,i.e.themythofitsfoundation;and(b)thewayinwhichheportraystheMacauofhistime,andtheinformationhesup-pliesaboutit.iii.TheoriginsofMacauInthetwoversionsofSemedo’swork,ImperiodelaChinaandRelationedelaGrandeMonarquiadelaCina,weencounterwhattoourknowledgeisthefirstreferenceinprinttowhatwastobecomeoneofthemostdeeplyrootedlegendssurroundingMacau'sorigins:thatofthebestowaloftheporttothePortugueseasarewardfortheirroleintheexpulsionofpirates.16Inthetwoworks,thenarrativefocusesonthiscentralpoint,withslightvariations:itisreportedthatMacauhadbeentransformedintoastrongholdofpirateswhowereinfiltratingthewholesurroundingarea.TheChineseauthoritieswereintentontheirexpulsionbutwere

389388macauinthetimeandworkofálvarosemedoafraidtodoitthemselves;sotheysoughthelpfromthePortuguese,enticingthemwiththepromiseofgrantingthemthesmallislandshouldtheybesuccessfulintheirmission.Naturally,theproposalwasacceptedandthepiratesdulydefeated.IntheCastilianversion,itwasconcludedthatthePortugueseplacedgreatvalueinwhathadbeenwonbyfighting;infact,theyappreciatednothingmorethana“buenapuñadaabuentiempo”(agoodstabattherightmoment).17TheItalianversionwasslightlydifferentagain;itexaltedthegreatcourageandabilitiesofthePortuguese,whohadac-ceptedtheproposalwithmuchpleasureandsatisfactioneventhoughtheyweresignificantlyoutnumberedbythepirates.However,beingmoreskilledintheartofmilitarywarfare,theyhadlaunchedtheattackmostcourageouslyanddefeatedtheenemywithoutlosingasingleman.18Thefoundingmythorthememoryofthecity’sveryoriginspre-cededSemedo,although,asmentionedabove,hewasresponsibleforitsoldestprintedrecord.Nevertheless,inwhatisthoughttoconsti-tutethefirstformulationofthismythicalnarrative,therectoroftheMacauCollege,theJesuitGabrieldeMatos,guaranteedin1621notonlytomakeitpartofthetradition,butalsotoputitinto“printedhistories”.19GabrieldeMatosappealedtotheauthorityoftraditionandbookstostrengthentheargumentusedintheconfrontationthathadarisenatthetimebetweentheSocietyofJesusandtheSenateoftheCouncilduetoproblemsinIlhaVerde(GreenIsland)andthehous-esbuiltthere,whichtheChineseauthoritieswanteddemolished.WhileononehandthisIlhaVerde(GreenIsland)disputewasthefirstimportantcrisisinMacau’srelationshipwiththeChineseEmpire,ontheotheritwasthefirstdebateamongstthePortugueseonthelegitimacyoftheirpresenceinMacau.20TheSenatefearedthattradewiththeChineseandthereforetheverysurvivalofMacauwasinjeopardyandsodecidedthatthehousesonIlhaVerde(GreenIsland)shouldbedestroyed.Oneofthereasonsforthisdecisionwasthat17.“NoestimaelPortuguesloquenoganaporelpuño,niaycosaqueestimetanto,comodarunabuenapuñadaabuentiempo,iamalaarrogancia”.ImperiodelaChina,Madrid,1642,p.224.18.RelationedellaGrandeMonarchia,Rome,1643,p.212.19.ThedocumentiscitedbyJordãodeFreitas,Macau.MateriaisparaasuaHistórianoSéculoXVI,Macau:InstitutoCulturaldeMacau,1988,p.21.20.JorgeSantosAlves,UmPortoentreDoisImpérios(EstudossobreMacaueasrelaçõesluso-chinesas),Macau:InstitutoPortuguêsdoOriente,1999.isabelmurtapina21.SeeJordãodeFreitas,Macau.MateriaisparaasuaHistórianoSéculoXVI,p.22.22.Workthatremainedhandwrittenuntilthe20thcentury.AdrianodelasCortes,LeVoyageenChined’AdrianodelasCortesS.J.(1625),ed.PascalGirard,Paris:Chandeigne,2001.23.NicolasTrigault,S.J.,Histoiredel’ExpéditionChrétienneauRoyaumedelaChine1582–1610,Paris:DescléedeBrouwer,1978.MacaubelongedtotheChineseEmperorandthatitwasonlythankstotradethatthePortuguesewereallowedtolivethere.However,theChineseofficialswouldexpelthemifthatwereEmperor’swishandsoitwasabsolutelyindispensabletoobeytheordersoftheauthorities.ItwasthisargumentusedbytheSenatethatgaverisetothelegend.Infact,inhisreply,Fr.GabrieldeMatosproclaimedthatMacaudidnotbelongtotheEmperorofChina,buttotheKingofPortugalandtothePortuguesewhowerelivingthere,asithadbeengrantedtotheminrewardforhelpgiveninthefightagainstafamouspiratewhohadthreatenedCanton.ItshouldbenotedthatthehelpMacaugaveChi-neseauthoritiesin1564intheireffortstostemtherevoltofthecoastaldefenseforcestationedinZhelin,ontheGuangdongprovincecoast,isalsomixedintothebuildingofthislegend.AfterGabrieldeMatos,attheendofthatdecade,in1629,theac-countisreaffirmedagaininhandwrittenform,thistimebyCristóvãoFerreira,inarepresentationmadeonbehalfoftheSenatetoKingD.Filipeiii:itrelatesthefactthatafterdefeatinganimportantpirate,theinhabitantsofMacauwontheapprovaloftheEmperor,forwhichtheportofMacauwascededtothem.21ThestorythatSemedoreproducesis,thus,avariationofthesenar-ratives.Theyarenottobefound,forexample,intheveryinformativeaccountbytheJesuitAdrianodelasCortesinthe1620softhevoyagetoChina.22LasCortessimplyportrayedMacauasacityinhabitedbyPortuguesegentlemenandtraderswhichKingD.FilipeIIIpossessedonthecoastofChina.AnotherworkwhichprecededthatofSemedo,aExpeditioneapudSinasbyRicci/Trigault,alsomadenoreferencetothequestionofpi-racyandthebestowalofMacauasitwaspublishedpriorto1621in1615.23Thisbooknotedonlythattradewasthecauseoftheappear-anceandprosperityofMacauandthatasterilerockwastransformedintoanobleportandmarket,inhabitedbyPortuguese,Chineseandalltheneighbouringpeoples.Butothertextsthatarealmostcontem-porarytothepublicationofImperiodelaChinaalsoomitthelegend,

391390macauinthetimeandworkofálvarosemedowhichsuggeststousthatitwasstillnotfullydisseminatedandhadnotyetacquiredtheimportancethatitwouldlaterachieve.Forexample,theaccountofPeterMundy,dated1637,preciselytheyearinwhichSemedoleftMacauforEurope,containednottheslightestmentionofthelegend.24ThesameistrueofAntónioBocarro’sdescriptionofMa-cauwrittenin1635.25Thelegendaboutthefoundationofthecitythusdoesnotappeartohavebeeninwidecirculation,atleastuntilSemedo’smanuscriptwasprintedin1642.Semedo’sworkthereforecouldhavemadeasignifi-cantcontributiontowardsthespreadofthisfoundingmyth;thees-sentialaspectswererepeatedsoonafterwards,in1646,inamorecom-pletevariationbyanotherJesuit,FatherAntónioFranciscoCardim,inhisRelationdecequis’estpassédepuisquelquesannés,jusquesàl’an1644auJapon,publishedthatsameyearinParis.Alsoinprint,in1666,ManueldeFariaeSousa’sÁsiaPortuguesarepeatedipsisverbistheverywordsaboutthemythinImperiodelaChina.Adec-adelater,itwastheturnoftheDominicanDomingoNavarreteinhisTratadosHistoricos,publishedin1676,togiveaccountofthe“severalfromMacau”,whichaffirmedthatthecitywasgivenasarewardforexpellingthieveswhowerecausingconsiderabledamage.Alongthesamelines,almostahundredyearsafterthepublicationofImperiodelaChina,DuHalderepeatedin1735thetheoryofthepiratesandthecedingofMacauinhisinfluentialDescriptiondel’EmpiredelaChine;notonlyisthisproofthatthetheoryhadthrived,butitalsoservedtodisseminatethemythevenfurther.Infact,themythwouldonlybechallengedinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.26IV.MacauasportrayedbySemedoLeavingasidethequestionoftheoriginsofMacauandturningnowtothebodyofletterswrittenbySemedo,wefindtheycontainvariousreferencesthathelpfurtherourknowledgeoftheMacauofhistime,notablythe1640s,whenthevastmajorityofthelettersweredated,asIhavealreadymentioned.24.PeterMundy,TheTravelsofPeterMundy,TheHakluytSociety,2ndseries,vol.III,London,1919.25.ThedocumentwaspublishedbyCharlesRalphBoxer(completeworksof),MacaunaÉpocadaRestauração(Macauthreehundredyearsago),Lisbon:FundaçãoOriente,1993,pp.27–47.26.AndwhichappearsperfectlyauthorisedintheOrderof1783,giventotheBishopofPeking,D.AlexandredeGouveia.isabelmurtapinaThus,relationsamongsttheEuropeans,theirrelationswiththeMings–particularlytheMingsoftheSouth–,withtheManchus,howtheconquestwasperceived,thediplomaticinitiativesofthecityoritsmilitarysupport(bothformalandinformal),areallaspectstouchedoninSemedo’sletters.Letuslookatsomeexamples:–Referringto1636,inImperiodelaChina,SemedodepictedMacauasaprosperouscitywhichmadeafortunefromitsverylucrativetradewithJapan;ithadapopulationofapproximatelyonethousandPortu-guese,whoheclassifiedas“noblepeople,(…)powerfulintheirwealth:idelamejordelaIndia”.OnhisreturntoMacaufromEuropejusttenyearslater,however,hedescribesacityalreadyonthebrinkofcol-lapse,depressed:thebreakdownoftradewithJapan,hesaid,hadputanendtothe“abundanceofmoney”,andpovertyhadbecomewide-spread.Priceshadrisendrasticallyandspendinghadbeenrestricted.Fiveyearslater,in1650,attheendoftheManchusiegeofCanton,SemedoaddedthatpovertyinMacauwassuchthatthecityhadbe-comeallbutdeserted.Butreturningto1645,SemedopresentsusacitymarkedbygreatconflictamongsttheEuropeans,withdeepdissensionsbetweentheJes-uitsthemselvesattheMadredeDeusCollege.Attheendofthatyear,henotedmuchtohisregretthatiftherewasplentytosayabouttheCollege,therewasevenmoretolament:thereweretheinternalcon-flicts–which,forexample,hadledtotheviolationoftheofficeoftheformerrector,ManuelDiasSénior,immediatelyfollowinghisdeath,inthemidstofmuchscandal;andseriousexternalconflictswhichhadsettheJesuitsagainsttheotherforcesofthecity,includingthegovernorofthediocese,Fr.BentodeCristo,themendicantsandtheSenate.AccordingtoSemedo,thedisgraceoftheCollegewassuchthattheJesuitsweresoafraiditwouldbesetonfire,theywereobligedtoremainonapermanentstateofalertforafullmonth,withcockedweapons,readytofire,deployedatthewindowsliningtheCollege’scorridors.Henostalgicallyrecollectedhowdifferentthissituationwasfromthatofbygonedays,whenhesaidtheCollegeatodospunhaempaz[“madethepeaceforeveryone”],inareferencetotheJesuits’formerroleascentralfiguresintheresolutionofdisputesthataroseinthecity.Semedo’scorrespondencealsooffersusinformationonthedip-lomaticrelationsbetweenMacauandtheJesuitswithrespecttothe

393392macauinthetimeandworkofálvarosemedoMingresistanceduringtheruleoftheEmperorsLongwu(1645–1646)andYongli(1646–1662),thesecondofwhomSemedoknewperson-ally.Inthisregard,referenceismadeinlate1645toFrancescoSambia-si’sappointmentasLongwu’sambassadorandhisjourneytoMacauinthatcapacityatatimeinwhichSemedohappenedtobethere.Ontheonehand,Semedocriticisedhimbecausetheposthenowheldandthepompwithwhichhesurroundedhimselfcouldgiverisetoaccusationsfromotherreligiousfactions,atatimewhentheSocietywasbeingattackedinRomeonthequestionoftheChineseRites.Ontheotherhand,intwolettershesanghispraisesforthebenefitshehadgainedforMacaufromtheEmperor,inobtainingpardonfortheshippingdutiesowed(totallingsome6,000patacas),andotheradvantageswhichSemedobelievedhecouldstillachieve.WithinthesamescopeofrelationswiththeMingsoftheSouth,in-formationisalsofoundonAndréXavierKofflerandabouthimselfin1649.Atthetime,YongliwasmakingavisittothecourtinZhaoqing,whereSemedowenttoswearallegianceandtooffergiftspriortoset-tlinginCanton.TheformalandinformalmilitaryassistanceprovidedorofferedbyMacauisanotheraspectlinkedtorelationswiththeMingsthatstandoutinSemedo’swork.ImportantinformationcanbegleanedinImperiodelaChinaandRelationeonthemilitaryassistancegivenbyMacautotheMingdynas-ty,throughtheJesuitintermediaries,withinterestingdetailsabouttheexpeditionssentfromMacautoPekingin1621and1628;ontheotherhand,Semedo’scorrespondencemainlytellsoftheinformaldimensionofthatsupportcomingfromMacau,andtheparticipationbymenwhohadfledfromthecity,particularlyCaffres,intheSouthernMingarmies:–in1645,Semedorecords(likeAntóniodeGouveiaintherespec-tiveannualletter)thattherewasacompanymadeupof300CaffremusketeersinthecourtofLongwu,inFuzhou,readytotakeuparmsforthereconquestofNanking,orasheexplained,menwhohadleftMacauwithoutadvisingtheirmasters.27Thesemen,allwelldressedinPortuguesestyle,causedmuchfearamongsttheChinese;henoted27.BoxersaysthatYonglisetuphiscourtinZhaoqingin1646,becominglordofallSouthwestChi-natwoyearslater(atotalof7provinces).Contributingtothatwasacontingentof300PortuguesesoldiersandinhabitantsofMacau,mainlyartillerysoldiers,underthecommandofNicolauFerreira(adecisivecontributioninthesiegeofGuilin,in1647).isabelmurtapina28.BA49–IV–61.(presumablyinCantonese)thatthiswassomuchsothatthewordforblackwasusedequallyforfear.–in1649,hementionsthepresenceofacontingentofmorethan200men,someblackandsomewhite,inCantonwhowerepaidtohelpinthefightagainsttheManchuarmies.Inthefollowingyear,hereiter-atedthatthereweremanypeopleinCantonfromMacauintheserviceofYongli(informationfoundalsointheannualletterof1651–1652).28Theevolutionofthewar,atopicextensivelycoveredintheJesuitsourcesofthisperiod,isalsotouchedonbySemedowho,towardstheendof1645,wrotea“BreveRelaçãodoestadoactualdaMonarquiadaChina”[ShortreportonthecurrentstateoftheChineseMonarchy],portrayingafavorableimageoftheManchus.Herelatesthatthepriestswhowerelivinginthenorthweretreatedwell;hespeaksparticularlyofAdamSchall,whowasrespectedandtreatedwithhonorandcour-tesyinPeking.HealsorepeatstheapparentlywidespreadopinionthatChristianitywasbetteracceptedbytheManchuthanbytheMing.Readingbetweenthelinesofthis“BreveRelação”,heappearstobeconvincedthatthefinalvictorywasdestinedtogototheManchu;Se-medohadalreadystatedthisexplicitlyinearly1649–shortlyafterhisbriefvisittothecourtofYongli–,whenhedeclaredtheManchuhadsuperiorityintermsof“landandpower”;however,attheendoftheyear,hecommentedonthedifficultiesthatwouldbesetthevictorsastheyweretoofewtosustainsuchalargemonarchy–agenuineproblemthathadinfactalreadybeenfeltwiththeYuanMongoldynasty,andotherscomingfromthesteppesthatweregoverninginthenorthofChina.Inconclusion,itshouldbestressedthatwhileSemedo’sroleintheconstructionoftheEuropeans’knowledgeofChinainthe17thcenturyhaslongbeenanacceptedfact,theroleheplayedintermsofthehistoryofMacaushouldinnowaybeundermined,eitherintermsofhiscon-tributiontothelegitimationofthecity,orasadirectwitnesswhospentaconsiderableperiodofhislifeinMacauincludingatsomecrucialmo-mentsinthecity’shistory,andaboutwhichheleftawrittenrecord.

395[Abstract]Sincethehandover,theenvironmentforcharityworkinMacauhasundergonecompletechanges.Thepoliticaltransformationandeconomicboombroughtchallengesalongsideopportunities.Inthisnewage,whilemultipletypesareretainedamongtraditionalcharityorganisations,newfunctions,formsandobjectivesofcharityservicesareemerging.Charityenterprisestendtofocusoncommonwealandprovideprofessionalservices.DiversificationandinternationalisationarethetwodirectionsinwhichcharityinMacauisdeveloping.[Keywords]charity,commonweal,diversified,professional,Macau.MacaufeaturesamixtureofEastandWestandthecoexistenceofoldandnew.Sodoesitsphilanthropy.Thecharitysectorhasbeenchang-ingsincethethetransferenceofsovereignty,fromalmsgiving-orientedcharitytodiversified,servicedcharitieswithcommonwealastheirfo-cus.Thistime-honouredtraditionhasbeengivennewimpetus.I.Organisation:coexistenceofdiversifiedformsMacauhasbeenahubofSino-internationalencountersforaverylongtime,despiteitssmallsize.CenturiesofEast–Westintercoursehavecultivatedaninclusive,tolerantsocio-culturalenvironment,whichena-blesabroadfreedomofassociationandallowsspaceforthecoexist-enceofdiversifiedformsofcharityorganisation.Acrossthissmallmu-nicipality,wecanfindnewlyfoundedorganisationsworkingalongsidevintageassociationsdatingfarbackinhistory.Therearelocalcharitybodies,aswellasregionalandinternationalspecialisedaswellascom-prehensive,secularandreligious,fund-basedandmembership-based,openandclosed,almsgivingandvolunteersocialservice,government-sponsoredandself-funded,andsoforth.Takingaccountofoperationtype,membershipandlimit,charitycommonwealassociationscanbecategorisedintotwotypes,namelyfundingandoperating,andthelattergroupcanbefurtherbrokenDiversifiedFormsandCommonwealinCenter:OntheDevelopmentofCharityinMacauLouShenghua,ZangXiaohua

397396Changessincetheestablishmentofsararerevealedbythecategori-sationintheabovetable.1.Charityorganisationsforpurposesoffundraisingtaketheformoffoundationsandfunctionasjuridicalpersons.Theyarenotinvolvedindirectcharityservicesorcommonwealactivities,butfundtheop-erationsbyservicegroups,asinthecaseoftheMacauDailyReadersCharityFund(1984).Charityfoundationsupportisnotconfinedtolo-calcharityassociations;itextendstocharityorganisationsandprojectsacrossborders.Thesetypesoffoundationsarelong-termorganisations.In2011,theChineseEthnicCulturalHeritageProtectionFoundation(FundaçãoparaaProteçãodaHerançaCulturalÉtnicaChinesa)wasfoundedtoraisefundsforthesolepurposeofculturalheritageprotection.Itwastheonlycaseofthistypein2011.AlthoughMacauhasbeenexperiencinganeconomicboomsincethehandover,thenumberoffundraisingcharityfoundationsdidnotincreasewithit.Thismightbeexplainedbythefactthatthegovernmentuppeditspublicresources.diversifiedformsandcommonwealincenter:onthedevelopmentofcharityinmacaudownintocommonweal-benefitandmember-benefit,aslistedintable1.Table1.Newlyfoundedcharityorganisationscomparedbetween2011and1999.Type20111999Increaserange(+-)Number%Number%Funding(Foundation)16.2120.00Commonweal(open)Comprehensiveservice1062.5360.07Specialisedservice212.500.02Volunteerservice16.300.01Sum1381.3360.010Memberbenefit212.5120.01Totalsum16100.05100.011Source:StatisticsinMacauGovernmentOfficialGazette1999and2011.loushenghua,zangxiaohuaThegovernmentestablishedanumberoffoundations,includingtheCultureFoundationandtheEnvironmentalProtectionFoundation,whichsuppressthenecessityofnongovernmentalcounterparts.2.Commonweal-benefitcharityorganisations,membership-basedornot,providecommonwealcharityservices.Yetevenmembership-basedcommonweal-benefitcharityorganisationsdonotconfinetheirservicestomembersalone.Theyareopentothewholesociety.Commonweal-benefitcharitygroupscanbeclassifiedinto3typesaccordingtotheirdifferentiatedservices.Thefirsttypeiscomprehen-siveservice.Theyprovideproductsandservicesofvarioustypes.ThesecularcharityUniãoGeraldasAssociaçõesdosMoradoresdeMacauandtheCatholiccharityCaritasMacauaretwoexamples.Thesecondtypeisspecialisedservice.CharitygroupAssociaçãodeReabilitação“FuHong”deMacauestablishedHongIengCentertoofferspecialisedservicestothosewithseverementaldisabilities,andtheCentroPouChoitooffervocationaltrainingcoursesandemploymentcounsel-lingtothephysicallyhandicapped.Thethirdtypeisvolunteerservice.Charitygroupsbelongingtothistypefocusonvolunteerservicesin-steadoftangibleproducts.ExamplesincludetheMacauCommunityYouthVolunteersDevelopmentAssociation(AssociaçãoparaDesen-volvimentodosJovensVoluntáriosdaComunidadedeMacau),YoungVolunteers’AssociationfortheMacauGamblingIndustry,andYoungBuddhistsVolunteer'sofMacau(JuvenildeBudismodeMacau).Theaforementionedthreetypesofcommonweal(open)charityor-ganisationsformthemainstreamofMacau'scharityforce,makingup80%ofallcharitygroups.Amongthem,comprehensiveserviceprovid-ersaccountfor60%.Thenumberofcommonwealcharityorganisa-tionsisincreasingwith13newonesin2011,fourtimesmorethanin1999.Therewere7comprehensiveservicegroupsamongthe13.Thespecialisedandvolunteerservicegroupsdonotcomeinsuchnumbers,buthavebrokenthroughthe1999level.3.Member-benefitcharitygroupsprovidecharityservicesmainlytotheirmembers.Beingeitherwelfareortownspeopleassociations,theylookcomparativelymoreclosedthancharityassociationsthatareopentothewholesociety.Member-benefitcharitygroupsappearedearlyinMacau'shistoryandstillfunction.Butwithsocietydeveloping,their

399398diversifiedformsandcommonwealincenter:onthedevelopmentofcharityinmacaupositionamongcharitygroupsisnolongerprominent,andaccountsforlessandlesspercentage.Someofthemareturningthemselvesfrommember-benefitgroupsintocommonweal-benefitgroups.Forinstance,sometownspeopleassociationsoffercharityservicestoallpossiblebeneficiaries.Theymayhandoutalmsonfestivalstodisadvantagedresidents.Sometimestheircharityservicesextendacrosstheborder.Aboveisaloosecategorisation.Inactuality,charitygroupspro-vidingcomprehensiveservicesaremembership-basedorganisations,includingtheUniãoGeraldasAssociaçõesdosMoradoresdeMacau,theFederaçãodasAssociaçõesdosOperáriosdeMacau,TheWomen’sGeneralAssociationofMacauandobradasmães.Despitethisfact,theyallendeavourtoprovidecommonwealcharityservicestosocietyasawhole,andtheirservicesformembersfocusonlegalrightsprotec-tion,insteadofprotection.Andtheirmemberstendtobedonorsofalmsorsocialworkvolunteers,ratherthanbeneficiaries.Opened-upmembership-basedcharityorganisationsaretypicalamongMacaucharitygroups.Somefoundationshavethesamenature,beingmem-bership-basedbutopentothewholesociety.ThisisduetothefactthatinMacaunongovernmentalassociationsnormallyrendermultiplesocio-politicalfunctionsincludingpoliticalparticipation,legalprotec-tion,charityandservices.II.Structure:evolvementfromalmsgivingtocommonwealIntermsofquantity,nongovernmentalcharityorganisationshaveincreasedsteadily.Althougheconomictakeoffandgrowthinwealthkeepreducingthenumberoftraditionalbeneficiaries,thedrivebehindnongovernmentalgroupsstillexists.Thetendencytowardsastablein-creaseofthenumberofthesegroupscontinues.Butthechangeinstructureismoreobservable.Ingeneral,thechar-ityorganisations'supplycorrespondswithsociety'sdemand.Boththetraditionalbeneficiariesofpovertyreliefandtheirappropriatecharitygroupsaredecreasinginnumber,sotheexistingonesneedtotrans-form,ortoextendacrossthebordertowheretheyareneeded.TakethefamousTonSinTongasanexample:theirtraditionalalmsgivingactivities,includingdeliveringriceorclothes,continuesbutisincon-siderabledecline;educationandmedicalservicesarebecomingthefocusoftheircharity.Bycontrast,newcharitygroups,especiallycom-monwealones,arebeomingmoreandmoreactive.Withlivingcondi-loushenghua,zangxiaohuationsimproved,Macauresidentscaremoreabouteducationanden-vironmentalprotection,socommonwealassociationsaddressingtheseissuesareincreasinginnumber,whilesomeexistingcharitygroupsarestartingtoextendtheirservicestothesenewaspects.MacauDailyReadersCharityFundfinancestrainingsessionsofEnglishandManda-rin,providingtheyouthwithbilingualstudyplatformsforfree.CaritasMacauwassetupawebsitetoreceivesecondhandgoodsandauctionthemonlinetofinancetheircharityandsetanexampleofrecyclingpracticesfortheparticipants.Newlyfoundedcommonwealcharitygroupsmakeanefforttore-lievesocialproblems,includingdrugusers,addictedgamblers,sexualworkers,etc.Facedwiththegrowingnumberofdrugusers,anumberofspecialisedcharitygroupshavebeenfoundedtoofferrehabilitationservices,SmartYouthmovement,whichwasstartedbytheChristianNewLifeFellowship(inMacau)beingacaseinpoint,spreadingin-formationaboutdamagereductionandoffering24-houroutreachmentoringtoyoungpeoplepronetodrugabuse.TheSmartYouthservicehaswontheSocialWorkAward2011.Likewise,ZiTeng,basedinHongKonghasstartedtoreachoutinMacautoprovidelegalpro-tectionadvicetosexworkers.Theflourishinggamblingindustryhasproducedmoreandmoreaddictedgamblers,whichsomecommunitycommonwealorganisationsareaddressingbyurgingpromotionofsen-siblegaminginadvertisingandprovidingcorrectiveservicesfortheaddicted,YatOnPathologicalGamblersCounselingCentrebeingoneexample.Inordertosupportthesmokingcontrolpolicy,AssociacãoodeBeneficêciaAuHonSamhasstartedafreeclinicserviceforsmokingcessation,toprovideresidentsinneedwithfreeevaluation,cessationplans,medicalandpsychologicalassistance.UniãoGeraldasAsso-ciaçõesdosMoradoreshasstartedanewbranchofservicesfornewsettlersinMacau,providingthemwithlanguage,employmentandpsy-chologicalhelpsothattheyintegrateintotheneighbourhoodandnewlifeinaneasierandfasterfashion.Itisthereforesafetoconcludethattraditionalalmsgivingcharityorganisationshaveshrunkandtransformedandnewcommonwealcharityorganisationsareemergingtorespondtonewsocialproblems.TheoriginallayoutofcharityinMacauhasthusbeenrestructured.Thereisacleartendencyforthemalltoadjusttheirmechanismsandfunctionsinaccordancewithsocialchanges.

401400diversifiedformsandcommonwealincenter:onthedevelopmentofcharityinmacauIII.Beneficiary:extensionacrosstheborderandoverseasDuetothefactthatthenumberoflocalalmsbeneficiarieshasde-creased,somenongovernmentalcharitiesarenowextendingtheirscope,especiallytomainlandChina.InnumerableconnectionsbetweenMacauandmainlandhavefacilitatedthesecharitieswithinforma-tionaboutthebeneficiariesandchannelsforstartingcharityprojects.Amongthese,themostindispensibleconnectionsarevariousMacaueliteswithmembershipincppccatprovincialormunicipallevelsinmainlandChina,orintheAll-ChinaYouthFederationandChinaOverseasFriendshipAssociation.ThroughMacautheyfinancechari-tiesandbringvariousalmsgivingservicestothemainland.Infact,quiteanumberofnongovernmentalcharitygroupsinMacauareextendingtheirservicesandalmsgivingservice,moreorlesstothemainland,whichisanincreasingtrendinmanycharitygroups.SomecharitiesbasedinMacauevendirecttheircharityactivitiesmostlyortotallytomainlandwithoutcarryingoutanycharityservicesinMa-cau.Forexample,MengTakCharityAssociationcarriedouttheLightofLifeplantohelpchd(congenitalheartdisease)children,CharityfortheDreamofCollegeplanstohelpfinanciallylimitedcollegestudents,andJourneyofLightplanstocurecataracts,etc.,throughoutprovincesincluding,butnotconfinedto,Jilin,HenanandGuangdong.Anothercharity,CareActionMacauaimsat“bringingeducationopportunitiestochildreninpoverty-strickenmountainousareas”.Itfinancesandhelpstobuildorphanagesandschools,inpoverty-strickenareasinGuizhou,Guangxi,Gansu,etc.MacauDailyReadersCharityFunduseshalfofdonationscollectedfromtheCommunityCharityWalkforaMillion1indevelopmentofeducationinmainlandunderdevelopedareas.TheFundalsosetupaspecialpaneltosupporteducationandpoverty-relatedcharityworksinland,andsignedacoop-erativeagreementwithTsingHuaUniversitytorunanonlinetutorialwebsiteforthosemainlandareas.NongovernmentalcharitiesbasedinMacauoperatinginmainlandChinahasbecomeacommonpractice.Macaunongovernmentalcharityorganisations’overseasbeneficiar-iesarenotconfinedtomainlandChina.Somebranchinstitutionsofin-ternationalcharitiesinMacauoperatethroughtheirinternationalnet-1.CommunityCharityWalkforaMillionisanewformoffundraisingstartedbytheMacauDailyReader’sCharityFund,heldinDecembereveryyear.Itraised12millionMopin2011.loushenghua,zangxiaohua2.Macau'scivilassociations’quasi-governmentfunctional,itmeansthattheseassociationsoffercitizensbasicpublicproductsorservicesinthemodeofagovernment.SeereferenceinShenghuaLou,"轉型時期澳門社團研究——多元社會中法團主義體制解析".Canton:GuangdongPeoplePublish-ingHouse,2004.worksoastoextendtheiralmsgivingtoforeigncountries.TheWorldVisionMacauOfficeheldtheMacauFaminefinancingcampaignandraisedfundsthrough10-hourFamineCampandgreetingcardchar-itysale,inordertodrawattentiontoandraisedonationsforreliefofhungerinEastAfrica.In2011,theMacauFamineCampaignraiseddonationsofmorethan1millionMop,whichwerespentonsupport-ingfoodsecurityanddevelopmentprojectsinSomalia,KenyaandEthiopia.Tohelpdisplacedpeoplethroughouttheworld,onSeptember16th2011theSecretary-GeneralofCaritasMacauandothersponsorsestablishedtheAssociationforRefugeeWelfaretoraisefundsforinter-nationalreliefforrefugees.Branchesofinternationalcharitiesarenottheonlygroupswhoextendtheircharityeffortsacrosstheborder;localcharitieshavebe-guntoparticipateinoverseasalmsgivingandothercharityworksinrecentyears.CareActionMacau,throughtheChinaFoundationforPovertyAlleviation,hasdonatedmedicalfacilitiesandequipments,includingmedicalserviceequipmentforyoungpeople,totheAfricancountryGuinea-Bissau.Besides,byjoiningforceswithregionalorinternationalcharityor-ganisation,certainlocalcharitiesoffertheirservicestoamuchwiderfield.Forexample,MacauNewChineseYouthAssociationbecameastandingmemberofthenvda(NetworkforVoluntaryDevelopmentinAsia),andthusmadeitselfaplatformonwhichvolunteersfromMa-caucouldworkinternationally.Participationininternationalcharityoralmsgivingcampaignshaseffectivelybeenthedefiningfactornongovernmentalcharityorganisa-tionsinMacauandtheireffortstowardstheinternationalnetworkandcharityoperations.IV.Function:specialisation,individualisedserviceandvolunteerserviceForhistoricalreasons,certainMacaucharityorganisationscultivatedcomprehensiveservices,someofwhichevenassumegovernmentalfunctions.2Forexample,theMacauChinesecharitywiththelongesthistory,KiangWuCharitableAssociation,oncefunctionedasthedeci-

403402Asshownintable2,KiangWuHospital,beinganon-governmentalandnon-profitablehospital,outshinesthepublichospital.Itownshigh-techmedicalequipmentandemploysthetopprofessionals,whichadvan-tagesenableittoperformcomplicateddemandingsurgicaloperations.ComparedwithKiangWuCharitableAssociation,theUniãoGeraldasAssociaçõesdosMoradoresdeMacauandFederaçãodasAsso-ciaçõesdosOperáriosdeMacauhavemoremultipliedfunctions,deal-ingwithinterestprotection,socialwork,politicalparticipationandsoforth.However,whenpeopledemandmoreadvancedandindividual-isedservicesasaresultofsocialdevelopment,thesecharityorganisa-tionsarefacedwiththeproblemofhowtoimprovetheirprofessionalandpersonalisedservices.Divisionofmixedservicesisinevitable.Atpresent,thesetwocharitiesaretryingtoisolate,toacertainextend,theirpoliticalfunctions,byestablishingthepublicbodiestheCollectiveWisdomPolicyCentreandtheAssociaçãoChoiInTongdiversifiedformsandcommonwealincenter:onthedevelopmentofcharityinmacausion-makingorganforChinesesocialelitesinMacau,andnegotiatedwiththePortugueseMunicipalityonbehalfofChinesecommunity.Nowadays,however,ithasoutlivedthatfunction,anddiscontinuedtraditionalcharityworklikedispatchingriceorclothes.Ithas,instead,focusedonmedicalandeducationservices,andbecameanon-profita-blesociety,owningthemostimportantspecialisednon-profitablemedi-calserviceinstitution,KiangWuHospital.Itoffersmedicalservicessidebysidewiththegovernment-fundedhospital,CentroHospitalarCondedeSãoJanuário.(Table2)Table2.Comparisonofactivitiesinthe2majorhospitalsinMacau(2010)Source:http://www.ssm.gov.mo/,http://www.kwh.org.moItemCHCSJKWHNo.ofbeds549500No.ofinpatients17,22823,661No.ofoutpatients16,51024,155TotalNo.ofoutpatientservices511,8251,071,053Clinicalservice320,633968,306Emergencyservice191,192102,747Surgicaloperations7,2347,378loushenghua,zangxiaohuaSamrespectively,bothofwhichfocusonpublicpolicyandpoliticalparticipation.Ontheotherhand,theybothrecruitprofessionalsocialworkersandgivevalue-additiontrainingsessionstocurrentemploy-ees,sothattheirsubordinateorganisationsareboosted.Itseemsthatimprovementbytrainingistheusualmeasuretakenbycommonwealcharitygroups,whilethetrainersareusuallyinvitedfromHongKong.Furthermore,visitingHongKongorTaiwanandlearningfromthoseareasisalsoapopularwayoftraining.Individualisedservicesarepracticedmoreandmorefrequentlyintheservicesforsingle-parentfamilies,drugaddictrehabilitationandrecovery,andyouthservices.It’sbecomingabasicservicemode.Foralongtime,localvolunteershavebeenofferingimmaterialser-vicestopeopleinneed,andthusmakeupforthepersonnelshortagesufferedbymostcharitygroups.VolunteerserviceshavebecomeanindispensiblepartofMacaucommonwealcharityoperations.TheMa-caugovernmenthasaffirmedthatitwouldincreaseresourceallocation,promoteyouthvolunteerplans,setupawardsforoutstandingyoungvolunteersandencouragevolunteerservice.Judgingfromthepresentevolutionofvolunteerorganisations,wefindthatlarge-scalecom-monwealserviceorganisationshavetheirsubordinatevolunteerteams,whilevolunteerassociationsspecialisedincertainservicesareemerg-ing,suchastheMacauAssociationofLovingCareVolunteers,theAs-sociationofVolunteerSocialServiceMacau,theMacauAssociationofTeachersVolunteers,andtheGeneralVolunteersAssociationofMacau.Anumberofenterpriseslikemgmandcemhavesetuptheirownvol-unteergroupsamongemployees.Tosumup,alongwiththechangingenvironmentofcommonwealcharity,charityorganisationsandthecontentsandformsoftheircharityservicesvaryaccordingly.Theorganisationsarediversifiedandinternationalised,whilecharityservicesaredevelopingtowardsprofessionalismandcommonweal.ThatisalsothepictureofcharityinMacauinthefuture.

405[Abstract]Notwithstandingtheoldsaying“GotoGuangzhouforthefood”(ShiZaiGuangzhou食在廣州)andHongKong’sclaimtobea‘foodiesparadise’(「美食天堂」),Macau,situatedclosetothetwocit-iesonthePearlRiverdelta,isjustasmuchofatoptouristattraction,basednotonlyonitsgamblingindustrybutalsoitscomparativelywell-preservedhistoricalheritage.Macau’shistoricalbuildingscarryexoticandnostalgicappealformanytourists,andthisisalsothecasewithitsdistinctivecuisine.However,althoughmanymainlandChi-nesetouristsgotoMacauforthefood,theirculturalunderstandingofMacaneseCuisine（澳门菜）isquitelimited.ThePortuguesepresenceinMacaustartedinthemid-16thcentury,andtheybroughtIberianculinarytraditionswiththemtowhatwasthenasmallfishingvillage.ThatculturalimportsubsequentlyinfluencedthecookingofSouthernChina.BycomparingPortuguesecookinginPortugalwiththecook-ingoftheMacanese(Macau-bornPortuguese)inMacau,thispaperanalysesindetailhowtheMacaneseappliedspicesfromPortugueseIndiaandMalaccatotheingredientsofGuangdongcookingtocreatethedistinctiveMacanesecuisine(AculináriadosMacaenses).DuringfourcenturiesofLuso–Sinoculturalexchange,theChineseinMacaulearnedWesternwaysofcookingfromtheMacaneseandalteredthestrongandgreasyflavourstypicalofMacanesecookingtosuittheChinesepalate.Anewfusioncooking,MacaneseCuisine(CozinhadeMacau,澳門菜)thusemerged.SocialinstabilityinSouthernChinafromthemid-19thcenturysentalargenumberofrefugeestoMacau,andthenewarrivalsbroughtwiththemZhongshanCuisine(中山菜,atypeofCantonesecuisine),whichsoonbecamepopularinthePortu-guesecolony.Formanyyears,famousZhongshansnackofferingslikealmondcakesandchewybites(asnackmadeofpiglard),havebeen“mustbuy”itemsfortouriststoMacau.Thefinalpartofthispapertalksabouttheimpactofseveralanti-ChineseincidentsinBurma(nowMyanmar)andIndonesiaduringthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.Someofthosewhofledtheseanti-ChinesemovementsmovedtoTheArtsofIntegrationandRecreation:aCulinaryStudyofMacauVincentWai-kitHo

407406theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacauMacauandsettledinanoverseasChineseareacalledthe“ThreeLamps”(三盞燈)districtandopenedalargenumberofrestaurants.Theauthorwilldiscusshowthoserestaurants,togetherwiththoseownedbytheThaipeopleinTapSeac(塔石),constitutetheSoutheastAsianfoodlandscapeinMacau.Thepaperalsoexplorestheinterest-ing“Portugueseeggtarts”(pastéisdenata)crazestartedbytheBritishownerofLordStow’sBakery,whoturnedPortugal’sfavouritepastryintoahighlypopularsnackamongtheChineseinbothHongKongandMacau.Keywords:Macau,Portugal,Food,culinary,Zhongshan,Myanmar.Part1:IntroductionNotwithstandingtheoldsaying“GotoGuangzhouforthefood”(ShiZaiGuangzhou食在廣州)andHongKong’sclaimtobea‘foodiesparadise’(「美食天堂」),Macau,situatedclosetothetwocitiesonthePearlRiverdelta,isjustasmuchofatoptouristattraction,basednotonlyonitsgamblingindustrybutalsoitscomparativelywell-preservedhistoricalheritage.Macau’shistoricalbuildingscarryexoticandnos-talgicappealformanytourists,andthisisalsothecasewithitsdistinc-tivecuisine.However,althoughmanymainlandChinesetouristsgotoMacauforthefood,theirculturalunderstandingofMacaneseCuisine（澳门菜）isquitelimited.ThePortuguesepresenceinMacaustartedinthemid-16thcentury,andtheybroughtIberianculinarytraditionswiththemtowhatwasthenasmallfishingvillage.ThatculturalimportsubsequentlyinfluencedthecookingofSouthernChina.Bycompar-ingPortuguesecookinginPortugalwiththecookingoftheMacanese(Macau-bornPortuguese)inMacau,thispaperanalyzesindetailhowtheMacaneseappliedspicesfromPortugueseIndiaandMalaccatotheingredientsofGuangdongcookingtocreatethedistinctiveMacanesecuisine(AculináriadosMacaenses).DuringfourcenturiesofLuso–Sinoculturalexchange,theChineseinMacaulearnedWesternwaysofcookingfromtheMacaneseandalteredthestrongandgreasyflavourstypicalofMacanesecookingtosuittheChinesepalate.Anewfusioncooking,MacaneseCuisine(CozinhadeMacau,澳門菜)thusemerged.SocialinstabilityinSouthernChinafromthemid-19thcenturysentalargenumberofrefugeestoMacau,andthenewarrivalsbroughtwiththemZhongshanCuisine(中山菜,atypeofCantonesecuisine),vincentwai-kithowhichsoonbecamepopularinthePortuguesecolony.Formanyyears,famousZhongshansnackofferingslikealmondcakesandchewybites(asnackmadeofpiglard),havebeenthe“mustbuy”itemsfortouriststoMacau.Thefinalpartofthispapertalksabouttheimpactofseveralanti-ChineseincidentsinBurma(nowMyanmar)andIndonesiaduringthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.Someofthosewhofledthesean-ti-ChinesemovementsmovedtoMacauandsettledinanoverseasChi-neseareacalledthe“ThreeLamps”(三盞燈)districtandopenedalargenumberofrestaurants.Theauthorwilldiscusshowthoserestaurants,togetherwiththoseownedbytheThaipeopleinTapSeac(塔石),con-stitutetheSoutheastAsianfoodlandscapeinMacau.Thepaperalsoexplorestheinteresting“Portugueseeggtarts”(pastéisdenata)crazestartedbytheBritishownerofLordStow’sBakery,whoturnedPortu-gal’sfavouritepastryintoahighlypopularsnackamongtheChineseinbothHongKongandMacau.MartinYan,whoisfamousfortheChinesecookeryshowsthathehasbeenperformingonu.s.televisionforover10years,haspointedoutthatMacaneseCuisine,thoughworthexploring,isonlycoveredbyafewbooks.TherearetwotypesofbooksonthefoodofMa-cau.Guidebooksarethefirsttype:theyprovidepictorialmapsoftherangeoffoodthatcanbefoundinMacauandaremainlydividedbydistricts,suchasPortoExterior,AvenidadeAlmeidaRibeiro,PraiaGrande,TaipaandColoane.Thoseguidebooksattracttheinterestofpublishersthankstotheirmarketvalue.Itisapity,however,thatsomeoftheseguidebooksonlyfeaturerecycledcontentfromexistingtitles,andhavelittletoofferinthewayoffreshororiginalcontent.Theothertypeofbooksarerecipes,wherethefocusisonshowingarangeofdishesanddifferentcookingtechniques.1Thesetypesofbooksaresometimesdescribedasbeingabout“Macanesecuisine”,wheninfacttheyareonlytalkingaboutPortugueseCuisine,whichconfusespeopleintoequatingthetwocuisines.Thispaperwillconsiderhowpopula-tionmobilityfactorslikecolonisation,immigrationandanti-ChinesemovementsinSoutheastAsiagavebirthtoMacanesecuisineandshapeditsevolutionthroughthreedominantculinarystylesinMacau:1.MariaCelestinadeMelloeSenna,CozinhadeMacau,(Lisboa:Vega,1998),JoãoAntónioFerreiraLamas,prefaciodeAntonioForjaz,ACulináriadosMacaenses,(Porto:LelloEditores,1997)及AnnabelJackson,TasteofMacau:PortugueseCuisineontheChinaCoast,(HongKong:HongKongUniversityPress,2003.

409408theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacauPortuguesecuisine(whichincludesMacanesecuisineandlocalisedPortuguesecuisinebytheChinese),ZhongshanCuisine(abranchofCantonesecuisine),andSoutheastAsiancuisine(Myanmar,ThailandandIndonesia).Macauhasanumberofwell-knownfoodstreetsinplaceslikeRuadaFelicidade,whichwasoncethepeninsula’sred-lightdistrictduringthelateQingandearlyRepublicanperiod,andAvenidadeAlmeidaRibeiro,commonlyknownasSanManLo.TraditionalCantoneserestaurantsarelocatedinthisarea,asareretailersoftraditionaldes-sertsfromZhongshan(calledXiangShanpriorto1925).Taipa,inthesouthernhalfofMacau,alsohastwofamousfoodstreets:RuadoCunha,andanewlydevelopedstriponRuadoRegedornearby.OnecanfindalmostalltypicalChineseandPortuguesedishesanddessertsthere.PortugueserestaurantsalongPraiaGrandeandnearA-MáTemplealsoprovidebeautifulviewsandromanticdiningspots.Part2:TheDualVariationsofPortugueseCuisineinMacauThetransformationofMacaneseCuisineIfacoloniserarrivedataplacewherethelevelofcivilisationwasrelativelylow,theycouldsupplanttheindigenouscultureandreplaceitwiththeirown.Undersuchcircumstances,exchangeswouldalwayshappenandresultinnewcreationsthatwouldbeconducivetotheidealofculturalexchangebetweentheEastandtheWest.Forexam-ple,inthebookMacaneseCooking:aJourneyAcrossGenerationsCecíliaJorgeenumeratedingredientsusedinMacanesecooking,likebalichang,cardamomo(cardamom)andcevadinha,acommonChineseingredient.2However,theanalysisofcuisinesinPortugal,inplaceslikeLisbon,isnotthefocusofthispaper.Instead,theemphasiswillbeputonthedualvariationsofthePortuguesecuisineinMacau.ThefirstgenreisMacanesecuisine,whichhasPortuguesecuisineasitsbasisandisenrichedwithspicesfromSouthandSoutheastAsia.ThesecondgenrereferstotheWestern-stylefooddevelopedbytheChineseresidentsofMacauandwhichismarketedasPortuguesecuisine.Thissecondgenrelocaliseseither,orboth,PortuguesecuisineandMacanese2.CeciliaJorge,AMesadaDiaspora:ViagemBrevepelaCozinhaMacaense,(Macau:AssociaçãoPromotoradaInstrucaodosMacaenses,2004)(Chineseedition),pp.16–37.Forbiographicalinfor-mationaboutCecíliaJorge,seeZhaoYanfang(趙燕芳),InterviewsontheMacanese(《葡人土生訪談》),Macau:MacauInternationalResearchInstitute,2004),pp.31–36.vincentwai-kithocuisine.AlotofAsianelementshadbeenaddedtoPortuguesecuisineoverthecenturies,whichhashelpedpopularisethefoodcultureofPortugal.ThewholeprocesshasalsodemonstratedthecreativityofMacanesecooking.Ofallforeigninfluencesthatseektoenterthefolkcultureofaplace,theculturethatgoeswithfoodistheonethatgoesdeepest,duetothesimplefactthatwehavetoconsumefoodeveryday,anditthereforegainsthemostexposure.Ifacolonisermarriedlocalpeo-ple,thenatechnicaltransferwouldnaturallyoccurintermsoffoodculture.Foodculturewasalsotheoneareathatwouldmostlikelytranscendnationalism,especiallyforMacau,asitenjoyedahistoryofover400yearsofco-existencebetweentheChineseandthePortuguese.ThevariousformsofPortuguesecuisinehaveestablishedthemselvesasaspecialityofMacau.Ontheotherhand,comparedwithlearninganinstrument,learningaboutafoodcultureisaloteasier,becausetasteistheonlyrequirementtobeaconnoisseur,andbecausenoarduousandrigoroustrainingisneeded.Aslongasthefoodistasty,memoryofitwilllinger,andyoucanseeitspresenceinvariousrestaurants.Apartfromstrictlyprohibitinginhumaneeatinghabitsordrugtaking,thecolonisersseldomusedadministrativemethodstoaltertheeatinghabitsofthelocalpeopleinthecolony.Thus,insteadofatop-downcommunicationsystem,thefoodculturehadalwaysevolvedfromthebottom-up,throughyearsofimperceptiblechange.Inthepast,cookingwasarequirementfordaughtersanddaughter-in-laws.Today,menaresupposedtohavegoodcookingskillstoo.Itisnotnecessarytogototrainingschoolortotakehousekeepingclasses–thetransmissionoffoodculturecanbedoneathome.Thiscanbeseenfromthespecialfoodproducedatfestivalsinvariousnations.EurasiansarecommoninAsia.Theyinclude,forinstance,MestizowhoaretheoffspringsoftheSpanishorAmericansandthelocalpeople(includingChineseimmigrants)ofthePhilippines,BabaNyonyainSin-gaporeandMalacca,andtheMacanese.Allthesepeopleshavecontrib-utedprominentlytoEast-Westculturalexchange.BeforeMacau’sreturntoChina,anumberofMacaneseemigratedtoPortugal,Brazil,Canada,Australiaandtheu.s.a.Subsequently,thenumberofPortuguesepeopleinMacaufellgreatly.However,itisstillpossibletotastePortuguesecui-sinebyvisitingthebeautifulMilitaryClubandafewantiquatedhotels.3

411410theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacauMacanesecuisineisbasedprimarilyonPortuguesecuisine.AddedtoitisafusionofChineseandSoutheastAsianingredientslikebagi.Someofthecuisinescanbededucedasaresultofsinicisationbytheirnames.Forone,BebincadeRábano,asamemberofMacanesecuisine,assimilatedsomecharacteristicsofCantonesecuisine.4OtherdishesarefusionsofPortuguesecuisinewithotherWest-ernEuropeancuisines.Forexample,canardausang(pressedduckor“bloodyduck”inChinese)wasoriginallyaFrenchdish,butwasofferedinmanyPortugueserestaurants.Moreover,byreplacingduckwithchickentocreateanewpressedchickendish,Portuguesecuisinedidindeedprovidesomeinspirationforcooking.Somewell-knownIberianfare,forexamplefruitwineandseafoodfriedrice,whichorig-inallybelongedtoboththePortugueseandtheSpanish,isalsocom-monlyfoundonthemenusoflocalMacaneserestaurants.However,theyhaveneverbecomeaspopularasthelocalisedPortuguesedishes.ThebestexampleforthisistheMacaneseculinarytradition,thespe-cialityoftheChineseversionofPortuguesecuisine.AnotherPortuguese-namedspecialitythatactuallycamefromotherformerPortuguesecoloniesisthePortuguesebarbecue,popularinColoaneandTaipa.ItissimilartotheBrazilianbarbecue,withtheonlydifferencebeingthatitdoesnotfeaturelargeskewerswhichholdtogeth-erthedifferentitemswhenthefoodisserved.Toenjoythisspecialityinafestiveatmosphere,thereistheSt.JohnFestival(FestadeSãoJoão),wherePortugueserestaurantsandMacanesecookspreparefoodforsale.NeutralisingtheSpicyandSaltyFlavourColoniserswereusedtothetradingandmovementofgoodsbetweencoloniesundertheirrule.Forthem,distancewasneveraproblem.ThePortuguesecolonisersleftLisbonandaccumulatedgoodsfromBrazil,Africa,PortugueseIndiaandMalaccaontheirwaytoMacau.ThisiswhyAnthonyR.Disney,anexpertonPortugueseimperialhistory,amusinglynamedthisphenomenon“thePepperEmpire”.5Infact,3.ThemostfamoushistoricalhotelsinMacau,besidesHotelLisboa,withwhichHongKongpeoplearemostfamiliar,isthemoreancientHotelBelaVista.Fordetails,seeLuísAndradedeSá;photos,CheongIoTong,FernandoChaves;translationintoChinese,JunBo,HotelBelaVista,峰景酒店,(Ma-cau:SociedadeBelaVistaLda.,1994).4.CecíliaJorge,AMesadaDiaspora:ViagemBrevepelaCozinhaMacaense(Chineseedition),p.42.5.Anthony.R.Disney,TwilightofthePepperEmpire:PortugueseTradeinSouthwestIndiaintheEarlySeventeenthCentury,(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1978).vincentwai-kitho6.Min-shengBaooutdoorunit(《民生報》戶外組著),DiscoveringGourmetsinMacau,Taipei:Min-shengBaoPublishing,2000,p.34[,2000，《探索澳門美食》，台北市:民生報出版社].pepperisonlyoneofthemanyspices(forexamplecurryspices)thatwastransportedtoMacauandenrichedtheflavouroflocalfoodafterPortugueseandCantonesecookingtechniqueswerecombinedtopro-ducetheuniqueMacanesecuisine.Inaddition,derivativedishesfromPortuguesecuisineemergedunderthe“Portuguese”labelwhentheywereinfactacombinationofSoutheastAsianandChinesematerials.BraisedassortedvegetableswithPortugalsauce,Portuguesecurrycrab,curryshrimps(carildecamarão)arealltypicalexamplesofthislocal-isedversionofPortuguesefood.TheanonymouscreatorsandgourmetsofMacaneseCuisineseemtoreservespecialaffectionforspicychicken.ThiscanbeseeninthepopularityofdisheslikegalinhaPortuguesa(Portuguese-styleChicken,acurryflavoureddishmadewithcoconutmilk,currypow-der,gingerpowderandshreddedcoconutstuffing),thespicygalinhaàAfricana(African-stylechicken),6andkingprawns,aspecialtyofthePortugueserestaurantsonAvenidadaPraiaGrande,andwhichisalsopreparedwithspices.Aperfectdishalwaysgoeshandinhandwithgourmets.Thepalateofpeoplefromvariousplacesdependsontheweatherandfoodre-sourcesoftheplacewheretheylive.PeopleinHongKongandMacautendtofindPortuguesedisheslikeporcobalichãotamarinhotoosaltyorotherwisetoostronglyflavoured,andthustheydonotcatertothetastesofthemajorityofChinesepeople.ThisbecamethereasonfortheChinesemodificationonPortuguesecuisine.WhyisitthatPortu-guesecuisinetastestoostrongfortheChinese?Mr.LouChiSeng,whowasoncethechefofthegovernorofMacau,thinksthatthisisbecausewinetastesmellow,whichmayovershadowthetasteofthedishesiftheirtasteisnotasstrong.AlthoughMacanesecuisineofferslightertastes,thespiritofunrestrainedpleasureremains.GenuineorNot,WhoCares?Gourmetsnevercareaboutwhetheradishisauthentic;thesecretofitspopularityalmostalwaysliesinwhetherthefoodtastesgoodandisworthitsprice.Inthelonghistoryofmankind,itisonlytoonormaltochangetherecipeandtheingredientsofdishes.Thusitisalways

413412theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacauadebatedtopicastowhetherthereisanyorthodoxyinacuisine.7Dish-esthatarenamedafterplacesaboundinChinaandtheGreaterChinaArea,suchas,YangzhoufriedriceandSingapore-stylenoodles.ForMa-cau,asaplacethatwasoccupiedbythePortugueseforover450years,itseemsnaturaltotakethePortugueseasrepresentativesoftheWest.OneeasywaytoidentifyauthenticPortuguesecuisineinMacauistoseewhetherthesamedishesarewidelyavailableinrestaurantsinPortugal–ifnot,thenthecuisineisMacanese.Macanesecuisineenjoysalonghistory,anditshistoryisamongthemostcomprehensivefusioncuisinesinSouthernChina.Portuguesedisheslikecasquinha,whichiscostlyanddifficulttoprepare,arenotofferedbytheChinese-runPortugueserestaurantsinMacau.Porkchopbun,forexample,isaWestern-stylesnackinventedbytheChineseinMacau.GiventhatthetechniquesusedtoproducethebunareWestern,andthattheporkispreparedwithwesternspiceandwhitewine,itisseldomseeninPortugal,andcanonlybedescribedaspartofwesterncuisineinthebroadestsense.Anothersimilarexampleisarrozdepato(Portugueseduckrice),whichisaclassicdishoffusioncuisinewhichhastheChinese-styleingredientsofroastpigslicesandpigskinaddedtoitandstewed.Easy-to-makedishesmadewithin-gredientsthatareeasilyacquiredanywheretendtokeeptheiroriginalformandtaste,butenablelessroomforcreativity.Forexample,Bolin-hosdeBacalhau,mashedpotatoandbacalhaufriedintocrispygoldenballs,haveremainedvirtuallythesameovertheyears.UnderthelabelofPortuguesecuisine,anumberofrestaurantsinMacauactuallyservelocalisedPortuguesecuisinewithChinesecharac-teristics.ManydishesontheirmenuarenowheretobefoundinPortu-gal.ThiseclecticattitudeisoneofthebestrepresentationsofthespiritofMacau:itisaspiritbasedontolerance,creativityandintegration.Thoserestaurantsthatoperateunderthelabelof“Portuguesecui-sine”aresimilarto“tea-restaurant”(ChaCanting)ofHongKong,providinglocalisedWestern-stylefood,whileincludingalargeselec-tionofChinesedisheslikeYangzhoufriedrice,assortedfriedriceandbeefchowfun.Theteaprovidedisboiledwaterwithafewdropsofteaonly.(Inotherwords,thesamekindofteaisservedtocustomers7.LiuTianci(劉天賜),LutuShuoshuRen(StorytellerontheRoad《旅途說書人》),HongKong:CupMagazinePublishingLtd.,2007),pp.172–5.vincentwai-kithoandusedtocleansethecutlery).Theonlydifferenceisthefoodthattheysellas“Portuguesecuisine”.Forsomerestaurants,itischouriçoassado,braisedoxtail,mashedpotatovegetablesoup(caldoverde);forothers,itiscanardausang,orstandardwesterndisheslikeribsorroastpig.AnothersuccessfulexampleofavariationofPortuguesecuisine,ironically,canbefoundinthecreationsofthelocal-bornMacaneseMargaretandherBritishhusbandAndrew.TheyopenedthefirstLordStow’sBakeryonRuadeCincodeOutubroinColoane(nottobecon-fusedwiththebranchinInnerHarbour),andthemostfamousproductofthebakeryisPortugueseeggtart.Infact,itisanotherexampleofthelocalpeopleandimmigrantsinMacauusingthelabel“Portuguese”asafasciatomarkettheirfood.DespitethefactthatthecelebratedproductatLordStow’sBakeryisalsoknownaspastéisdenata,afterthefamouscustardtartsofPortugal,itsingredientsshowpureoriginal-ity.InordertochangetheoverlysweetandstickytasteofthetypicalPortuguesecustardtart,theyusedtheBritish(HongKong)ingredientsofcream,milkandsugartomaketheeggtarts.BeforeMacau’sRe-gression,bywhichtimethepeopleofHongKongwerebeingdrawntoMacau’suniquecuisineandfoodwithPortuguesecharacteristics,kfcproducedtheHongKongeggtart,whichcanbeseenasanexampleofPortuguesefoodmodifiedwithBritishelementsinMacauthatwaslat-erpopularisedinHongKong.Inaddition,there’sAlua,whichwaspopularinthepast,butonlyservedinafewrestaurantsnowadays.ItusedtobeNewYearfoodinIndia.Apalm-sizedsquaresweetmadeofflour,butter,coconutmilkandmilk,itisusuallyeateninslices.Beingfragrantandoily,thecrispytasteofalmondinsideaddsrelishtoit.ThereasonforAlua’sdeclinemaybearesultofmoderndietarychanges.ButonecanstillfindAluainsomeofoldshopsinCentral,HongKong,orinsomeInnerPortChineserestaurantsinDecember.Chinese-runPortugueserestaurantsinMacauusuallymarketthem-selvesaspurveyorsof“Portuguesecuisine”.ItiseasiertofindadaptedMacanesecuisineratherthanauthenticPortuguesecuisine.TheMaca-neseorChinesecookshaddifferentwaysofprocessingthefoodanduseddifferentcookingtechniques,whichwasshapedbytheirculturalbackground.Thesedifferences,ontheotherhand,determinedtheirpreferencesforthetaste.Theiruseofspicesandingredientsisalittle

415414theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacaubitsimplifiedanduniform.Thiscouldbetheresultofattemptstosoft-enthestrongtastesoftraditionalPortuguesefood,andcouldalsobeduetothescarcityofsomeingredients.Changesiningredientscontributedgreatlytochangesindishes;theextentoftheingredientchange,ontheotherhand,isrelatedtothedifferenceinfoodproductionintheoriginalplaceandtheplacesthatitinfluenced.ThisexplainswhyalotofPortugueserestaurantsinMacausellcacho,pipisandpigearsalad.8Thus,originalPortuguesecuisinecametoMacaufromSouthwesternEurope,throughSouthAsia,andafteritwasinfusedwiththespiritoftraditionalChinesefood,Maca-nesecuisine,beingbothexoticandlocalised,wasinvented.Sometimes,certainPortuguesedishesaregivenChinesenames,likePortuguesesaltedfishforBacalhau.Ontheotherhand,whenaningredientisscare,forexamplefreshsardines,localisedPortugueserestaurantstendtousealternativedishes,utilisinglocallyavailableingredients.Forinstance,thelackoffreshsardinescreatedthepopularcannedsardinetoastedsandwich.IntermsofmeatdishesthatmaybeunusualinPortugal,oxtongueandoxtailarecommonlyservedinChinese-stylePortugueserestaurantsinMacau,whereitisraretofindmoretypicalPortuguesemeatdishessuchthosewithrabbitmeatandthesizeableandpriceyPortugueseham.Meanwhile,otherdishes,likePortuguesemashedpotatovegeta-blesoup(madewithmashedpotatoes,oliveoil,slicedgreensandPor-tuguesesausages)andserradura(achilleddessertmadewithcreamandcrushedbiscuits),arepopularinvariouskindsofPortugueserestau-rantsbecausetheyusecommoningredientsandareeasytomake.ThePortuguesepeopleinMacauwereimportantcontributorstothecultureofMacau.SomeofthemcolonisersfromPortugal,otherswereimmigrantsfromotherPortuguesecoloniesorMacanese.EventodaytheInstituteforTourismStudiesstillholdsclassesonMacanesecuisines,andstudentspreparedishesforcustomersinthein-housecaf-eterias.9TheMuseumofMacau(MuseudeMacau)andtheMuseum8.MuseudeMacau,ACozinhaMacaense,(Macau:MuseudeMacau,1999),p.6[“PigEarSaladisalsocalled”?]Alsocalled“Tacho”inMacaneseLanguage,fordetails,seeMiguelSennaFernandesandAlanNormanBaxter;translatedbyMarieImeldaMacLeod,MaquistaChapado:VocabularyandExpressionsinMacau’sPortugueseCreole,(Macau[China]:InstitutoCulturaldoGovernodaR.A.E.deMacau,2004),p.40.9.RosmarieWank-NolascoLamas,TheArtofMacaneseCuisine&OtherIFTDelights(澳門菜烹調藝術與旅遊學院精選),(Macau:InstituteforTourismStudies,2001).vincentwai-kithoofWines(MuseudoVinho)inthebasementoftheTouristCentreofMacau(CentrodeActividadesTurísticas)bothhaveexhibitionsonthefoodcultureofMacau.Therearealsofamily-runrestaurantswheredinerscanexpectawarmreceptionfromthefamilymembers.Howev-er,somePortugueserestaurantsintheInnerHarbourareahavealreadystartedtoemployChineseorPhilippinewaitressestoreplacePortu-gueseandMacaneseones,andindoingsosomeoftheexoticambienceofoldislost.Part3:ZhongshanCuisineinMacauChinesecuisinecanbedividedintoeightmajorregionalcuisines:Sichuancuisine,Shandongcuisine,Jiangsucuisine,Cantonesecuisine,Zhejiangcuisine,Fujiancuisine,HunancuisineandAnhuicuisine.Macau,situatedonthesoutherncoastofGuangdongProvince,belongstothetraditionofCantonesecuisine.Generallyspeaking,MacauhaspreservedtheCantonesecuisinetraditionofZhongshan(itwasknownasXiangshanpriorto1925),especiallythepastries.Itsculturalsignif-icanceisnottosedulouslypursueaconjunctionofEastandWest,buttopreservethetraditionalfoodprocessingtechniquesthathavealreadybeenlostinmainlandChina.Exceptforabriefperiodofturbulencefromgangcrime,Macauwasneveroccupiedasaresultofmilitaryaggression,nordiditeverexperiencelongperiodsofsocialinstability.Thismadeitanidealplacetopreservethelosttraditionsofthemainlandintermsofculture,includingbutnotlimitedtofoodculture.FromMacau’soldname,HaoJiang(literallymean“oystermirror”),wecanseeitshistoryasasmallfishingvillageofoysters.(HaoistheChinesewordforoyster).FromtheTaipingRebelliononwards,largenumbersofGuangdongpeoplemovedsouthwardstoMacau.Thiswashowthedelicatecul-tureofGuangdongwaspassedontoMacau,bringingrefinedculinaryskillstothefishingvillage.Anumberoffamousdishesemergedwiththeskillfuluseoflocalingredients.Ifnewelementswereintroducedtotheculinaryheritagethatwasbroughtin,thenalocalcuisinewouldbeborn.Ifnot,theskillscouldbelost.SeekingDifferenceinCommonGroundandUniqueCraftMacauhadalwaysbeenaplaceofasylumforpeoplefromSouthernChineseprovincesinwartime.RefugeeswhowenttoMacaubrought

417416theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacautheirfoodcustomswiththem.Thevalueofsomespecialityfoodsliesnotinthefooditself,butratherintheuniqueprocessingtechnique.Forexample,whetherjook-singnoodlesmadewiththetraditionalCantonesetechniqueofusinglongbamboopolestastebetterthanmachine-madeorhand-madenoodlesisnotthepoint;whatmattersisthatgourmetswillhavetheircuriosityfulfilledaftergettingtoknowaboutthistraditionaltechniqueofnoodle-making.TheChinesecuisineofMacauisbasedonZhongshancuisine.AgoodexamplewouldbethespecialityofthefamousFatSiuLauRestaurant,braisedShiqipigeon.TherearestillsomegoodZhongshanrestaurantsinMacau,thoughnotintheInnerHarbourareaandonAvenidadeAlmeidaRibeiro,wheretheywereconcentratedduringtheRepublicofChinaperiod.Nowadays,itisalwaysinthefivestarhotelsthatgoodfoodisfound.Ofcourse,goodfoodshouldnotonlyremaininitsplaceofbirth,andgoodrestaurantsdonotnecessarilyhavetoprovidegoodlocalfood.10Forexample,thelong-standingYeeShunCompany,whichtradedinLargodoSenadoforalongtime(itnowhasanewaddressonAvenidadeAlmeidaRibeiro),doesnotuseneces-sarilylocalmilktomaketheirsteamedgingereggcustard.Asasocietyofimmigrants,MacauwasgreatlyinfluencedbythefactthatimmigrantsfromthemainlandaddedCantonesecharacteris-ticstoWesterncuisine,whichturnedMacanesecuisineintoastrandofChinesecuisine.ThereareanumberoffamousteahousesinMacau,asshownonalotofPortuguesepostcards.TherestaurantsinsideAiduHotelandCentralHotelusedtobeverypopularwithfamilies.Today,thedecades-oldLonghuaTeahousecontinuestoservecustomersinthestyleofatraditionalteahouse.11Sometimesthenamesofdishes,especiallythosethataredifficulttounderstand,shouldbeappreciatedinthecontextoflocalhistory.Forexample,LongKeiRestaurantcalledtheirmixedrice“FriedRiceforMister”,andusedthename“HoYinNoodles”fortheircrabfriednoodles.(legendhasitthatthedeceasedMacautycoonHoYinloved10.Forexample,ThefamousMichelinGuideusedtoonlylistthefamousEasternandWesternfoodinhotels,andcuisinesoutsideChinatookgoodpercentage.Michelin,(HongKongMacau2009:Restaurants&Hotels)(《香港/澳門2009:餐廳及酒店》),(Clermont-Ferrand:MichelinetCie,2008),pp.298–340.11.Fordetails,seeChunWaiMan(鍾偉民),BaoshiAomen(《暴食澳門》GoumandisinginMacau),HongKong:CrowneHousePublishing,2004),pp.1–13.ChunWaiMan,alocalMacauChinese,emphasisonlocalspecialitiesfoodinsteadofonlyintroducinghotelcuisinetothegeneralpublic.vincentwai-kithotherestaurant’scrabfriednoodles,hencethenameofthedish.)IntheareaaroundtheExteriorPortsomeChineserestaurantsserveadishthattheycall“Macauroastpork”whichlooksexactlylikeexactlyliketheroastporktypicallypreparedinCantonesecooking.Itissaidthatittakesmoreefforttopreparecomparedwiththe“normalpork”.Moreover,duringtheheydayofthefishingindustryinMacau,theeasyacquisitionofbluecrabstartedthecrazeforCrabporridge.Thedeliciousnessofbluecrabisnotinitsmeat,butitsinnerjuicesandthesweetnessitreleaseswhenstewedinporridge.Forsomeofthedaintycrabporridges,3crabsof250–300gramsandareusedandfishboneandextracrabpartsareaddedtoenrichtherangeoftastes.ATypicalSnack:AlmondCakeAlmondcakeisthemust-buyitemfortouriststoMacau.Itisacom-monsightatweekendstoseefamiliescarryingbagsofalmondcakebacktoHongKong.Madeofgreenbeans,sugar,oilandalmond,thepopularpastryappearedasearlyas1910sinXiangshanCounty(whichlaterbecameZhongshan).Thoughsomealmondcakesweremachine-madeonthemainland,someretailersstillmaketheirownalmondcakesbyhand.PastelariaChuiHeong,inPraçadePonteeHorta,andafewtraditionalChinesebakeriesaroundRuadoCunhainTaipaareexamples.Choi-heong-yuenisoneoftheoldestexistingbakeriesinMacau;advertisementsofthebusinesscanbefoundinnewspapersdatingbackto1930s.Someextraingredientshavebeenaddedtotheelementsforalmondcake.Forinstance,SiuLam,atownfamousforchrysanthemums,intro-ducedtheflowertotheircooking,whichuseschrysanthemumsasanin-gredient.ThusaSiuLamspeciality,chrysanthemumpork(pickledpork,chrysanthemumsandsugar),wasborn.TheimmigrantsfromSiuLambroughtthedishwiththemtoMacau,andlatersomebakeriesaddedthefragrantmeattotheiralmondcakerecipe,whichishowalmondcakewithporkbecamethefavouritesnackoftravellerstoMacautoday.Otherpopularlocalsweettreatsincludethe“Macaulocalspe-cialty”snackslikepreservedfruits.Themostfamousvarietyisthepreservedplum“WangMu(literally“King’smother”)’splum”,whichcomeswiththemarketingsloganthatit“took3,000yearstogrowand3,000yearstobeartheheavenlyfruityoutaste”.Meanwhile,snackslikesweetenedginger,peanutbrittleandgingerbonbonsenjoy

419418theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacauanequallybigfollowing.Thoughbeefjerkyandporkjerkyarejustasfamous,MacauisonlyoneofthemanyplacesalongwithTaiwan,SingaporeandelsewhereintheGreaterChinaregionwherethesnackissold.SomeseaportretailersalsosellSoutheastAsiancandies,likepandancandyfromMalaysiaorThailand.Thingshavechanged…Timeschange,andsodosnackchoices.Traditionalsnacksevolvedbothintermsofvarietyandtaste,hencetheintroductionof,forexam-ple,cashewnutcookiesandalmondcakeswithnewflavours.Aswiththemanychangesthathavebeenmadetotheoriginalalmondcake,the70-year-oldMokYeeKeiBakeryinTaipahasconstantlyreinvent-edtheirAgarJelly,addingnewflavorslikechocolateandpineappletotheirselectionovertheyears.Macauusedtobeaplaceofpoverty,andfewfamiliescouldenjoydishesthatwerepreparedwithvaluableingredients.Thepopularityofbraisedshark’sfininchickenbrothisamodernchange,markingMacaneseCuisine’spursuitofdelicatecooking.Today,onlyafewrestaurantslikeKapokCantoneseRestaurantareabletoservetradi-tionalCantonesedishesthatrequirelaboriouspreparationprocedures,likeporklungsoup.Macauisnolongeraplaceforoysters.Inthepast,asrememberedbytheoldgenerations,peoplewouldtakeleisurelyboatridesacrossInnerPorttoWanChoiontheChinesesideoftheriverwayandshopforfreshseafoodthere.However,WanChoiisconsideredtobepol-lutedtoday,sooysters,fishandotherseafoodareimportedfromareasfurtheralongthemainland.Duringthe60sand70s,HongKongandMacauwitnessedacrazeforlardyrice,steameddumplingsandstickyricedumplings(Zongzi)processedinthetraditionalstyleusedalargequantityoflardorani-malfattomakethemsmellandtastebetter.AtthejunctionofRuadeCincodeOutubroandRuadoTarrafeiroinColoanethereisstillasmallshopsellinglard.Everytimetheyputtheworksinmotion,thefragrantsmelloflardfillstheair.This,however,isonlyoneofakindintermsofanimalfatprocessingshops.AgreatdealoffishingandoysterbreedingusedtotakeplaceinMacau.Localhistoryafterthe19thcenturysawwavesofmainlandChineseimmigrantscometoMacau,whichchangedthedemographicvincentwai-kithostructureofthelocalChinesecommunity.Thesloweconomicgrowthofthelastdecadeofthe20thcenturyenableddozensoftime-honouredMacaubrandstosurviveuntiltoday.Somefoodmarketsstillopenatnight,focusingnotonexquisitedishes,butratherreminiscentofthesidewalkcookedfoodstallsthatHongKongusedtohave.12Part4:SoutheastAsianCuisine(NanyangCuisine)ReturningoverseasChinesealsobroughtaboutchangestothefoodcultureinMacau.Asmentionedearlier,Macanesefoodenjoyssomefeaturesofspice-basedcookingfromsuchSoutheastAsianplacesasMalacca.IfwelookatMacanesecuisinethroughthelensofSoutheastAsianculturesinMacau,twoplacesdemandourattention:the“ThreeLamps”districtaroundRotundadeCarlosdaMaia,wherereturningoverseasChinesefromMyanmarhadsettled,andthe“LittleThailand”areaaroundRuadoAbreuNunes.OverseasChinesefromMyanmarandtheircuisinesThegatheringplaceofaminoritygroupalwaysbecomesacentrefortheirowncuisine,asshownbyChinatownsaroundtheworldorLittleIndiainSingapore,aswellasatouristattraction.13“ThreeLamps”hasalwaysbeenaplaceforoverseasChinese.Somenearbystreetnames–TravessadoUltramarandRuadoUltramar–pointtothehistoricalbackgroundofthearea:“overseas”(Ultramar).OverseasChinesesettlementbroughtlanddevelopmentto“ThreeLamps”.Today,thereare30,000to40,000overseasChinesefromMyanmarlivinginthearea,whichiswhyitislocallyknownas“LittleYangon”or“LittleMyanmar”.Theoriginsofthepopularname“ThreeLamps”isdifficulttoprobe,justlikehow,inthelocalvernacular,manystreetandplacenamesinMacauareverydifferenttheirofficialtitles.Itishighlypossi-ble,though,thatthisnamewasderivedfromthelamp-postthatstandsinthemiddleofthearea’sroundabout.Thestreet-lightingfixture12.ForchangesinMacau’sfoodindustry,seeLiangCiXiong(梁錫雄),AomenYinshiYeJinXi,(Macau’sFoodIndustry:ThePastandthePresent,《澳門飲食業今昔》),HongKong:JointPublishingLtd.andMacau:MacauFund,2009.13.Some1970sMacautourguidesrecommendedrestaurantsthatservedEuropean,Portuguese,ChineseandevenJapaneseandMalaysiancuisine,butignoredstreetfoodandpurveyorsofSoutheastAsianfare.Fordetails,seeJohnClemens,DiscoveringMacau:AVisitor’sGuide,(HongKong:Macmillan,1972.)pp.3136.

421420theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacauconsistsofonelampontopandthreeonthesides.(Despitethefactthatthereareinfact4lamps,thelandmarkhascometobeknownas“ThreeLamps”.)Theroundaboutdoesnothaveanyshopsonit.Whatisreferredtohereistheringofstreetsleadingtoit:RuaDeFernãoMendesPinto,RuadeManueldeArriaga,RuaDoPadreAntónioRolizandRuadeRestauração.ThehistoricalcontextoftheColdWarinthe60sand70ssparkedseveralanti-ChinesemovementsinSoutheastAsiaandduringthisperi-odreturningtoChinabecameapopularoptionformanyoverseasChi-nese.Theseanti-ChinesemovementswerecausedbysuspicionsoftheChineseandoverseasChineseinSoutheastAsiaduetoideologicaldif-ferences,andtheycouldalsobeseenasretaliationforthecommercialprominenceoftheChineseinmanySoutheastAsiansocieties.IntermsofoverseasChineseinMyanmar,in1963theBurmesegovernmentbannedallChinesenewspapersandperiodicals.Chinese-runshopsandprivateschoolswereeitherexpropriatedorshutdown,andindividualownershipwasabolished.In1967,thebloodyAnti-ChineseriotbrokeoutonJune26andendangeredthelivesandpropertyoftheChineseinthecountry.Asaresult,thecommunitywaswrecked.Thispoliticalinstabilitycausedbytheanti-Chinamovementpro-videdthehistoricalcontextfortheexodusofoverseasChinesefromSoutheastAsia.Somewent“back”tothemainland,otherswhowereancestrallyfromTaishaninGuangdongorAnxiinFujianchosetoliveinMacauorHongKong.Theanti-ChineseupheavalsinMyan-marofthemid-1960sdrovemanyoverseasChinesetoMacau,viaHongKongorthemainland.TheyfoundMacautobeasaferefuge,anddevotedthemselvestothebuildingofMacau.AnumberoftheseimmigrantswereintellectualsinMyanmar,andtheybecameEnglishteachersinprimaryandsecondaryschoolsinMacau.Otherschosetostartcateringbusinesses,providingthelocalpeoplewiththefoodofMyanmar.OnereasonwhytheseindividualschoseMacauwasthatMacauwasdevelopinglabour-intensivemanufacturingindustryatthetime,towhichtheycouldcontributetheirlabour.Ofthe600workersatBaoYuanOpticFactory,morethan95%werereturningoverseasChineseimmigrants.Theemployedpopulationhadstableincome,andthusbecameaconsumergroup.vincentwai-kithoBurmeseFishSoupNoodleTheBurmesecuisineof“ThreeLamps”canprovetheimportanceofSoutheastAsianfoodinMacau.Itiscommonforimmigrantstobringtheircustomswiththemwherevertheysettle.Asaresult,thewa-ter-splashingfestivalthatmarkstheBuddhistnewyearinMyanmar,Thailand,LaosandCambodiaisalsocelebratedinMacaueveryApril.Duringthefestival,afoodmarketforBurmeseandSoutheastAsiandishesissetupwithstandssellingcoconutmilk,chickennoodlesandotherspecialsnacks.ThebestplacetotryBurmesefoodinMacauisthiscentreofSoutheastAsianfood.Inthe80s,therewereasmanyas15Burmesefoodstoresin“ThreeLamps”.Themostpopulardishin“ThreeLamps”ismassinhadepeixe.Thefishbrothisstewedwithalargequantityoffreshfishandinordertoreducethesmelloffish,citronella,blackpepper,coriander,ginger,chili,eggandotherspecialingredientsareadded.TheBurmeseimmigrantsservenoodleswiththefishbrothandtheegg,andsometimesitisgar-nishedwithdeepfrieddoughstripsandcoriander.Thepopularonesincludespringrolls,currypuff,marinatedporkintestines,marinatedpigorgans,andcoconutmilkwithchickennoodles.TheareaaroundtheroundaboutiswheremanyBurmeseimmi-grantshadsettled,nearwhichRuaDeFernãoMendesPintohasaconcentrationofBurmeserestaurants.RestauranteBirmanesNgaHeongisaBurmeserestaurantthathasbeenopeninthisareasince1978.Besidesfishnoodlesoup,theTokyoRestaurantalsosellspigbrainnoodles(garnishedwithonion,vinegarandchilli).Thisdishisrarebecausepreparingpigbrainrequireslaboriouswork.Eventhoughhigh-cholesterolfoodlikepigbrainiswhollyatoddswithmodernhealthconsiderations,therearestillanumberofHongKongcustom-erswhocometoMacauspeciallyforthisdish.Separately,someIndo-nesianimmigrantscametoMacauinthesametimeperiodastheBur-meseimmigrants.OnecanstillfindsomesmallIndonesianrestaurantsaroundAvenidadeHortaeCostaandFerreiradeAlmeida.Thefoodandsnackstheysellareunforgettablydelicious.AuthenticThaiFoodTheThaisstartedarrivingMacauinthe17thcenturyforthetrading.TheThaicommunityweseetoday,however,didnotcometoMacauuntilthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.SomeThaisworkedinthe

423422theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacauEstorilHotelintheTapSiacarea.ThefirstgroupsofThaiswhowenttoMacauwouldgraduallybefollowedbytheirfellowtownsmenbackhome.SomeofthefemaleimmigrantswouldgoontogetmarriedandsettleinMacau.TheThaicommunityaroundRuadoAbreuNuneshasacounterpartinKowloonCityinHongKong,asbothplacesarefamousfortheirThai-runThairestaurants.SomeoftheseThaipeoplehavelivedinMacaufordecadesandareproficientinCantonese.Theyformedaself-sustainedcommunity,whichincludesrestaurantsandgroceries.Everyyear,onthebirthdayoftheKingofThailand,thiscommunityhostsa“ThaiFestival”,wherefoodstallstakeoverthestreetswhilepeopledanceandsing.SomeThaiswentbacktotheirhomelandeithersideofMacau’sre-turntoChineserule.TheThaicuisineonecanfindinMacauismoreorlessauthenticinthesensethattheyuselocalingredientsandThaispic-es.AmorelocalisedMacanesetypeofThaicuisinehasneverdeveloped.ThismaybeexplainedbythecloserelationshipthattheThaiimmi-grantshavemaintainedwiththeirhomeland,whichallowsthemtoeas-ilyimportthekeycookingingredientstheyneedtomakeauthenticThaidishes.Eventoday,inFaiChiKeiandAreiaPreta,Thairestaurantscanstillbefound,althoughthecooksmaynotnecessarilybeThai.BurmeseandThaicuisinesinMacauhaveremainedthewaytheywereintheirhomeland,onlymadelesssalty.ThenamingruleforThaifoodworkslikethepragmaticapplicationofthe“Portuguese”label:the“Thai”salespitchiskeenlyusedtosellparticularfooditems,forinstanceThai-styleHainanesechickenrice,orThai-stylereddrink.BurmeseCuisineinMacauhaschangedlittleintermsofusingnewingredients.However,intermsoffoodprocessing,roundplasticbar-relsareusedtomixnoodles,hencethename“plasticbarrelnoodles”.Somepeoplereplacedthenamewith“Burmesenoodles”lateron.Thisanecdoteshowsthathowaparticulardishcametorepresentacommu-nitycanbeatotalcoincidence.Part5:ConclusionTherearestillsomecommonlyavailablecuisinesthathavenotbeenacceptedaspartoftheMacanesecuisinetradition,likeTaiwanesecuisine,NortheastChinesecuisine,andtheemergingJapaneseandKoreancuisines.Ontheotherhand,therearesomecuisinesthatneverhavemanagedtogrowinMacau,likeHakkacuisine,Sichuancuisine,vincentwai-kithoFrenchcuisineandRussiancuisine.ThereasonforthismaybeduetothefactthatnoneofthesecuisineshasalivelylocalcommunityoftheirowninMacautosupporttheirgrowth,whereastheMacaneseandimmigrantsfromBurmaandIndonesiahavepromotedtheirfoodculturethroughtheirrestaurants.ThoughtherearemanyFilipino,VietnameseandChinesepeoplefromotherprovincesinMacau,theytendtoworkinthesecurityorbuildingindustry,andseldomopenrestaurantsontheirown.ThisiswhyinthefoodcultureofMacautheyhaveservedalesserroleofpassers-by.Macausocietyhaschangedgreatlyafteradecades-oldcasinomo-nopolywasendedandgamingrightswereopenedup.VariousAmericangamingoperatorssoonmovedinandgrowingmainlandChinesetouristnumbershavecontributedtomajorchangesinMacausociety.Fromtheperspectiveoffoodcultureresearch,thechangesmarknotonlytheendofanerainwhichthelocalisationofdifferentcuisinesinteractedwithinwardmigrationflows,butalsoreflecttheimpactofglobalisation.ThebuffetselectionsincasinosandhotelsprovideplentifulChineseandWesternfoodchoices,yettheyhaveneglectedthetraditionalMacanesedishesmentionedabove.EvenifthereisaPortuguesebuffet,thechar-acteristicsofthecuisinewillbelost,anditwillbereducedtojustonechoiceamongasmorgasbordofinternationalfare.Underthemightycurrentofglobalisation,localfood,whichcarriestheculturalheritageofMacau’sdistinctivefoodculture,hasbeenmarginalised.Ontheotherhand,mostofthetraditionalrestaurantsareusual-lymanagedbyafamilyandafewhelperstohosttouristsonFridaynights,weekendsandpublicholidays.ThespikeintouristnumberstoMacauinrecentyearshasbroughtasupply-demandcrisistosomefamilyrestaurants,whichhasledtoasimplificationofcookingproce-dures.Dishesdonotrequireexpensiveingredientsbutarelabour-intensivetomake,likebakedfarmworms,areseldomseeninnewChineserestaurantstoday.Thosedishesjustdonotconformtothemodernbusinessmantraofdelivering“greater,faster,betterandmoreeconomical”outcomes.Fortunately,thefoodthoserestaurantsprovid-edarenotcommonlyfoundnowadays;however,thecarefulandde-votedcookingofoldisnowrarelyseen.Moreover,withtheriseoftheanimalrightsmovement,uncommondishesthatcouldstillbefoundnotsolongagoin1999,suchasfertilisedduckorchickeggs,havevanishedfromMacautoday.

425424theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacauWhatispositiveaboutthesedevelopmentsisthatsomerestaurantscanaccumulatemorecapitalandopennewbranches.Someofthesebranchesareoperatingasuniversitycanteens,whichcanbeseenasthebestexampleofpopularisation.However,thefoodthatthebranchesserveupisalwaysdeemedtobeawatered-downversionoftheorig-inal,anditisdoubtfulwhethersuchbusinessexpansionisimprovingthequalityoflocalfood.Atthesametime,theincreasingimportancesocietygivestohealthyeatingmeansthatfamousdishesthatarepar-ticularlylikedbecausetheyareoily,sweetorsaltyaredisappearinginChinesecuisine.InthecaseofMacau,theuseoftheonce-popularsaltedfish,oystersauceandshrimppasteincookinghasdecreased.Similarly,almondcakeswithpork,oncesopopularandcommoninMacau,aretodayalmostnowheretobefound.Onlyinthedeepcor-nersoftheInnerHarborareacanonefindafewtraditionalbakeriesthatstillsellthesnack.Whilecateringtothenewchanges,thedelicatetastesofvariouscuisinesmaybecomeanostalgicmemoryoftheoldergeneration.InablitzofpublicityfromtheHongKongmedia,manyrestaurants/storeshaverisentofamethankstoaconstantstreamofcelebrityvisits.Itisdoubtfulwhethertheirfoodhasgotanybetterasaresult,butthereisnodoubtthatthepricestheychargewillrocketallthewayup.1414.CaiLan,CaiLanonFamousDishes,HongKong:CosmosBooksLtd.,2009,p.350–369.[蔡瀾，2009，《蔡瀾歎名菜》，香港：天地圖書有限公司].vincentwai-kithoreferencesDataThemajorityofthedatacitedinthispapercomesfrominterviewsandfieldworkthattheauthorhascarriedoutinMacausince2003.BibliographyReferencesinChinese左倩萍(CecíliaJorge),《土生葡人飲食文化》,(澳門:澳門土生教育協進會,2004年)。MinShengBaoHuWaiZu,DiscoveringGourmetsinMacau,Taipei:MinShengBaoPublishing,2000.[民生報戶外組著,2000,《探索澳門美食》,台北市:民生報出版社。]LiangCiXiong,Macau’sFoodIndustry:ThePastandthePresent,HongKong:JointPublishingLtd.andMacau:MacauFund,2009.[梁錫雄,2009,《澳門飲食業今昔》,香港：三聯書店(香港)有限公司;澳門:澳門基金會。]LiuTianci,StorytellerontheRoad,HongKong:CupMagazinePublishingLtd.,2007.[劉天賜,2007,《旅途說書人》，香港:CupMagazinePublishingLimited。]ZhaoYanfang,InterviewsontheMacanese,Macau:MacauInterna-tionalResearchInstitute,2004,p.31–36.[趙燕芳,《葡人土生訪談》,(澳門:澳門國際研究所出版,2004)。]CaiLan,CaiLanonFamousDishes,HongKong:CosmosBooksLtd.,2009[蔡瀾,2009,《蔡瀾歎名菜》,香港：天地圖書有限公司。]ChunWaiMan,GoumandisinginMacau,HongKong:CrowneHousePublishing,2004[鍾偉民,2004,《暴食澳門》,香港:皇冠出版社(香港)有限公司。]

427426ReferencesinPortugueseandEnglishClemens,John.1972.DiscoveringMacau:AVisitor’sGuide.HongKong:Macmillan.Disney,Anthony.R.1978.TwilightofthePepperEmpire:PortugueseTradeinSouthwestIndiaintheEarlySeventeenthCentury.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.MuseudeMacau.1999.ACozinhaMacaense.Macau:MuseudeMacau.Fernandes,MiguelSennaandAlanNormanBaxter;translatedbyMarieImeldaMacLeod.2004.MaquistaChapado:VocabularyandExpressionsinMacau’sPortugueseCreole.Macau[China]:InstitutoCulturaldoGovernodar.a.e.deMacau.Jackson,Annabel.2003.TasteofMacau:PortugueseCuisineontheChinaCoast.HongKong:HongKongUniversityPress.Jorge,Cecília.2004.AMesadaDiáspora:ViagemBrevepelaCozinhaMacaense.Macau:AssociaçãoPromotoradaInstruçãodosMacaenses.Lamas,JoãoAntónioFerreira;prefaciodeAntonioForjaz.1997.ACulináriadosMacaenses,Porto:LelloEditores.Lamas,RosmarieWank-Nolasco.2001.TheArtofMacaneseCuisine&OtherIFTDelights(澳門菜烹調藝術與旅遊學院精選).Macau:InstituteforTourismStudies.MelloeSenna,MariaCelestinade.1998.CozinhadeMacau.Lisboa:Veja.theartsofintegrationandrecreation:aculinarystudyofmacauMichelin.2008.HongKongMacau2009:Restaurants&Hotels(«香港/澳門2009餐廳及酒店»),(Clermont-Ferrand:MichelinetCie.)Sá,LuísAndradede;fotos,CheongIoTong,FernandoChaves;traduçãoparaChinês,JunBo.1994.HotelBelaVista,(峰景酒店).Macau:SociedadeBelaVistaLda.vincentwai-kitho

429IntroductionThispapercomeswithinthescopeoftheprojectentitled“TranslationinMacau(History,TheoryandPractice)”whichisbeingconductedinapartnershipbetweentheMacauPolytechnicInstituteandtheCulturalandScientificCentreofMacau,i.p..Itresultsfrommyre-searchwithinthiscontextfocusingonthestudyandcharacterisationoftheprofileofthetranslator-interpreterinMacaufromthemid-19thtoearly20thcentury.1Whilstcarryingoutthisresearch,IcameacrossseveralreferencestoaCartóriodosdocumentossínicos[RegistryOfficeofChinesedocu-ments],undertheresponsibilityoftheProcuraturadaCâmaradeMacau[Attorney’sOfficeofMacauCityCouncil]and,later,oftheProcuraturadosNegóciosSínicos[Attorney’sOfficeforChineseAffairs].Asitspanstheearly17thtomid-19thcentury,Ifeltitwasnec-essarytoascertainmoreaboutthematerialexistence,organisation,functionandevolutionofthisCartórioduringthislongperiod.ThetypeofdocumentsheldbytheCartóriowillbeaddressedlateron,butIwouldliketostressimmediatelythatthisarticleisrestrictedtothedocumentsregardingtheCâmaraorSenado[Senate,MacauCityCouncil]ofMacauandforwhichIhaveusedthefollowingterminol-ogyforthesakeofclarity:–“officialChinesecorrespondence”,or“Chinesedocuments”inthatcontext–torefertothe“ChapasSínicas”[ChineseChops]2andrespectivetranslations;thedrafts,officialcommunicationsArchivesoftheSenado'sProcuraturaandtheCodificationandTranslationofChineseDocumentsTerezaSena1.TerezaSena,“ContributosparaumPerfildoIntérprete-tradutornaMacaudeMeadosdoSéculoXIXaosIníciosdoSéculoXX”,inLiChangseneLuísFilipeBarreto(eds.),ParaaHistóriadaTraduçãoemMacau,Lisboa,InstitutoPolitécnicodeMacau/CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.,2013,pp.115–148.2.Vd.RuiMartinsetal.(dir.),DITEMA:DicionárioTemáticodeMacau,Vol.I,Macau,UniversidadedeMacau,FaculdadedeCiênciasSociaiseHumanas,2010,pp.304–7andSamuelCouling,TheEncyclopaediaSinica,HongKong,OxfordUniversityPress,2ndfacsimileded.of1917ed.,1991(2ndimpression,1983),p.110.

431430archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsandresponsesproducedbytheSenadowhich,oncetranslatedintoChinese,wouldbesenttotheImperialauthorities–forthepur-posesofsimplification,alsocalledchapashereasthiswaswhattheywerecalledbytheSenadoandtheProcuraturathemselves;–Sinodocuments–meaningthedocuments,inChineseorPortuguese,producedbytheProcuraturaonallmattersrelatedtotheChinesepopulationofMacau;trade,jurisdiction,administrative,politicalanddiplomaticrelationswiththeChinese,includingthecodificationoflearning,experienceandknowledgeof“Chinesematters”.Theabsenceofanyhomogeneouscorpus3ofChinesedocumentsintheMacauarchivesandthefactthatsomeofthesecanbefoundinPortugalissomewhatintriguing–orperhapsnot,giventhealmostcompulsivesearchofthecity’sregistryofficesandarchiveswhichrepeatedlytookplacefromthemid-18thcentury,andtowhichIwillreferlater.AlthoughIdonotintendtomakeanexhaustiveanalysisofthesubject,Isuggestareflectionontheimportance/functiongivenbylocalauthorities,andinsomecasesbytheauthoritiesofPortugalandGoa,toChineseandSinodocumentsfromMacau,especiallytoofficialChi-nesecorrespondence,andwheneverpossibletodeterminethepoliciesfollowedontheirrespectivepreservation,accessibility,use,andtransla-tionintoPortuguese.TheanalysisofChineseattitudestowardsthisofficialcorrespondenceisobviouslybeyondthescopeofthisarticle.Naturally,theautonomicideas4andself-governmentdefendedandpractisedbytheCâmaraofMacauuntiltheconsulateofFerreiradoAmaral(ca.1803–1849,r.1846–1849)aresubjacenttothis,includingthediplomacyofthecityanditswell-known“dualloyalty”toPortugalandChina.Facedwithsuchavastuniverse,Iwillfocus,inreverseorder,ontwokeymomentsfortheCartóriodosdocumentossínicosoftheArchiveoftheProcuratura:the“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade”3.Iamnotreferringtoseparatedocumentsoccasionallyincludedinthecódicesofthe“FundodoLealSenado”orotherskeptattheHistoricalArchivesofMacau(AHM).4.Vd.TerezaSena,“Macau’sAutonomyinthePortugueseHistoriography(19thandearly20thcentu-ries),”inBulletinofPortuguese/JapaneseStudies(henceforthBP/JS),Lisbon,17,December2008,pp.79-112,availableonline(http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=36122836004)ISSN0874-8438,accessinNovember2013.terezasena5.JorgeManuelFlores,“Comunicação,InformaçãoePropaganda:os'Jurubaças'eousodopor-tuguêsemMacaunaprimeirametadedoSéculoXVII”,inEncontroPortuguês–LínguadeCultura.Actas,Macau,InstitutoPortuguêsdoOriente,1995,pp.107–121;MariaManuelaGomesPaiva,TraduziremMacau.Lerooutro–paraumahistóriadamediaçãolinguísticaecultural.Ph.DthesisinEstudosPortugueses[PortugueseStudies],withspecialisationinEstudosdeTradução[Trans-lationStudies],Lisboa,UniversidadeAberta,2008,pp.111–8(https://repositorioaberto.univ-ab.pt/…2/…/1/traduzir%20em%20macau.pdf),accessinApril2010;LuísFilipeBarreto,Macau:PodereSaber.SéculosXVIeXVII,Lisboa,EditorialPresença,2006,pp.212–4.Twootherworkswillbeadd-edalthoughIonlycameacrossthemwhenreviewingthistranslation,accordinglytheyarenotfullyexploredinthisarticle:PaulaCristinaF.Campos,Intérpretes,Topazes&línguas.Elosdeligaçãodosportugueses,deLisboaaMacau(SeculosXV,XVIeXVII).MAdissertationinEstudosPortugueses––História[PortugueseStudies–History],Macau,UniversidadedeMacau,2006andMarioGómezValadez,“BetweentheLinguisticWallsandtheThirdSpace:TheJurubaças’IdentityandRoleinLuso–SinoNegotiationsafterthe1622DutchAttack”,inRevistadeCultura(henceforthRC),IIIªS.,Macau,25,January2003,pp.21–35,availableon(http://edocs.icm.gov.mo/rc/RC25I21.pdf),accessinOctober2013.6.Formoreonthissubject,seemyarticle“MacauasaLinguisticCenter—TheChineseInterpretersandLiteratiinthe'Regimento'of1627”,in《全球视野下的澳门学——第三届澳门学国际学术研讨会论文集》QuanQiuShiYeXiaDeAoMenXue——DiSanJieAoMenXueGuoJiXueShuYanTaoHuiLunWenJi/TheMacaulogyintheGlobalPerspective,王玉敏董晓舒[ed.byWangYumin,DongXiaoshu],北京Beijing,社会科学文献出版社[SocialSciencesAcademicPress(China)],2014.3,pp.381–404.[StandingInstructionsgoverningtheservicesoftheMainInterpreteroftheCity]dated1627,andthecompilationofthe“ChapasSínicasemPortuguês”[ChineseChopsinPortuguese]whichbeganin1749.WhetherornotthereisanycontinuitybetweenthemissomethingIcannotanswerimmediatelybutthematterdeservessomedebate,aswewillseefurtherdown.Whileathoroughcritiqueofthesourceisstillrequired–whichIwillleaveforanothertime–the“Regimento”isalreadysufficientlywell-knownandstudied5toallowmetofollowamorepartialap-proach,isolatingtheaspectsthatrefertotheexistence,organisationanduseofthecity’sProcuraturaArchiveregardingtheChinesedocu-mentsandtheirtranslations.Althoughtheircontentispracticallythesame,thetwoversionsofthe“Regimento”(neitherofthemauthenticated)haveadifferentstruc-ture–contrarytowhatIinitiallysupposed–especiallywithregardtotheresponsibilityoftheCartóriofortheChineseandSinodocuments.Thismakesitimpossibletodeterminewhichversionprevailedorevenwhetheritdidinfactcomeintoforce,ortoknowwhenandforhowlongitremainedinuse.Nevertheless,consideringsomedetailsandlaterreferencestoindividuals,jobsandsituations,itseemspossibletoconcludethatthe“Regimento”wasatleastpartiallyimplemented6.ThisiswhyIhavebeenworkingonacomparativecriticaleditionofthetwotranscriptionsmadebyTerezaSena7,andbyElsaPenalva

433432archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentstogetherwithMiguelRodriguesLourenço8.TerezaSenausedtheun-datedcopyofthe“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade,edosJurubaçasmenores,eEscrivães”,butwhichwassurelypreparedafterOctober1627andbefore1stApril1628(asmentionedinf.463r),thatisfoundintheAjudaLibrary,ColecçãoJesuítasnaÁsia(henceforthbaja),Códice49–V–6,ff.457v–463v;ontheotherhand,ElsaPenalvaandMiguelRodriguesLourençoworkedonanothercopy,dated1627,fromthesamelibraryandcollection,Códice49–V–8,ff.245r–251v,andentitled“RegimentodaLinguadaCidadeedosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens”.TheannotationsbyJoséMariaBraga9inhispartialtranslationintoEnglish,stillunpublished,willalsobetakenintocon-sideration,aswillmyownannotationsinthecompletePortugueseversion,bothusingthesamecopyofthe“Regimento”.Althoughdis-playingsomelackofaccuracy,referenceistobemadetothetranscriptofbothversionspreparedbyPaulaCristinaF.Camposinherabovequotedunpublishedmadissertation10of2006,ofwhichIhaveonlynowbecomeaware.Havingdefinedtheobject,Iwouldliketopointoutthatthevastuniverseofchronicles,memorials,documentsandChinesesources11referringtoMacauandtheSino–PortugueserelationsextrinsictotheofficialcorrespondenceexchangedwiththeMacauSenado,orsurpass-ingitsperiodofhegemonyuntil1847,willnotbeconsideredinthisanalysis.Itisnotmyaimtoanalyseoreveninventorydocumental7.Transcriptionanddiplomaticedition,inMariaManuelaGomesPaiva,TraduziremMacau…,op.cit.,AnexoI,pp.221–239whichIwillnothoweverfollowinthisarticle,preferringatranscriptionwithmoreaccessibleandupdatedorthography.8.ElsaPenalvaandMiguelRodriguesLourenço(eds.),FontesparaaHistóriadeMacaunoSéc.XVI,Lisboa,CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.,2009,pp.378–386.9.“InterpretersandtranslatorsinOldMacau”,papertothe“InternationalConferenceonAsianHistory”,HongKong,UniversityofHongKong,30thAugust–5thSeptember1964,pp.4–11(polyco-pied),arareandpioneeringpaperthathasonlyjustreachedmyhandsthankstothepreciousandcompetentassistanceofthelibrarianattheMacauPolytechnicInstitute,AsterChan,towhomIamprofoundlygrateful.10.Intérpretes,Topazes&línguas…,op.cit.,“ApêndiceDocumental”,pp.158–180.11.Vd.RoderichPtak,“ChineseDocumentsinPortugueseArchives:JottingsonThreeTextsFoundintheArquivoHistóricoUltramarino,Lisbon”,inZeitschriftderDeutschenMorgenländischenGesellschaft,Main,149,1999,pp.173–190,andfortheidentificationofthemorerelevantChinesedocumentalcorpusonMacau,includingsomechronicles,RuiMartinsetal.(dir.),DITEMA,op.cit.,Vols.I,pp.438–441andII,pp.594–5.Thearticleby吴志良WuZhiliangand金國平JinGuoPing,“EdiçãodeFontesDocumentais:umaviaseguraparaoconhecimentodaHistóriadeMacauedasrelaçõesluso-chinesas”,inAdministração.RevistadeAdministraçãoPúblicadeMacau,Macau,XII,44,Junhode1999,pp.379–388,availableon(www.safp.gov.mo/safppt/download/WCM_004201),accessinFebruary2013,althoughrestrictedtotheeditorialprojectoftheMacauFoundation,includessomeusefulinformationonthesubject.terezasena12.“éodemaisimportânciadequantosháentrenós,eosChinas”,“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade,edosJurubaçasmenores,eEscrivães”,BAJA,Códice49–V–6,f.460v.13.TerezaSena,“MacauasaLinguisticCenter…”,op.cit.contents,buttoidentifytheattitudesofthecompetentauthoritiesofMacau,Goa,andPortugaltowardsthecreation,compilation,andpreservationofaSinoandChinesedocumentalcorpusuntilthemid19thcentury.LeavingasidethecollectionsinChinese,referencemustbemadetotheChinesesourcespublishedandtranslatedintoWesternlanguagesbyGeoffWade,錢江JamesChin,RoderichPtak,AntónioGraçadeAbreu,張維民ZhangWeimin,AntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,吴志良WuZhiliang,金國平JinGuoPingandAlfredoGomesDias,amongothers,andtomentiononlythemostrecent.TheofficialChinesedocumentsoftheMacauSenadoThisarticlewasessentiallymotivatedbyaquestionthatwe–andmanybeforeus–havelongbeenaskingabouttheidentification,contents,andwhereaboutsoftheofficialChinesedocumentssenttotheMacauCâmara.Weknowthatthesedocumentsandtheirtransla-tionswereatonetimeintheArchiveoftheProcuraturaoftheSenado;thisalsohadaCartóriodosdocumentossínicos,whichwouldincludethecompilationof“Chinesematerial”,butithaslongsincedisap-pearedfromMacau.Althoughpre-existent,IhavefoundreferencesmadetotheCartórioofChinesedocumentsofMacaufromatleast1627;thecity’sEscrivãoChinaprincipal[MainChineseScribe],ascholarcapableofdealingwiththedifferentcourtsandgainingtherespectofChineseofficersandMandarinswasresponsibleforthisoffice.TherelevanceoftheEscrivão'spositionisimmediatelyrecognisedinthe“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade”asbeingthe“mostimportantofallthoseamongus,andtheChinese”12,andwassowithoutadoubt13.SomeofthedocumentsofthatCartóriostillexist,theoldestdated1693andthemostrecentdated1886,thefamous“ChapasSínicas”–includingthecoevaltranslationsofsomeofthosedocumentsintoPortuguese–whichwereallorpartlypublishedfromthemid-20thcentury.However,weknowlittleornothingabouttheircustodialandarchivalhistoryorevenabouthowandbywhomthedocumentswerewrittenandtranslatedapartfromthefactthattheyweredepositedat

435434archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsthePortugueseNationalArchiveoftheTorredoTombo(ian/tt)14inunknowncircumstances.ReferencetoofficialChinesedocuments,andeventotherespectivecollectionsoftranslations,doesnotseemtohavebeenaconcernforthosewho,inonewayoranother,werecalledtoinventoryandorgan-isetheprimarydocumentationoftheMacauSenado.Thereisnothing,orpracticallynothing,onthematterinthesuccessivecataloguesandinventories15preparedorcoordinatedbyLuísGonzagaGomes(1907–1976),BenjaminVideiraPires(1916–1999),AntóniodaSilvaRego(1905–1986),and,morerecently,byIsaúSantos.ThefactthattheyarenotphysicallypartofthearchivesofMacaujustifiesthisfromastrictlyarchivalpointofview,butsuchanattitudeisnotacceptablefromahistoricorevenhistorigraphicalperspective.ThisdoesnotmeanthattheseauthorsfeltanydisdainfortheChinesecultureandsourceswhich,asweknow,theynearlyallvisitedinothercontexts,leavingusvaluabletranslationsofworkssuchasthe澳門記略AomenJilueinthecaseofLuísGonzagaGomes16.MentionshouldalsobemadeofSilvaRegoandoftheinventoryofthedocumentalcorpusofthe“ChapasSínicas”madeduringhistimeasdirectoroftheFilmotecaUltramarinaPortuguesaandtowhichIwillreferbelow.Beforecontinuing,Imuststresstwopoints:TheofficialChinesecorrespondenceundoubtedlyincludesthe“concordata”17,orcodeoftheMacau“consensus”18.Notthatofthein-ternalregulationofthe“Christiancity”orthe“foreignquarter”depend-14.Vd.(http://digitarq.dgarq.gov.pt/results?t=CHAPAS+S%c3%8dNICAS),accessinFebruary2013.15.Vd.TerezaSena,“TheRootsofthePresentMacaulogy(HistorigraphicalPerspective)–Macau’s[ZhaoXinliangyi],historigraphicalrenewalofthelate20thcentury”,in郝雨凡HaoYufan，吴志良WuZhiliang，林广志LinGuangzhi（主编eds.），《澳门学引论》（首届澳门学国际学术研讨会论文集–上册）Aomenxueyinlun(ShoujieAomenxueguojixueshuyantaohuilunwenji–Vol.1，社会科学文献出版社[EssaysforTheFirstInternationalConferenceonMacaulogy,s.l.:s.d..,[Beijing],SocialSciencesAcademicPress(China)],[2012],pp.165–184and“SourcesCollectionsfortheHistoryofMacau–theArquivosdeMacau(1929–1988)”,paperto“TheSecondInternationalConferenceonMacaulogy”,Lis-bon,InstitutodoOriente,FaculdadedeCiênciasSociaisePolíticas,UniversidadeTécnicadeLisboa,19–22October,2011.TheEnglishversionisstillinthepress,buttheChineseonehasjustbeenpub-lished:冼丽莎[XianLisha],論文題目[lunwentimu]：澳門史資料之蒐集——以《澳門檔案（1929–1988）》為中心[Aomenshiliaozhishouji–yiAomendang’anweizhongxin(1929–1988)],transl.赵新良译期刊名稱[Qikanmingcheng]：澳門研究[AomenYanjiu]/BoletimdeEstudosdeMacau/JournalofMacauStudies,期數[Qishu]：2013年第2期[2013niandi2qi],頁碼：P102–113[YemaP102–113].16.Tcheong-ü-LâmandIan-Kuong-Iâm,Ou-MunKei-Leok.MonografiadeMacau,Macau,ImprensaNacional,1950.Vd.,foramoreaccurateanddetailededition,translatedandannotatedbyJinGuoPingwithscientificreviewbyRuiManuelLoureirobasedontheannotatedversion(1992)of趙春晨ZhaoChunchen,ofthe18thcenturyworkby印光任YinGuangrenand張汝霖ZhangRulin,BreveMonografiadeMacau,Macau,InstitutoCulturaldoGovernodaRAEM,2009.terezasena17.Asintheminuteofthecouncilmeeting,dated19thAugust1758theso-calledQianlongCode,towhichIwillreferlater,wasnamed:“aultimaconcordataqueosMandarinsnosobrigaramaassinarnoanode1749”[thelastconcordatathattheMandarinsmadeussignintheyearof1749].ApudArquivosdeMacau(henceforthAM),Macau,IIIªS.,XXIII,3,Marçode1975,p.171.18.AntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,WuZhiliangandJinGuoPing,“Introduction.The'ChapasSínicas',theHistoryofMacauandtheOldSino–PortugueseRelations”,inHenryMaKamKeongandRuiManuelG.Penedo(eds.),《普天之下–葡萄牙國家檔案館藏清朝澳門中葡關係文獻展》[Putianzhixia-Putaoyaguojiadang’anguancangQingchaoAomenZhongPuguanxiwenxianzhan]/SoboOlhardeReisedeImperadores.DocumentosdoArquivoNacionaldaTorredoTomboRelativosàAdministraçãoLuso–ChinesadeMacauduranteaDinastiaQing/UndertheEyesofKingsandEmperors.DocumentsonSino–PortugueseAdministrationofMacauduringtheQingfromtheNationalArchiveofTorredoTombo,澳門/Macau,民政總署Minzhengzongshu/InstitutoParaosAssuntosCívicoseMunicipais/CivicandMunicipalAffairsBureauand東方葡萄牙學會DongfangPutaoyaxuehui/InstitutoPortuguêsdoOriente/PortugueseInstituteoftheOrient,2004,p.39(Englishversion).19.Lisbon,EditorialPresença,2006.20.Macau:PodereSaber…,op.cit.,p.221.Ourtranslation.ingontheperspective,butthatofMacau–theinternationalport-city,bornofandsupportedbyinformalpartnerships,sowelldescribedbyLuísFilipeBarretoinhisMacau:PodereSabernosSéculosxviexvii19.Aport,acitybuiltandestablishedovertimeonlandcededbytheChineseEmpire,thelandlord(itisnotimportantheretodiscusshoworonwhatterms),regardingwhich–andwithrespectforimpe-rialorderandsupremacy–thePortuguesemanagedtoguaranteethedomínioútil[beneficialownership],andthuslimitedusufruct,subjecttoperiodicreconcessions.Undoubtedlyresultingfrommutualconveni-ence,thesereconcessionsalsoreflectthenegotiatingabilityandpowerofthoseinvolvedinturningthe“transitoryintothelong-lasting”,the“fragileintotheindispensible”andthe“circumstantialintothestruc-tural”,asLuísFilipeBarreto20notes.Thus,knowledgeofandexpertisein“Chinesematters”wasanindispensableconditiontoexercisepower,managedailylifeandtheeconomicactivityofthecity,aswellasfortheperiodicrenegotiationoftheveryexistenceofMacau.Therefore,thisknowledgeandtheaccesstotheconsubstantialdoc-umentalcorpusofthe“jusconsuetudinis”onwhichtheMacaupriortoFerreiradoAmaralwasbasedisoftheutmostimportancetothepoliticalmanagementofthecityinthecontextofSino–Macanesedi-plomacyuntilthemid-19thcentury,aswellastodefiningMacau’ssta-tusandprovidingthegroundsfortheclaimsofPortuguesesovereigntywithinthecontextoftheSino–Portuguesediplomacy.Thequestionsofwhocollectsandproducesthisdocumentarycorpus,howitwasproducedandorganised,andwhohasaccesstoit

437436archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsraiseanumberofotherissuesthatshouldbestudiedaccordingtotheirperiodisationandsocialandepochalcontexts.Genealogicalandhistoricalprosopographicalstudiesmustbemadeandcrossedwithsociological,politicalandeconomicdatasoastoidentifyandcharac-terisethepowercircuitsandelitesholdingthisknowledge,aspects21whichwillnotemergeinthisanalysisasourfocusismorediachronicthansynchronic.Withoutgoingintohistoriographicalconsiderationsontheimpor-tanceofthosedocumentstothedaytodayhistoryofthecityanditspopulation,alreadystressedbyothers,Iwillfocusfornowonthemate-rialaspectsoftheexistenceoftheCartóriosínicooftheArchiveoftheProcuraturadoSenado;IwillalsosetasidethedetaileddescriptionoftheinstitutionresponsibleforChinesematters–theProcuratura–forwhichwealreadyhavesomeinformation22.Inadditiontotraditionaladministrativeandfiscalfunctionsfollow-ingthePortuguesemunicipalmodel,theProcurador[MunicipalAttor-ney]oftheCâmaradeMacau(1583)hadbasicdiplomaticpowersintherelationswiththesubordinateChineseauthorities.TheProcuradorwasalsoresponsibleforthelinguisticmediationwiththeChineseele-mentandworld;hewasdeemedequivalenttoalowerMandarinbytheEmpire’sofficialhierarchy,whichgavehimbasicjurisdictionalpowersovertheChinesepopulationofMacau.ThelackofdocumentalproofoftheeffectiveattributionofthelevelofMandarintotheProcuradorwaslongsincenotedinthe“Apontamentos,eNoticiasparaaInstrução,quesedeveformaremGoaaoBispodePekin,sobreosnegociosrelativosaodominiodeMacáo”[NotesandNewsfortheInstruction,whichshouldbegiveninGoa,totheBishopofBeijing,onthebusinessmattersregard-ingthedomainofMacau],annexedtothefamousroyal“Providências”of1783,whichmentioninrelationtotheSenado’sProcuradorthat“itissaidthathewasconferredtherankofMandarinofthesecondOrderbytheEmperorofChina”.23Althoughwarrantingmorein-depthdiscus-21.WealreadyhavesomecontributionsbyJorgeManuelFloresforthe17thcentury,amongwhichIwouldliketohighlightthestillunpublishedpaper“The'Jurubaças'ofMacau,afrontiergroup:thecaseofSimãoCoelho(1620's)”,to“TheInternationalColloquiumonthePortugueseDiscoveriesinthePacific”,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara,October1993(nonvidi),plusthepaperbyElsaPenalvatothepresentConference.Forthe19th–20thcenturies,seemy“ContributosparaumPerfil…”op.cit..22.AntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,WuZhiliangandJinGuoPing,“Introduction.The'ChapasSínicas',…”,op.cit.,pp.41–4andTerezaSena,“ContributosparaumPerfil…”op.cit..terezasena23.“sedizqueoImperadordaChinaconferiraagraduaçãodeMandarimdasegundaOrdem”,apudManuelMúrias(ed.),InstruçãoParaoBispodePequimeOutrosDocumentosParaaHistóriadeMacau,reed.fac-similedof1943ed.,Macau,InstitutoCulturaldeMacau,1988,No13,p.23.Ourtranslation.24.Formoreinformation,see劉景蓮LiuJinglian,“AsRelaçõesSino–PortuguesasDuranteaDinastiaQingatravésdosOfíciosdasChapasSínicas”,inRC,IIIªS.,Macau,8,October2003,pp.124,n.2,availableon(http://www.icm.gov.mo/deippub/rcMagP.asp),accessinFebruary2013.Cf.AntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,WuZhiliangandJinGuoPing,“Introduction.The'ChapasSínicas',…”op.cit.,pp.41–4andsubsequentnote.25.AntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,“'UmEstabelecimentoaRefundireaCriardeNovo`.MacaueaPolíticaExternaPortuguesanaChina(1842–1853),”inEstudosSobreasRelaçõesLuso–Chine-sas,Lisboa,InstitutoSuperiordeCiênciasSociaisePolíticas/InstitutoCulturaldeMacau,1996,especiallypp.192–200.26.Thetermjurubaçamightalsorefertoamestizoortoanative/AsianCatholic.sion,thisequivalenceseemsundeniablenotonlyintermsofthewayinwhichtheChineseauthoritiesofficiallyaddressedthem,butalsoduetowhatholdersofthetitlewouldcallthemselves,andofcoursethefunc-tiontheyweregivenbytheseauthorities.24Apartfromthetreasuryfunctionsthatterminatedin1738,thestatusoftheProcuradorremainedunchangeduntil20thAugust1847,whenFerreiradoAmaralputitundertheauthorityoftheGovernor25;itbecameanindependentbodyandcompletelyfreefromthesphereofthemunicipaladministration(Senado)whentheProcuraturadosNegóciosSínicoswasinstitutedon5thJuly1865,anofficethatwouldlaterbecloseddownon20thFebruary1894.Focusingontheperiodbetween1627,whenthecity’sgroupofju-rubaças[interpreters]26eventuallybecameinstitutionalisedwithintheSenado,and1847,whentheProcuraturaunderFerreiradoAmaralstartedlosingitsautonomyandmovingawayfromthemunicipalsphere,Iproposeto:–Systemisethedocumentalcorpusknownas“ChapasSínicas”fromtheTorredoTombo,puttingitintochronologicalorderbasedoninformationavailableinPortuguese;–ReconstructthedocumentaldimensionoftheCartóriodosdocumentossínicosoftheArchiveoftheSenadoProcuratura,aspreparedin1627atthetimeofitspossibleinitialregulation,andcompareitwiththedataavailableforlaterperiods.Whathappenedtothisdocumentation,themostremoteofwhichmayhavebeendestroyedbytermites,theeffectsofdamporhu-

439438archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsmannegligence(usuallysaidtobethedemiseofallthedocumentsfromMacaupriortothe18thcentury),andhowsomeofthemorerecentdocumentsendedupinPortugalisamatterforanothertime.However,wedoknowthatwhenAntónioFelicianoMarquesPereira(1839–1881,r.1865–1869)becameresponsiblefortheProcuraturadosNegóciosSínicos,setupin1865,althoughtherespectivearchive(thecollectionofwhichislaidout27inChart3,butonlywithregardtothe“ChapasSínicas”)wasquitedilapidated,itwasstilltheone“whichmostclearlyexplainsthehistoryofthePortugueseinChina”,asManueldeCastroSampaio28testifiedin1867andprovedbythewell-knownhistoriographicalproductionbyMarquesPereira.The“ChapasSínicas”or東坡檔DongBoDangThe“ChapasSínicas”oftheTorredoTombo,orDongBoDang[Tom-boCollection],astheyareknownamongChineseresearchers29,werein-itiallyinventoriedbythefamouspriestandhistorian方豪MaurusFangHao(1910–1980)attheinvitationofFatherAntóniodaSilvaRegoin195230,andweregivenoccasionalattentionbyChinesescholarsandresearcherssuchas李維城LiWeicheng31and卜新賢PuHsin-Hsien32inthe1950sand1960s.However,untilquiterecentlythehistoriographyofMacaucontinuedtoseethemasadocumentalcollectionextrinsictothecity,orakindofexoticcuriosity.YettheseChineseandSinodocumentsoftheMacauSenadoareafundamentalcollection;mostofthemhavestilltobeanalysedand,27.Basedontherespectiveinventorywithreferenceto2ndJanuary1866publishedinOBoletimdoGovernodeMacau,Macau,XII,30,dated23rdJuly,1866,pp.118–120.28.OsChinsdeMacau,HongKong,TypographiadeNoronhaeFilhos,1867,p.64.Ourtranslation.29.LiuJinglian,“AsrelaçõesSino–Portuguesas…”,op.cit.,p.113.30.WuZhiliangandJinGuoPing,“EdiçãodeFontesDocumentais:…”,op.cit.,p.381.ForasummaryinPortugueseofthesedocumentsbasedonFangHao’swork,seeLiTeChao[李德超LiDechao],“Do-cumentosHistóricosRelativosaMacauPublicadosouArquivadosnaÁreadeTaiwan”,inRC,Macau,IªS.,19,Abril/Junhode1994,pp.138–152.31.Inhisgraduationthesis,inChinese,presentedtotheNationalUniversityofTaiwanin1953,[UmEstudodasChapasSínicassobreMacauDepositadasnaTorredoTomboemLisboa]whichIbelieveisstillunpublished,quotedbyJinGuoPingandWuZhilianginthe“Introdução”tothe8–volumecollectionofdocuments,whichtheyedit,CorrespondênciaOficialTrocadaentreasAutoridadesdeCantãoeosProcuradoresdoSenado.FundodasChapasSínicasemPortuguês(1749–1847)/《粵澳公牘錄存》YueAogongdulucun/金國平、吳志良(主編校注)(eds.),Vol.I,Macau,FundaçãoMacau,2000,p.44.ForthetitleanddetailsinChinese,seeAntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,WuZhiliangandJinGuoPing,“Introduction.The'ChapasSínicas',…”,op.cit.,p.10.32.WhocontinuedtoinventorytherepositoryafterFangHao.Vd.ResumendelComércioInternacio-naldeMacauenelSigloXVIIISegúnlosDocumentosenChinodelArquivoNacionaldaTorredoTombo,sep.fromVol.V,Actas,CongressolnternacionaldeHistóriadosDescobrimentos,Lisbon,PapelariaFernandes,1961.Cf.previousnote.terezasena33.ChapasSínicas.MacaueoOrientenosArquivosNacionaisTorredoTombo(DocumentosemChinês),2vols.,Macau,1997.FortheChineseversion(Vol.II),see劉芳LiuFang(LauFong)，《漢文文書：葡萄牙國立東波塔檔案館庋藏澳門及東方檔案文獻》Hanwenwenshu:PutaoyaGuoliDongbotadang’anguanguicangAomenjidongfangdang’anwenxian，澳門Macau：澳門文化司署Aomenwenhuasishu(Inst.CulturaldeMacau),1997,pp.305–310.Seealso劉芳LauFong(comp.輯);章文欽ZhangWenqin(revised校),《葡萄牙東波塔檔案館藏清代澳門中文檔案彙編》PutaoyaDongbotadang’anguancangQingdaiAomenZhongwendang’anhuibian,澳門Macau:澳門基金會FundaçäoMacau(Aomenjijinhui),1999.34.CorrespondênciaOficial…,op.cit..35.“ArquivoHistóricodeMacau.Registoemportuguezdoseditaessinicos,edomais,quenãoforchapa”[MacauHistoricalArchive.RegisterinPortugueseoftheChinesepublicnoticesandfurtherdocumentsbesideschapas]inMosaico,OrgãodoCírculoCulturaldeMacau,Macau,31–32,Março/Abrilde1953,pp.32–65,to71–73,Julho/Setembrode1956,pp.209–221,ofwhichabookletwasmadeandisfoundintheHistoricalArchivesofMacauwithreferenceLR.196.Aswiththesituationmentionedinthefollowingnote,LuísGonzagaGomesgivesusnoindicationofthesourceorthelocationofthedocumentshetranscribedandwhichIbelievewereneverpublishedbuthadbeentypewrittenandboundartificiallyaswashiscustom.36.OfíciosdaProcuratura[ProcuraturaofOfficialLetters](typewrittentext),2vols.of72and140pages,foundintheAHMwithreferenceLR.1504–1504.1,comprising“osofficiosremettidosàsauthoridadeschinezaspeloprocuradordestaCidade”intheperiod1839–1846andOfíciosdoProcuradoràsAutoridadesChinesasdesde1839–1846[OfficialLettersfromtheProcuradortotheChineseAuthoritiesfrom1839to1846](typewrittentext)foundintheAHMwiththereferenceLR.68.Contrarytowhatismentionedinthetitle,itonlycontainsdocumentsreferringtotheperiodbetween17Apriland23August1846,andthereforeIrecognise,atleastduetoitslimitedsizeofjust10pages,thatitcorrespondstothelastpartoftheabovementionedbookletthatforsomereasonwasboundseparately.37.“EdiçãodeFontesDocumentais:…”,op.cit.,p.382.Ourtranslation.aboveall,articulatedwiththePortuguesesourcesproducedsimultane-ouslybytheMacauCâmara.Moreover,thesechapas–whichincludetheresponsesandofficialdocumentsproducedbytheProcuraturaoftheSenado–makeupanalmostcontinuousseriesbetween1741and1851,accordingtothechronologicalindexprovidedbyIsaúSantosandLauFong.33Theyencompassthecoevaltranslationsintheperiodfrom1749to1847publishedbyJinGuoPingandWuZhiliang34,andthosepublished35oronlytranscribed36byLuísGonzagaGomesinthe1950sfocusingontheyearsfrom1828to1840,or1832–1846withregardtotheofficialdocumentsandresponsesfromtheSenadoprocuradorestotheChineseauthorities.ItisbecauseIbelievetheyarepartofthesamedocumentalcorpusthattheywillbecontemplatedinthisanalysis.WuZhiliangandJinGuoPing37explainthatthe“ChapasSínicasemPortuguês”“arecoevalversionsoftheChinesechapasreceivedaswellasthePortugueseresponses”.Theyaredocumentsthathavebeen“mixed38withtheoriginalchapasinChinese”,butarericherthanthesebecause“notonlydotheycontainthemajorityofthetransla-tionsofthechapasinChinese,buttheyconservetheresponsesto

441440archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocuments38.IthinkthisisalapseandwhattheauthorsmeantosayisthatthePortugueseversionsarepartofthesamefondandnotthattheyarephysicallytogetherwiththerecordgroupwritteninChinese,sincethisisnotmentionedinthepublicationtheymade,andwouldsuggesttoabilingualcodifica-tionwhichisalludedtobelowasunlikely.39.JinGuoPingandWuZhiliang(eds.),CorrespondênciaOficial…,op.cit.,Vol.I,pp.46.Ourtranslation.these,thedraftsofthedocumentstobetranslatedtoChinesebeforebeingsenttotheImperialauthorities.”However,forthehistorianandparticularlyforthose,likeme,whoarenotproficientintheChineselanguage,allthisinformationisdis-perse,syncopatedandincomplete.ThesizeofthedocumentalmassinChineseoscillates(butataroundfifteenhundred)dependingoncriteriaadoptedbythoseinventorying;asaresultthecorpuslackstheneces-saryglobalvisionitdeserves,andwhichisneededinordertoavoidbiasfromsectorialinterpretationsoftheHistoryofMacau.Therefore,Table1presentstheinformationassembledfromthedifferentcatalogues/collectionswritteninPortugueseinanattempttoreconstructtheoverallchronologicalscopeofthe“ChapasSínicas”oftheTorredoTombo(documentsinChineseanddocumentsinPortu-guese:originals,copiesandtranscriptionsofthechapas,officialcommunicationsanddrafts)thatstillexist,butwhichareinneedofthepainstakingworkofcataloguing,analysing,classificationandchronological,thematicanddocumentalreconstruction.Inthefuture,thisinformationmustbecompletedwith:–TheworkproducedinChineseonthese“ChapasSínicas”,towhichIdonothaveaccess;–TheactualoriginalcollectiondepositedattheTorredoTombo,andtherespectiveinventoriesandscriptstherein;thisisbecause,andinthewordsoftheeditors39ofthecollectionofthe“ChapasSínicasemPortuguês”,“severalhundredpagesofdocumentsinLatin”wereeliminatedaswellas“veryfragmentedortruncatedrecordsandpieces”–inneedofanalysis–,besidesthe“duplicatesandroughdrafts”.Thesemustbeinventoriedandacriticalcom-parisonmadewiththeversionsinourpossession.Oncetheanalysisisextendedtootherperiodsandthetablescom-pletedwiththecopies,translations,transcriptionsorreferencestoterezasenachapasthatarefoundinotherdocumentalrepositoriesofMacau,Portugal,Goa,theVatican,Spain,amongothers–andespeciallyofChinainthattheyrefertotheoriginalswritteninChinese–,oreveninthevastuniverseofsecondaryliterature,wewillundoubtedlymakeprogresstowardsthereconstructionofthedocumentalcorpusoftheSinoandChinesedocumentsreferringtoMacau.Tothatend,wealreadyhavesomeimportantworkingtoolsfortheperiodunderstudy40whicharebeyondthescopeofthispaperbutareworthyofmention:thecollectionSínicaLusitana41,unfortunatelyincomplete;thecollectionoftheArquivosdeMacau;theBoletinsdaFilmotecaUltramarinaPortuguesa,aswellasthecataloguesanddocumentationrelatedtoMacauinvariousarchivesandlibrariesinPortugalandabroad,preparedundertheaegisoftheCulturalInstituteofMacauinthe1990s–includingtheimportantJesuítasnaÁsiacol-lection–,eventhoughthereferencestoSinoandChinesedocumentsarenoteasilyidentifiablebecausethiswasnottakenintoconsiderationintherespectiveindexingsystem.40.Vd.TerezaSena,“TheRootsofthePresentMacaulogy…”and“SourcesCollectionsfortheHistoryofMacau…”,op.cit.fortheidentificationofsomeofthese.41.RoderichPtak,AntónioGraçadeAbreuandZhangWeimin(eds.),SínicaLusitana.Fonteschinesasembibliotecasearquivosportugueses/《葡中文獻:葡萄牙圖書館檔案館藏中文文獻》PuZhongwenxian:Putaoyatushuguandang’anguancangZhongwenwenxian/ChinesesourcesinPortugueseLibrariesandArchives,2vols.,Lisboa,FundaçãoOriente,2000and2003,coveringtheperiods1668–1871and1726–1855?,respectively.ChapasReceivedandDispatchedTranslationsChapasDispatchedTranslationsOriginalChapas(Chinese)YEARSJ/WLGG(Mosaico)YEARSLGG(Mosaico)AHM(LGG)YEARSIAN/TT(IS/LF)OTHERS——————1741–1742Vd.p.305———————1745–1746Vd.p.305—1749–1750I———————1751————————1752I———————1753————————1754I————1754Vd.p.305—1755————————1756—————1756Vd.p.305—1757————————

443442archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocuments1758—————1758Vd.p.305—1759–1763————————1764—————1764Vd.p.305—1765I———————1766–1767—————1766–1767Vd.p.305—1768I————1768Vd.p.305—1769–1770————————1771I———————1772—————1772Vd.p.305—1773I————1773Vd.p.305—1774I———————1775————1775Vd.p.305—1776I————1776Vd.p.306—1777—————1777Vd.p.306—1778I———————1779————————1780–1782I————1780–1782Vd.p.306—1783I———————1784—————1784Vd.p.306—1785I———————1786—————1786Vd.p.306—1787–1788I————1787–1788Vd.p.306—1789I———————1790–1808I,II,IIIandIV————1790–1808Vd.pp.306–308—1809—————1809Vd.p.308—1810–1822IV,VandVI————1810–1822Vd.pp.308–309—1823—————1823Vd.p.309—1824–1825VI————1824–1825Vd.p.309—1826—————1826Vd.p.309—1827VI———————1828–1830VI,VIINos31–2to33–34(1953)———1828–1830Vd.p.309—1831VIINos33–34to35–36(1953)——LR196———1832–1833VIIINos35–36to37–8(1953)1832–1833Nos41–3to50–52(1954)LR196———1834VIIINs37–8(1953)1834Nos50–52to56–58(1954)LR1961834Vd.pp.309—terezasena1835VIII—1835Nos56–58andNos62–64(1955)LR1961835Vd.pp.309—1836——1836Nos62–64to65–67(1955–1956)LR1961836Vd.pp.310—1837—Ns37–8(1953)1837Nos68–70to71–3(1956)—1837Vd.pp.310—1838—Ns37–8to39–40(1953)——LR1504———1839–1840—Ns39–40to41–3(1953–1954)1839–1840—1839–1840Vd.pp.310—1841——1841—LR.15041841Vd.pp.310—1842–1843——1842–1843—LR.1504.11842–1843Vd.pp.310—1844VIII—1844—LR.1504.1———1845——1845—LR.1504.11845Vd.pp.310—1846——1846,March17toAugust23—LR.68LR.1504.11846Vd.pp.310—1847VIII————1847Vd.pp.310—1848–1851—————1848–1851Vd.pp.310—Table1“ChapasSínicas”oftheIAN/TT:Originals,Copies,DraftsandTranslation–listedincatalogues,publishedortranscribed(inPortuguese)Abbreviations:AHM–ArquivoHistóricodeMacauIAN/TT–ArquivoNacionaldaTorredoTomboIS/LF–IsaúSantos/LauFongJ/W–JinGuoPing/WuZhiliangLGG–LuísGonzagaGomes

445444archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsBeforepresentingthefirstconclusionsdrawnfromanalysingthesedata,someexceptionsshouldbenoted:1.Ididnotconsiderthedocumentwiththeextremedatesof1693–1703,referredtointheIsaúSantosandLauFongcataloguenumbered1567,becauseitisanisolateddocumentthatwouldmeaninglesslyin-volvetakingthescopeofthedocumentalsetbackabouthalfacentury.WritteninChinese,thecataloguersstatethatitis“adailyaccountingbook,recordingdailyexpensesonmaterialsandgrocery,etc.”42;al-thoughframedinthecompetencesofthecity’sLínguaPrincipal[MainInterpreter],whowasresponsibleforassuringsomeofthesesupplies43,itisnotintheambitoftheofficialChinesecorrespondencewhichIproposetoaddress;2.Thisisalsothecaseofthedocumentsreferringtotheyears1872and1886includedintheabovecatalogue44(nos856and857,respec-tively),notonlybecausetheydonotcomewithintheperiodunderanalysisbutbecausetheydealwithdocumentswritteninPortugueseandrelatedwiththeChinesecommunityinMacau;3.Ontheotherhand,Idecidedtoincludetheperiod1848to1851be-causesomeofthedocumentsreferringtotheseyears45areinthescopeofofficialcorrespondencewiththeChineseauthorities,albeitalreadyproducedbytheProcuraturaunderthechargeoftheGovernorbutstillpriortotheappearanceoftheProcuraturadosNegóciosSínicos;itthereforecompletesthelistastherearenodocumentsafterthatdate,withtheexceptionofthosementionedinthepreviouspoint.Inconclusion:1.ThereisanapparenttemporalcomplementaritybetweenthechapasinPortugueseandinChinese;thismustbeexploredindetail,notablyintermsofthecontentandcouldresultintheneedtotranslatesomeofthem;2.Thereisnodocumentationforsome,thoughnotverysignificant,peri-ods,especiallyaround1759to1763andsomemoreyearsinthe1750s;42.IsaúSantosandLauFong,ChapasSínicas….,op.cit.,Vol.I,pp.302–3.Ourtranslation.43.“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade,…”,cit.,fols.458v–459r.44.IsaúSantosandLauFong,ChapasSínicas…,op.cit.,Vol.I,p.172.45.Ibidem,p.310.terezasena46.“FontesChinesasArquivadasnaTorredoTombo”,inISeminárioInternacionaldeHistóriaeCulturadeMacau.ActasdasComunicações,Macau,InstitutodeEstudosCulturaisdeMacau,1994,pp.41–3.47.[AstudyofthejudicatureandlegalsysteminthemiddleoftheQingDynastybasedonthelegalcasesfromtheChinesedocumentsintheNationalArchivesoftheTorredeTombo],MastersdissertationinSino–PortugueseRelationsandtheHistoryofMacau,UniversityofMacau,2000(inChinese)publishedin2007:《明清澳門涉外案件司法審判制度研究(1553–1848)》,MingQingAomenshewaianjiansifashenpanzhiduyanjiu(1553–1848),廣州Guangzhou,廣東人民出版社Guangdongrenminchubanshe.Forasummary,see“AjustiçaQingeosCrimesdeMorteemMacau”,inRC,Macau,IIIªS.,13,January2005,pp.65–83,availableat(http://edocs.icm.gov.mo/rc/RC13I65.pdf),accessinFebruary2013.Cf.AntónioMartinsdoVale,OsPortuguesesemMacau(1750–1800).Degre-dados,ignoranteseambiciososoufiéisvassalosd'El-Rei?,Macau,InstitutoPortuguêsdoOriente,1997,principallypp.79–88.48.“AsRelaçõesSino–Portuguesas…”,op.cit.,pp.113–130.3.Fornow,wehavearoundacenturyofChineseandSinodocumentsofMacau,inChineseandPortuguese,forwhichacomparativechron-ological,thematicanddocumentalanalysismustbemadethatallowsthefollowing:thereconstructionofdocumentalsets–chapa,transla-tionandrespectiveresponse,includingdraft(s)andtranslation(s);theidentificationoftheexistingversionsandtranslationneeds;theestab-lishingoftherelationsofcausality,dependenceandcomplementaritybetweenthearchivalmaterials,aswellassystematicresearchobviouslytobeconductedbyteamsofPortugueseandChineseresearchers;4.Taking1627asthestartingpoint,i.e.theyearoftheprobableinsti-tutionalisationofavintheProcuratura,wehavemorethanacenturymissingintheofficialdocumentalsetreferringtotheMacauSenadofortheperiodunderstudy.The“ChapasSínicas”areadocumentalcorpusthatcoversnotonlywide-rangingaspectsofLuso–Chineserelationsinthepolitico-admin-istrative,commercial,jurisdictional,penal,fiscal,military,diplomatic,religiousandculturaldomains,butalsoallareasofcitylife.ItwouldcertainlybeenlighteningtostudythedailylifeofMacau,itsinterme-diaryfunctioninthecontextofinternationaltradeandtheso-called“Cantonsystem”.Thisisalsotrueofthesocialhistorysothat,forex-ample,agentsandmembersofthepowerelites,tradingnetworksandmediatorsfromallthecommunitiespresentcouldbeidentified.Therelevanceofthiscollection,alsoalreadysummarisedby鄧思平TangSiPeng46in1992,ishighlightedbytheresearchconductedbyLiuJinglianonpoliticalandformalaswellasjurisdictionalandjudicialaspects47ofLuso–Chineserelations48.

447446archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsWithregardstomyresearch,thenucleusofthe“ChapasSínicasemPortuguês”wasfundamentalfortheidentificationoftheChinesejurubaças,tradutores,línguasandescrivãesintheserviceoftheSenadodaCâmaraofMacauandtheanalysisoftheiractivity;thisisalsoob-viouslythecaseforthehistoryoftheSenadoandoftheProcuratura,allowingJinGuoPingandWuZhiliangtoimprovetheexistinglistofprocuradoresoftheSenado,albeitnotfinalised49.TheCartóriooftheSenadoProcuraturaFromanarchivalstance,thereisnodoubtthatthe“ChapasSínicasemPortuguês”depositedattheian/ttinLisboncompriseasetoffivebooks50,beginningon1June1749,asseeninthetermodeabertura(openingstatement)ofthefirstbook,“LivrodeRegistodasChapasquedoSenadoseMándam,eseRecebemdosMándarinsChinas/1749/”[BookofRecordsoftheChapasSentfromtheSenado,andReceivedfromtheChinaMandarins/1749/]51,signedbyToméVazRibeiro,whoatthetimewasthe“mostseniorJuizOrdinário[JusticeofthePeace]inofficethatservesasOuvidor52[CrownJudge]53”,andwhichreads:ThisBookistorecordtheChapasinChineseandPortuguesewriting,eitherthosesenttotheMandarinMinistersoftheEm-perorofChina,orthosethatarereceivedfromthesaidMinis-ters,andhavetwohundredandninetyninehalfsheetsofpaperfromNanjing,andallofthesearenumbered,andinitialedwith49.JinGuoPingandWuZhiliang(eds.),CorrespondênciaOficial…,op.cit.,Vol.8,ApêndiceXII,pp.363–376.50.IsaúSantosandLauFong,ChapasSínicas….,op.cit.,Vol.I,p.12.51.“LivrodeRegistodasChapasquedoSenadoseMándam,eseRecebemdosMándarinsChinas/1749/”.Subsequentlythefollowingwasaddedbyanotherhand:“ERegistodasChapasmodernasdesde1807até1819”[AndRegisterofthemodernChapasfrom1807to1819],apudJinGuoPingandWuZhiliang(eds.),CorrespondênciaOficial…,op.cit.,Vol.I,doc.No1,p.3.Ourtranslation.Thelackofcataloguingofthefondsandtheprobableuseofmicrofilmintheirwork(ibidem,p.46)wouldnothaveallowedtheeditorstoindicatetheextremedatesofeachoftheoriginalvolumesand,assuch,shedsomelightonthemeaningofthisannotationgiventhatthedocumentationasawholegoesuntil1847andnot1819(vd.Table1).52.InMacautheOuvidoria[CrownJudiciary]ceasedtoexistin1740andthefunctionwasonlyrees-tablishedaftertheabovementioned“Providências”of1783.Foracontextualizedview,seeAntónioManuelHespanha,PanoramadaHistóriaInstitucionaleJurídicadeMacau,Macau,FundaçãoMacau,1995,especiallypp.72–5and126–130forthetranscriptionofthefirst“RegimentodosOuvidoresdeMacau”[StandingInstructionsgoverningtheservicesoftheCrownJudgesofMacau],of1587,andA.H.deOliveiraMarques(dir.),HistóriadosPortuguesesnoExtremoOriente,Vol.II,Macau,FundaçãoOriente,2001,pp.176–181fordetailsoftheeffectivere-establishmentoftheCrownJudiciaryin1787.terezasena53.“JuisOrdinariomaisvelhoqueseruedeOuu.or”,assaidforexampleintheminutesofthecouncilmeetingson14June1749(AM,Macau,IIIªS.,XXII,5,Novembrode1974,pp.283–4).Ourtranslation.Itwasasouvidor,aswasthepractice,andnotasprocuradorthatRibeirosignedthetermodeaber-turaofthebookinquestionandtherecordsofthe“ChapasSínicasemPortuguês”untilatleast6November1750(Vol.1,docs.Nos4to6,pp.14–9andNos8to11,pp.29–35respectively).VazRibeiroisalsonotonthelistofprocuradorescompiledbyFranciscoPereiradaSiveira(1796–1873)whileinchargeofthearchiveoftheProcuraturadosNegóciosSínicos,andpublishedinTa-Ssi-Yang-Kuo.SemanarioMacaensed'interessespublicoslocaes,litterarioenoticioso,Macau,3ºAno,16,18/01/1866,p.69(seealso14,04/01/1866,p.58),2ndfacsimileded.,Macau,FundaçãoMacau,1995,pp.517and506,respectively.Foralltheabovereasons,hisnameshouldberemovedfromthelistofprocuradoresoftheSenadopresentedbyJinGuoPingandWuZhiliang(eds.),CorrespondênciaOficial…,op.cit.,Vol.8,p.370.54.“EsteLivrohèp.anelleseregistaremasChapasemLetraSinicaePortugueza,quesemandãoaosMandarinsMinistrosdoEmperadordaChina,comoasquerecebemdosditosMinistros,etemduzentas,enoventanovemeyas,folhasdepapeldeNanKimetodasvãonumeradas,erubricadascomaminharubrica,quediz,Ribeyroatheofim,aondeseachaoutrotermosemelhanteaeste.Macauprimr.°deJunhode1749”,apudJinGuoPingandWuZhiliang(eds.),CorrespondênciaOficial…,op.cit.,Vol.I,doc.No1,p.3.Ourtranslation.55.AM,Macau,IIIªS.,XXII,5,Novembrode1974,p.284.Ihavenotasyetbeenabletoidentifywhichwastheotherbook.56.MinistercommissionedandappointedbyD.FredericoG.deSousaHolstein(1737–1790)GovernorofIndiafrom1779to1786toimplementtheaforesaidroyal“Providências”of1783astheinvestigatingjudge;hewouldhavearrivedinMacauon5July1784togetherwiththeBishopofPeking,D.FreiAlexandredeGouveia,T.O.R.(1751–1808,r.1785–1808).Hewaslaterappointed(20February1785)ouvidorofMacau(cf.supra),apositionheheldbetween1787and1797.AfterthedeathofthegovernorXavierMendonçaCorteReal(1761/1764–1789,r.1788–1789),hetookthepositionofgovernorinconjunctionwiththecommanderofthemilitary,ManueldaCostaFerreira,in1789–1790.Vd.GovernadoresdeMacau.CoordinatedbyJorgedosSantosAlvesandAntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,Lisbon,LivrosdoOriente,2013,pp.134–7.myinitialswhichreadsRibeyrountiltheend,whereanothertermodeabertura(openingstatement)similartothisisfound.MacauthefirstdayofJune1749.54Andindeed,herewehavetheSenadointhemeetingof14June1749authorisingthepaymentof40patacastothejuiz-ouvidorToméVazRibeiroforinitialingtwobooks55.ItisenlighteningtoreadthetestimonyofAntóniodeMirandaeSousa,formerescrivãodaCâmara[municipalsecretary]andprocura-doroftheSenado(apositionheheldabout10timesbetween1750and1779)inanenquiryrequiredbydesembargador[Crownlawyer]LázarodaSilvaFerreira(1738–1825)56in1784inyetanothervainattempttofindtheChinesepapersthatwouldclarifythestatusofMacau–whichwillbealludedtobelow:Hedeniedknowledgeofany“oldchapas”,“otherthanthestonesthatareinthedepositandinthehouseoftheSenado”,

449448archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsthosestonesthatthesenatorsorderedtohavetranslatedandregisteredinaseparatebook,mentioningthedisappearancealreadyatthattimeofa“smallstone”withtheprivilegeofdirectrepresentationtoaMingEmperor,translatedbyFatherLuísSequeira57.Somefirstconclusionscanbedrawnifthe“stones”,inotherwordsthepressurefeltintheperiodimmediatelypriortotheimposi-tionoftheso-calledQianlongCode,whichstartedbeingannouncedintheSenadorecordsattheendofAugust1749,apparentlyresultedinthestartofaseparatebookoftranslations,i.e.anewcodificationoftheofficialcorrespondencewiththeChineseauthorities:1.Thentherewasnoseparatebookfortherecording,transcriptionandtranslationoftheChinesechapas,therespectiveresponsesanddrafts,inotherwordsaCopiador[Copybook]inPortuguese;2.ThisCopiadorwouldalsohavefallenintodisusebeforethetimeofMarquesPereira.Someofthesesheetsofcorrespondenceexistedthen,includingdraftsand“authentictranslations”,whichonthisoccasion(1866)wereorganisedintoannualpackscoveringtheperiodbetween1723and1863(althoughmoresystematicafterthe1790s);3.Thereforeandinlightofthedateofthemostrecentdocumentofthe“ChapasSínicasemPortuguês”oftheian/tt,wecanpresumethatthepracticeofkeepingacopybookinPortugueseofthe“ChapasSíni-cas”fellintodisusearound1848.Eventhoughtherespectivebooksdidnotexistorareunknown,ifwenotewhatissetoutinthecopyofthe“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade”of1627thatIworkedoninrelationthecompilationoftheofficialChinesedocumentationsenttoMacau,andthecity’sresponses,wefindthatthecodificationoftheChinesedocuments(summarisedin57.““negouterconhecimentodequaisquer'chapasantigas','alémdaspedrasqueestãonogodãoenacasadoSenado',pedrasessaspelossenadoresmandadastraduzirelançarnumlivroàparte,referindo-sequejánessaalturadesaparecerauma'pedrapequena'comoprivilégiodarepresenta-çãodirectaaumImperadorMing,traduzidapeloPadreLuísSequeira”.AntónioVasconcelosdeSal-danha,“AutoridadeImperialeSimbolísticadasuaContradição–APropósitodosCódigosdeWanLiedeQianlongemMacau”,inRC,Macau,IIIªS.,1,January2002,p.111,availableat(http://edocs.icm.gov.mo/rc/RC1I106.pdf),accessinFebruary2013,quotingthe“SumáriodastestemunhasouvidasporiniciativadoDesembargadorLázarodaSilvaFerreira,em30.7.1784”[SummaryofthewitnessesheardattheinitiativeofDesembargadorLázarodaSilvaFerreira,in30.7.1784],ArquivoHistóricodoMinistériodosNegóciosEstrangeiros,3ºPA19M21,towhichIdonothavedirectaccess.Myemphasisandtranslation.terezasenaChart1)isdividedintotwobooksthatIdesignate:–CopiadordeCorrespondênciaRecebidaeExpedida[CopybookoftheCorrespondenceReceivedandDispatched],ofthecurrentrecord,andwhichthe“Regimento”describesas:AlltheChapas,notificationsetc.thatcome,willberecordedinabook,andtheresponsestheyoriginatedwillbekepttogetherwiththem,forinformationwhenevernecessary58;–CopiadordeChapasRecebidaseExpedidas[CopybookoftheChapasReceivedandDispatched],ofthechronologicalannualandinstitutionalrecord,includinginsomecasestheresponsesproduced,asdescribedinthesame“Regimento”:TherewillbeabookwhichwillrecordonanannualbasisalltheChapas,provisionsandotherpapersregardingliberties,andcustomsofthisCity,distinguishedbytheirtitles59.Inotherwords,arecordorganisedchronologicallyandthematicallythatcouldbeconsultedeasilyandquicklyandabletosupplyinforma-tiontosupportbothdecisionsandnegotiations.Ultimately,thesubdi-visionintosixheadings60,correspondstoeachofthevariousofficialMingauthorities61withwhomthecityhaddialogueandonwhomitdepended,namely:thePekingCourt(“RoyalCouncils”);theDutangandChayuan(TutõesandChaens);theHaidao(Aitao),inwhichmat-tersrelatedtotheCantonfairswereincluded;theKeji/Kegang(Requ-ici62),includingtheannuallistoftheships,theirprovisions,captainsandproprietors;theMandarinofXianshan(Ansão)andtheMandarinofQianshan(WhiteHouse)&theMandarinsofthePort.Itisnotexplicitineithercasewhetherthebooksarebilingual,orsimplytranscribedthechapasinChinese.Astheypertainedto58.“TodasasChapas,Mandadosetc.quevierem,lançaráemumlivro,ejuntamenteasrespostasquesederemlogojunto,paraquandofôrnecessáriosesaber”,“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade,…”,cit.,f.461v.Ourtranslation.59.“TeráumlivroemqueporordemdosanostenhalançadastodasasChapas,provisõesemaispapéisdeliberdades,ecostumesdestaCidadedistintoporseustítulos”.Ibidem,f.462r.Ourtranslation.60.Ibid.,ff.462r–463r.61.Formore,seeAntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,WuZhiliangandJinGuoPing,“Introdução.As'ChapasSínicas',…”,op.cit.,pp.27etseq..

451450archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsaCartórioundertheresponsibilityoftheEscrivãoChinathelatterseemsmorelikely,irrespectiveofwhethertheymighthavecontainedarecordandabriefsummary,orfromtimetotimeevenentiretransla-tionsintoPortuguesewhenneededorrequested.Preparingfullwrittentranslationsofeachdocumentwouldbeverytime-consumingforasmallteamofjurubaças,whichoftenlackedmanpowerandwasentrustedwithmanyotherdailyduties,asdescribedinthe“Regimen-to”.Ifthiswerenotthecase,someofthesebooksandthereforeacon-siderablenumberofPortugueseversionsofthechapaswouldprobablystillhavebeenfoundin1750when,asweshallseebelow,thetransla-tionofallthechapasgivenandsenttoMacaubytheChineseauthori-tiesfoundintheCartóriooftheSenadowasdetermined,butthereisnoclearreferencetothis.Therearetwoexamplesthatconfirmthatthisseemedtobethepractice.Thefirst,from1632,whenthe“transcript,translatedintoPortu-guese,ofthechapathattheMandarinsofChinasenttothecityforthepurposeofaskingpaymentofthirtyfourthousandtaeispaidfromtheChineseKing’ssilvertothesoldierssenttosupportPequim,asthesaidsupporthadnoeffect”,waspresentedtotheJunta[GeneralCoun-cilmeeting]on17April63.ItisaknownepisodethattookplacewiththedispatchofreinforcementstoCaptainGonçaloTeixeiraCorreia(?–1632)64leavingMacauon31October1630;however,astheywereinterruptedhalfwayandpreventedfromreachingtheirdestination,Cantonwantedtorecoverthesecosts.Tomymind,theveryfactthatitismentionedthatthechapatranslatedintoPortuguesewaspresentedattheCouncilmeetingsuggeststhatitwasnotacommonoccurrence.62.Ibidem.Thereisnoclearinterpretationofthiswordnoruniformspelling,resultingindifferentpaleographictranscriptionsfrom“Requivi”inmyfirsttranscriptionto“Tequici”and“Requici”inthatofPenalva&Lourenço;thelatterseemstomethemostcorrect.ThereadingofJ.M.Braga,“Interpretersandtranslators…”,op.cit.,oscillatesbetweentheforms“Requisi”(p.6)and“Riquici”(p.7),thoughthelatteriscertainlyatypingerror.PaulaCristinaF.Campos,Intérpretes,Topazes&línguas….,op.cit.,“ApêndiceDocumental”,clearlymisreadthewordpresentingtheforms“Pequici”(pp.163and166)and“Pequisi”(pp.174–5and179),oneforeachversionofthedocument.Asforthemeaning,itreferstothepersonwhotheHaidaoorMandarinofXiangshangavethechargeofmeasuringtheshipsonwhichtherespectivetaxtobepaidtotheChinesecustomswasbased.IamgratefultoJinGuoPingforhissuggestionthattheterm“Requici”isprobablyacorruptionoftheChineseword“Keji”(officialbrokerofvisitingtraders).Infact,thetermsKejiandKegang(officialagentofvisitingtraders)referredtothemediatorsappointedbytheChineseauthoritiestonegotiatewiththeMacaumerchantsandtheywerethereforeveryoftenidentifiedastherepresentativesoftheChinesetraders’interests.terezasenaThesecondinvolvesanextendedmeetingoftheCouncilon11June1640,inwhichtherewasdiscussiononachapaoftheHaidaoofCantonthatcontained,amongothermatters,adispatchfromtheEm-peror“inwhichheorders,thePortuguesenottogotoCanton”65.Inthiscase,thetranslationandthepartialtranscriptofthechapaismadeforthevery“LivrodeTermosdasSessõesdoSenado”[BookofRecordoftheMinutesoftheSenateMeetings]:“whichsubstanceofthesaidchapawastranslatedintoPortugueseandsetdowninthisbookonpage178,[…]sothatwhatitcontainscouldbeseenatalltimes”66.Ibelievethatbothsituationsareexceptions67justifiedbytheseri-ousnessofthemattersunderdebategiventhattherecordsorminutesoftheSenadomeetingsandevenoftheGeneralCouncilmeetingsusu-allyreportthattheProcuradorpresentsorreadsthechapasandsum-marisestheircontentswithvaryingdetail.ItismyopinionthatitisthefirstoftheabovementionedbooksthatIdesignateCopiadordeCorrespondênciaRecebidaeExpedidathatsurvived,namelythe“LivrodasChapas”[BookofChapas]inthepossessionoftheProcuradortowhichoccasionalreferenceismade68inthesubsequentdocumentationoftheSenado.Thechapasreceived,andpossiblyalsothosedispatched,weretranscribedtherein,infull63.“otreslado,traduzidaemportuguez,dehuãchapaq.osMandarinsdeCantammandaraõaestacid.ep.ªefeitodehaverdepagartrintaquatromiltaeisquefepagaraõdapratadelReydaChina,aosfoldadosq.hiaõdefocorrop.ªoPaq.m,pornaõterefeitooditofocorro,”“Acordofobrehuãcha-pa,emq.fepediaõtrinta,equatromiltaeis,eoquefedetriminou–1632”[Agreementonthechapaonwhichthirtyandfourthousandtaeiswereaskedandwhatwasestablished–1632],apudAM,M.64.Vd.TerezaSena,“PowerfulWeaponsintheServiceofTradeandGod:MacauandJesuitSupportfortheMingCause(1620–1650)”,inDaxiyangguo.RevistaPortuguesadeEstudosAsiáticos,Lisbon,15,2010,pp.200–6,228–237,andcitedsourcesandbibliography.65.“emquemanda,naõvaõaCantaõosportuguezes”,“Termoq.sefesfobreachapa,queveyodeCantaõcomhu'despachodelRey,emquemandaquenaõvamosaCantaõ–1640”[AssentdoneonthechapathatcamefromCantonwiththeKing’sorderwherebywearetoldnottogotoCanton–1640],apudAM,Macau,IªS.,Vol.III,3,Abrilde1931,p.153.Seealsothetranscriptofthechapaonthepagethatfollows.Ourtranslation.66.“cujafubstanciadaditachapatraduzidaemportuguezficalançadanestelivroasfl.178,[…]paraqueatodootempoconste,doquedellacontinha,”Ibidem.Myemphasisandtranslation.67.Buttherewillcertainlybeotherequallynoteworthyexceptions,asisthecaseoftheKangxi(1654–1722,r.1662–1722)emperor’slettertotheKingofPortugalupontheembassyin1667–1670ofManueldeSaldanha(?–1670),andotherrelateddocumentsforwhichthetranslationandregis-trationprocessisdescribedbyPaulaCristinaF.Campos,Intérpretes,Topazes&línguas….,op.cit.,“ApêndiceDocumental”,pp.137–8.JosédeJesusMaria,ÁsiaSínica,eJapónica,ed.byC.R.Boxer,reed.fac–similedof1950ed.,Vol.II,Macau,InstitutoCulturaldeMacau/CentrodeEstudosMarítimosdeMacau,1988,pp.76–86transcribesthePortugueseversionofthosedocumentsnolongerfoundintheSenadoarchive.68.Vd.,forexample,theminuteofthemunicipalcouncilmeetingof1August1750,AM,Macau,IIIªS.,XXII,6,Dezembrode1974,p.317.

453452archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsorinpart,orasimplerecordmadeofthem,coexistingwiththebookoftranslationscreatedatthetime.Ifso,inChart2Iofferasamerework-inghypothesiswhatwouldbethecodificationoftheChinesedocuments(aswehavenoinformationatourdisposalontheChinesematters),oftheCartóriooftheProcuraturadoSenadointhemid18thcentury.IcannotconfirmwhetherthisisornotthesamebookwehearofinthetimeofMarquesPereira(Chart3):–a“LivrodeRegisto,emchina,de'Chapas',EditaiseRequerimentos”[BookofRecords,inChinese,of“Chapas”,PublicNoticesandAppli-cations],achronologicalannualrecord,inChinese,coveringtheyearsfrom1798to1844,comprising64volumes.Itisalsounknownwhetherornottherewasaninternalsubdivisionliketheonedefinedin1627,undeniablyasophisticatedstructuringofinformation.Thisknowledgewouldbeoftheutmostimportancetoclarifyingaspectsonthenature,authoritiesandmechanicsoftheSino–Macaneserelationsinthatperiod.Itshouldalsobenotedasanasidethataccordingtotheothercopyofthe“Regimento”,thereisanotherbook(vd.Chart1.a),probablyalsoaCopiador,forthepurposesofregisteringthecity’s“petitions”andtherespectivedispatches,whichisnotintheversionofthe“Regimento”thatIworkedwith:TherewillbeaBook,inwhichallpetitionsmadeonbehalfoftheCitytotheMandarinswillberecorded,aswellastheirreso-lutions,fortherecordwhennecessary69.However,ifwearetobelievetheinventoryfromthetimeofMarquesPereira,fromatleasttheearly19thcentury,thiswouldhavealreadybeengroupedtotheaforementioned“LivrodeRegisto,emchina,de‘Chapas’,EditaiseRequerimentos”whichstartsin1798.Anindepthanalysisisyettobemadeofthecorpusof“ChapasSínicas”sothatotherparallelscanbefoundwiththeCartório’sorganisationoftheChinesedocumentsoutlinedin1627andwiththepreciousMarquesPereirainventorymadein1866.69.“TeráumLivro,emquebotarátodasaspetições,quesefizeremdapartedaCidadeaosManda-rins,eodespacho,quesedeuparaconstarquandofôrnecessário”,“RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens”,BAJA,Códice49–V–8,f.246v.Cf.ElsaPenalvaandMiguelRodriguesLourenço(eds.),FontesparaaHistóriadeMacau…,op.cit.,p.380.Ourtranslation.terezasenaThelatterallowsustoestablishthechronologicalcomparisonbetweentheinventoriesofthe“ChapasSínicas”corpus(vd.Table1)andtheoriginalsofthechapasdispatchedbytheChineseauthoritiesthatwereinMacauwhentheProcuraturadosNegóciosSínicoswascreated,namely:–“ChapaseOfícios”[ChopsandOfficialLetters](annualpacks)–1711;1792–1865–“Editais”[PublicNotices]–1729;1830–1846TheresearchthatIhavebeenundertakingwiththeremainingSenadodocumentshasnotprovedveryrevealingonthematerialas-pectsoftheexistenceandorganisationoftheCartórioofChinesedocuments;butthisisnotthecase,ofcourse,forthereferencestoChi-nesechapasthatwerereadanddiscussedintheCouncilmeetingsand,onoccasion,recordedintheactualLivrosdeTermosdasSessõesdoSenado,aswehaveseen.AlsonotsofortheregularactivityoftheChinesejurubaçasandescrivães,ascanbeseen,forexample,fromtheaccountsofthepro-curadorDomingosdeAlmeidaforthemonthsofOctobertoDecember164470,whentheSenadohada“escriuaõchina”initsservicetowhomitpaid10pesos.HewasengagedinobtainingthereleaseoftheMacaubornMiguelPinto,whowaswellversedintheMandarinlanguageandChinesemattersandalsoakeypersoninthecity’srelationswiththeChinesefromatleast162571,butwhowasinprisonatthattime.Althoughthereisnoexplicitreferenceinthisdocumenttoothermem-bersofthegroupofjurubaças,thisdoesnotmeantheyhadnotbeenpaidonanotheroccasion,ashadinfacthappenedinMayofthesameyeartothe“jurubassaJoaõCoelho”72.Insimilaraccounts,referringtoJulyandAugust164173,thereisareferencetoMiguelPinto,alreadyinprisoninCanton:totherescueofthe“JurubaçaAranha”from“Anção”(Xianshan)andtotheregularactivityoftwomorejurubaças70.“Despezaq.daoprocuradoretiz.rodomingosdalmeidadomezdeoutubrode1644.”[ExpenseoftheandexchequerofthemonthofOctober1644,of9November1644,inAM,Macau,IªS.,III,3,April1931,pp.161–4.71.Tomyknowledge,Pintoisafigurethatdeservesfurtherstudy.Formore,seeMarioGómezValadez,“BetweentheLinguisticWallsandtheThirdSpace:…”,op.cit.;JorgeFlores,“Comunicação,InformaçãoePropaganda:…”,op.cit.,p.113andElsaPenalvaandMiguelRodriguesLourenço(eds.),FontesparaaHistóriadeMacau…,op.cit.,pp.188,223,246–8and252–6.72.“Despezaq.daoprocuradoretiz.rodomingosdalmeidadomezmajode1644”[ExpenseoftheattorneyandexchequerDomingosdeAlmeidaofthemonthofMay1644],of4June1644,inAM,Macau,IªS.,I,7,December1929,p.387.

455454archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsandaChinese“escriuaõ”;thegroupofjurubaçasasdefinedin1627,andrepresentedinChart4,wasthereforevirtuallycomplete.However,inthedocumentationconsultedIdidnotcomeacrossmorereferencestothe“línguaprincipal”or“headofjurubaças”,atitleattributedtoSimãoCoelho74notonlytoconfermoreauthority–i.e.formalandapparent75–,withtheChinese,butalsobecause“itisasperhispositioninCourt”,thatis“Tumsuquon”76.WhilethistitlemayhavebecomeobsoleteafterthefalloftheMingdynastyin1644,Ialsofoundnoreferencestothecity’sjurubaçasworkingjointly77aspertheorgani-sationdefinedinthe“Regimento”of1627,whichwasonlydocumentedagainwiththeformationofateamofcitytranslatorsin186578.Forexample,inthethirdquarterofthe18thcenturytheSenadoexpensesheet79includesnotonlyoneEscrivãosinico[ChineseScribe]butalsoaLingoavelho[oldinterpreter]andaLingoanovo[newinter-preter].However,therewasnoapparenthierarchicalrelationshipandthedistinctionwasapparentlydeterminedbyindividualdetails;infact,73.“Despezaq.daoProcuradoreThizr.oXpouaõSoaresCoelhodomezdeJulhode1641”,de7deAgostode1641e“Despezaq.daoProcuradoreThizr.oChristouãoSoarescoelhodomezdeAgostode1641”[ExpenseoftheattorneyandexchequerCristovãoSoaresCoelhoofthemonthofJulyof1641],dated7August1641and[ExpenseoftheattorneyandexchequerCristovãoSoaresCoelhoofthemonthofAugustof1641],s.d.,inAM,Macau,IªS.,I,6,Novemberde1929,pp.311–6and317–320,respectively.74.OnSimãoCoelhoandthefunctionoftheinterpreterin17thcenturyMacau,seethecitedarticlesbyJorgeManuelFlores,andElsaPenalvaforthisConference.BesidesthecontextualizationofferedintheclassicbyMichaelCooper,RodriguestheInterpreter.AnearlyJesuitinJapanandChina,NewYork/Tokyo,Weatherhill,1974,passim,seealsoTerezaSena,“PowerfulWeapons…”,op.cit.,pp.192etseq.and“MacauasaLinguisticCenter…”,op.cit..75.“eparatermaisautoridadecomosChinaslhedamostítulodeCabeçadosJurubaçasdaterra,”[…]“porémnãoselhedáautoridadenenhumasobreeles,mais,queotítulo,quejátemdaCorte.”[andtohavemoreauthorityovertheChinese,heisgiventhetitleofHeadoftheJurubaçasofthisland,”[…]“however,heisnotgivenanyauthoritywhatsoeveroverthem,otherthanthetitle,thathealreadyhasfromtheCourt.],“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade,…”,cit.,f.458r.Ourtranslation.76.“conformeàpatentequetemdaCorte”,thatis“Tumsuquon”,ibidem.Ourtranslation.“Tumsuquon”isacompositetermfromthephonetictranscriptionoftongshi(“tumsu”),jurubaça,andguan(“quon”),official,andthereforemeansofficialinterpreterorsomethingsimilar;theword“Corte”isusedheretomeanoffice.IamgratefultoJinGuoPingforhisprecioushelpininterpretingthisandothertermsinthe“Regimento”.Apparently,“Zumsuquon”inanothercopyofthedocument,whichdoesnotseemtoalterthemeaning(cf.“RegimentodaLinguadaCidadee,dosJurbaçasmenoreseEscrevaens”,BAJA,Codex49–V–8,f.245vandElsaPenalvaandMiguelRodriguesLourenço(eds.),FontesparaaHistóriadeMacau…,op.cit.,p.378).77.ItalsoseemstobetheconclusionoftheresearchundertakenbyPaulaCristinaF.Campos,Intérpretes,Topazes&línguas….,op.cit.,pp.116etseq.78.SeetheDecreeof12July1865publishedintheBoletimdoGovernodeMacau,Macau,XI,41,dated09/10/1865,p.163,thatcreatesa“corpodeinterpretesdelinguacyinica”[bodyofinterpretersoftheChineselanguage]inthecityofMacautoserveattheProcuraturadosNegóciosSínicosandattheGovernor’sOffice,albeitstillnotofficiallyattachedtotheformer.79.ManuelMúrias(ed.),InstruçãoParaoBispodePequim…,op.cit.,pp.372–3andAntónioMartinsdoVale,OsPortuguesesemMacau…,op.cit.,AnexosNos6and6.1.terezasena80.PaulaCristinaF.Campos,Intérpretes,Topazes&línguas….,op.cit.,alsoemphasizestheconstraintsanddifficultiesofsuchresearch,describingitas“aworkoffishingbylineinaseaofinformation”,p.147.Ourtranslation.81.Cf.JorgeManuelFlores,“The'Jurubaças'ofMacau,afrontiergroup:…”,op.cit.andMarioGómezValadez,“BetweentheLinguisticWallsandtheThirdSpace:…”,op.cit..82.[…]porqueotal[Escrivão]émuitoodiadodosMandarins,edeseusEscrivães,eMinistros,emquetocamuitasvezesnaspetições,edosQueves,porquedezejamqueosPortuguesesnãotenhamquemosencaminhe,eassimdezejamacabarotalEscrivãosepudessem,comojáfizeramaou-tro[s,]paiefilho,quemorreramnotronco;enãoseachaquemqueiraserviresteofício,salvosefizeravontadeaosMandarins,eaosseusMinistros,eaosQueves,vendendoaCidade;comoofazemdeordinárioosqueatéagorahouve”,“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade,…”,cit.,f.461r.Ourtranslation.thelatterearnedmorethantheformer.Fromtheendofthatcentury,thedesignationof“intérpretes”[interpreters]ofthecitytendstopre-vailoverthatofjurubaçasforthoseholdinghigherpostsintheoffice,andaround1806thereisarecordofa1standa2ndinterpreter.Untilthattime,andinthedocumentationconsultedonthe17thtomid18thcenturies,weonlyfoundreferencestojurubaçasandlínguasofthecity,oroftheSenado,actingindividually.Itisthereforenecessarytopatientlyretrace80allthedocumentationoftheSenadoandthatreferringtoitinordertostudytheCartóriodosdocumentossínicosandthecity’sgroupofjurubaças,whosesituationwashamperedbytheveryanimositywithwhichtheChineseauthori-tiesconsideredthesemediatingagentsor“bordergroup”81;thiswasimmediatelystressedinthe“Regimento”of1627:[…]becausethat[theEscrivão]ismuchhatedbytheMandarins,andhisEscrivães,andMinisters,whomheveryoftenoffendsinthepetitions,aswellastheQueves.Infact,theydonotwishthePortuguesetohaveanyonewhocouldguidethem,andso,theywishtofinishwiththeEscrivãoiftheycan,astheydidwiththeothers,fatherandson,whodiedinprison;andthereisnoonetotakeonthispostunlesshewilldothewilloftheMandarins,andhisMinisters,andthatoftheQueves,betrayingtheCity;asthoseinofficesofarhavedone,82Which,infact,isextensivelydocumentedintheprimarysources.SomeFinalReflectionsWhilenotintendingtoresolvetheenigmaofthegreatdocumentalgapfoundinthecodificationoftheofficialChinesecorrespondence

457456archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsoftheMacauSenado,nortounveilthemysteryofthedispatchofthe“ChapasSínicas”toPortugal,IbelievethatitcanbeconcludedthattheattitudeoftheoligarchyofMacauandofthePortugueseCrown–includingtheViceroysandGovernorsofIndia–towardsthetranslation,accesstoandpreservationofthechapasandotherofficialChinesedocumentsisdirectlylinkedtotheveryperceptionoftheprecariousnatureofthe“statusofMacau”.Interestingly,theexplicitinformationsofaravailableontheorganisationofaCartóriodeDocumentossínicosinMacauintheperiodunderstudy83–andIstressthattheresearchonthematterisfarfromcomplete–coincideswithtwokeymomentswhenthestatusofthetradingpostwasbeingrenegotiated.Coincidenceornot,itcanbeconsideredthatthecollectionofChineseandSinodocuments,existingfromthebeginningsofthemunicipality,hadwarrantedspecialattentionfromthePortugueseauthoritieswhentheSino–MacaneseandLuso-ChineserelationsweremoresensitiveandatthesetimestherearevisiblesignsthattheytookgreatercarewiththeorganisationandpreservationofthatCartório.Accordingly,andverysimplistically,the“RegimentodoLínguadaCidade”appearedinthecontextoftheproclamationoftheWanliCodeandthe“ChapasSínicasemPortuguês”intheproclamationoftheQianlongCode,twokeymomentsfortheintegrationofMacauintothedomesticlogicoftheChineseEmpireduringtheMingandQingdynasties,respectively,designatedbyAntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha84as“codesofconduct”or“stonetreaties”.Inthefirstcase,the“Regimento”containsanorganisationandpro-visioningstrategyfora“combatbureaucracy”,inthewordsofJorgeFlores85,followingMacau’ssuccessfuldiplomatic-military86approxi-mationtothePekingCourt,overcomingtheever-tenserelationswithCanton,ledbytheJesuits.Thispermittedtheaffirmation/renegotiationofthestatusofMacau,reactingtorestrictivemeasures,someprevious,83.WhentheProcuraturadosNegóciosSínicoswassetupin1865,anothermomentintheorgani-sationoftheCartórioofChineseandSinodocumentsofMacauisrecordedwhichhasalreadybeenalludedtobutwhichwillnotbedevelopedhere.Althoughthetimesweredifferentandthewayinwhichpublicdocumentsandarchiveswereseenalsovaried,itisnoexceptiontothisruleasitwasintendedtobringthe“Macauquestion”totheattentionofthenationsandnegotiateitbymeansofatreatybetweenPortugalandChina.84.“AutoridadeImperial…”,op.cit.,especiallyp.106.Ourtranslation.85.“Comunicação,InformaçãoePropaganda:…”,op.cit.,p.114.Idem.86.TerezaSena,“PowerfulWeapons…”,op.cit.,pp.177–240.terezasena87.ForaPortugueseversionofthetext,seeJinGuoPingandWuZhiliang(eds.),CorrespondênciaOficial…,op.cit.,Vol.I,doc.No7,pp.23–5(cf.infra)and,forthecontext,霍啟昌(HuoQichang)K.C.Fok,“TheMingDebateonHowtoAccommodatethePortugueseandtheEmergenceoftheMacauFormula.ThePortugueseSettlementandEarlyChineseReactions,”inRC,IªS.,Macau,13/14,January/June1991,pp.328–344andWuZhiliang,SegredosdaSobrevivência.HistóriapolíticadeMacau,Macau,AssociaçãodeEducaçãodeAdultosdeMacau,1999,pp.76etseq.88.JorgedosSantosAlves,“A'ContendadaIlhaVerde',PrimeiraDiscussãosobreaLegitimidadedaPresençaPortuguesaemMacau(1621)”,inUmPortoentreDoisImpérios.EstudosSobreMacaueasRelaçõesLuso–Chinesas,Macau,InstitutoPortuguêsdoOriente,1999,pp.125–162.89.RelevantsourcesforthisperiodarefoundinElsaPenalvaandMiguelRodriguesLourenço(eds.),FontesparaaHistóriadeMacau…,op.cit.90.“BetweentheLinguisticWallsandtheThirdSpace:…”,op.cit.Cf.withthebibliographyquotedinthepreviousnotesandspeciallyElsaPenalvaandMiguelRodriguesLourenço(eds.),FontesparaaHistóriadeMacau,op.cit.,offeringfurthersourcesontheissueofthewallsofthecityandonthejurubaçasmediation.Inrelationtothemechanismsofcontrol/verificationofthetranslationprovidedbythecity’sinterpretersdescribedinasourceof1626exploredbyGómezValadez,anotherexampleisfoundfortheyear1612whenateamofinterpretersisappointedbytheCrownjudgetoclarifythedoubtsraisedbytheinitialtranslation,asmentionedbyJorgeFlores,“Comunicação,InformaçãoePropaganda:…”,op.cit.,p.113.91.Foranupdatedextractofhislifeandgovernmentsee,GovernadoresdeMacau…,op.cit.,pp.12–8.containedintheWanliCode87of1614–1617,resultingfromandgen-eratingstrongtensionsexperiencedinMacauandfeltinSino–Maca-neserelations.Themoststrikingexamplesofthelatterareundoubtedlythe“GreenIslandissue”88in1620–1621,andtheChineseoppositiontothepoliticalandmilitaryorganisationofthecity,includingthecon-structionofanefficientdefensesystemtriggeredbytheDutchthreatwhichbecamemoresystematicfollowingthe1622attack89.MarioGómezValadez90putsspecialemphasisonboththislastaspectaswellasthereformsbyCaptain-GeneralFranciscoMascarenhas(ca.1585–?,r.1623–1626)91leadingtotheprocessofinstitutionalisa-tionofthecity’sjurubaças.Inmyopinion,however,thisisonlythetipoftheiceberg,asthegrowingneedoftheservicesofthejurubaças,theperceptionofthebenefitsoftheirinclusioninthecity’spolitical-admin-istrativeanddiplomaticstructureseithertotheSino–Macaneserela-tionsortotheregulationofthegrowingChinesepopulationofMacau,wassomethingthattookshapelocallyduringthefirstdecadesofthe17thcenturyandwasultimatelydeterminedbyMingChina’sstrength-eningofbureaucratic,legislativeandmilitarycontroloverMacau.Limitationsoftimeandspacepreventmefromdevelopingheretheanalysisofthe“Regimento”withregardtotheorganisationoftheCartóriodeDocumentossínicosoftheArchiveoftheProcuratura,summarisedinCharts1and1.a.

459458archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsItishoweveraperfect,almostideal,systemtocodifyandcontrolinformation–andundoubtedlyinspiredontheChinesemodel,therigourandeffectivenessofwhichdidnotfailtoimpresstheWestern-ers92–;itwasaimedatdefendingandconsolidatingastatusthathadbeensohardtoobtainfromtheMingCourtatatimewhenthosedwellinginMacauweredealingwiththeirnewcircumstanceasfilhosenaturaesdaChina[sonsandnaturalsofChina],acquiredin162393,andwerepreparinganothermilitaryexpeditioninaidoftheMing94.Soperfect,andindeedtheoretical,thatitallowsmenotonlytoques-tionitscompleteexecutionbutalsotoadmitthepossibilitythatJesuitslikeJoãoRodrigues,Tçuzu,S.J.(ca.1561–1633)couldhavecontrib-utedtoitspreparation,perhapsrevealinganewfacetofRodrigues’closepartnership95withSimãoCoelho,knowntootherdomains.Theinvolvementofthemissionaryintheaffairsofthecityatthistimeisknown96,asintheprojectofmilitarysupporttoPeking,andbothwereundeniablyfamiliarwiththeprobablyinspiringmodels97oftheinstitu-tion,especiallyRodrigueswiththeJapaneseTotsujiandOrandatsuji,duetohisextensiveexperienceasinterpreterandcommercialagenttosomeJapanesedaimyôs(princes),aswellastheChinese四译馆Siyiguan,whichSimãoCoelhoobviouslyknewbest.92.SeeforexampletheCartaÂnuadoColégiodeMacau.emissãodasResidênciasdeCantãodoanode1692[AnnualLetteroftheMacauCollegeandmissionoftheCantonResidencesoftheyear1692]whereinrelationtothearchivingprocessofthechapas,itreads:“cujostresladosseguardamfiel-mentenosTribunaisSínicoscomumaexacçãoincrívelparaqueemqualquertemposepossamachar,”[thetranscriptsofwhicharefaithfullykeptintheChineseCourtswithincredibleprecisionsothatatanytimetheycanbefound,”,BAJA,Códice49–V–22,f.108r(ourtranslation),alreadycitedonthismat-terbyJorgeFlores,inA.H.deOliveiraMarques(dir.),HistóriadosPortugueses…,,Vol.II,op.cit.,p.74.93.“Annode1623.TresladodeumaprovisãodoSupremoTribunaldaguerradaCortedePekim,paraoTutãodeCantãodealcunhaHuaqualsedespachouaos20deNovembrode1623”[Yearof1623.TranscriptfromaprovisionoftheSupremeCourtofWarofthePekingCourttotheTutãoofCantonknownasHutowhomitwasdispatchedon20November1623],translatedfromChinesebytheJesuitNiccolòdeLongobardo,BAJA,Códice49–V–3,ff.73r–74r.Vd.TerezaSena,“PowerfulWeap-ons…”,op.cit.,especiallypp.202–6.94.IrefertotheabovementionedexpeditionofGonçaloTeixeiraCorreia,inpreparationsinceatleast1627.Vd.supra.95.Formoreonthishypothesisthoughstillnottotallyexplored,seemypaper“MacauasaLinguisticCenter…”,op.cit..96.MichaelCooper,RodriguestheInterpreter….,op.cit.,principallypp.313–357andTerezaSena,“PowerfulWeapons…”,op.cit.,especiallypp.228–248.Forthe1620sandmainlyfortheabovemen-tionednegotiationsaroundtheissueofthecitywalls,relevantsourcesarefoundintheBAJA,Códice49–V–6orCódice49–V–3(repeated),afewofthemalreadypublishedbyElsaPenalvaandMiguelRodriguesLourenço(eds.),FontesparaaHistóriadeMacau,op.cit.,mainlypp.217–223,235–6,246–8,287–297,313,362–5.Cf.MarioGómezValadez,“BetweentheLinguisticWallsandtheThirdSpace:…”,op.cit.97.Vd.,amongothers,JorgeFlores,“Macau:Desurgidouroacidade”,inA.H.deOliveiraMarques(dir.),HistóriadosPortugueses…,Vol.I,TomoII,Macau,FundaçãoOriente,2000,pp.254–5.terezasenaThisdoesnotinvalidate,asJorgeFloreshasalreadyunderlined98,thefactthatonadomesticlevelthecreationofabodyofjurubaçasinthecitydidnotservethepolitico-administrativestructuringandtheconsolidationofthecivilpowerofthecity-stateundertakenduringtheearlyPhilippineperiod;itsprogressiveautonomisationoftheecclesiasticelement–notablytheJesuitsduetotheirgreatinvolvementinlocalaffairsandonwhomitwasheavilydependentonbothlinguis-ticanddiplomaticfronts–wasundoubtedlypartofthisprocess.However,neithertheynortheSenadoshouldbeconsideredamono-lithicgroup,immunefromdifferencesofopinionandevenofcontra-dictorystrategiesforactionsandassociation99;moreover,theprocessofinstitutionalisationofthecity’sjurubaçascouldnotbeanalysedout-sidethecontextoftheSino–Macaneserelationsandthatoftheaspira-tions/managementofMacau’sChinesepopulation.Infact,itincludestheofficialrecognitionofMacau’sdualconditionandthesingularityanduniquenessofthestatusofthejurubaçaswithinthePortugueseoverseaspossessions,asalreadystressedbyDejanirahCouto100.Initsturn,thecorpusof“ChapasSínicasemPortuguês”,inotherwordsthecompilingofabookspecificallyforthePortuguesetransla-tionsofChineseofficialdocumentssenttotheSenadoofMacau,andtherespectiveresponses,thatarefoundinian/tt“areadirectresultoftheLiTingfuandJianYaercaseandconsequentlyofthe‘QianlongCode’intheopinionofJinGuoPingandWuZhiliang.Andindeedthisisthesub-jectofthefirstdocuments101foundinthefirstbookofthecollection.TheCodewastheculminationofaperiodofconstantnegotiationtriggeredbythespecifictensionfeltinSino–Macaneserelationsfrom1747,towhichtheGovernorofMacauAntónioJoséTelesdeMeneses(1718–?,r.1747–1749)102,apioneeringadvocateofthehardlinein98.Ibidem.99.InrelationtoMacauinthisperiod,seeJorgedosSantosAlves,“A'ContendadaIlhaVerde',…”,op.cit.andthepolycopiedMasterandPhDdissertationsofElsaPenalva,ACompanhiadeJesusemMacau(1515–1626),Lisboa,UniversidadedeLisboa,2000(nonvidi)andLutasPeloPoderemMacau(c.1590–c.1660),Lisbon,UniversidadedeLisboa,2005(nonvidi)summarisedinthesearticles:“ContradictionsinMacau”,inBP/JS,Lisbon,14,June2007,pp.7–20(http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=36101401)and“MerchantsElitesofMacauin1642”,ibidem,17,December2008,pp.167–195(http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=36122836007),bothaccessedinNovember2013.100.“TheRoleofInterpreters,orLinguas,inthePortugueseEmpireDuringthe16thCentury”,ine-JPH,1,2,Winter2003,especialmentepp.7–8(http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Portu-guese_Brazilian_Studies/ejph/html/issue2/pdf/couto.pdf),accessin18/04/08.101.JinGuoPingandWuZhiliang(eds.),CorrespondênciaOficial…,op.cit.,Vol.I,p.45anddocs.Nos2to4and7,pp.4–14and23–8.Ourtranslation.

461460archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsLuso–Chineserelations,contributedgreatly103;italsoresultedfromthefirmposition104ofthesubprefectofQianshanzai105,orManda-rinoftheWhiteHouse張汝霖ZhangRulin(1709–1769,r.1748–1750)106,oneoftheauthorsoftheabovementionedfamousAomenJilue,publishedbetween1751and1757.Theywerediscussinglegalcasessuchasthedeathoftheafore-mentionedChinese,李廷富LiTingfuand簡亞二JianYa’er107,inMay1748,andtheentryofforeigners(notPortuguese)inMacau.ButthekeyquestionsinvolvedthecontrolofthegrowingChinesepopulation;theregulationofthelimitsofmixedjurisdiction108andtheresolutionofthereligioustensionslikethecaseofthechurchofOurLadyofAmparo109.AlloftheabovegaverisetotheQianlongCodeof1749110.102.UltimatelydeposedinAugust1749andsenttoGoa.Vd.RuiMartinsetal.(dir.),DITEMA,Vol.III,pp.980–1andalsothemorerecentworkGovernadoresdeMacau…,op.cit.,pp.107–9forgoodandproblematisedbiographicalsummaries.DetailsabouthisratherextraordinarylifeandgovernmentaregivenbyCarlesR.Boxer,FidalgosintheFarEast,1550–1770.FactandfancyinthehistoryofMacau,TheHague,MartinusNijhoff,1948,pp.242–254andManuelTeixeira,MacaunoSéc.XVIII,Macau,ImprensaNacionaldeMacau,1984,pp.408–436,passim.103.Likeforexamplein1748,whenduringsomefrictionwiththeHoppo,allChinesepowerandlegitimacyoverMacauwasdeniedbyhimbecausethecity“serdeSuaMag.de[…]p.rbeneplacitodoEmperadorpoisnaõignoraõVm.cesq.aondesearvoraõasquinasdePortugalsenaõabaixãosemderramarmuitosangue;”.[belongedtoHisMajesty.de[…]withtheEmperor’sapprovalbecauseasyouareawarewheretheRoyalarmsofPortugalarehoistedtheywillnotbebroughtdownwithoutblood-shed;]”.LetterfromGovernorTellesdeMenezestotheSenado,Macau,23November1748,apudAM,Macau,IªS.,I,3,August1929,p.145.104.RoderichPtak,“MacauTradeandSociety,circa1740–1760”,inWangGungwuandNgChin-keong(eds.),MaritimeChinainTransition,1750–1850,Wiesbaden,HarrassowitzVerlag,2004,pp.192–201andAntónioMartinsdoVale,OsPortuguesesemMacau…,op.cit.,p.73.105.AlsoknownasJunminfu,NifuinthePortuguesesources,orTongzhifrom1744.Vd.JinGuoPingandWuZhiliang(eds.),CorrespondênciaOficial…,op.cit.,Vol.I,especiallypp.25and29and,andforalistofthenamesofthoseholdingthispositionbetween1744and1850,AppendixVIIofVol.8,pp.339–342.106.YinGuangrenandZhangRulin,BreveMonografiadeMacau,op.cit.,pp.xxii–xxiii.107.AdetailedreportoftheincidentisfoundintheletterfromtheSenadototheViceroyofIndiadated15December1748,inAM,Macau,IIIªS.,VI,1,Julhode1971,especiallypp.14–7.Vd.alsoJackM.Braga,AVozdoPassado.Redescobertade“AcolecçãodevariosfactosacontecidosnestamuinobrecidadedeMacau”,reed.facsimiledof1964ed.,Macau,InstitutoCulturaldeMacau,1987,pp.58–62.108.LiuJinglian,“AjustiçaQing…”,op.cit.,pp.72–80.109.Vd.thereportoftheSenadototheKingofPortugaldated9January1750onthesubject,inAM,Macau,IIIªS.,XVI,1,Julhode1971,pp.24–8andthePortuguesetranslationoftherespectivechapa,ibidem,VI,4,Outubrode1966,pp.187–8,214–5.OthersourcesanddetailsareprovidedbyBenjamimVideiraPires,“MacaueosJesuítas.9–AigrejadeNªSrªdoAmparoeaconversãodoschinesesdacidade”and“11–AindaoencerramentodaigrejadoAMPARO”,inReligiãoePátria,Ma-cau,XLI,34and36,4and18September1955,pp.796–9and844–9,respectively.Cf.ManuelTeixeira,MacaunoSéc.XVIII,op.cit.,pp.415etseq..110.Inadditiontothebibliographycited,forasummaryseeRuiMartinsetal.(dir.),DITEMA,op.cit.,Vol.I,pp.355–7andalsoWuZhiliang,SegredosdaSobrevivência…,op.cit.,pp.71–120andManuelTeixeira,MacaunoSécXVIII,op.cit.,pp.427–448.terezasena111.OsPortuguesesemMacau…,op.cit.,pp.68–79.112.“MacauTradeandSociety,…”,op.cit.,pp.192–201.113.Vd.AntónioMartinsdoVale,OsPortuguesesemMacau…,op.cit.,passimforamoredetailedreport,includingthestepstakenwithaviewtothepreparationofembassiesandothermissionstoChina.114.Vd.principallyAntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,“ALutapelaLegitimidade:A'Memória'doViscondedeSantarémnocontextodetrêsséculosdeargumentaçãohistóricaejurídicaemfavordasoberaniaportuguesadeMacau”,inEstudosSobreasRelações…,op.cit.,pp.405–462.115.OtherpreviousapproachesnotedbyBenjaminVideiraPiresandlaterrepeatedbyManuelTeixeirarequireperiodizationanddiscussionwhichIreserveforanotheroccasion.Vd.“MacaueosJesuítas.11–Aindaoencerramento…”,op.cit.,pp.844–9andManuelTeixeira,MacaunoSéc.XVIII,op.cit.,pp.471–2.116.“Almazenstodasasvezesquelheforconvenientecopiarasmesmaschapas”,“Pedecopiadetodasaschapasantigasemodernas”[Requestcopyofallchapas,oldandnew],letterfromtheviceroyofIndia,MarquêsdeAlorna,totheMacauSenado,Goa,15May1750,apudAM,IIIªS.,Macau,IX,6,June1968,p.333.Ourtranslation.AsdemonstratedforexamplebytheworksofAntónioMartinsdoVale111andofRoderichPtak112–thelatterprovidinguswithasum-maryoftheChinesesources(includingtheoriginalversionoftheCodeof1749)andofChinesehistoriography,theconflicthadanenormousimpactonLuso–Chineserelations.ItreflectedChina’sowninternaltensionsofaneconomic,politico-administrative,social,regionalandreligiousnatureduetothemanagementoftheevergrowingnumberofforeignersonChinesesoilandtheincreasinginvolvementofthepopulationininterestsandcirclescreatedwiththedevelopmentofin-ternationaltrade,atatimewhenwhatbecameknownasthe“CantonSystem”wasneitherdecideduponnorinstitutionalised(1759).Therefore,whileMacauwaspreparingitselfagaintoconfrontthebureaucraticnetworkandtightfiscalisationthistimefromQingChinabymeansoftheorganisationandcodificationofChinesedocuments,thePortugueseauthoritiesinLisbonandGoaalsobegananunprec-edentedandinsistentprocessin1750ofclaimingaccesstoitandtoallotherinformationrelatedtoMacauwhichwouldpersistthroughoutthe18th113andsubsequentcenturies.Thiswasthestartofalonglast-ingandpersistentproductionofhistoricandlegalmemoirsonMacaugenerallyforreasonsofstate114.TheViceroyofIndia’sordertotheSenadoin1750115,givingaccesstothe“Warehouseswheneveritwasconvenienttocopythesaidchapas”116,chargedtheJesuitswiththetaskofmakingafaithfulandauthentictranslationofthe“chapasoftheEmperors,andMandarinsofChina–bothformerandmodern”without“leavinganychapauntranslatedhoweverolditbe”117.Thesewereledbynootherthan

463462archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsthefamousFatherJoséMontanha(1708–1764),ProvincialofJapanbetween1750and1752118,whofromtheendofNovember1742to1745wasengagedwithavastteamintheorganisationandreproduc-tionoftheCartóriooftheJesuitstobesentabroad.ThissavedmuchofitfrombeinglostastheJesuitswereexpelledabouttwodecadeslater,asweknow.TheSenadoresistedandmadeaccesstothearchivesasdifficultaspossible;however,theeffectsofthecentralisingpolicyofthePortugueseCrownstartedtobefeltinMacau.Inthemid-term,itwouldlimitthepowersoftheSenadowhileitsoughtatallcosttogathermaterialproofofwhatwouldclarifythestatusofMacau,itsprivilegedsituationinChina–likethelegendaryandfamous“goldchapa”119ofthecedingofMacau–andthatultimatelysupportedtheclaimsofthePortugueseCrowntothepossessionandsovereigntyoftheestablishment.Itisagaintheaccesstoinformationandknowledge,inthiscasethearchive,withtheaimofstructuringandcentralisingtheStateandtheexerciseofpower,thattakesonanewshapefromthattimeonandinrelationtoMacauandtoChineseaffairs.Inconclusion,theaimatthispointistohighlightthattheeffective-ness,fidelityandconvenienceofresortingtoChinesejurubaçaswhowereusuallyconverts,residentsormarriedinthecity,recruitedintheheartofthetradingpartnerships,andwithinthecityspace,aprofilethatalwaysservedtheSenado,startedtobeincreasinglyquestioned,andnotonlytheagentsfromthemetropolitanpower.Inthefirststage,theecclesiasticalpartnershipwasretrievedandthenthemovewasprogressivelytowardsdevelopinga“nationalisation”policyandtheprofessionalisationofthiscompetencebytransferringittothegroupofLuso-descendantsandintegratingitintothecentralbureaucraticma-chine.Thiswasthesolutioninforcefromthemid19thcentury120.117.“chapasdosImperadores,eMandarinsdaChinaantigasemodernas”semque“fiquenenhumachapaportraduzirporantigaqueseja”,ibidem.Idem.118.Vd.RuiMartinsetal.(dir.),DITEMA,op.cit.,Vol.III,pp.1030–1.Notwithstandingthediscrepancywiththebiographiesatourdisposal,andalthoughtheycouldbemoreprecise,thedatesIindicateforthemandateofJoséMontanhaasProvincialofJapancorrespondstotheeffectiveperiodofoffice,accordingtothecorrespondenceandotherdocumentsfoundinthearchivesoftheMacauSenado.119.Vd.AntónioVasconcelosdeSaldanha,“ALutapelaLegitimidade:…”,op.cit.,pp.412–4andRuiMartinsetal.(dir.),DITEMA,Vol.I,pp.304–7.120.Cf.TerezaSena,“ContributosparaumPerfil…”op.cit..terezasenaButthatisthesubjectofanotheranalysis.TheauthorisgratefultoRoderichPtakandLiChangesfortheircollaborationwiththerevisionoftheChinesetitlesandterms,andtoConceiçãoCarvalhoforherconstantsupportwithgraphics.

465464archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsChart1ReconstitutionoftheRegistryOfficeofChineseDocumentsoftheArchiveoftheProcuratura[CartóriodosdocumentossínicosdoArquivodaProcuratura]–1627Source:baja,Códice49–V–6,ff.457v–463vCodification(Chinesematerial)OriginalsofChapas[BookoftheCeremonial(Cortezias)][BookofMeasurementofVessels]ChronologicalannualrecordRosteroftheHeadsoftheStreets,Tentowners,RetailersandMerchants[RoldosCabeçasdeRua,Botiqueiros,RegatõeseMercadores](individuation,customsandpractices)ArchiveOriginalsofChapasPrintingboards[Tábuasdeimpressão]Measure[Vara]oftheRequiciterezasenaRegisterofChapas[CopybookofCorrespondenceReceivedandDispatched][CopiadordeCorrespondênciaRecebidaeExpedida]CurrentRecordResponsesProducedCourtRoyalCouncilsKeji/Kegang(Requici)(RosterofVessels)DutangandChayuan(TutõesandChaens)MandarinofXiangshan(Ansão)Haidao(Aitaos)(Warranties[Seguros]oftheCantonfairs)MandarinsofQianshan(WhiteHouse)andofthePort[CopybookoftheChapasReceivedandDispatched][CopiadordeChapasRecebidaseExpedidas]ChronologicalAnnualandInstitutionalRecordResponseProduced

467466archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsGráfico1.aReconstitutionoftheRegistryOfficeofChineseDocumentsoftheArchiveoftheProcuratura[CartóriodosdocumentossínicosdoArquivodaProcuratura]–1627Source:baja,Códice49–V–8,f.245r–251vArchiveOriginalsofChapasPrintingboards(Tábuasdeimpressão)Measure(Vara)oftheRequiciCodification(Chinesematerial)OriginalsofChapas[BookoftheCeremonial(Cortezias)][BookofMeasurementofVessels]ChronologicalannualrecordRosteroftheHeadsoftheStreets,Tentowners,RetailersandMerchants[RoldosCabeçasdeRua,Botiqueiros,RegatõeseMercadores](individuation,customsandpractices)terezasenaRegisterofChapas[CopybookofCorrespondenceReceivedandDispatched][CopiadordeCorrespondênciaRecebidaeExpedida]CurrentRecordResponsesProduced[BookofRecordsofthePetitions][LivrodasPetições]CopybookCurrentRecordDispatchesCourtRoyalCouncilsKeji/Kegang(Requici)(RosterofVessels)DutangandChayuan(TutõesandChaens)MandarinofXiangshan(Ansão)Haidao(Aitaos)(Warranties[Seguros]oftheCantonfairs)MandarinsofQianshan(WhiteHouse)andofthePort[CopybookoftheChapasReceivedandDispatched][CopiadordeChapasRecebidaseExpedidas]ChronologicalAnnualandInstitutionalRecordResponseProduced

469468archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsChart2ReconstitutionoftheRegistryOfficeofChineseDocumentsoftheArchiveoftheProcuratura[CartóriodosdocumentossínicosdoArquivodaProcuratura]–Mid18thCenturyArchiveOriginalsoftheChapasRegisterofChapasBookofRecordsoftheCorrespondenceReceivedandDispatched[LivrodeRegistodaCorrespondênciaRecebidaeExpedida][BookofChapas]CurrentRecordResponseProducedBookofRecordsoftheChapasDispatchedandReceived[LivrodeRegistodasChapasExpedidaseRecebidas][CopybookinPortuguese][ChineseChapasinPortuguese]CurrentRecord,TranscriptandtranslationChart3ReconstitutionoftheChapasexistingintheArchiveoftheProcuraturaforChineseAffairs[ProcuraturadosNegóciosSínicos]–1866Source:OBoletimdoGovernodeMacau,Macau,XII,30,23/07/1866,pp.118–120ArchiveChineseOriginals(Chineseauthorities)ChapasandOfficialLetters[ChapaseOfícios]Annualpacks1711;1792–1865PublicNotices[Editais]1729;1830–1846RegisterofChapasBookofRecordsof“Chapas”orOfficialLettersReceivedfromtheChineseAuthorities[LivrodeRegistodas'Chapas'ouOfíciosRecebidosdasAutoridadesChinesas]1865–BookofRecordsofDispatchedChapas[LivrodeRegistodasChapasExpedidas]1864–RegisteroftheCorrespondenceReceivedandDispatched[RegistodaCorrespondênciaRecebidaeExpedida]AuthenticDraftsandTranslationsAnnualpacks1723–1863BookofRecords,inChinese,ofChapas,PublicNoticesandApplications[LivrodeRegisto,emchina,deChapas,EditaiseRequerimentos]ChronologicalAnnualRegister[Chinese]1798–1844

470archivesofthesenado'sprocuraturaandthecodificationandtranslationofchinesedocumentsChart4OrganisationChartoftheCity’sGroupofJurubaças(Interpreters)–1627Source:Códice49–V–6,ff.457v–463vProcurador(MunicipalAttorney)Scribe[SegundoEscrivãoChina,EscrivãoPrincipal,Cabeça]4/5Students(boysbought)futureInterpreters1/2Interpreters[Jurubaças,línguas]AssistantInterpreters[Jurubaçasmenores]MainScribeHeadoftheScribes[EscrivãoChina,EscrivãoPrincipal,Cabeça]MainInterpreterHeadoftheInterpreters[LínguaPrincipal,CabeçadosJurubaças]

473Macau:PastandPresentMigration.Issues,SourcesandMethodsAlfredoGomesDiasIntroductionThelastfewyearshavebeendedicatedtothestudyoftheMacanesediaspora,focusinginparticularonmigrationflowsbetweenMacau,HongKongandShanghaifrom1842to1952.ThisresearchbeganwiththeattendanceofthedoctoralprogrammeinHumanGeography,takenattheUniversityofLisbonandcompletedinearly2014(Dias,2014),andremainedcenteredonMacau'ssociety.FollowingadegreeinhistoryandmorethantwodecadesdevotedtothestudyofMacau’scontemporaryhistory,thedecisiontodoadoctoraldegreeinadifferentscientificfield,geography,ledtoaninvestigativeexperiencethatinvolvedthemobilisationofknowledgeandmethodologiesfromdifferentSocialSciencedisciplines.Theaimofthispresentationistosharesomethoughtsdevelopedduringandsincethisresearchand,withthem,drawsomemodestcon-clusions.AlthoughnotanoveltyintheSocialScienceworld,theymaycontributetothecollectivethinkingontheopeningofnewavenuesofresearchaboutthesocialrealityofMacau.Ontakingthisoption,weareawareoftheriskofmakingapresenta-tionwiththecharacteristicsofanessay,asdefinedbyOrtega&Gasset,whoregarditasasciencewithoutexplicitproof.Weinvitecolleaguestocommentontherelevanceor“impertinence”ofthischoiceattheendofthispresentation,orsubsequently.PastandPresentMigration:IssuesUnderthebroadheadingoftheMacaneseDiaspora,theresearchun-dertakensoughttorelatetheeconomicmotivationsandsocioculturalcharacteristicsofMacanesemigrantswiththepoliticalandeconomicchangesthatoccurredinChinaaftertheFirstOpiumWar(1839–1842),particularlyinthecityofMacau,astheterritoryoforigin,andthecitiesofHongKongandShanghai,ashostterritories.Inourview,notenoughrecognitionhasbeengiventoMacau’sin-volvementinthisChineseprocessofchangethatspreadthroughout

475474macau:pastandpresentmigration.issues,sourcesandmethods1.“ConclusiondeSociologieGénéraleetdeMorale”byMauss(2002),Essaisurledonisrecommendedreading.EastandSoutheastAsiaand,morespecifically,thesocialimpactsthatittriggeredintheterritory.Macau’sinvolvementinthechangesthatoccurredinChinawaslargelyduetotheMacanesemigratorymovementtowardsHongKongandShanghai,butextendedintimeanddispersedinspace,ultimatelytakingtheformofadiaspora;thiswasunderpinnedbythefactthatMacauwasasecondarycolonialpowerontheworldmapofempires(Portugal),andtheeconomicweaknessesaggravatedbytheweightoftherivalrywithanearbycity(HongKong).Itwasthesemenandwomenwhoemigrated,initiallytothesetwoChinesecitiesandlatertoEurope,America,AustraliaandAfrica,thatlargelyprojectedMacauso-cietyintotheworld,withthedisseminationofasmallLuso–Asiancom-munitycrystallisedinMacauandinsomeneighbouringurbancentres.Totakeanoldbutever-presentconceptoftheanthropologistMarcelMaussfromtheearly20thcentury,migratoryflowsareaclearexampleofphenomenathatcanonlybeunderstoodintheentiretyoftheirsocialreality.Ingeneralterms,thisimpliestwofundamentalideas:(i)anyfactisalwayscomplexandmultidimensional,i.e.,itcanbegraspedfromvariousangles,eachonestressingspecificdimensions;(ii)allbehaviourcanonlybeunderstoodwithinawhole,integratedintocompositecon-stellationsofresources,representations,actionsandsocialinstitutions,presentinthemostbasicrelationshipsbetweenpeople.1AstheresearchontheMacanesediasporadeveloped,itconfirmedthattherewasaneedtorecognisethatmigratoryphenomena,inalltheirsocialcomplexity,impliedmobilisingconceptsthatcutacrossvariousdisciplinesofSocialSciencesandHumanities.Theimportanceofhistoryandgeographytothestudyofmigrationswasacknowledgedfromtheoutset,butitsoonbecameclearthatknowl-edgefromotherscientificfieldsincludingsociologyandanthropologywasimperative.Thisneedestablisheditselfasoneofthegreatestchal-lengesoftheresearchonMacaneseemigrationbetween1842and1952.Ontheotherhand,itbecameparticularlyclearthatthesocialtotal-ityofthemigrationphenomenonandthedemandsofanincreasinglycomplexanalysismeanthatthewatertightdivisionsbetweendiffer-entdisciplinesmustbebroken.Throughthecomplementarityoftheiralfredogomesdiasobjectsandmethods,answersaresoughtusinganinterdisciplinaryreasoning,perhapsonlyachievablethroughteamwork,andnewinter-pretationsfound.Insummary,andretrievingarecenttextbyVitorinoMagalhãesGodinho(2011),itispertinenttotakeuptheideaofMon-taignethatitisessentialtograspthehumanconditionand,therefore,“forgetalllabelsandcrossallborders”(p.26).Followingthissameauthor,whorecallsthatitisessentiallytheproblemsthatmatterandstressingyetagainthatthelabelsdistractmorethanclarify,anissuewasdefinedintheresearchintotheMaca-nesediasporathatresultedintheidentificationofasetofconceptsthatenabledtheintendedanalysis.DimensionsoftheAnalysisItwasthereforepossibletoconstructaconceptframeworkthatwouldensurethestudyoftheMacanesediasporabetween1842and1952,atatimewhenthemainterritorieswereMacau,HongKongandShanghai.Inotherwords,weselectedtheconceptswebelievedwouldallowustoaddresstheMacanesemigrationphenomenon,integratingthreearticulateddimensions:historical,geographicalandrelational.Thehistoricalperspectiveallowsustoidentifypatternsofinterac-tionbetweenthevariousmigratorymovementsinrelationtoboththestructuralconditionsthatoccurredinthesocietiesoforiginanddesti-nation,andthepoliticalandeconomiclinksbetweentheseterritories.Inthischapter,andduetothecaseunderstudy,therelationshipbe-tweenthemetropolisandtheoverseasareas–acknowledgedasakeyfactorofmigrationsystems(Kritz,Lin&Zlotnik,1992)–assumesparticularimportance.Accordingly,thegeneralideaisthat,despitetheendofthecolonialera,therelationsbetweenformermetropolisesandformeroverseasterritoriesremainedoneoftheexplanatorylogicsofinternationalmigration.Thistheoreticalframeworkofthestudyofinternationalmigrationconfirmstheimportanceofanalysingthepolitical,economicandso-cialchangeswhichoccurredintheterritoriesthatexperiencedvariousformsofdirectWesterninfluence,andinthiscasestudy,ChinafromtheOpiumWars(1839–1860).ThespatialperspectiveisinherenttothestudyofInternationalmi-grationmovementsastheyareprimarilyageographicphenomenon,occurringbetweentwoormoreregions.Thisentailstherecognition

477476macau:pastandpresentmigration.issues,sourcesandmethodsoftheirinternaldynamicsandtheinteractionbetweenthemcausedbymigrations.Itisattheintersectionofthesetwoperspectives,diachronicandsynchronic,thatasystemicapproachisdrawn,allowingtheintegra-tionofaspecificmigratoryflowinitsregionalcontextsandintheinternationalmigratorymovements,butalsointhecomplexityofthemigratorywebsurroundingit.Thisspace-timedimensionclearlydem-onstrateshowaninternationalmigratorymovementbecomesincreas-inglycomplex,abandoninganinitialphasecharacterisedbyasimpleorigin-destinationrelationship,toenterintoanewphasewhere“morecomplexstructuresthatcorrespondtorealtransnationalmigrationarchipelagos”arebuilt(Malheiros,2001,p.20).Adoptingthispointofview,awell-groundedunderstandingoftherolethatcanbere-servedfortheMacanesecommunityinanearormoredistantfuture,andwhichisthetopicofreflectiontoday,willonlybepossibleifitintegratesthespatial-temporalstudyofthediaspora,buildingfromresearchconductedonconcretemigrationmovements,asisthecaseofthemigrationflowswewereabletostudybetweenMacau,HongKongandShanghai.Finally,therelationaldimensionofferedtheperspectivethattheMacanesediasporaprocess,includingmigrationbetweenthesethreecities,wasbasedontheconstructionofsocial-familialnetworks,whichgivebodyandshapetotheMacaneseemigrationintheterritoryoforiginanddestination.StillinMacau,itwaswithinthefamiliesthattheknowledgeofculturalpracticeswasbuiltupandthat,onceinasituationofemigration,constitutedaresourcethatnotonlyenabledthedecisiontoleave,butfacilitatedintegrationintothehostsociety.Itwasalsothroughthesocial-familialnetworksthataMacanesecom-munityoftransnationalfeatureswasorganisedandkeptalive:contactswereestablishedbetweenthedifferentterritorieswheremigrant,andlivedbetweenthemandMacau,andtheycontinuedfordecadesthankstofamilynetworkswovenfromthemigratoryroutesthataccompaniedtheirdiffusionthroughouttheworld.Itisalsoimportanttohighlightthatthehouseholdswereusedasthesettingforcontactswithothermigratorycommunitiesinthehostsocieties.ThiswasvisibleinHongKongand,aboveall,inShanghaiduetothehistoryofforeignconces-sionsestablishedthere.Thismeansthatthestudyoftheintegrationprocessesindifferenthostsocietiesfits within thisrelationaldimen-alfredogomesdiassion,thoughtheymaymanifestthemselvesdifferentlydependingonthecharacteristicsofthehostterritoriesaswellasthesocio-economiccharacteristicsofthemigrantgroupsthatwerespreadthroughthevariousMacanesemigrationflows.FromConceptstoInterdisciplinarityThedevelopmentofthesethreedimensionsofanalysisontheMaca-nesediasporainvolvedtheconstructionofananalyticalframework,basedontwokeyconcepts,namely,diasporaandsocialcapital:thefirstiskeytothedevelopmentofthemacro-analysis,thesecondisatthecentreofthemicro-analysis.Thisanalyticalmodelmadeitpossibletoidentifytheinter-relation-shipsthatarefoundbetweenthecharacteristicsofaparticularmigra-toryflowandthestructuralcontextinwhichitoccurs,beitinthesocietyoforiginorinthehostsociety.Whileononehand,theexplana-toryfactorsthatemergefromstudyingthesocio-demographiccharac-teristicsofthemigratoryflowwereconsidered,ontheotherhandthesefactorsonlyassumetheirfullcausalmeaningwhenplacedinabroaderanalyticalframework.Neitherthecontrolofthestructuresovertheactorsinvolvedinthemigrationphenomenon,northeagents,inthem-selves,areacknowledgedassufficientexplanatoryvariablesforacom-prehensiveanddeepunderstandingofthissamephenomenon.DiasporaSocialcapitalCulturalcapitalCultureIntegrationAnalyticaldimensionsEthnicidenditySHANGHAIMIGRATORYFLOWMACAUMacro-analysisMicro-analysisSOCIALNETWORKSFig.1–Conceptualframework

479478macau:pastandpresentmigration.issues,sourcesandmethodsAframeworkofanalysiswasthereforecreatedthatmadethedialec-ticdynamicsbetweenstructuresandtheagentsthatmovewithinthemexplicit.Asstatedpreviously,twolevelsofanalysiswerearticulatedinanintegratedmannerforthecasestudyofthemigratoryflowsbetweenMacau–HongKong–Shanghai:amacro-analysisatnational/interna-tionallevel;andamicro-analysisatanindividual/familylevel.Forthemacro-analysis,whichwasassociatedwiththediasporaconcept,weanalysedthedifferentperspectivesofthisconceptandhowitsusehasevolvedlargelyatthepaceofchangethattookplaceintheinternationalmigratorysystem.Byreviewingtheliteratureonthiscon-cept,itwaspossibletoobtainasetoffourfactorsthatmustbeconsid-eredwhencharacterisingtheMacanesediaspora.Thefirstresultsfromthegeographicaldimension.Socialscientistsunanimouslysupporttheideathatadiasporaalwaysgoesthroughaprocessofdispersioninspacefroma territoryof origin;itisthere-foreimportanttoclarifyhowthisdispersionphenomenondevelopedinthecaseofMacanesemigration,andthestagesitwentthroughduringitshistory,tryingtoestablishthemobilitypatternsofthemigrants.Thesecondcriteriafocusesontherelationshipsthatmigrationkeptwiththeterritoryoforigin,aparticularlyrelevantaspectintheMaca-nesecase,astwoterritoriesoforiginwithdistinctmeaningsmustbeaddressedsimultaneously:Macau,thespatialoriginwherethesocio-economicconditionsandpoliciesthattriggeredthemotivationsanddesirestoleavewerefound;Portugal,symbolicterritorialreality,originoftheMacanesecommunity’smainculturaltraits,namely,languageandreligion.Thecontinuityoftherelationswiththesesourceterrito-rieswentthroughtwodistincttimepaths,namelythepreservationofmemory(past)andthemaintenanceofcontactsandtieswiththesoci-etyoforigin(present).ThethirdcharacteristicinvolvesthesocioculturalcontoursoftheMacanesecommunity:anethnicgroupcarryingaculturalidentityinheritedfromasecularprocessofhumanmiscegenationandculturalhybridity.Thefourthandfinalcriteriathoughttostructurethedefinitionofthediasporaconcernstheexistenceofsocialnetworksthatsupportedthestart-upandcontinuityofthedifferentmigratorymovements.IntheMacanesecase,thesenetworkscanadopttwodifferentbutcomple-alfredogomesdiasmentaryapproaches:thefirstapproachemergesfromtheimportanceoffamilyinMacau’ssocialstructures;andthesecondreferstotheef-fortsmadebythecommunitytoorganisethemselveslocallyintheter-ritorieswheretheysettled,withtheaimoffacilitatingthebridgeswiththeterritoryoforiginandpreservingthememoryandidentitaryvaluesoftheirculturalframework.Atthemicro-analysislevel,thechoiceoftheconceptofsocialcapitaltodevelopthestudyofmigrationflowsbetweentheterritoriesofMa-cau,HongKongandShanghai,madeitdifficulttoreconcilethewealthofaconceptthatopensupmanypathsofreflectionwiththelimitationsimposedbythesourcesavailable,giventhatthetemporalmarkofthismigrationstudyisthepast.However,thisreconciliationispossibleifthepotentialdrawnfromtheanalyticalcombinationofthequantita-tivedataavailableandqualitativeinformationisrecognised.Althoughitisnotpossibletomakeaquantitativemeasurementoftheconfidencelevelsortheintensityofrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentstructuralelements,coredimensionsofsocialcapital,itisneverthelessfeasibletoinferanddrawconclusionsonthebondsthattheMacanesecommunityestablishedamongitsindividualorcollectiveactors,andonthebridgescreatedandmaintainedwiththeterritoryoforigininparticular.Thus,basedonthisconcept,andgiventhatthestudyofthesocialcapitalconceptmustrestontwoaspects–structuralandcultural–(Deth,2008)theempiricalresearchconductedontheMacanesecom-munityofShanghaienabledustodeterminethefieldsofanalysisthatcanbemobilised.Thestudyofthedifferentcityspaces–social,urbanandinstitutional–allowedustodrawsomeconclusionsthatgaveusabetterunderstandingofthetypeandintensityofthebondscreatedandthatremainedamongstcommunitymembers;thebridgeswiththeothercommunitiessettledintheforeignconcessionsofShanghai;theabilitytomobilise,bothwithinthecommunityandwithothergroups,inanattempttopreservetheirethnicidentityandsimultaneouslytopromotetheirintegrationprocessinShanghaisociety.Theanalyticaldimensionspresentedandtheconceptualframeworkassembledmadeitevidentthatifwearetounderstandthemigratoryphenomenainallitssocialcomplexity,conceptsmustbemobilisedthatcutacrossvariousdisciplinesofthesocialsciencesandhumanities.Thestartingpointoftheresearchwastherecognitionoftheroleplayedbygeographyinthestudyofmigration,andindeedtheentire

481480macau:pastandpresentmigration.issues,sourcesandmethodsresearchwasstructuredbythisscientificdomain;however,thisledtotheneedtomobiliseknowledgefromotherdomains:firstofallhistory,butalsosociologyandanthropology.Thiswasachallenge,butonethatprovedrewardingduetotheknowledgeprovidedandtherichnessthatitbroughttotheprocessofanalysisonthesocialphenomenaun-derstudy.Atthesametime,itwasfeltthatitwouldalwaysbepossible,andperhapsnecessary,togofurtherintheappropriationofconceptsandmethodsfromotherscientificfields,particularlyfromsociologyandanthropology.However,theideathatthesocialtotalityofthemigratoryphenomenonandthedemandsofanincreasinglycomplexanalysismadeitessentialtobreakthewatertightdivisionsbetweendifferentdisciplines,bylookingforanswersonthecomplementarityoftheirobjectsandmethods,usinginterdisciplinaryreasoning.TheSearchforSourcesWeallrecognisethattheresearchmethodologyresultsfromtheinves-tigativehypothesisdefinedandthecharacteristicsofthequantitativeandqualitativedataavailable.Therealisationofastudyonthemigratoryprocess,temporallycir-cumscribedinthepast,impliestheuseofquantitativeandqualitativeapproaches,recognisingthevirtualitiesoftheircomplementarity:(i)allphenomenaandallknowledgesimultaneouslyhavequantitativeandqualitativedimensions;(ii)theobjectivity/subjectivitydichotomythatemergesfromthequantitative/qualitativeseparationofferstheresearchnothing;(iii)theabilitytogeneraliseisnotexclusivetothemath-ematisationofreality,butresultsfromtheabilitytoinferbeyondthecontexts;and(iv),themethodologicalchoicesarisefromthequestionsdefinedattheoutsetfortheresearch(Ercikan&Roth,2006).TocontextualisetheMacau–HongKongandMacau–Shanghaimigratoryflows,aquantitativesurveywasconductedonMacanesemigrationfromthelateeighteenthcenturyuntil1995.ThiswasbasedonthebookbyJorgeForjaz,MacaneseFamilies,publishedin1996,whichgivesadetaileddescriptionofthelineageof280Macanesefami-lies.Inadditiontothenamesanddegreesofrelationshipthatareiden-tified,informationisgivenontheplacesanddatesofbirth,marriage,birthofchildrenanddeaths,aswellasoccupations,briefbiographicalnotes,emigrationdestinationsandaddressesin1995.Thisallowedustobuildacomprehensivedatabase,gatheringover9,000names,andalfredogomesdiasthereaftertostudythemigratoryitinerariesoftheMacanesefamiliesthroughoutthe19thand20thcenturies.Theseitinerariesenabledustotracethemainmobilitypatternsofthemigrants.ThequalitativeinformationavailablewascollectedandanalysedinordertostudytheMacanesemigrantcommunitiesofHongKongandShanghai.ThisinformationwasobtainedfromdocumentsintheHistoricalandDiplomaticArchivesoftheMinistryofForeignAffairs(ahd-mne)andfromthedocumentaryresourcesoftheHistoricalArchivesofMacau,namelylettersandreportsfromthePortugueseConsulateinShanghaitotheLisbongovernmentandtheGovernorofMacau.Animportantsourceofinformationwasusedtogatherthequan-titativedatathatallowedthecharacterisationoftheMacanesecom-munitiessettledinHongKongandMacau,namely:theRegistersofPortugueseCitizenscreatedbythePortugueseConsularRegulationexecutedbydecreeon26November1903,andthatcameintoforce on1July1904,revokingtheprevious1851regulation.Article72fromthe1920ConsularRegulationconfirmedthatconsulateswererequiredtokeepRegistersofPortugueseCitizens(PortugueseConsularRegula-tion,1921,p.19).TheregistrationofeachPortuguesecitizenincludedtheirname,spouse’sname,age,maritalstatus,numberofchildren,placeanddateofbirthofchildren,occupation,placeanddateofdeath,andaddress.It shouldbestressedthatnotallrecordsarecomplete,andthereforesomeofthesefieldsdonotprovideenoughinformationforaconsistentanalysis.Thisisthecase,forexample,withtheplaceanddateofdeath.Othervariables,albeitincomplete,provideasamplethatguaranteesacrediblecharacterisationofthecommunity.Theyearofemigrationisanessentialpieceofinformationforanystudyonmigrationflows.Aswedonothaveaccesstothisinforma-tionwithregardtotheMacanesewholeftforHongKongorShanghai,theseconsularrecordsareasourceofinformationthathelpustoover-comethisshortcomingtosomeextent.AsthefirstRegistersinHongKongweredated1879,thesebooksofferusanapproximatepictureoftheMacanesepeoplethatsettledintheBritishcolonyofHongKongfrom1842.ByconsultingtheHongKongregistersfor1879to1949,wecol-lecteddatafrom4,168records,fromwhichwecreatedadatabase

483482macau:pastandpresentmigration.issues,sourcesandmethodstocarryoutthesociodemographiccharacterisationoftheMacanesecommunityinHongKong.InthecaseofShanghai,the21RegistersofPortugueseCitizensfromthePortugueseConsulateinShanghaiwereexaminedinfull,gatheringtherecordsofPortuguesecitizenswhosettledinthecityuntil1952,theyearinwhichthePortugueseconsulatecloseditsdoors.Book1,relatingtotheperiodfrom1880to1904,coversalltherecordsthathadbeenkeptattheconsulate–thoughnotverysystem-atically–untilthepublicationofthe1903regulation.Inthefollowingbooks,therecordsprogressivelyshowthatitbecamenormalpracticeforcitizenstoregisterthemselvesattheconsulate.ThetimebetweenthearrivalinShanghaiandtheregistrationattheconsulatesteadilybecameshorter.Inaddition,thereisalsotheregistrationofchildrenborninShanghai,anditwasapparentlynormalpracticeforthesetoregisterthemselveswhentheyreachedtheageofmajorityat21.Intheend,itwaspossibletogathermorethan5,000namesofpeo-plewhowereregisteredatthePorugueseConsulateinShanghai.Tostudythecommunityof“PortugueseinShanghai”,alldataonthe504weddingsheldatthePortugueseConsulatebetween1916and1951wasalsogathered.Thelimitationsofthequantitativeandqualitativesourcestowhichwehadaccessshouldbestressed;wewereforcedtocontinuouslysearchforinformationthatcouldbringusclosertotheanswerstoourinitialresearchquestions,andthatwouldhelpusfillthegapsthatwewereencountering.Ontheotherhand,thefeaturesofthequalitativeandquantitativedataavailablemadeitnecessarytofindthemostap-propriatemethodologiestoanalysethegathereddataandinformation.Endnotes:aChallengeTheseideasgatheredduringtheresearchontheMacaneseDiaspora,whichfocusedspecificallyonmigrationflowsbetweenMacau,HongKongandShanghai,aresharedwiththeaimofproviding amodestinputtothethoughtonnewavenuesforthestudyofMacau’ssocialhistory.ItisthereforeimportanttorecallLuísFilipeBarreto’sperspectiveontheresearchmethodsofthevariousdisciplinesintheSocialScienc-es,which“justliketheories,haveadisciplinarydimensionaswellasanothermultiandtransdisciplinarydimensioncommontothepluralunityofthesocialsciences”(Barreto,2010,p.176).alfredogomesdiasThemethodsprovidetheprotocolrulesofthe“sources”whicharetheprimaryandsecondaryfeatures,andthatformandinformthefactsandthehistoricalphenomena.Therefore,whentakentotheirlimit,themethodsareinseparablefromthedata,asfromthethemesandissues.Bygivingtherulesandpracticesthatleadtotheconfirmationofdataandevidence,todescribeandanalyse,theyfulfilthisfunctionforthedocumentation andarecloselylinkedwiththehumusoftheresearchpurpose.Thepluralityofmethodsisessentialtoresearchbecauseseveralmethodsarealwaysneededandnosingleoneissufficient.(Barreto,2010,p.176).Throughoutthiswork,focusedonthestudyofMacanesemigra-tion,theimportanceofintegratingvariousinvestigativemethodsandtherichnessoftheircomplementaritybecameincreasinglyapparentandthisobligedustotakethedifficultbutrewardingapproachtothedifferentdisciplinaryfields.Thisprocessledtoareflectionontheim-portance,inthecurrentcontext,ofthinkingofnewpathsforthestudyoftheMacanesereality.TheScientificandCulturalCentreofMacauiscurrentlythePor-tugueseinstitutionbestpositionedtoreceivethesereflectionsduetoitsvocationandthequalityofworkproducedinrecentyears.Thismeeting,entitled“Macau:PastandPresent”, andthedistinguishedresearcherspresentmakeittherightplacetolaydownachallenge.Itisachallengethatistranslatedintothecommitmenttopromoteresearchprojectsthatwillmobilisescholarsfromdiversescientificfieldstoar-ticulatetheirresearcharoundacommonsubject.ItisourmodestbeliefthatprojectsofthisnaturewillallownewpathstobefoundforthestudyofthepastandpresentofMacau.

484macau:pastandpresentmigration.issues,sourcesandmethodsBibliographicalreferencesBarreto,L.(Ed.).(2010).RumosdeMacauedasRelaçõesPortugal–China(1974–1999).Lisbon:CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau.Castiglione,D.,VanDeth,J.,&Wolleb,G.(Ed.).(2008).Thehandbookofsocialcapital.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Dias,A.(2014).AdiásporaMacaense.Macau,HongKong,Xangai(1850–1952)(DoctoralThesis).Lisboa:CentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau/FundaçãoMacau.Ercikan,K.&Roth,W.(2006).Whatgoodispolarizingintoqualitativeandquantitative?InEducationalResearch,5,14–23.Godinho,V.(2011).ProblematizaraSociedade.Lisbon:Quetzal.Kritz,M.,Lin,L.,&Zlotnik,H.(1992).Internationalmigrationsystems.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Malheiros,J.(2001).Arquipélagosmigratórios:Transnacionalismoeinovação.(DoctoralThesis).Lisbon:FaculdadedeLetrasdeLisboa.Mauss,M.(2002).Essaisurledon.Retrievedfromhttp://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/mauss_marcel/mauss_marcel.html(extractedinSeptember2012).Ribas-Mateos,N.(2004).Unainvitaciónalasociologiadelasmigraciones.Barcelona:EdicionsBellaterra.(2004).

487AbstractMacauhashadalonghistoryofteachingPortuguese,notablyinthetrainingoftranslatorsandinterpreters.TheChineselanguageschoolwasanexampleofthis;setupattheturnofthe20thcenturyinaccord-ancewiththeRoyalCharterof22July1905,itproducedmanywellknownMacanesetranslatorsandinterpretersincludingPedroNolascodaSilva,CarlosdeAssumpçãoandLuísGonzagaGomesincontempo-rarytimes.Inheritingthistradition,MacaucontinuestodaytoplayanimportantroleinthetrainingoftranslatorsandinterpretersofPortuguesefromthePeople’sRepublicofChinafollowingtheopeningofthefirstdegreecourseinPortugueseinPekingintheearly1960s.Keywords:Portugueselanguage,China,Macau’scontribution.China’sForeignPolicyandthePortugueseLanguageEventhoughnotmanypeopleinMacauspeakPortuguese,thelan-guagehasbeenestablishedintheterritoryforover450years.How-ever,ContinentalChinahadneverhadanofficialinstitutiontoteachthelanguageuntilthemid20thcentury.TheMingandQingdynastiesalwaysdependedonthe“jurubaças”(interpreters)oftheLealSenate,andalsointerpreterstrainedbytheMacaugovernmentthroughtheDepartmentofChineseBusinessAffairsanditsschool,todeveloprela-tionswiththeauthoritiesofMacauandPortugal.Infact,thehistoryofChina’shighereducationinthePortugueselanguagegoesbacktothemid20thcenturywiththeopeningofthefirstdegreecourseinPortuguesein1960atthePekingBroadcastingInsti-tute(nowtheCommunicationUniversityofChina).Inthe1960s,Chinawasfacinganextremelydifficultforeignanddomesticsituation.OutsideofChina,theinternationalstateofaffairs*LiChangsen(James),PhDinhistoryfromtheJinanUniversityofChina,ProfessorEmeritusoftheMacauPolytechnicInstitute.TeachingPortugueseinChinaandMacau’sContributionLiChangsen*

489488teachingportugueseinchinaandmacau’scontributionwasbecomingincreasinglyagitated.Politically,Chinahadatoughbat-tleontwofronts:ononehandagainstimperialism,representedbytheUnitedStates,andontheotheragainstrevisionismandsocialimperial-ism,representedbytheSovietUnion.The1960swasaturbulentperiodforbothChinaandtherestoftheworld:themissilecrisisintheCaribbean,theideologicaldiver-gencebetweenChinaandtheSovietUnion,thewarinIndochina,theindependencemovementinAfrica,andthestrugglebetweenthesuper-powersplungedthewholeworldintochaos.ThemostserioussituationforNewChinawasthesevereideologi-calriftbetweentheCommunistPartiesofChinaandtheSovietUniononimportantmattersfortheinternationalcommunistmovement,no-tablylinkedtothefightforindependenceoftheAfricancountriesfromimperialismandcolonialism,thearmedstrugglewagedbyPortuguese-speakingAfricancountries,issuesofwarandpeaceandoftherelationsbetweencommunistpartiesandworkersworldwide,andthesupportgiventothenewlyindependentAfricancountries.Onthedomesticfront,economicallyChinawasdevastatedbynaturalcalamitiesforthreeconsecutiveyears;itwasalsohitbyaneconomiccrisisresultingfromthesuspensionoftechnicalandfinancialsupportfromtheSovietsforhundredsoflargeconstructionprojectsandthetotalandimmediateunilateralwithdrawalofthousandsofRussianexpertsandtechniciansthatpushedmanymillionsofChineseintoasituationoffamine.Toexpresshisconcernabouttheinternationalsituationandthede-terminationtoovercometheforeignanddomesticchallengesthatlayaheadforChina,MaoZedong–thenChairmanofChina’sCommunistparty–wroteaclassicpoemwiththefollowinglines:Thepinebranchesilluminatedagainstthesettingsun,arecalmbeforetheconfusedandthreateningclouds;Infrontofanativecaveofthedeity,asplendidlandscapeappearsbetweentheprecipitouscliffs.1Injustfourlines,thepoetshowsaninvinciblespiritandafirmresolvetoovercomethedifficultiesintheinternationalarenainoneofthebestexamplesinChineseliteraryhistoryofintegratingrevolu-tionaryheroismwithrevolutionaryromanticismandoptimism.lichangsenInlightofthisdifficultanddelicatesituation,thegovernmentofthePeople’sRepublicofChinafelttheyhadtoreadjustforeignpolicyinanattempttoobtainthesupportofthirdworldcountries,broaden-ingtheinternationalspaceevenfurther,andusingthepowerofwordsinimportantinternationalaffairs,notablyinsafeguardingthesover-eigntyandautonomyofsmallandweakcountries.Withtheaimoffreeingitselffromdifficultsituations,theChinesegovernmentadoptedaseriesofmeasures:1.First,Chinastrengthenednationaldefenseandincreasedcompeti-tivenessinthecorrelationofinternationalforces.In1964,despitecountlesseconomicproblems,Chinasuccessfullyconducteditsfirstexperimentalnucleartest,breakingthenuclearmonopolyanddestroy-ingthenuclearblackmailofthetwosuperpowers,theSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates;2.Second,Chinaincreaseditspropagandaontheinternationalstagewithaviewtodisseminatingtheirindependentandautonomousfor-eignpolicy,presentingthesuccessesintheconstructionoftheChineseeconomyandfosteringfriendlyrelationswithothernations.Formerly,thetwosuperpowershaddominatedthemedia.Forexample,theVoiceofAmericabroadcasttothewholeworldin60foreignlanguagesandRadioMoscowin81languages.Incontrast,RadioPeking(nowInter-nationalRadioofChina)broadcastinlessthan20foreignlanguages.23.Third,ChinastrengtheneditssupporttooppressedandexploitedcountriesallovertheworldintheirstruggleforindependenceandagainstNorthAmericanimperialism,Sovietsocialimperialismandcolonialism,morespecifically:1.ThepoemwaswrittenbyPresidentMaoZedongon9September1961afterseeingthephototakenbyhiswifeJiangQinginLushanMountain;itstitleisInscriptiondedicatedtothenativecaveofthedeityofLushanmountain,fromcomradeLiJin(Qijué:WèiLiJìntóngzhìtísuoshèLúshanXianréndòngzhào《七絕·為李進同志題所攝廬山仙人洞照》).QijuéisaformofrecitingChineseclassicalpoetrywithrigorouslyregulatedversescomposedoffourlines,eachwithsevencharacters.Thepoemconsistsofasinglestanzawith28characters,rhymingwitheventonesinthesecondandfourthlinesandwithacutetonesinthethirdline;ComradeLiJìnisthepseudonymforJiangQing(alsoapseudonym),wifeofMaoZedong;shewasanamateurphotographerwholikedtophotographlandscapes;LúshanisapicturesquemountaininthenorthoftheJiangXiProvince;XianréndòngisamythicalcornerofMountainLúshan.ThelinesweretranslatedintoPortuguesebytheauthorofthispaper.2.Accordingtoacomparisonofthemaininternationalbroadcasters’installedpowerinthe1960s:EU–8,350KW;USSR–10,000KW;BBCLondon–5,000KW;France–2,000KW;FederalRepublicofGermany–2,700KW;NHKJapan–1,000KW;RPChina-270KW.˘˘˘

491490teachingportugueseinchinaandmacau’scontribution–InAsia,ChinaalwaysstoodbythethreecountriesofIndochina,Vietnam,CambodiaandLaos,inthefightagainstNorthAmericanimperialismandtheir“fightingdogs”3;–InLatinAmerica,itofferedfirmsupportforthefightoftheCubanpeopleagainsttheNorthAmericaninvasionandtofreepeoplefromSovietUnioncontrol;4–InEurope,itexpresseditssympathyfortheAlbanesepeopleinthefightagainstSovietrevisionism;5–InAfrica,itgavecontinuedsupporttonewlyindependentcountriesfightingtosafeguardsovereigntyandtocolonizednationsfightingfornationalindependence,notablythearmedstrugglewagedbyfrelimo,unita,mplaandpaigcinPortuguese-speakingcountries.On12Au-gust1974,thepermanentrepresentativeofthePeople’sRepublicofChinatotheUnitedNations,HuangHua,saidatameetingoftheSe-curityCouncilthat“thelargeAfricancontinentconstitutesasignificantpartofthethirdworld.TheAfricancountriesandpeoplearegatheringstrengthduringthefightagainsttheimperialism,colonialism,racism,Zionismandhegemonismofthegreatpowers,constantlygainingnewvictories.Equally,thesituationofthearmedstruggleofthepeopleofthevariousPortuguesecolonieswasexcellent,aswasthevigorousdevelopmentofthemasspopularmovementsofMozambique,AngolaandotherregionsofSouthernAfricafornationalfreedom.”6Accord-ingtothedataprovidedbytheCommitteeforLiberationoftheuao,75%ofthearmedAfricanmovementsforfreedomcamefromChinain1971–1972alone,andjust23.5%fromtheussr.3.DeclarationissuedbyPresidentMaoZedongon20May1970intheTiananmenPavilion(TheGateofHeavenlyPeace),withthetitle:ThepeoplesofalltheworldareunitedinthefightagainstNorthAmericanimperialismandalltheirfightingdogs).4.RenminRibao(DailyNewspaper),bodyoftheCCofChina’sCommunistParty,28October1962:PeoplesaroundtheworldwillriseuptosupporttheCubanpeopleandpulverizetheUnitedStates’warmongering.31October,RenminRibaopublishedaneditorialrevisedbyPresidentMao:IndefenseoftheCubanrevolution,expressingtheresultingpositionoftheChinesegovernmentandharshlycriticizingthestrategiccapitulationandadventurismofNikitaKhrushchev,thethenGeneralSecretaryoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion.5.25October1966,PresidentMaosentamessagetocongratulatethe5thNationalCongressoftheAlbanianWorkersPartyandreferringtoAlbaniaasa“greatbeaconofEuropeansocialism”,andreiteratingthefirmsupportoftheChinesepeopleforthepeopleofAlbania.6.FromtheXinhuaNewsAgencyon12August1974intheUnitedNations.Portuguese-speakingAfricancountriesinarmedwarfare:Chinagavefirmsupporttompla,frelimoandpaigc,includingthesettingupoftwomilitarytrainingcentresinNgagauintheProvinceofIrinka,andinNachingweaintheProvinceofLindi,intheSouthofTanzania,throughtheoau,totrainsoldiersfrommplaandfrelimo,respectively;CountriesonthefirstfrontinsupportofthestruggleofthepeopleofSouthernAfrica:ChinafinancedtheconstructionoftherailwaylinebetweenDaresSalaamandLusaka,andsentinstructorstotrainarmedforcesfromthesetwocountries,astheybecamethesafestsupportbasesandtherearguardofthearmedfightoftheSouthernAfricanpeopleinthefightfornationalindependenceandagainstthecolonialandracistregimes;OtherSouthernAfricancountries:ChinasupportedthearmedfightoftheZimbabweAfricanPeople’sUnion(zapu)againsttheSmithregimeofRhodesia,andofSouthAfrica’sNationalAfricanCongressPartyagainsttheauthoritarianwhiteregime.Inturn,boththeorgani-sationsalsosentguerillafighterstobetrainedattheMilitaryTrainingCentreinNgagau,SouthTanzania,withtheaidofChinesemilitarylichangsenFigure1–TherelationsbetweenChinaandSouthernAfricainthe1960sand1970s.

493492teachingportugueseinchinaandmacau’scontributioninstructors.Inaddition,ChinaalsogavesupporttotheSouthWestAfricaPeople’sOrganisation(swapo)inthefightfortheindependenceofNamibia.SoweknowthatthemostimportantaspectofChina’sforeignaf-fairsstartedtoberelationsspecificallywiththirdworldcountriesasopposedtothesuperpowersorneighbouringcountries.Inordertoreachtheirobjectives,itwasundeniablynecessaryfirstandforemosttotrainprofessionalsintheAsian,AfricanandLatinAmericanlanguagesinordertochangeandtransferChina’sforeignpolicybecause,hith-erto,RussianandEnglishwerethemostusedandspokenlanguagesinChina’sforeignaffairs.Forexample,togainaccessfromSouthernAfricatotheIndianOcean,theChineseGovernmenthadfinancedtheconstructionworkofarailwaylinebetweenDaresSalaamandLusaka,sendingmanythousandsofChinesetechniciansandworkerstohelpthelocalwork-forcebuildthisimportantarteryoflandtransportinsupportofthenewlyindependentAfricancountries.ToresolvethecommunicationproblemsbetweentheChineseandTanzanians,theChinesegovern-mentstartedvariouslanguagecoursesinSwahiliatthePekingBroad-castingInstitutefromtheearly1960s.Fromthe1960s,attherequestoftheOrganisationofAfricanUnity(oau),ChinasenttwogroupsofmilitaryinstructorstoworkinNgagauandNachingwea,SouthTanzania,respectivelyinordertotrainsoldiersfrommplaandfrelimo.Obviously,theprimaryneedforthesetrainingcampswastranslationandinterpretation.Therefore,theChinesegovernmentopenedthefirsttranslationandinterpretationcoursein1960alsoatthePekingBroadcastingInstitute(pbi).In1960,20highschoolgraduatesfromBeijing,ShanghaiandvariousprovincesenteredpbitoformClass60–3,therebyinitiatingChina’sfirstdegreecourseinPortuguesecultureandlanguage.Fouryearslater,thefirstPortuguesespeakerswereassignedtoworkintheMinistryofForeignAffairs,RadioPekingandtheForeignLan-guagePublishersandthusbroughtanendtotheperiodofPortuguesetranslatorsandinterpretersinChina.Moreover,broadcastingofprogrammesforthePortuguesespeakingworldbeganonRadioPe-king,andthejournal“BuildingChina”waspublishedinPortuguese,thusstrengtheningthepotentialfordisseminatingideologyontheinternationalstage.lichangsenBasedonitsexperienceofopeninganintensivecourse,Peking’sForeignLanguageInstituteimmediatelyfollowedwithitsfirstdegreecourseinPortuguesein1961;itwasafiveyearcourseinlinewiththeInstitute’sotherdegreecourses.Initially,theinstitutetriedtoadmitstudentsineachofthefiveyearsasplanned;however,the“culturalrevolution”insummer1966madeitimpossibletokeeptoplan.In1964,anothergroupof20highschoolgraduateswereadmittedtopbitoformclass64–7,tolearnPortuguese.Astheinternationalsituationunravelled,notablythearmedstruggleinMozambique,AngolaandGuinea-Bissau,in1965pbiopenedtwoclassesatthesametime(65–12withProfRosáliaGalianofromBraziland65–13withProfSócratesdeOliveiraDáskalosfromAngola7)withatotalof40students.Clearly,theChinesegovernmenthadbeguntoconsiderthelanguagedifferencebetweenAfricaandLatinAmericaforfurtheringtheirforeignpolicy.Overaverylongperiod,thetwoinstitutionsforgivinglessonssharedjustoneBrazilianprofessor.Nevertheless,thefirstspeakersofPortuguesewerewelltrainedbytheseschoolsandbecameexcellentdiplomats,journalists,translatorsandinterpreters,andcontributedenormouslytothedevelopmentofChina’sforeignpolicyintheinter-nationalarena,notablyinthePortuguese-speakingworld.Upuntiltheoutbreakofthe“greatproletarianculturalrevolution”in1966,atotalofsixPortugueselanguageclasseswereopenedatthesetwohighereducationinstitutions,fourofwhichwereatthePekingBroadcastingInstituteandtwoatPeking’sForeignLanguageInstitute,includingoneintensivecourse.China’sfirstcoursesenjoyedtheextensivesupportofteachersfromvariousPortuguese-speakingcountries,notablyBrazil.Meanwhile,duetothedifficultconditionsandtheextremelydelicateinternationalsituation,fewoftheforeignteacherswerefromthefieldsofeitherlan-guageorteaching.Nevertheless,theymadeahugeefforttogivelessonswiththesupportofChineseassistantsandcontributedgreatlytopre-paringthefirstspeakersofPortugueseinNewChina.7.SócratesdeOliveiraDáskalos,thegreatnationalindependencefighterandrenownedauthorandpoliticianofAngola.HewasahighlyeducatedmanwithbroadexperienceofteachingattheBenguelaHighSchool.HearrivedinPekingin1965attheageof44.Hewasthefirstteachertodis-seminateLuso-AfricancultureandhistoryamongChinesestudents.

495494teachingportugueseinchinaandmacau’scontributionMacau’sSpecialContributionHistorically,MacauwasthefirstChineseportwhereforeignerswereabletosettleandoveraperiodofmorethan400yearsitbecameaplatformwhichcultivatedamulticulturalandmultilingualsociety.TheterritorythereforehasalonghistoryofteachingthePortugueselanguageandparticularlyoftrainingtranslatorsandinterpreters.Examplesofthiswere:first,thegroupofChineseinterpreterssetupunderthedecreelawdated12July1865;second,theDepartmentofChineseBusinessAffairs(RepartiçãodoExpedienteSínico),formedinaccordancewiththedecreedated2November1885;andthird,theChineselanguageschoolopenedbyRoyalCharterdated22July1905andfromwhichmanywellknownMacanesetranslatorsandinterpret-ersgraduated,e.g.PedroNolascodaSilva,CarlosdeAssumpçãoandLuísGonzagaGomesincontemporarytimes.Inheritingthistradition,MacaucontinuedtoplayanimportantroleintrainingPortuguesetranslatorsandinterpretersnotonlyforMacaubutalsoforthePeople’sRepublicofChina,followingtheopeningofthefirstdegreecourseinPortugueseinPekingintheearly1960sandnotwithstandingthecomplicateddiplomaticrelationsbetweenChinaandPortugal.BeforetheopeningofthefirstPortugueselanguagecourseinCon-tinentalChina,takingadvantageofthegeographicandpoliticalchar-acteristicsoftheenclaveoftheMacauPeninsulaunderPortugueseadministration,NanKuong–acommercialbusinessinMacau–wasaskedtoundertakeaveryimportanttaskforChina’sforeignpolicy:toprovidematerialconditionsandhumanresourcestoreceiveyoungpeoplefromChinatolearnPortugueseinoneofthecompany’sofficesinMacau.Upuntilthelate1970s,fivegroupsofstudentsweresenttostudyPortugueseinMacau“behindcloseddoors”;theyweretaughtandsupportedbytheeminentMacaneselanguageteacherLuísGonza-gaGomesusingteachingmaterialfromthebooksbyChantreAntónioAndréNgan.NanKuongLda.,whichwasputinchargeoflookingafterthePor-tugueselanguagestudents,wassetupon28August1949inMacauanddirectedbyKeZhengping,leaderoftheChineseCommunistPartyinMacau.Initsearlydays,thecompanysuppliedthefreezoneswithcereals,oliveoil,coal,saltandotherbasicneeds.Laterthecompanymovedintotransport,warehousing,commercialimportsandexportslichangsenandtourism.Moreover,itactedastheccp’srepresentativeinMacauformanagingallaffairsrelatedtothePeople’sRepublicofChina.1stgroup(1959–1962):In1960,sevenyoungstudentsselectedbythegovernmentfromsomeuniversitiesinChinaleftPekingbytrainforCanton.Somedayslater,theywentthroughthePortasdoCercotoembarkonthreeyearsofspecialstudyinMacau.OntheirreturntoPekingin1963,theycouldspeakPortuguesefluentlyandbecamethefirstPortugueseinterpretersandtranslatorsofNewChina.ZhangBaoshengisoneofthenamesthatstandsoutamongthesesevenashetookupthepositionofprc’sAmbassadorExtraordinaryandPlenipo-tentiaryinMaputo.Meanwhile,hebecameknownthroughoutChinanotbecauseofhisappointmentasAmbassadorbutasabravefighter,andthefirstofficialinterpreterofPortugueseinthefightagainsttheBrazilianregime,whenGeneralCasteloBrancoorderedthearrestofnineChinesemembersofatradedelegationfromChinain1964inRiodeJaneiro.2ndgroup(1962–1964):In1962,despitethedifficulteconomicsituationacrossallChina,thePekingBroadcastingInstituteselectedfivethirdyearstudentswithhighgradesfromthe60–63classofPor-tugueselanguageandculturetospendtwoyearsperfectingtheirPor-tugueseinMacau,also“behindcloseddoors”inspecialinstallationssuppliedbytheNanKuoangcompany.3rdgroup(1964–1966):theChinesegovernmentselectedanother20highschoolgraduates,butwithouttakingthenationaladmissionexam,fromPeking,Shanghai,andtheJiangSuProvincetostudyPortugueseattheaforementionedNanKuongcompanyinMacau.However,duetothedisruptionoftheso-called“CulturalRevolution”,thestudentsinthisgrouphadtosuspendtheirstudiesatthestartofthethirdyearandleaveMacausoastoparticipateinthe“thegreatrevolutionthattoucheseveryone’ssoul”inPeking.84thgroup(1975–1978):In1975andafterthe“CulturalRevolu-tion”,theNanKuongcompanyorganisedanotherPortugueselan-guagecourseinMacauontheinstructionsoftheChinesegovernment.FivegraduatesinEnglishwerechosenbyPekingtolearnasecond8.ResolutionoftheCentralCommitteeoftheChineseCommunistPartyonthegreatproletarianculturalrevolution,approvedon8Augustatthe11thPlenarySessionofthe8thCCoftheCCP.RenminRibao(dailynewspaper),9August1966,1stpage.

497496teachingportugueseinchinaandmacau’scontributionforeignlanguageinthiscompany,mostnotablyProf.LeiHeongIok,currentPresidentoftheMacauPolytechnicInstitute.5thgroup(1978–1981):Whenthestudentsofthe4thgroupcomplet-edtheirstudiesandleftMacauin1978,theNanKuoangcompanyre-ceivedanothergroupwithstudentsselectedbytheMinistryofForeignTradeandbytheCommissionfortheDevelopmentofInternationalTrade.Onconcludingtheirstudies,mostofthesegraduatesworkedintradingactivitiesbetweenChinaandPortuguesespeakingcountries.ItshouldbestressedthattheseyoungstudentsfromChinareliedonthesupportandsolidaritynotonlyofthiscompanybutalsoofthelocalChineseandMacanesecommunitieswhiletheywerestudyingPortuguese.AgoodexampleofthisisthewellknownMacanesewriter,LuísGonzagaGomes,whopersonallygavethestudentslessons.AttherequestoftheNanKuongcompany,theimportantMacanesewriterandjournalist,LuísGonzagaGomes,wasinvitedtoteachPortu-guesetovariousgroupsofstudentswhocamefromContinentalChinaduringtheperiodwhenSino–Portugueserelationswereverydelicate.HiscomprehensiveknowledgeofthePortugueselanguageandcultureandhistranslatingexperiencemadeaprofoundimpressionontheChinesestudentswhomadeexcellentprogressduringtheirstudiesinMacau.ManyofthesestudentsbecameseniorChinesediplomatsworkinginvariousPortuguesespeakingcountries,includingasambas-sadorstoBrazil,Mozambique,Angola,Guinea–BissauandEastTimor.TheteachingsupportgivenwasnotrestrictedtoMacaualone.WhenthefirstdegreecoursesinPortuguesewereopenedatthePekingBroadcastingInstituteandtheForeignLanguageInstituteinPeking,thecentralgovernmentinstructedtheNanKuongcompanytosendLaoSaoWan,aChineseprofessorfromMacau,tohelpthetwoinsti-tutionstotrainstudentsinthePortugueselanguage.Intruepatrioticspirit,heabandonedacomfortablelifeinthecountrywherehewasbornandwenttoworkinPekingasauniversityprofessorofPortu-guese.Obviously,asabilingualteacher,hewasthelastresorttowhichChinesestudentscouldturnwhentheyneededhelpinunderstandingthemysteriousworldofthePortugueselanguage.Moreover,theenvironmentwheretheycouldpractisespeakingthelanguage,thedictionaries,theteachingmanualsandthepublicationsinPortugueseinMacauwereallagreatsupportfortheChinesestudents.Forexample,MétododePortuguês(PortugueseMethod)writtenforlichangsenuseinChineseschoolsbyChantreAntónioAndréNgan,directoroftheSãoJoséSchoolfrom1932to1941,wasdistributedasatextbooktotheChinesestudentsfromContinentalChina.ThePortuguesegraduatesgenerallyworkedincentralgovernmentministriesliketheMinistryofForeignAffairs,Culture,Health,Agri-culture,NationalEducation,andinvariousnationalcommissionse.g.theCommissionofScienceandTechnology,andalsointheInter-nationalRelationsDepartmentofthecc’sChineseCommunistParty,theXinhuaNewsAgency,InternationalRadioofChina,theForeignLanguagePublishers,theGeneralDirectorateofTourism,GeneralDi-rectorateforCustoms,theGeneralDirectorateofPhysicalEducation,theArmyHeadquarters,andinsomehighereducationinstituteswithadegreecourseinPortuguese,aswellasotherdepartmentsofthegov-ernment,partyandarmedforces.ANewChallengefortheFutureHowever,theuniversityteachingofthePortugueselanguageinChinadevelopedveryslowly.Inthe40yearsfrom1960to2000,therewerenevermorethanoneortwouniversityinstitutionsteachingPortugueseatdegreelevel:thePekingForeignLanguageInstituteandthePekingBroadcastingInstitute(1960–1969);thePekingForeignLanguageIn-stitutealone(1973–1977);theForeignLanguageInstituteofPekingandtheShanghaiForeignLanguageInstitute(1977–2000)9.Thesituationchangedcompletelyattheturnofthemillennium.ThankstotherecoveryofthedegreeinPortugueseatthePekingBroadcastingInstitute,therewasanunprecedentedsurgeintheopen-ingofdegreecoursesinPortuguese.Inalittlemorethan10years,over30highereducationinstitutesopeneddegreecoursesinthePortugueselanguage.PreviouslyrestrictedtojustPekingandShanghai,nowa-daysnearlyallthecountry’sAdministrativeZones(North,Northeast,Center,East,South,NorthwestandSouthwest)havefacilitiestotrainprofessionalsofthePortugueselanguage,thusenablingstudentsfromneighbouringregionstoattend.TheAdministrativeZoneoftheNorthisanexampleofthis:itcoversanautonomousregion,twoprovincesandtwocentralmunici-9.In1974,theForeignLanguageInstituteinShanghairana3-yearminicourseinthePortugueselanguagewiththesolepurposeoftrainingtheirownteachers.In1977,allthefinalistsofthiscoursebecametheinstitute’sfirstPortugueseprofessors.

499498teachingportugueseinchinaandmacau’scontributionpalities:theAutonomousRegionofInnerMongolia,theProvincesofShanxiandHebei,theCentralMunicipalitiesofPekingandTianjin.Accordingtoincompletedata,thePortugueselanguagecourseisnowrunningintwelveuniversitiesinfourimportantcitiesinthiszone.Figure2givesusageneralideaoftheChinesezonesandcitiesinwhichadegreecourseinPortuguesewasopened.ThefigureprovidesadetailedillustrationofthedevelopmentandexpansionofthePor-tugueselanguageinChina,notablyintheEastZoneofChina,whichencompassesalltheeconomicallydevelopedprovinces.Headings:MasterscourseDegreecourseBachelor’sorelectiveCoursesuspendedCoursetobeopenedin2014Figure2–ChinesezonesandcitiesthathaveopenedPortugueselanguagecourses10lichangsenThefollowingfigureshowingtheexpansionofthePortugueselan-guageinChinawillimpresseveryone,bothPortugueseandChinese:Thisdiagramshowsuswithoutadoubtthatwecannolongerusetheterm“expansion”todescribetherapiddevelopmentoftheteachingofPortugueseinrecentyearsinChina;“volcaniceruption”Figure3–ThedevelopmentofthePortuguesedegreecourseinChinasince19601110.Asthispaperwasbeingconcluded,newsarrivedthattheForeignLanguageInstituteofZheJiangProvincewasplanningtoopenaPortuguesecoursenextyear.ThismeansthatthedatainthisfigurearenotcorrectandalsoconfirmstheextraordinarypaceatwhichthePortugueselanguageisdevelopinginChina.11.ThefiguredoesnotincludetheZhejiangForeignLanguageInstitutewhichrecentlyannounceditwouldbeopeningaPortugueselanguagecoursein2014.

501500teachingportugueseinchinaandmacau’scontributionor“nuclear”explosionaremuchmorefitting.ItissurprisingtofindthatprofessionalswhoarebilingualinPortugueseandChinesearethemostsought-afterinthehumanresourcesmarket.Indeed,ifwewentbacktenyears,nobodywouldhaveimaginedthatyoungChinesestudentswouldhavethispreferenceforandinterestinthePortugueselanguage.Figure4clearlyandvividlyillustratesthedevelopmentofPortuguesecoursesandthenumberofstudentsenrolledinhighereducationinstitu-tionsinChinainthelast50years,from1960to2012.Ifweanalyseandcomparefigures3and4,wecanseethatthehistoryoftheteachingofPortugueseasaForeignLanguageintheprccanbedividedinto4phases:(1)initiation,(1960–196912);(2)Interruption(1966–1973),(3)Recovery(197313–2000)and(4)Generalisation(2000totoday).Thefourphasesaremarkedbythefollowingimportantevents:1960–OpeningofthefirstcourseinPortugueseatthePekingBroadcastingInstituteandanintensivePortuguesecourseatthePekingForeignLanguageInstitute,thusmarkingthestartofPortugueseinhighereducationinContinentalChina;Figure4–Growthinthenumberofstudentsenteringinstitutionsfrom1960to201212.In1966,allhighereducationschoolssuspendedtheadmissionofnewstudentsundertheinstructionsoftheCCofChina’sCommunistParty;studentswhohadenteredin1965remainedoncampustocontinuetheirstudiesuntil1969,althoughtheirstudieswereseriouslyaffectedbythemovementoftheculturalrevolution.13.From1966to1973,nouniversitystudentwasadmittedinChinafor7consecutiveyears;thiscausedaserioushumanresourcescrisis,especiallyforteachersandacademicsduetothelackofpublicserviceworkers.TheChinesegovernmentthereforedecidedtohandpickandemployexcellentyouthworkinginfactories,onthelandandinthemilitaryforhighereducationinstitutes.lichangsen1966–Unspecifiedinterruptionofstudentadmissionsunderthein-structionsofthecentralgovernmentandtheCommunistPartyduetotheso-called“GreatProletarianCulturalRevolution”unleashedbyPresidentMao;1973–RestorationofthePortuguesecourseatthePekingInstituteofForeignLanguageswiththerecruitmentofyoungfarmandfactoryworkersandfromarmybarracks;1977–OpeningofthefirstcourseinPortugueseattheShanghaiBroad-castingInstitutethroughspecialrecruitment,bringinganendtothepe-riodwhenChina’sbiggestcityhadnoPortugueselanguagecourse;2000–RestorationofthePortuguesecourseatthePekingBroadcast-ingInstituteafteraninterruptionofmorethan30yearsfollowingaccusationsthatitwasthe“blacktrainingbasefortheimplantingofcapitalismandrevisionism”,accordingtoguidelinesgivenbyMao’swife,JiangQing,in1969duringtheculturalrevolution;2007–OpeningofaMasterscourseattheBeijingForeignLanguageUniversityandShanghai’sUniversityofInternationalStudies,markinganewadvanceinPortugueseathighereducationlevelinChina;2011–WithdrawaloftheexemptionfromthenationalexamforapplicantstothedegreeinPortuguese.Thisdemonstratesthatthecoursehadbecomemoresought-afterandcompetitive,andthatthecandidateshavetomeetmoredemandingrequirements.ThesamechangetookplaceinMacau.Historicdocumentationcon-firmsthatMacauhasalonghistoryofofficialtrainingforinterpretersandtranslatorsthatcanbedividedintothreeperiods:theenactmentoftheRulesforthecity’sjurubaças(interpreters)andscribesin1627,theformationofabodyofinterpretersin1865;andtheopeningoftheChineseschoolin1905.However,thistrainingwasdestinedexclusivelyforlocalresidents.Followingtheinaugurationofthemsargovernment,Macau’srelationswithotherregionsofChinabecamecloserandtheystartedtoacceptstudentsfromContinentalChinatostudyinMacau.SeeingtherapiddevelopmentintheteachingofPortugueseinChina,manyeducationalinstitutionsjumpedonthebandwagonandstartedPortuguesecourses.

503502teachingportugueseinchinaandmacau’scontributionInadditiontothetwohighereducationinstitutes,namelytheUni-versityofMacau,whichhadopenedaPortugueselanguageandculturecourse30yearsago,andtheMacauPolytechnicInstitute,whichhashadHigherInstituteofTranslationandInterpretationforover100years,neweducationalinstitutionsliketheCatholicUniversityofSãoJosé,theMacauScienceandTechnologyUniversity,andtheUniversityoftheCityofMacaualsoopenedorareinapositiontoopenPortu-gueselanguagecourseswithaviewtomeetingthedemandforbilin-gualprofessionalsinChineseandPortugueseinboththemsarandContinentalChina.Ascanbeseenfromthefigureabove,Macauisalsoofconsiderableimportanceinthegreatnationalprojectfortheteach-ingofthePortugueselanguageinChina.ConclusionInthetenyearsfollowingthefoundationoftheprc,notonlyweretherenoPortuguesetranslatorsorinterpretersinthecountrybuttherewerealsonoinstitutionstoteachthelanguage.Toensurethatinter-partyrelationsbetweentheChineseCommunistPartyandtheirPor-tugueseandBraziliancounterpartscouldbemaintained,theprcwereobligedtoresorttoSpanishorEnglishtranslatorsandinterpretersforthepurposesofcommunication,exchangeandofficialvisits.Atthestartofthe1960s,ChinachangeditsforeignpolicyduetotheideologicaldivergencewiththeCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion,andbegantosupportthirdworldcountriesfightingforinde-pendenceandtosafeguardtheirsovereignty;asaresult,manycoursesinlanguagesotherthanthelinguafrancawereopened,includingFigure5–HigherEducationinstitutionsinChinathathaveopeneddegreecoursesinthePortugueselanguagelichangsen14.Forexample,PBIwasaccusedofbeinga“blackbasefortherestorationofcapitalism”andthestudentswerealsoaccusedofbeing“revisionistweeds”,andasaresulttheinstitutionwasclosedandmostofthefinalistsweresenttore-educationunits.Portuguese.However,thistrendwashamperedbyChina’s“GreatCul-turalRevolution”.14DuetothesuspensionoftheteachingofPortugueseasaforeignlanguagebetween1966and1973,therewasagainashortageofpro-fessionalsinPortugueseandinallotherareasofspecialisation.Inanattempttoovercomethisproblem,theauthoritiesdecidedtoselectthe“bestworkers,farmersandsoldiers”toenteruniversity.Aspartofthisspecialmeasure,thePekingForeignLanguageInstitutereopeneditsPor-tugueselanguagecoursewithoneclassin1973andanotherin1975.Despitethepolicyforreformandopeninguptoforeigncountriesadoptedbythe3rdPlenarySessionofthe11thCentralCommitteeofChina’sCommunistpartyinDecember1978,theteachingofPortuguesedevelopedslowlyforovertwodecadesandinjusttwoschoolsinChina,namelythePekingForeignLanguageInstituteandtheShanghaiForeignLanguageInstitute,astheprioritywastobuildthedomesticeconomy.Asaresultofthesuccessesineconomicdevelopmentandthecloserpolitical,commercialandculturalrelationswithPortuguese-speakingcountriesattheturnofthemillennium,theteachingofPortuguesestartedtogatherpaceandinjustafewyearsincreaseddramaticallyacrossChina.ThereopeningofthePortugueselanguagecourseatthePekingBroadcastingInstitute(nowtheCommunicationUniversityofChina),whichhadbeensuspendedforover30years,bearswitnesstothischange.Sincethen,therehasbeenanexponentialriseintheteachingofPortugueseasaforeignlanguage.In2005,anotherthreeinstitutionsopenedPortuguesecourses,theTianjinForeignStudiesUniversity(tjfsu),theBeijingInternationalStudiesUniversity(bisu)andChina’sUniversityofCommunicationatitsNanquimcampus(cucn).SincetheXi’anInternationalStudiesUniversity(xisu)andPekingUniversity(pku)joinedthe“legionofplacesteachingPortugueseasaforeignlan-guage”in2007,twoorthreecoursehaveappearedeveryyearontheprcmap.Inadditiontothisquantitativegrowth,thefirsttwoMasterscoursesinPortuguesewereopenedin2007attheBeijingUniversityofForeignStudiesandtheShanghaiUniversityofInternationalStudies,

504teachingportugueseinchinaandmacau’scontributionrespectively.Thisisparticularlyimportantifweconsiderthisphenom-enonfromtheperspectiveofthePortugueselanguagegiventhattheopeningoftheMasterscoursemeansthatthemarketdemandsthatprofessionalsinthePortugueselanguagearemorehighlyqualified;thismarksthestartofanewphaseinqualitativegrowth.Throughoutthistrajectory,Macau’sdominanceinthedissemina-tionofthePortugueselanguagewasoftheutmostimportancepriortothecreationoftheSpecialAdministrativeRegion.Ononehand,itsentprofessionalstoteachPortuguesetostudentsinPekingandontheother,itreceivedvariousgroupsofstudentsfromChinawholearnedPortugueseinMacau.Sincethegovernmentofthemsarwasformed,MacauhasincreaseditssupportthroughtheUniversityofMacauandtheMacauPolytechnicInstitutewithvariouskindsofcooperation.ItcanthereforebesaidthatMacauPolytechnicInstitutehasneverceasedtotakestepstosupporttheteachingofPortugueseinChina,no-tablybythemeasurestakentoovercomehumanandmaterialresourc-esfacingnewcourses.Besidesreceivingstudentsfromvariousuniversi-tiestolearnPortugueseforoneortwoyearsatmpi,ithassentteacherstosupervisethecourseinPekingandorganisedvarioussummercours-eseveryyearfortrainingintranslationandinterpreting,methodologyandteaching,aswellasthepreparationofteachingmaterialswiththeaimofraisingthequalityofnewlyqualifiedChineseteachers.Macauisundeniablyaplatform–pastandpresent–thathasplayedandwillcontinuetoplayavitalroleinthedisseminationofthePortugueselanguageinChina.Nevertheless,andinthewordsoftheChineseproverb,“ifyouarerowingaboatupstream,youwillfallbackthemomentyoustoprowing.”Ifthegovernmentofthesmargleansabetterunderstandofthisnewsituationandadoptsstimulatingmeasures,includingbringingoutdatedlawsinlinewiththetimes,Ma-caucouldcontinuetoholdthisleadingpositionintheteachingofthePortugueselanguage.

1PastandPresentMacauMacauPastandPresentEditedbyLuísFilipeBarretoandWuZhiliangContributors:WuZhiliangLuísFilipeBarretoJamesK.ChinJuanGilElsaPenalvaElisabettaCollaNoëlGolversWillyVandeWalleUgoBaldiniMariagraziaRussoIsabelMurtaPinaLouShenghuaZhangXiaohuaVicentWai-KitHoTerezaSenaAlfredoGomesDiasLiChangsenCentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.MinistériodaEducaçãoeCiência