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TracingMacauThroughChineseWritersandBuddhist/DaoistTemplesChristinaMiuBingChengCentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.MinistériodaEducaçãoeCiência 

  
  
 

Title:TracingMacauThroughChineseWritersandBuddhist/DaoistTemplesPublishedby:FundaçãoMacauAvenidadeAlmeidaRibeiro,Nºs61-75,CircleSquare,7°-9°andares,MacauTel:(853)28966777E-mail:info@fm.org.moCentroCientíficoeCulturaldeMacau,I.P.RuadaJunqueira,nº30,1300-343Lisboa–PortugalTel:(351)213617570E-mail:geral@cccm.ptAuthor:ChristinaMiuBingChengCoverDesign:NunoTeixeiraPrintedby:TipografiaKaVaRecommendedRetailPrice:MOP100.00NumberofCopies:800PublicationDate:July2013ISBN978-99937-1-095-0cAllrightsreserved.Reproductionprohibitedwithoutwrittenpermission. 

  
  
 

ContentsPrefaceandAcknowledgements7EditorialNotes9Introduction111ThePeonyPavilion:ACrossroadsofEast-WestandSouth-North21TheCultofQing25TangXianzu’sSojourninGuangdong29AQueerParasiteinGuangzhou35InSearchofPatronage36SanbaSiinMacau38AGenuineTreasure41TheManinDream44TheOddityofOddities47ExogamySanctioned49PosthumousFame502WuLi:InSearchofthe“WesternLantern”53AHighlyCivilizedCity55AJourneytoSpiritualExploration58A“LostSheep”Returned61ABrokenDreamtoRome65ASpectacularChristianWorld67“FromfarawayIcometolearnDaoatSanba”69“Forwhomdoesmychurchbelltollnow?”75ASetbacktoChristianProselytization79UnyieldingQuestforSpirituality81 

  
  
 

3LeungPing-kwan’sNewPoetryonoldMacau85Landscape87“TheSteepAlleyatA.Agostinho”88“ShelteringfromRaininaCoffeeShopinPraiaGrande”89“St.Paul’sRuins”91“BarrierGate”94EastandWest96“GeorgeChinnerypaintingthefisherwomanofMacau”97“ATapestry,givenbytheKingofPortugaltotheEmperorofChina”99“ThePoetCamiloPessanhasleepscurleduponaMacaubed”103“InfrontoftheA-MaTemple”105“ShelteringfromtheRainintheCaféCaravela”107“WuLiPaintingbythebay”109Foodscape112“SaltedShrimpPaste”112“AtBelaVista”113“SecretFamilyRecipes”117APoetryofNostalgia1194TheHarmonizationofBuddhismandDaoisminLianFengMiao123ReligiousSyncretism125TianFeiMiao128CiHuGong130FinalNomenclature132InMemoryofLinZexu133CentralMainBuilding135HallofWuDi137HallofRenShou138ABricolageofPopularDeities142AnAll-embracingTemple147 

  
  
 

5MatriarchyattheEdge:TheMythicalMotherGoddessNuwa151NuwaMiao152Were-snakeNuwaandIncestuousMarriage158DivineCosmicGiantPanGu164CreatrixoftheCosmosandHumanBeings165RepairerofHeavenandPreserverofHumanLife168NuwainFengshenYanyi172AvengingGoddess175TheFunctionsofMyths176MatriarchalGreatness1786SanjieHuiguan:TheMythandtheCultofGuanDi181SanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiao183ThreePatronDeities186DeitiesoutsidetheGuildhall-temple190StraddlingHistoryandFiction192GuanYuinSanguoYanyi194GuanYu’sHumanFlaws198UpwardMobilitytoGodhood200AnAll-encompassingIcon204Conclusion209Bibliography219 

  
  
 

7PrefaceandAcknowledgementsWhenIfirstarrivedatMacauasachild,Iwasgreatlybewilderedtoseesomanyforeignfacesandatraildottedwithchurchesandtemples.Itwasalmostasurrealpassagewhenmymotherheldmyhandleavinghome,passingbythemarket,theOldTempleofGuanDi,StDominic’sChurch,theTempleofNuwa,andthengoinguptotheFaçadeandreachingtheTempleofNezha.MyauntandcousinshadwaitedforusneartheOldCityWallsandwewalkeddowntoCamõesGardenwherewewerefannedbythesouthChinabreezeamidluxuriantgreenery.AtapestryofMacau’scaptivatingimageswasdeeplyingrainedinmychildhoodmemories.Timefailstoabatemypassiontolearnmoreaboutthiscross-cultural“mosaic”,whichisembeddedinEast-Westarchitectural“gems”andresplendentwithSino-Lusitaniancharm.ThefascinationofthisformerPortugueseenclavehaswontheheartsofChinesewritersfromtimetotime.Theliteraryworksofthreemenoflettersdelineatethemultiple“visages”ofMacau.TangXianzu湯顯祖visitedMacauin1591andwasenchantedtodiscernan“early”Macau.HeincorporatedMacauasalocaleintohismasterpiecedrama—ThePeonyPavilion.WuLi吳歷arrivedatMacauin1681andwitnesseditsgoldenageasaflourishingChristiancity.HecomposedacollectionofclassicalpoemsonMacauduringhissojournasaJesuitnovice.LeungPing-kwan梁秉鈞cametoMacauin1973anddepictedadecliningMacauinnewpoetry.TheseliterateelitesrespectivelycapturethreestagesofthevicissitudesofMacau—inception,heyday,andsenility.ClassicalChinesefictionalworkshavehelpedcreatemythsandcultsthatplayanimportantpartinthecommonpeople’sreligiouslife.SomeancientmythologicaltextsalsoserveasavehicleforDaoismtoconsolidateitselfastheChineseautochthonousreligion.InMacau,mostofthedivinitiesenshrinedinthetemples—notablyLianFengMiao蓮峰廟,NuwaMiao女媧廟,andSanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiao三街會館－關帝古廟—arepopularcharactersdrawnfromtime-honoured 

  
  
 

8tales.Thesethreetemplesdemonstratethepowerofmythological/fictionalnarratives,theelevationofmortalstoimmortals,andtheharmonizationofBuddhismandDaoisminChinesereligiousculture.ThesixessaysassembledinthisbookhavebeenpublishedintheInternationalEditionofReviewofCulture,andfourofthemwerepresentedininternationalconferences.Themanuscriptshavebeenpartlyreworkedfromtheoriginalworks,andupdatedwithadditionalsources.MyveryspecialthanksandheartfeltgratitudegotoProfessorPeterJ.Hutchings,DeanoftheSchoolofHumanitiesandCommunicationArts,theUniversityofWesternSydney.Overtheyears,ProfessorHutchingshasgenerouslyandthoughtfullycommentedonmyresearchworks.MysincerethanksareduetoProfessorL.C.Kooforproof-readingthemanuscriptandforhisstimulatingadvice;andtomysisterAngelaMiuYinChengforassistingmewiththepinyinromanization.IwanttoparticularlythankDrEdmondYiuKwanSuenforexpoundingthecrypticmeaningsofclassicChinesetexts,andforgivingmeinvaluablesuggestionsastotheEnglishtranslation.IammostgratefultoMissAgnesLai-IengVongforeditingthetypescript.Herprofessionalattitudeandconstructiveremarksarehighlyappreciated.Lastbutnotleast,IwouldliketothankMrLuísCostaFerreira,HeadofPeriodicalsSector,CulturalAffairsBureauofMacauSARGovernment,whohaskindlycon-firmedtherightsforthepublicationofthisbook.ChristinaMiuBingChengJuly2013 

  
  
 

9EditorialNotesIndiscussingChinesetemples,thedescriptionoftheplacementofthewingsandimagesisfromtheperspectiveonthealtar,ratherthanfromthespectator’sview.AccordingtoZhouli《周禮》(TheRitesofZhou,firstappearedinthemiddleofthesecondcenturyB.C.),thecorrectplacementfollowedtheprincipleofzuozhaoyoumu左昭右穆inancientancestraltemples(CiHai,1977:638).Thatis,Zhao昭(father)wasdesignatedontheleft,whileMu穆(son)ontheright.Thisplacementistoindicatetherelativeimportanceofthe“leftside”overthe“rightside”.Moreover,accordingtotheetiquetteandcustominChineseculture,theleft(fromaperson’sviewingpoint)representsthemale,andtherightstandsforthefemale(nanzuonuyou男左女右),thusemphasizingtheleftastheprominentside.InChinesetemplecomplexes,someminorspiritsarerepresentedin“aniconic”forms(notemployingimages).Theterm“aniconism”usedtorefertothedepictionofanarrativeinarelief,inwhichtheBuddha’spresenceishintedbyan“absentsignifier”,suchasabodhi(pipal)tree,awheel,agoldendeer,etc.Ananiconicformnowdenotesarepresentationofanimagethroughsign,symbol,oremblem,buttheanthropomorphic(human)formisabsent.“Macao”and“Macau”aretwospellingsofthenameAomen澳門.WhiletheformeristheEnglishspelling,thelatteristhePortuguesespelling.Theversion“Macau”isusedinthisbook,exceptthat“Macao”isretainedinquotedpublishedmaterials.ForthetranscriptionoftheChinesecharactersinworkscited,thepinyinromanizationisadopted.Unlessotherwiseindicated,translationsoftheChinesetextsaremyown.Allthephotographicillustrationsaremine.Anyerrorsthatremainare,ofcourse,myresponsibility. 

  
  
 

 

  
  
 

11INTRODUCTIONIntroductionAthistory’scrossroadsformorethanfourhundredyearsasaPortuguesesettlement(1557—1999),1MacauwasonceagatewayforWesternersenteringChina,andawindowthroughwhichtheChineseperceivedtheworldoutside.TradecontactsandculturalencountersoverthecenturieshaveenabledMacautoprideitselfasaremarkablerendezvousfortheEastandtheWest.InthewakeofitsinceptionasaPortugueseenclave,MacauhasneverfailedtocapturetheimaginationandattentionofWesternwriters.Invariouskindsoftextualforms,Macauhasoftenbeen“re-presented”andconstructedasthemysteriousandseductiveEast.SomeoftheirwritingsfeedintotheculturalcriticismsofEdwardSaid’sOrientalismandHomiBhabha’sstereotypeincolonialdiscourse(Cheng,1999a:127-142).Moreover,thecharacteristicsofMacauhavevacillatedbetweenbinaryoppositions.AsMacauwasextolledasthe“GemoftheOrient”2(quotedinTeixeira,1980:7),itwasalsodenouncedasthe“WickedestCity”.3Itwaslaudedasaprettyplacewithromanticspots(Hillard,1900:28),butitwasmadeanalogoustoasinistercockatrice.4Thesebinaryimagesexhibitthemultifarious“visages”ofMacau.WritingsfromChineseauthorsmayprovidedifferentimpressionsandcomplementaryperspectivesfortheunderstandingofMacau.Theirliteraryworksare1Theyear1557isgenerallyconsideredtobethefoundationyearofMacauasaPortuguesesettlement,becausethePortuguesesucceededinsettlingtherebypayingtribute.SeeElfedVaughanRobertsetal.,HistoricalDictionaryofHongKongandMacau(Metuchen:TheScarecrowPress,Inc.,1992),pp.277-82.2Macauwasadmiredasthe“GemoftheOrient”byJohnBowring,thethenGovernorofHongKong(1854—1859),inhis“SonnettoMacau”(1849).3“TheWickedestCity”wastheheadingofanarticleonMacauinHolidayMagazine,February1955.4GavinBlack’sTheGoldenCockatrice(1974)isreferred.Acockatriceisamonsterhatchedbyareptilefromacock’segg,anditsgazealoneisinvestedwiththemostdeadlypowers. 

  
  
 

12TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESalsoinvaluablesourcesforexploringtheinterrelationsandinteractionsofMacau’shistoryandculture.Ontherelationshipbetweenliterarytextsandculture,MikhailM.Bakhtin(1895—1975)isoftheopinionthatliteratureisaninseparablepartofcultureanditcannotbeunderstoodoutsidethetotalcontextoftheentireculture,preciselybecauseitiscorrelatedwithsocio-economicfactorswhichinturnaffectcultureasawhole.Moreover,textualmaterialsarerepresentationsandarticulationsofspecifichistoricalcontexts;aswellasreflectionsandcommentariesofthesocialprocess.ForBakhtin,theapproachtoliterature,history,andculturemustbeinterdisciplinary(Bakhtin,1986:2).Macauhasaweightychapterinhistory.Subsequenttotwohistoricmoments—the“PartitionoftheWorld”formissionaryactivismin1494,5andthediscoveryofanewtraderoutetoIndiabyVascodaGamain1498—proselytizingmissionarieswerebaskinginakindof“PaxLusitania”ideologyofecumenicalismto“winsoulsforChrist”intheEast.Atthesametime,theseafaringPortuguesewerealsoengagedineconomicgathering,ifnotplundering.Forlaunchingthemissioncivilisatrice(civilizingmission),theDioceseofMacauwasformallyestablishedin1576,andintheedictthatfoundedtheDiocese,Macauwasgivenasanctifiedname—CidadedoNomedeDeosdeMacaunaChina(CityoftheNameofGodofMacauinChina).MacauwasthusinvestedwithanimportantroleasthebridgeheadfortheprojectofevangelizationinChina,notleastasanoutpostforeconomicventures.Meanwhile,Macauwasbelievedtohavebuiltmorechurchesandchapelsforitssizethananyotherplaces,andprideditselfasthe“ChristianCity”.Itwaseveneulogizedasthe“HolyCity”.6Inaddition,itwashailedasthe“HeadofChristendomintheEast”(quotedinFrancis,1930:2),“RomeoftheFarEast”and“MotherofMissionsinAsia”(Teixeira,1991:43).Macauwasalsoknownasa“MarianCity”(Teixeira,1991:5PopeAlexanderVIdividedtheworldofallnew-discoveredlandsbyissuingtheBullInterCoetera(literally,Amongallthethings)in1493forevangelization.TheeastwasPortugal’ssphereandthewestSpain’s.However,indefianceofthePapalpartition,representativesofthetworivalnationsmetatTordesillasinSpain,drawingadifferentdemarcationlinein1494.ThisisknowninthehistoryofSpainastheTratadodeTordesillas(theTreatyofTordesillas).6JamesD.BallcommendedMacauastheHolyCityinMacao:theHolyCity;theGemoftheOrientEarth(Canton:ChinaBaptistPublicationSociety,1905). 

  
  
 

13INTRODUCTION42),chieflybecausemostofthechurcheshavebeendedicatedtoMaryinvariousguises.Alongsidemyriadsofchurches,thistinyplaceisalsodenselydottedwithChinesetemples,andpermeatedwithastrongambienceofindigenousreligiousculture.ContrarytothecentralmissionarytenetofCatholicismthatforbadeanytolerationofheathenfaiths,theChinesereligioussystemshavedevelopedasyncreticmatrixallowingdifferencesinbeliefs(andrites)tocomplementoneanother.Buddhist/DaoisttemplesinMacauareinclinedtohonouragreatvarietyofpopulardeities,regardlessofreligiousanddoctrinaldifferences.Confucianism,Buddhism,andDaoismareknownassanjiao三教(theThreeTeachings,ortheThreeGreatReligions,ortheThreeDoctrines)inChinesereligiousculture.TheThreeteachingshadlongcompetedandviedfortheheartsandmindsoftheChinese,andthecompetitionpavedthewayforsyncreticimpulsesthattendedtoharmonizesectariandisputes.DuringtheSong(960—1279)andYuan(1271—1368)periods,religioussyncretismbecameanincreasinglypowerfulforce.TheMingdynasty(1368—1644)usheredintheheydayofreligioussyncretism.ThefoundingemperoroftheMingcourt,Taizu太祖(ZhuYuanzhang朱元璋,reigned1368—1398),lentweighttosyncreticactivities,andendorsedtheinteractionandunityoftheThreeTeachings.Aftergainingofficiallegitimacy,theharmonizationofreligiousbeliefsflourishedtoitsfullestextent.Inparticular,thisreligiousvisionopenedupdifferentschoolsofsyncreticthoughtthateventuallyledtounparalleledspiritualbreakthrough(Berling,1980:19-47).Syncretismwasaprocessofreligiousinteractionandchange.Itattemptedtoreconcile,borrowselectively,andappropriateelementsfromotherphilosophiesandsects.Thedynamicsofsyncretismbuiltontraditionalformsofauthoritytoverifytheorthodoxyofthenewvision.Inlightoftheimpactofthesyncreticpraxis,theharmonizationoftheThreeTeachings(morecommonly,betweenBuddhismandDaoism)hasengenderedtoleration,compromise,andrespectamongoneanother’sbeliefsystems.Duetothissyncretictraditioninreligion,mostChineseinMacauwouldnotinsistontheirspecificreligiousidentity,butpraytodeitiesofothersectsandaskthemtolendaneartotheirsupplication. 

  
  
 

14TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESMacauisabletocelebratereligioustolerationandculturalinfusion.Itisareligioussanctuarywhereamultiplicityofcross-religiousdivinitiesproliferates,andisanurbanreceptaclefordisparatebeliefs.Variousreligiousfaiths,suchasCatholicism,Protestantism,Buddhism,Daoism,Islam,7andBaha’i,8cancoexistwithoutdamagingdiscord.TheircoexistencedoesnotmerelyreflectMacau’ssyncreticculturalmatricesandreligiouscompromise,butalsotestifiestoanegotiatedaccommodationofEast-Westreligiouspraxes.Macaucanperhapsserveasamodeltosomeplaceswheredestructivereligiousconfrontationsandethnicclashesareamatterofdailyreality.WhileMacaucanproveitselfasaplaceofreligiosity,itisalsoacityofgambling.ThejuxtapositionofchurchesandcasinosappearsindispensablewhendescribingMacau(Plate1andPlate2).ThecontrastingimagesofMacauarewellcapturedinW.H.Auden’ssonnet“Macau”inwhichhestitchestogetherthebinarypairsofCatholicsaintsandgamblers;churchesandbrothels(Auden,1958:59).AsMacauisextolledasthe“EasternVatican”and“RomeoftheFarEast”(religiouscity),itsflourishinggamblingbusinessgainsitsfameasthe“EasternMonteCarlo”and“FarEastLasVegas”(gamblingcity).MacauevenpridesitselfonhavingmoregamblingtablesthanMonteCarlo,andmorechurchesthantheVatican.GamblingwaslegalizedinMacauin1847afterthesetbacktoitseconomyintheeighteenthcentury.ThegamblingtaxhasbeentheprincipalincomeofMacausincelicensedgamblingwasintroduced.In1934thegovernmentgrantedthefirstmonopolyoncasinogamblingtoTaiHingCompany.In1962thecasinomonopolyfranchisewasswitchedtoSociedadedeTurismoeDiversõesdeMacau(STDM),orMacauTourismandEntertainmentCompanyuntil2001.7ItisheldthatIslamwasbroughttoMacaubytheArabandPersiantradersduringtheMingdynasty.ThereisonemosqueattheheartoftheMacaupeninsula,nearthereservoir,facingtheMacauferrypier.8TheBaha’iFaithisamonotheisticbelieffoundedbythePersianprophetBaha’u’llahin1844,emphasizingthespiritualunityofallhumankind.HeisregardedbyhisfollowersasGod’sninthdivinemessengerafterAbraham,Buddha,Jesus,Muhammadandothers.TheBaha’iFaithwasrecognizedbytheUnitedNationsin1948.ThereisaBaha’icommunityinMacau,andtheSchooloftheNationsinTaipa氹仔isrunbytheBaha’imembers. 

  
  
 

15INTRODUCTIONPlate1StDominic’sChurchPlate2GrandLisboaandCasinoLisboa.Imagereproducedfromapostcard. 

  
  
 

16TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESMacauputanendtothemonopolyin2002,andnewlicencesweregiventothreecasinooperators.Thismovewastoupgradethecasinobusiness,andtodevelopitasapillarindustrytospurtheeconomy.OneofthewinnerswasSociedadedeJogosdeMacau(SJM),orMacauGamingCompany(an80%ownedsubsidiaryofSTDM).TheothertwowereWynnResortsLimitedandtheGalaxyCasinoS.A.Eachofthethreelicenseeswassoonallowedtoissueasub-licencetothreeadditionalcasinooperators:GalaxytoLasVegasSands,SJMtoMGMMirage,andWynntoMelcoCrownEntertainmentLimited.Allofthesesixlicenseesoperateunderagovernmentfranchiseandunderacommonsetofrules.In2012therewerethirty-fivecasinos,butactuallyonlythirty-twowereinoperation.MacauhasnowbecomeAsia’sforemostmodernCityofGambling.LikeinmostcitiesintheWest,peoplecaneasilyfinddelightanddecadenceinthis“CityoftheNameofGod”.SincetheMacauGovernmentpassedanewHeritageLawin1984withtheaimofpreservingMacau’sheritage,MacauwasascribedasaUNESCOWorldHeritageCityforitsSino-Lusitanianlegacieson15July2005,makingitthethirty-firstdesignatedWorldHeritagesiteinChina.Amélangeoftwenty-twoarchitecturalsites,eightpublicsquares,narrowlanesandslopingcobble-stonebackstreets,wasgivenadistinguishedappellation—“TheHistoricCentreofMacau”.“TheHistoricCentreofMacau”includesthemostcomprehensivearrayofEuropeanarchitecturestandingintactonChineseterritory.ThisgroupofbuildingsislocatedattheheartoftheareawhereWesternersformerlysettled,andthissettlementareawasdubbedthe“ChristianCity”(MacauWorldHeritage,2008:2).Theuniquelegaciesarewovenintotheoriginalurbanfabric,formingawalkingtrailinthehistoriczone.Theyear2006wasdesignatedasMacauWorldHeritageYear.Atthedawnofthethirdmillennium,MacauhasenjoyednewfoundrecognitionasaWorldHeritageCity.ThefascinationofMacauliesinitsmultitudinouscharacteristicsnurturedbySino-Portuguesedominance.WhileMacauiscommendedasa“religiouscity”,itisalsocondemnedasa“sincity”.Itisa“heritagecity”butalsoa“gamblingcity”.ThatMacauhasacquiredtheseantitheticaltraitsbecometheinspirationsforliterarycreations.ApartfromtheWesterndescriptionsofMacau,Chinesetextualmaterialsmayyetunveilmoreofitsmultifaceted“visages”intheebbandflowoftime.Literary 

  
  
 

17INTRODUCTIONtextsarenotsimplycrucialtotheunderstandingoftheirretrievablepast;theyalsoplayanessentialpartinshapingthereligiouslandscape.Thebookfallsintotwoparts:thefirstthreechapterspresentthemultipleaspectsofMacauthroughtheliteraryworksofthreeChineseliterateelites—TangXianzu湯顯祖,WuLi吳歷,andLeungPing-kwan梁秉鈞.Macau’shistoricalvicissitudes—inception,heyday,andsenility,aswellastheirpersonalexperiences,aspirations,anddisconsolationarenarratedindistinctformatsofliteraryproduction.TheirwritingsofferglimpsesofMacaufromtheChineseviewpoints,whicharedifferentbutcomplementarytotheimagesofMacaurenderedbyWesternersasdiscussedbyGeorgeWei(Wei,2010:112-27).Inthesecondpart,theotherthreechapterstracethepowerofChinesemythologicalnarratives,whicharesourcematerialsforconsolidatingthemyth-symbolcomplexandformakingpopularcults.Predicatedonthreespecialtemples—LianFengMiao蓮峰廟,NuwaMiao女媧廟,andSanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiao三街會館－關帝古廟,thecomplexityofChinesereligiousculture,thedynamicsofreligioussyncretism,andtheevolutionofreligiouspraxesareexamined.MacauistheveryarenaexemplifyingthepolytheistictraditionoftheChinesebeliefsystemsamidthemonotheisticideologyofChristianity.Chapter1ThePeonyPavilion:ACrossroadsofEast-WestandSouth-NorthTangXianzu湯顯祖(1550—1616)isagreatdramatistinthehistoryofChineseliterature.DuringhisdemotionasaclerktothesouthernmostcoastalareaofGuangdongprovince,hevisitedMacauin1591.HewasamongthefirstChineseliteratitowitnessMacauasanewforeignsettlement,andwrotesomepoemsonthewondersofthePortuguesepresence.Hisvisitwasarguablyresponsiblefortheeast-west,south-northdynamicsofhismostcelebratedplay,MudanTing《牡丹亭》(ThePeonyPavilion).Hemadeuseofhis“southern”experienceandincorporatedhisknowledgeofMacauintotheplay.Scene21,“AnAudiencewiththeEnvoy”〈謁遇〉,testifiestoTangXianzu’s“discovery”ofearlyPortugueseMacauasatradingportofferingexoticmerchandizeandtreasuresfromtheWest.Moreover,theplaystitchesaWesternenclavewiththeEastern“MiddleKingdom”inaholisticway. 

  
  
 

18TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESChapter2WuLi:InSearchofthe“WesternLantern”NinetyyearslaterafterTangXianzu’svisittoembryonicPortugueseMacau,WuLi吳歷(1632—1718),adistinguishedpainter,poet,andcalligrapher,cametothrivingMacauin1681inpursuitofspirituality.AshisplanofgoingtoRomewasunfulfilled,heenteredtheSocietyofJesusasanovice.HestudiedWesternDao道(Christianity)attheCollegiateChurchofStPaul’sandperceivedthesplendourofavibrantChristiancity.AfterhewasordainedasapriestinNanjingin1688,hewenttoShanghaiandJiadingforthepropagationofChristianity.Atthattime,thereweretwohistoricreligiousforcesprevailinginChina.Ontheonehand,theharmonizationoftheThreeTeachings(sanjiaoheyi三教合一)becameafashionablephenomenon;andontheotherhand,thecontroversyontheChineseritesputforwardbyWesternmissionariesalmostreachedaboilingpoint.WuLilivedthroughdifficulttimesinthemissionofproselytization,andleftbehindaprolificcollectionofpoemsandversesonreligionandonMacau.Chapter3LeungPing-kwan’sNewPoetryonoldMacauLeungPing-kwan梁秉鈞(1949—2013),aHongKongwriter,poet,andtranslator,visitedMacauin1973.ThegoldenageofMacaugraduallybecamesulliedsinceWuLi’svisit.Inanemergentliterarygenre—newpoetry,LeungpresentsafadingMacauinlatecoloniality.HiswritingsonMacaucanbedemarcatedintotwophases.Thefirstphaseisdescriptiveoflandscapesandlandmarks,whichareagedanddilapidated.TheportrayalsareembeddedinfamiliarWesternstereotypeimagesofthedejectedEast.ThesecondphasefocusesonthehistoryandcultureofMacau,historicalpersonages,Portuguese/Macanesecuisine,andculturalencountersamongethnicgroups.Inastreamofimaginingthoughts,LeungportraysMacauasadreamlandforpeopleoffame,butitisalandofbrokendreamsinreality.Hiswistfulmemoriesofpre-postcolonialMacaurevealhisnostalgicsentimentsandalsohisdisquietponderingoverMacau’suncertainfutureafterthereturntoChinain1999.Chapter4TheHarmonizationofBuddhismandDaoisminLianFengMiaoSoonaftertheDioceseofMacauwasfounded,EuropeanmissionariesfromvariousreligiousordersbaskedwithproselytizingzealtointroduceChristianity,buttheyfailed 

  
  
 

19INTRODUCTIONtoreplacetheBuddhist/Daoistfaiths.Macau,eventoday,remainsaChinesereligiousbastion.Thedignifiedtemple,LianFengMiao蓮峰廟,lavishlyexhibitsasyncreticpantheoninitsfullcomplexity.Originally,thetemplewasmainlydedicatedtotheDaoistSeaGoddess,TianFei天妃.Gradually,ittransgressedreligiousboundariesandhonouredaconstellationofBuddhist/Daoistdeitiesandfolkimmortals.SuchsyncreticoutlookoffersastarkexampleoftheharmonizationofBuddhismandDaoism;andofthepolytheisticmindsetoftheChinesepopulaceinMacau.MythologicalbeingsandhistoricalcharactersenshrinedinthistemplehavebeenselectivelyapotheosizedasDaoistsupernaturals.SomeclassicalChineseliterarytextsaresourcesformyth-making,nottospeakofservingasavehicleforDaoismtomaintainitselfastheChineseautochthonousreligion.Chapter5MatriarchyattheEdge:theMythicalMotherGoddessNuwaThehumbletemple,NuwaMiao女媧廟,isconsecratedtothemythicalprimevalcreatrixoftheChinesepeople,Nuwa女媧.The“mythemes”9constitutiveofthecorpusofthemythofNuwaarescatteredintime-honouredclassics.DespitehermatriarchalimportanceastheEarthMother,sheisnarratedasthesisterandwifeofFuxi,thefirstoftheThreeEmperors(SanHuang三皇)inancientChina.Sheis,moreover,appropriatedasanavenginggoddessinthemythologicalnovel,FengshenYanyi《封神演義》(CreationoftheGods).WithNuwa’s“re-defined”rolesinMacau,thecultofNuwahasseenadeclineandisovershadowedbyothercultsthatarecloselylinkedwiththesea.However,Nuwaretainsherdivinegreatnessregardlessofscribalprejudiceandabatedpopularityamongotherseagoddesses.ThistempleisyetanotherexampleillustratingthepolytheisticspiritinMacau.Chapter6SanjieHuiguan:theMythandtheCultofGuanDiThecharacteristicguildhall-temple,SanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiao三街會9ClaudeLevi-Strauss’term“mytheme”,meaningthesynthesisoftherelationalunitsinamyth,isborrowedfromthelinguisticconceptsof“phoneme”and“morpheme”.SeeClaudeLevi-Strauss,“TheStructuralStudyofMyth”inRichardT.andFernandeM.deGeorge(ed.),TheStructuralists:FromMarxtoLevi-Strauss(NewYork:Doubleday&Co.Inc.,1972),pp.169-94. 

  
  
 

20TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES館－關帝古廟,sharesthelimelightamidtheEast-Westpatrimonialsitesin“TheHistoricCentreofMacau”.TheguildhallonceservedastheheadquartersfortradersandmerchantsfromthreestreetsinMacau,andtheguildgodwasthehistoricalwarriorGuanYu關羽,popularlyknownasGuanDi關帝(EmperorGuan).GuanDihasnotonlybeenassignedthedutyofseeingtoproperbusinesstransactions,butheisalsoveneratedasoneofthewealthgodsinthistemple.GuanYu’srighteousnessisamplifiedinthehistoricalnovel,SanguoYanyi《三國演義》(ThreeKingdoms),inwhichheismythicizedasadivine-human.Fromtimetotime,thismortalhadbeenglorifiedbytheChineseimperialauthorities,andthecultwasincorporatedintothepantheonofthestatereligion.UnlikethecultofNuwawhichhaslostcertainluster,thecultofGuanDienjoysenduringpopularityamongallwalksoflifeinMacau.NurturedbytwopoliticalentitiesandtwodominantculturesatthemouthofthePearlRiver,Macauisendowedwitharichrepertoireofferingawiderangeoftopicsandsubjectsforresearchinavarietyofdisciplines.AreadingoftheliteraryworksbymenoflettersandtheBuddhist/Daoisttemplesmayshedmorelightontheinteractionsofhistory,culture,andreligion;notleastrenderreflectionsandcommentariesonMacau’scolonialpastandonChinaasawhole. 

  
  
 

21CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHCHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTH1010ThispaperwaspresentedintheInternationalConference—East-WestStudies「東西方研究國際學術研討會」,5–7October2007,organizedbytheUniversityofHongKong(ChineseSchool).ItwaspublishedinReviewofCulture,InternationalEditionNo.24,October2007,pp.71-89.11TheChinesetextisbasedonTangXianzu,MudanTing《牡丹亭》(annotatedbyXuShuofang徐朔方andYangXiaomei楊笑梅)(Beijing:RenminWenxueChubanshe,1963).12TangXianzuonlypassedtheimperialexaminationatthenationallevelinhisfifthattempt.Hisrepeatedfailures,assuggestedbysome,mighthavebeenduetohisrejectionofanofferofpatronagefromZhangJuzheng張居正,SeniorGrandSecretaryinthecourtofEmperorShenzong.SeeLilyShang-Tang,TheFourDreamsofT’angHsien-Tsu(Hamburg:HamburgUniversity,1974),pp.8-9.TangXianzu’s湯顯祖(1550—1616)visittoMacauin1591wasarguablyresponsiblefortheeast-west,south-northdynamicsoftheplayMudanTing《牡丹亭》(ThePeonyPavilion),whichwascompletedin1598.11TheplaydoesnotonlyweavetogetheraWesternenclavewiththeEastern“MiddleKingdom”inaholisticway;italsocelebratesanexogamicmarriageofasouthernerandanorthernerinChina.TangXianzuisconsideredthemostgiftedplaywrightofMing-dynastyChinaandoneofthegreatestdramatistsinthehistoryofChineseliterature.TangwasbornintoagenteelfamilyinLinchuan臨川,Jiangxi江西province,andshowedextraordinarytalentfromearlychildhood.Hepassedtheimperialexaminationatthecountylevelattheageoffourteenandattheprovinciallevelattwenty-one.However,itwasnotuntilhewasthirty-fouryearsold,in1583,thathesucceededingainingthetitleofjinshi進士,orAdvancedScholar,atthenationallevel.12 

  
  
 

22TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESPassingthishighestimperialexaminationwasthegatewayforTangtoobtainapostintheImperialSacrificesinNanjing南京,Jiangsu江蘇province,in1584.Duringhisfiveyearsinservice,alltheofficialdutieswerelessthanall-consuming.Thedespairandfrustrationheexperiencedinhisofficialcareer,however,workedtotheadvantageofhispastime—writing.Inthisperiodofplentifulleisurehours,hecompletedhisfirstplay,ZichaiJi《紫釵記》(ThePurpleHairpin),in1587.In1589TangwasappointedSecretaryattheBureauofSacrificesintheMinistryofRites,buttheyear1591wasaturningpointofhiscareerintheimperialbureaucracy.Ashehadastrongsenseofjusticeandwasamanofhighmoralstandards,hesubmittedapetitionentitled“Lunfuchenkechenshu”〈論輔臣科臣疏〉(MemorialtoImpeachtheMinistersandSupervisors)toEmperorShenzong神宗,whoreignedfrom1573to1620,theeraknownasWanli萬曆.Hecriticizedthecourt’smisadministrationandtheprevailingbriberyamongofficials.ThisoutspokenandloyalmemorialeventuallyledtohisdemotiontothepositionofaclerkinXuwen徐聞county,whichisthesouthernmostcoastalareaofGuangdong廣東province(Plate3).ItwasduringTang’ssojourninsouthChinathathehadachancetocrosstheBorderGate13andvisitMacau,whichbecameanoverseassettlementofthePortugueseEmpirein1557.Forthefirsttimeinhislife,hecameacrosstheluxuriousmerchandisefromtheWestandfromSoutheastAsiathatwasforsaleinMacau.Hemusthavebeenimpressedbytheexquisitebric-a-bracthatwastotallyforeigntohim.HisMacauexperiencecanbetracedinhismostoutstandingliterarypiece,ThePeonyPavilion,whichwaswritteninthestyleofchuanqi傳奇(adramaticromance,ormarveloustale).1413TheMinggovernmentbuilttheBorderGatein1573inordertoisolateMacaufromtheChineseterritories.In1587acivilmagistracywasestablishedtoruletheChineseinMacau.14Chuanqi傳奇isaformoftraditionalChineseoperaticdramathatdevelopedfromnanxi南戲(southernopera)inthelatefourteenthcentury.Beginninginthethirteenthcentury,theMongolconquerorspatronizedanorthernformofoperacalledzaju雜劇(multi-actplay).Whilezajuenjoyedpopularityinthecapitalinthenorth,chuanqiflourishedinthesouth,particularlyintheprovincesofZhejiangandJiangsu.ChuanqialternatedwithzajuasthemajorformofChinesedramauntilthemidsixteenthcentury,whenkunqu崑曲operabegantodominateChinesetheatricalarena. 

  
  
 

23CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHPlate3Mapwithunderlinedkeyplacesmentionedinthischapter.TheextractedillustrationisreproducedfromTheTimesMapofChina&Mongolia(London:TimesBooks,1996). 

  
  
 

24TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESInScene21,“Jieyu”〈謁遇〉(AnAudiencewiththeEnvoy),Macauisthelocaleputonstage,butthissceneisusuallyomittedfrommostoftheperformances.Moreover,thisscenewasneitherapointoffocusinadoctoralthesisonTangXianzu’splays(Shang-Tang,1974),norinthetwovolumesofinternationalconferencepapersonThePeonyPavilion(Hua,2005).Thequestionstobeaskedare:whyisthisalmostforgottenscenecrucialtotheunfoldingoftheplot;howdoestheplaystitchthePortugueseenclavewithimperialChina;andhowisMacaurepresentedthroughTang’sdiscerningeye?TheplayisafantasticallyeccentriclovestoryaboutDuLiniang杜麗娘andLiuMengmei柳夢梅(Plate4).Theheroineisthesixteen-year-olddaughterofDuBao杜寶,amagistrate(orPrefect)ofNan’an南安,Jiangxiprovince,whichislocatedtothenorthofGuangdong.TheheroisabrilliantscholarjustovertwentyyearsoldinLingnan嶺南,15agenericnameforGuangdong,southofChina.LinianghasadreamPlate4DuLiniangandLiuMengmeiinPaiHsien-yung’s白先勇Kunquopera:ThePeonyPavilion.Imagereproducedfromtheoperaleaflet,2006.15Lingnan嶺南(literally,SouthoftheRidges)denotestheregionsouthoffivemountainridgesthatseparatetheYangziandPearlRiverbasins. 

  
  
 

25CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHinwhichshemeetsayoungman,andtheyconsummatetheirloveinthePeonyPavilion.Whenshewakesup,sheishauntedbythedreamandpinesforlove.Shesoondiesoflovesickness.ThemaninLiniang’sdreamisMengmei,wholatermeetsherhun魂(soul,orspiritform)andhelpsherreturntolife.MengmeifinallymarriesLiniangafterhermiraculousresurrection,thoughherfatherdoesnotlikethisqueerfellowfromGuangzhou廣州(theprovincialcapitalofGuangdongprovince).Inthisway,TangXianzutraversesthegeographyofChina,plottinganexogamicmarriagebetweenasouthernerandanortherner.TheCultofQingTangXianzuisaversatileandprolificwriter,leavingbehindabout2,200poems,essaysandverseessays,nottomentionhisfourplaysthatsharethethemeofdreams.16Unlikemanyotherneglectedmenofgeniuswhowereincludedinthepantheonofliteraryimmortalsonlyafterdeath,Tanggainedcertainsuccessinliteratureandenjoyedpopularityasadramatistduringhislifetime.Heevenpersonallyinstructedtheactorsperforminghisplays.Asoneofliterature’senduringlovestoriesandamasterpieceofMing-dynastydrama,ThePeonyPavilion,alsoknownasHuanhunJi《還魂記》(TheReturnoftheSoul),isTang’smostprotractedandprofoundmeditationonthenatureoflove.AnthonyYuisoftheopinionthattheplaybecamethemostprominentliteraryantecedenttoCaoXueqin’s曹雪芹(ca.1717—1763)time-honouredprosefictiononlove,HonglouMeng《紅樓夢》(DreamoftheRedChamber),intheensuingQingdynasty(Yu,1997:129).1716Thefourplaysare:ZichaiJi《紫釵記》(ThePurpleHairpin,1587),MudanTing《牡丹亭》(ThePeonyPavilion,1598),NankeJi《南柯記》(RecordofSouthernBough,1600),andHandanJi《邯鄲記》(RecordofHandan,1601).TheseplaysarecollectivelyknownasTheFourDreamsofLinchuan《臨川四夢》,namedafterTang’sbirthplaceLinchuan,orTheFourDreamsofYumingTang《玉茗堂四夢》,namedafterTang’sstudioYumingTang.17Scene10,“TheInterruptedDream”,wasincorporatedinChapter23ofTheDreamoftheRedChamberasarehearsalepisode.TangXianzu’spoemonqingwasalsoquotedinChapter32.Onthesubjectofqinginthesetwoworks,seeLiuMengxi劉夢溪,“MudanTingyuHonglouMeng” 

  
  
 

26TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESAmongTangXianzu’sliteraryworks,ThePeonyPavilionisbyfarthebest-knownandbest-liked.Renownedforitsbeautifulversesanditsexcellentcharacterportrayals,thisfantasticromancealsofeaturesallusiveandambiguouslanguage,andisriddledwithellipticalreferences.Containingacavalcadeof55scenesand403arias,itisoneofthelongestplaysintheextantrepertoireoftraditionalsouthernchuanqi.Itcomprises160-oddcharacters,providingapanoramicpictureofsociallifeatthattime.Therearepersonagesfromallwalksoflife,rangingfromeliteliteratiandaBuddhistabbottoforeigntradersandaninterpreter;fromtheTartarKingandhisgeneralstoaDaoistnun,agravedigger,ruffiansandharlots.ItisTang’smostillustriousliterarycreation.Significantly,theplaytranscendsthisworld,andincludesotherworldlycharacters:theFlowerFairyfrom“above”andtheJudgeofHellfrom“below”.Successivesettingsfortheactioncontainabed-chamber,astudyroom,agarden,acourtroominhell,aprisoncell,awhore-house,acity-wall,ariver,amountain,amilitaryship,andtheimperialcourt,etc.Tang’slibrettowaswrittenbeforethestyleoftheKunshanaria崑山腔(asouthernsingingstyle)wasprescriptivelydefined,butthismonumentalchuanqiwasadaptedtoconformtothekunqu崑曲operastyle18soonafterhisdeath.19JustasWilliamShakespeare(1564—1616)finishedtheromantictragedyRomeoandJuliet(mostprobablyin1594or1595)ontheothersideoftheworld,TangXianzu〈《牡丹亭》與《紅樓夢》〉,inHuaWei華瑋(ed.),TangXianzuyuMudanTing《湯顯祖與牡丹亭》(Taibei:ZhongyangyanjiuyuanZhongguowenzheyanjiusuo中央研究院中國文哲研究所,2005),pp.655-69.18Kunqu崑曲opera,alsoknownaskunju崑劇,originatedinKunshan崑山,Zhejiangprovinceduringthefourteenthcentury.Notuntilthe1570’sdidkunquoperaachieveapre-eminencebeyonditslocality,andintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesitrosetothestatusofnationalopera.Kunquoperasoonbecamethemostestablishedoperaticstylewithathoroughlycodifiedrepertoireofmelodies.Thecharmsofthekunqustylewerecharacterizedbyasmoothandmellowmannerofsingingandminimalorchestralaccompaniment,typicallytheclapperordrumandabambooflute.In2001UNESCOdeclaredKunqua“masterpiece”oftheworld’sintangibleheritage.19Sometimeafter1623,thelibrettoofThePeonyPavilionwascarefullyeditedandannotatedbyFengMenglong馮夢龍(1574—1646).Hegavehisadaptationadifferenttitle—FengliuMeng《風流夢》(ARomanticDream)—andmadethisplayperformableintheKunshanstyle,whichlaterbecameknownaskunqu崑曲.SeeCatherineC.Swatek,FengMenglong’sRomanticDream:StrategiesofContainmentinhisRevisionofThePeonyPavilion(AnnArbor:UMIDissertationServices,1998),pp.1-6.SeealsoCatherineC.Swatek,PeonyPavilionOnstage:FourCenturiesintheCareerofaChineseDrama(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichigan,2002),pp.3-11. 

  
  
 

27CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHcelebratedqing情toitsfullestextentinThePeonyPavilion(completedin1598).IntheNeo-Confuciancontext,qingcanbedefinedaslove,passion,desire(Yu,1997:56-66).Thesetwocontemporaneousplayssimultaneouslyillustratethefireofpassionandsharethesimilarityoftheuntimelydeathoftheheroines.RomeoandJulietisoneofShakespeare’searliesttheatricaltriumphs,andisconsideredthemosticoniclovestoryintheWesterncanon.Likewise,ThePeonyPavilionhasenjoyedtremendoustheatricalsuccess,andTang’sabidinginterestisqing.InthePrefaceofthetranslatedThePeonyPavilion(secondedition),CyrilBirchsays,‘ForTangXianzu,qinginitshighestdevelopment,astruelovebetweenmanandwoman,embracessexualattraction,physicalpassion,butalsosentiment,empathy,devotion—thevirtuesofthatbroaderlovethatexistsalsooutsidethesexualrelationship’(Birch,2002:x).Althoughqingistranslatedas“love”,amoreinclusiveequivalentwouldbefeelings.Inotherwords,joyandsorrow,fearandanger,desireandhateareallpartofthe“feeling”sideofthedichotomybetweenqingandli理(moralprinciple).Whileqingstandsforthespontaneousaffectsofxin心(heartorthehumanmind),20listandsforthepowersofreason.Incontrasttotheadvocacyoftherigidlyrationalli,theextollingofqingwaspartofthenew,humanecurrentsofthoughtinthelateryearsoftheMingdynasty(1368—1644).Anoutburstofqing(sentimentsandemotions),astheNeo-Confuciansbelieved,espousedasubversivegesturethatmightviolatetheconfinesofli.TwomainschoolsofthoughtsofNeo-Confucianism21werelixue理學(SchoolofPrinciple),whosefounderwasZhuXi朱熹(1130—1200),andxinxue心學(SchooloftheMind/Heart),whosemostinfluentialproponentwasWangYangming王陽明(1472—1529).Wang’sphilosophyofthemind/heartismarkedlydifferentfromZhuXi’sphilosophyofprinciple.TangXianzulivedatthetimewhenWangYangming’sphilosophywasatthepeakininfluenceandpopularity.Inparticular,TaizhouXuepai泰州學派(TheTaizhouSchoolofPhilosophy),whichembracedanewfreshwaveoffreethinkingandfreeinterpretationofConfucianideas,wasflourishinginJiangsu.20TotheancientEgyptiansandAztecs,theheart,ratherthanthebrain,wasseenastheorganthatheldone’smindandsoul,becauseitwassymbolicallysituatedinthecentreofthebody.21TherationalisticrevivalofConfucianismintheeleventhcenturyhasbeencommonlyknownas“Neo-Confucianism”. 

  
  
 

28TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESTheTaizhouSchool(namedafterthefounder’shometowninJiangsu)wasfoundedbyWangGen王艮(1483—1541),whowasWangYangming’smostdistinguishedfollower,andtheleaderofZuopaiWangxue左派王學(TheLeftBranchoftheWangYangmingSchool).22Tang’sscholarlyteacher,LuoRufang羅汝芳(1515—1588)wasthesecond-generationdiscipleofWangGen.Inthisway,TangwasnurturedbyareactionarystanceagainstZhuXi’srigidlixue.UpholdingWangYangming’smorehumanexinxue,TanglaudedthecultofqinginthePrefacetoMudanTing.Hereisanexcerptofhisvalorizationof,ifnotobsessionwith,qing:Loveisofsourceunknown,yetitgrowseverdeeper.Thelivingmaydieofit,byitspowerthedeadliveagain.Loveisnotloveatitsfullestifonewholivesisunwillingtodieforit,orifitcannotrestoretolifeonewhohassodied.Andmustthelovethatcomesindreamnecessarilybeunreal?Forthereisnolackofdreamloversinthisworld.Onlyforthosewhoselovemustbefulfilledonthepillowandforwhomaffectiondeepensonlyafterretirementfromoffice,isitentirelyacorporealmatter…(Birch,trans.2002:ix)ForTang,qingcouldevenabolishtheboundariesbetweenlifeanddeath.Despitetheantagonismofhisopponentsandthepressureoforthodoxy,TangstarklyshowedanadamantwilltoasserthispersonalvisionandstagedavaliantconfrontationwithNeo-Confuciandogmas.AsZhouZuyanhaspointedout,‘Inhisadherencetoqing,particularlyinhisdramaticaffirmationoffreeloveandself-arrangedmarriage,Tangposesanunequivocallyhereticalpostureagainstorthodoxnorms’(Zhou,2003:87).Tang’sindomitablecourageinillustratingthemagnitudeofqingisdescribedbyAnthonyYuas“utmostdaring”inliteraryrepresentation(Yu,1997:105).Tang’sdauntlessreactiontothegripofNeo-Confucianideologyisevidentin22TheessenceofWangYangming’sthinkingfocusedonthenotionofliangzhi良知(conscience,ortheinnateknowingofgood).Thecultivationofliangzhiwasawaytoattainsagehood.WangGensharedwithWangYangming’sviewthatanyonecouldbecomeasage.Moreover,heemphasizedontheideaofanshen安身(makingtheselforbodysecure). 

  
  
 

29CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHScene10“TheInterruptedDream”andScene28“UnionwiththeGhost”.WhilethedreamsceneisaneroticdepictionoftheconsummationofthetwoprotagonistsinthePeonyPavilionatthebackgardenofLiniang’sfamilyhome,theghostsceneboldlyportraysLinianginspiritform,flirtatiouslyseducingMengmeiinthePlumBlossomNunnery.Thesetwoscenesarenarratedwithgreataudacity,breakingallthecodesofConfucianethicsanddidacticmoralism.ToquoteAnthonyYuagain,‘Imaginativeliterature,insum,provesitselftobethemostpuissantmeanstorecord,transmit,andglorifytheprivateinterestsbegottenofpassion’(Yu,1997:192).Bymanipulatingtheimageryofdreamandthenetherworld,Tangexploresqingandpassionateabandonbeyondrealityandbeyondthepaleofofficialsanction.ThelateryearsoftheMingdynastysawbloomingcreativityinliteratureandundaunteddefianceagainsttheestablishedthoughtsconsecratedbytradition.JustasthecontemporaneousFengshenYanyi《封神演義》(CreationoftheGods)andXiyouJi《西遊記》(JourneytotheWest)embodyanunrealisticandfantasticalmodeofexpressiontosubvertConfucianorthodoxy,23ThePeonyPavilion,likewise,espousesthecultofqingtoscoffattheideologicalspectrumofZhuXi’scoldlyrationalli.TangXianzu’sSojourninGuangdongTangXianzuwasanativeofJiangxi24province(abbreviatedasGan贛),andspentaboutoneyear(1591—1952)inGuangdongprovince.JiangxiislocatedtothenorthofGuangdong.JiangxiandGuangdongareadjacentprovinces,buttheyhavedistinctivecultural,linguisticandethnicdifferences.ThesetwoprovincesareconnectedbytheMeiling梅嶺Pass(abbreviatedasMeiGuan梅關),whichforcenturieshasbeenChina’smainnorth-southcorridorformigrationandcommunication.PeopleinJiangxiareoftendubbedwaijianglao外江佬(folksfrombeyondtheYangziRiver)by23Confucianismusedtoreactwithhostilitytosupernaturalelementsandthefantasies,andoccultismofmythology.24Jiangxidesignates“thewestofthesouthoftheYangziRiver”(JiangnanXi江南西,orWestJiangnan),ratherthan“thewestoftheYangziRiver”.ThenameofthisprovincewascoinedwhenthecircuitofJiangnan江南(literally,southoftheYangziRiver)wassplitintowesternandeasternhalvesduringtheTangdynasty. 

  
  
 

30TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESthepeopleinGuangdong.Guangdong(abbreviatedasYue粵)isthesouthernmostcoastalprovinceofChina.Peopletherehavelongbeencallednanman南蠻(southernbarbarians),25aderogatorytermtodifferentiatethemfromotherethnicgroupsinthe“MiddleKingdom”.ItsprovincialcapitalisGuangzhou(alsoknownbyanolderEnglish-languagename,Canton),26whichliesclosetoMacau.SinceGuangzhouisthemajorsoutherncity,itisseenasChina’s“SouthGate”.The19thyearofWanli萬曆(1591)wasaturbulenttimeforthe42-year-oldTangXianzu.Afterhissubmissionofthe“MemorialtoImpeachtheMinistersandSupervisors”inthe3rdlunarmonthofthatyear,hewasbanishedfromNanjing(thepoliticalcentre)inthe5thlunarmonth.HereturnedtohishomeatLinchuan,wherehelayillforfourmonths;then,inthe9thlunarmonthhebeganthejourneytoGuangdong.TangXianzureachedGuangzhoubythemiddleofthe10thlunarmonth.Hetookthischancetovisitsomenearbyplaces,andthenmovedtoXiangshan香山county(today’sZhongshan中山county),fromwhencehevisitedMacau.Finally,hereachedXuwencountyatsomepointafterthe11thlunarmonthtotakeuphisdemotedpostasaclerk(HuangandWu,1986:89-90).XuwenisaremotetropicalareainthesouthernmostpartontheChinesemainland,facingHainan海南Island.Thepicaresquedetourtothelandofthe“southernbarbarians”wasanunusualexperience,andhecomposedacollectionofpoemstochroniclewhathesawandwhathefelt.OfalltheplacesTangvisitedonhissouthernsojourn,hemusthavefoundMacauexceptionallyfascinating.Throughhispoeticcreation,hecapturedsomevividimagesofthisnewPortuguesesettlement.Therealityof“EastmeetsWest”wasdexterouslywoveninthefollowingtwopoems:25SincetheSpringandAutumnPeriod(fromthe8thto5thcenturyB.C.),peoplefromtheeast,south,west,andnorthhavebeenclassifiedasbarbariantribes:theYi夷,Man蠻,Rong戎,andDi狄respectively.26CantonwasthePortugueseorFrenchromanizationofGuangdongprovince,anditsinhabitantswerecalledCantonese.GuangzhouisthepinyinromanizationoftheMandarinnameforthecity. 

  
  
 

31CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTH〈香山嶴逢賈胡〉不住田園不樹桑，珴珂衣錦下雲檣。明珠海上傳星氣，白玉河邊看月光。(Tang,1999:456)“TheEncounterofForeignTradersinXiangshanAo(Macau)”Theyneitherstayinfieldsandgardensnorgrowmulberrytrees,Handsomelyattired,theyarriveherebythegreatcarracks,Pearlsfromtheseaglitterliketwinklingstars,Whitejadesbytheriverbankshinelikethemellowmoonlight.XiangshanAo香山嶴(“Ao”inChinesecanalsobewrittenas嶴oror澳),literallymeaningtheBayoftheFragrantHill,referstoMacau澳門.LinkedtoZhongshancountybyanarrowisthmus,MacaustandsonthewesternshoreofthePearlRivernotfarfromGuangzhouprefecture.ThepoemclearlytellsofTang’sencounterwiththewell-dressedWesterntraders,whowerenomorefarmers,butmerchantssellingpreciousjewelsinMacau.HisexperiencewiththeseseafaringWesternerswasalsoskillfullyincorporatedinThePeonyPavilion(Scene21).Inanotherpoem,TanglearnsmoreaboutMacauthroughaninterpreter.Alsoknownasgalala伽喇喇intheMingdynasty,theinterpretersfromXiangshancountywereactiveinMacau.InThePeonyPavilion(Scene21)thegalalaplaysanimportantroleingraftingtheEastandWestinMacau.HereTangpresentsacharmingWestern(perhapsPortuguese)lady: 

  
  
 

32TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES〈聽香山譯者〉27花面蠻姬十五強，28薔薇露水拂朝妝。盡頭西海新生月，口出東林倒挂香。29(Tang,1999:455)“FromanInterpreterinXiangshan”Aprettyforeignlassjustoverfifteen,Spraysherselfwithfragrantrosewaterinthemorning.Thejewelsinherhairgleamlikethecrescentmoonoverthewestocean,AndherperfumedbreathislikeabrightlycolouredbirdfromJava.Theprettyyoungladyisadoredwithjewelsandsprayedwithperfume.ThisexoticimageoftheforeignpresencemustbeahauntingmemoryduringTang’svisitinsouthChina.ThetwopoemsarereadilyresonantwithFatherAntónioCardim’sdescriptionofMacauasatreasurestorein1644.Hewrites,‘It[Macau]isthestoreofallthosegoodsofgold,silver,silk,pearls,andotherjewels,ofallmannerofdrugs,spices,andperfumes’(quotedinFrancis,1930:2).Tang’stwopoemsrecountthatMacauwasalreadyaplacefullofwonderfultreasuresandcommoditieswellbeforethemidseventeenthcentury.NotonlydidTangbearwitnesstothePortuguesepresenceinMacau,healsomettwozealousevangelistsfromtheWestinDuanzhou端州,asynonymforZhaoqing肇慶county.InannotatingTangXianzuQuanJi《湯顯祖全集》,XuShuofang徐朔方believesthatthetwoWesternerswereFrancescodePetris石方西(1562—1593)27Thisisoneofthetwopoemsunderthesametitle.28AtthebeginningofScene9,Chunxiang,thepertmaid,introducesherselfinanaria,singing,‘Aprettylassinearlyteens’花面丫頭十三四.InthispoemonMacau,Tangchangedsomewordstoportrayaforeignlady.29Daogua倒挂,orpreciselydaoguaniao倒挂鳥,isakindoftropicalbirdwithfeathersoffivecolours.Atnightithangsitselfup-side-downandemitsafragrantsmell. 

  
  
 

33CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHandMatteoRicci利瑪竇(1552—1610)(quotedinTang,1999:469).Atthattime,ZhaoqingwastheadministrativecapitalofGuangdongandGuangxi廣西provinces.MissionariesinMacauwereallowedtoproselytizeinZhaoqing,andthemissionhouseinMacaufunctionedasasupplybasetomaintaintheirliving.AsTanghadalreadyvisitedMacau,heshowedaninteresttochroniclehisencounterwithforeignmissionariesfromMacauinZhaoqinginthefollowingpoem:〈端州逢西域兩生破佛立義〉30二子西來迹已奇，黃金作使更何疑？31自言天竺原無佛，說與蓮花教主知。(Tang,1999:469)“InDuanzhou,EncounteringTwoWesternScholarswhoargueagainstBuddhism”ThesetwomenfromtheWestprovetobesostrange,Cantherebeanydoubtthattheycomewithmoneytogiveaway?TheyclaimtherewasnoBuddhainIndia,AndconvincetheBuddhistabbotoftheirteaching.UnderthePortuguesePadroado(EcclesiasticalPatronage),32MatteoRicci,anItalianJesuit,arrivedatMacauin1582fromGoainIndia.Hisarrivalmarkedahistoric30Thisisoneofthetwopoemsunderthesametitle.31Itisbelievedthatmissionarieswonnewrecruitsbyattractingthemwithmoneyandpresents.Chineseconvertsweremostlypoorandilliterate,andtheywouldreceivefinancialaideveryyearaftertheywereconverted,whileliterateconvertsweregivenmorebenefits.SeeZhangWenying章文欽,AomenyuZhonghuaLishiWenhua《澳門與中華歷史文化》(Macau:FundaçãoMacau,1995),pp.121-2.32ThePortuguesemonopolyoverevangelizationintheEastwasconsolidatedbyaPapalBullin1514.AlmostallmissionarieswerePortugueseandthosefromotherEuropeancountrieswhotookpartinthemissionpracticallylosttheirnationalidentityandbecamepartoftheentourageoftheKingofPortugal. 

  
  
 

34TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESmomentfortheintroductionofChristianityinChina,andforthefirsttime,Macauservedasabridgehead.33In1583RiccileftMacauforZhaoqingtolaunchthemissioncivilisatrice.InlightofthemonotheismofChristianity,IndianBuddhism,whichenteredChinafromCentralAsiain67A.D.,wasflatlydenied.Thetwomissionaries,enthusedwithproselytizingfervour,wereexpelledfromZhaoqingin1589.TheythenmovedtoShaozhou韶州(present-dayShaoguan韶關,acityinnorthernGuangdong,adjacenttoJiangxi),andfoundedanewresidencethere.AfterthedeathofFrancescodePetrisinNovember1593,RiccistayedoninShaoguanuntil1594.34HowcouldTangXianzuhavemetthemin1592inZhaoqing?35Sometimeinlate1592TangleftperipheralXuwenforahome-boundjourneybacktoLinchuan,passedthroughZhaoqing(HuangandWu,1986:91).ItmaybesurmisedthathereturnedhomebeforetakinguphisnewpostasaminormagistrateinSuichang遂昌country,Zhejiang浙江province,inthe3rdlunarmonthof1593.AccordingtothejournalsofMatteoRicci,theirmissionhouseinShaozhouwasattackedandrobbed33ThesecondtimethatMacauservedasabridgeheadforChristianitywasmarkedbythearrivalofRobertMorrison,aProtestantmissionary,atMacauin1807.34In1595,MatteoRiccisettledinNanchang南昌,thecapitalofJiangxiprovince.HeleftforNanjingin1599,andreachedBeijingin1601.Hesoongainedfavourattheimperialcourt,andtherefollowedaperiodofhighhopesforevangelizationbeforehisdeathin1610.35InTangXianzunianpu《湯顯祖年譜》,XuShuofangfailstoexplainhowTangXianzuandthetwomissionariescouldhavemetin1592,andthedateofTang’sdeparturefromXuwenisincorrectlygivenas“spring”1592.GivenXu’sconfusionindate,someChinesescholars,withouttryingtolookforotherreferences,simplyquote“spring”insteadof“autumn”fordiscussion.SeeLuoZhaorong羅兆榮,“TangXianzuyuAomen”〈湯顯祖與澳門〉,JiangxiShehuiKexue《江西社會科學》,No.3,2000,pp.52-3;TangKaijian湯開建,“TangXianzuyuAomen”〈湯顯祖與澳門〉,JournalofGuangxiUniversityforNationalities(PhilosophyandSocialScienceEdition)《廣西民族學院學報》(哲學社會科學版),Vol.23,No.5,September2001,pp.65-71.Followingthewrongchronology,someevenmaintainthatTangXianzunevermetthetwo“Westernscholars”.SeeLuoDi洛地,“BuyiXuanransuoweiTangXianzuyuMatteoRiccihuiwu”〈不宜渲染所謂湯顯祖與利瑪竇會晤〉,ZhongguoSuichangTangXianzuGuojiXueshuYantaohuiLunwenJi《中國遂昌湯顯祖國際學術研討會論文集》,2006,pp.13-26;GongZhongmo龔重謨andFanZhouyou范舟遊,“TangXianzuzaiLingnan”〈湯顯祖在嶺南〉,ReviewofCulture《文化雜誌》,ChineseEditionNo.66,2008,pp.186-200(previouslypublishedinZhongguoSuichangTangXianzuGuojiXueshuYantaohuiLunwenJi《中國遂昌湯顯祖國際學術研討會論文集》,2006:271-87). 

  
  
 

35CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHonenightinJuly1592.RiccianddePetriswereslightlyinjured—‘FatherFranciscoreceivedaslightcutontheheadfromahatchet’and‘FatherRiccireceivedawoundonthehand’(Ricci,1953:248-9).BothevangelistswererequestedtoreturntoZhaoqingduringthelatterpartof1592inordertoreviewthecourtcaseagainsttherobbers.ItwasmostprobablyatthisjunctureoftimeandspacethatTanghappenedtomeetthesetwo“Westernscholars”inZhaoqing.WhatisspecialaboutthepoemisthatittestifiestotheearlyEast-WestreligiousrepercussionsinGuangdongpriortotheprolongedRitesControversy,wagedbytheJesuitsononesideandtheDominicansandFranciscansontheother,inBeijing(itwillbediscussedinChapter2).AlthoughthispoemisnotparticularlyaboutMacau,yetthetwomissionariesarecloselylinkedwithMacau.ForWesternmissionariesatthattime,MacauwasindispensableinthelandscapeofsouthChina.Itwasthebastionforthemtoretreat;anditwasthesupplybaseformaterialsthatcouldnotbefoundinZhaoqing.Afterall,thepoemsdiscussedabovecanserveasakindofprefaceforTang’slaterobservationsaboutMacauinThePeonyPavilion.AQueerParasiteinGuangzhouLikesomegreatnovelsoftheMingdynasty,36TangXianzu’sThePeonyPavilionwasbasedonpre-existingsources.Heexpanded,reshaped,andextrapolatedfromanearlierstoryteller’shuaben話本(prompt-book)37oftheSongdynasty,entitled“DuLiniangmusehuanhun”〈杜麗娘慕色還魂〉(DuLinianglongingforlovereturnsinspiritform).38Inthishuaben,LiuMengmeiisanativeofChengdu成都inSichuan36Forinstance,thecontemporaneousFengshenYanyi《封神演義》(CreationoftheGods),firstpublishedaround1567—1619,wasanoutgrowthfromWuwangfaZhouPinghua《武王伐紂平話》(KingWu’sExpeditionagainstthetyrantKingZhou).Also,XiyouJi《西遊記》(JourneytotheWest),firstpublishedin1592,waspredicatedonthehistoricalsourcesinDatangXiyuJi《大唐西域記》(TheGreatTangRecordoftheWesternTerritories).37Presumably,prompt-bookswereusedbyprofessionalstorytellersassummariesornotesfortheliveperformancesonthestreet,orinthemarketplace.38ThetextofthishuabencanbefoundinXuShuofang徐朔方,TangXianzunianpu《湯顯祖年譜》(Shanghai:ShanghaiGujiChubanshe上海古籍出版社,1980),pp.239-47. 

  
  
 

36TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES四川province.OnedistinctdifferenceinThePeonyPavilionisthatMengmei’snativeplaceischangedtoGuangzhou,andhebecomesa“southerner”.TangclearlyembellishedthisearliercrudetalewithhisexperienceinGuangdongandcreatedamasterpieceenshrinedintheChineseliterarypantheon.Themysteriousmediumofpremonitorydreamsprovidesaskeletonforthedevelopmentoftheplot.Attheoutset,Mengmeicomesonstageintroducinghimselfinamelancholymanner(Scene2).Hetellstheaudiencethathalfamonthagohetookanapduringthedayandhadastrangedream.Hedreamedofaslimbeautystandingunderaplumtreeinagarden.Thisdemureyoungladyshylytoldhimthataftermeetingher,hewouldhaveahappymarriageandabrightfutureinhischosencareer.Astheplotunfolds,thisdreamoflovebecomesadrivingforceinhisquestforstatus.Liniangisalwaysalreadythecentre-stageheroine;andherstirringpassionhasbeenafrequentsubjectofdiscussion,butthecharacterMengmeireceivesscantattentionforanalysis.AsLiniangfacesheradolescentcrisisinacloisteredworld,Mengmeiisascholarinanopenworld(forhecantravelfreely).WhileLiniangisapampereddaughterandlivesinadignifiedhouseholdinNan’an,andwithnoworriesaboutthenecessitiesoflife,MengmeiwasorphanedinearlychildhoodandlivesincoldandhungerinavegetablegardeninGuangzhou.Althoughhepassestheimperialexaminationatthecountylevel,hecannotgetagovernmentpost.Hereliesonhisfaithfulservant,HunchbackGuo郭駝,foraliving.Hisgardener-servantsupportshimbyplantingtreesandgrowingflowers.Mengmeiisportrayednotonlyasasheerbookworm,butalsoaqueerparasite.InSearchofPatronageOnedayMengmeivisitshisfriendHanZicai韓子才wholivesinthenorthofGuangzhou(Scene6).Whenthetwofriendsmeet,Mengmeimournsthattheirill-starredancestorsoftheTangdynasty(618—907),LiuZongyuan柳宗元(773—819)andHanYu韓愈(768—824),werehaplesslydemotedtotakeuppositionsinsouthChinaastheyhadoffendedtheemperor.InthewordsofZicai,theexpulsiontoborderareasfarawayfromthecapitalisbiancuanyanfang貶竄煙方.Thetermyanfang煙方 

  
  
 

37CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHconnotesthatcoastalregionsarefullofhazeandmiasma(bianhaiyanzhangdifang邊海煙瘴地方).BymakingthecharactersMengmeiandZicaithedescendantsofthesetwowell-knownpersonages,andbyrevealingZicai’sexactaddressinGuangzhou,theplaywrightenhancesasenseofrealismintheplay,alongsidetheeerinessoftheplot.Inthisscene,southChinaisrepresentedwretchedly.Itisaninhospitableandhazyarea,beingsusceptibletovariouskindsofdiseases.Particularly,itisadestinationforpunishmentandbanishment;andinotherwords,itisareceptacleforofficialswhohavefallenoutoffavourintheimperialcourt.Inreality,TangXianzuwasexpelledfromNanjinginJiangsuprovincetoXuweninGuangdongprovince,thatis,fromthe“civilizedcentre”tothe“barbaricsouth”.Hisdemotionprovidesareadyparallelwiththetwoscholar-officialsoftheTangdynasty.Quitedifferently,ZicaidescribesMacaufavourably.Itisaregionfullofexquisitetreasures,frequentedbyforeigntradersandinterpreters.ZicaiadvisesMengmeitolookforapatrontohelphimoutoffinancialpredicament:Haven’tyouheardthatMiaoShunbin,ImperialEnvoyfortreasureappraisal,caresformenoflearning?Beforehistermofofficeendsthisautumn,hewillgoasusualtoassesstreasureintheTreasureTemplenearXiangshanBayinMacao.Shallwegoandtrytoseehimatthattime?(Wang,trans.2000:59)Mengmei’svisittoZicaiisonlyatransitionalepisode.However,theminorcharacterZicaiisendowedwitharoletointroduceenviableMacau.MacauishintedasaplaceofhopeandchanceforMengmeitofindapatron.Also,Macauisinsinuatedasastepping-stoneforhimtogotothecapitalfortakinganimperialexamination.MengmeimakesuphismindtoventuretoMacau.BeforeleavingheshowsimmensegratitudetoHunchbackGuo,hisgardener-servant,andsings(Scene13):AlltheseyearsIhavereliedonyou;Suchfaithfulmenlikeyouareveryfew.Thelifeishardandfoodisplain,ButIshouldoweallthistoyou. 

  
  
 

38TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESWhatamIlikeinyoureyes?Isitanddaydreamlikeafoolallday,Andnevergiveyouhelpinanyway.Myverydaydreamisashame;WhoelseamItoblame?I’llleavethegardentreestoyou;ThatisallIcando.(Wang,trans.2000:177-9)Mengmeiintendstoleavehomeandto“playtheautumnwind”(daqiufeng打秋風).Thetermdaqiufengreferstosolicitingfundsfromfriends,orseekingfavourfromtherich.However,HunchbackGuoearnestlyremindshimtoconcentrateonhisstudiesfortheimperialexamination,ratherthan“goingwiththeautumnwind”,thatis,travellinginsearchofapatroninMacau.ItseemsthatTangXianzuvoiceshisdislikeofthepracticeofdaqiufengthroughthesteadfastservant’sadmonishment.SanbaSiinMacauInlightofTangXianzu’sdemotiontoGuangdong,itisperhapsablessingindisguise.HehadachancetovisitsouthChinaandwitnessedthe“EastmeetsWest”scenarioinMacauandZhaoqing.Specifically,hemusthaveseentheformativeyearsofPortugueseMacauasanewChristiancitywhereproselytizingmissionariesbuiltmanynew,yetsimple,churches.ThereareavarietyofscenetypesinThePeonyPavilion.Amongmajorscenesandtransitionalepisodes,theplayisrichlylacedwithcomicinterludes.Fromtimetotime,thereaderisintermittentlyentertainedwithsplendid,light-heartedvignettes.InthewakeofLiniang’suntimelydeathandherparents’mourninginNan’an,thelocaleofScene21“AnAudiencewiththeEnvoy”movestoMacauandprovidessomecomicrelief.TheAbbotoftheTreasureTemplecomesonstagewithanaria:Inaraggedkasaya[Sanskrit,meaningBuddhistrobe],IamaBuddhistmonkofSanbaSiinMacao.Withbodhisattvasofabundantwealth 

  
  
 

39CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHLivemanymonksofsoundesthealth.(Wang,trans.2000:303,revised)IntheEnglishtranslation,thereadercannotappreciatethebeautifulrhymesofthefirsttwolinesinChinese:yilingpojiasha,XiangshanAoliba一領破袈裟,香山裏巴(translatedas:Inaraggedkasaya,IamaBuddhistmonkofSanbaSiinMacao).XiangshanAo香山(XiangshanBay)isoneofMacau’spoeticliterarynames.39Theellipticalcharacterba巴standsforsanba三巴,whichistheChinesetransliterationofSãoPaulo(SaintPaul).SincetheChineseusedtocallchurchassi寺(temple),thesecondlinetellsthatinMacauthereisaplacecalledSanbaSi三巴寺(theTempleofSãoPaulo)—asinicizednamefortheChurchofStPaul.40In1563threeJesuits41arrivedatMacau,andin1565theyestablishedtheirfirstresidenceandasimplechurchasabridgeheadforChristianityintheFarEast,withthemaininterestinChina.Thechurchwasmadeofwoodandstoneintheformofalargebarn—atechniqueoftenadoptedbythePortugueseintheirearlysettlements.In1572theCollegeofStPaul’swasconstructed.Thesebuildingsoccupiedalargearea,onthesideofahill,almostinthecentreofthecity,wheretheChurchofStAnthonystandsinMacautoday(Hugo-Brunt,1954:329).Thiswasthe“primordial”ChurchofStPaul,orSanbaSi,thatTangXianzucameacrossinMacauin1591.By1594theoriginalbuildingcomplexbecameinadequate,andsomenewbuildingswereerected.Thesebuildingsstoodwithintheareaofthepresent-dayRuinsofStPaul’s.Aftertwofiresin1595and1601respectively,theCollegiateChurchofStPaul’s(collegeandchurch)wasrebuiltin1602.Itsornatefaçadewascompletedin39Macauhasbeengivenvariouspoeticliterarynames,suchasJinghai鏡海(MirroroftheSea),HaijingAo海鏡澳(Sea-MirrorBay),LianhuaDao蓮花島(LotusIsland);Lianyang蓮洋(LotusOcean),etc.40StPaulisconsideredthefirstgreatChristianmissionaryandafavouritepatronsaintofMacauandGoa.OnthehistoryoftheChurchofStPaul,seeManuelTeixeira,TheChurchofStPaulinMacau(Lisboa:CentrodeEstudosHistóricosUltramarinosdaJuntadeInvestigaçõesCientíficasdoUltramar,1979).41TheSocietyofJesuswasfoundedbyIgnatiusLoyolain1534.ThefirstJesuit,FatherBelchiorNunesBarreto,arrivedatMacauinAugust1555,butitwasnotuntil1563thatthreeJesuitsfoundedthebranchoftheSocietyofJesusthere.SeePursuingtheDream:JesuitsinMacau(Macau:TipografiaMartinho,1990). 

  
  
 

40TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES1640.Stilltoday,theChurchislocallycalledDasanba大三巴(BigSãoPaulo),soastodistinguishitfromStJoseph’sSeminaryChurch,whichiscalledSanbazai三巴仔(LittleSãoPaulo).42In1835adisastrousfireturnedtheCollegiateChurchofStPaul’sintorubble,leavingonlythefaçadeandthewalls.Thefire-baptizedfaçade,widelyknownastheRuinsofStPaul’s,hasbeenendorsedasadistinctivesymbolofMacau,andisoneofMacau’smostfamousculturalrelics.Followinghisaria,theAbbottellstheaudience:I’mtheheadmonkoftheTreasureTempleneartheXiangshanBay,GuangzhouPrefecture.Thistemplewasbuiltbytheforeignmerchantstoreceivetheofficialsoftreasureappraisal.(Wang,trans.2000:303)TheTreasureTemple多寳寺isactuallytheChurchofStPaul,builtin1565inthecitycentre,notthe“newer”onethatwaserectedin1594.TheAbbotreceivesnoticethattheImperialEnvoyforTreasureAppraisal,MiaoShunbin苗舜賓,hasjustcompletedhisthree-yeartermofoffice,andplanstomakeanofferingofjewelsashislasttributetotheTreasureBodhisattva.TheAbbotwalksoutofthetempletogreetMiao,whileaforeignmerchantandagalala(interpreter)helpprepareallthetreasuresforMiao’sinspection.Miaoproclaims:Whatraretreasures!Theyareascrystalasmountaintorrentsandasbrilliantasthesunandthemoon.ThisTreasureTempleindeeddeservesitsname!OfferincensetotheBodhisattva.(Wang,trans.2000:305)Wishingtoprotectthecoastalareas,theEnvoyrequeststheAbbottopraytotheAvalokites´varaBodhisattva(orGuanYin觀音inChinese)andtochantablessingfortheArabMuslimseatraders.TheAbbotsings:42StJoseph’sSeminarywasfoundedbytheJesuitsin1728andtheChurchwasbuiltin1758.TogetherwiththeCollegiateofStPaul’s,theyformedtheprincipalbasefortheSocietyofJesus. 

  
  
 

41CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHTheseaaboundsintreasuresofallkinds,Butwavesmaytosstheshipsandminds.ThemerchantswiththeirtreasurehoardFeartobravethewindandwavesabroad.BodhisattvaGuanYin,Yournamebringsblissthroughthickandthin.(Wang,trans.2000:307)Theforeignmerchantshavebrought“treasuresofallkinds”toMacauastheimperialcourtoffersahighpriceforthem.Ontheonehand,thisscenepointstothegreatdemandforexoticmerchandise;andontheother,itdepictsMacauasanimportantsupplybaseinsouthChina.Notably,thegalalaisanindispensableagentbridgingforeigntradersandtheChinese.MacauisarguablyarendezvousfortheEastandtheWest.AGenuineTreasureAssoonasMengmeiarrivesatthegateoftheTreasureTemple,heyearnstoseetheImperialEnvoy,MiaoShunbin,andtohavealookatthetreasures.WhentheEnvoylearnsthatheisastudentoftheConfucianAcademyinthePrefectureofGuangzhou,heconsidershim“apearlofmanfromtheSouthSea”(nantuzhizhen南土之珍).Makinganexception,Miaoagreestoshowhimthetreasures(Plate5),andsings:TheDivinePebblesoftheMilkyWay,ThePillsofGold,theIronTreeBloom,TheCat’s-eyesthatemitthebrilliantray,AndEmeraldsthatdispelthegloom.Look,thereyouseeTheRubiesfromtheforeignland,TheMagicGobletfromthewest,TheToadofJadethatsucksmoon-sandTheSun-flintPearlsandIce-placeblest.(Wang,trans.2000:311) 

  
  
 

42TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESPlate5LiuMengmeiandMiaoShunbininScene21,“AnAudiencewiththeEnvoy”.ImagereproducedfromTangXianzu,TangXianzuXiquJi《湯顯祖戲曲集》(annotatedbyQianNanyang錢南揚)(Shanghai:ShanghaiGujiChubanshe上海古籍出版社,1978),Vol.1,p.320.ThisariaundoubtedlyextolsthewonderofMacauasashowroomforallkindsofgemstonesfromfarawayplaces.Miao’sdescriptionalsotellsofMacau’snewlyacquiredstatusasaprosperouscommercialport.Mengmeiisastonishedtoseetheglitteringgemstones,andonawhimheaskshowfarawaythesetreasurescomefrom.Miaoanswersthatthefarthestisthirtythousandli里(or15,000kilometers)awayandthenearestovertenthousandli(or5,000kilometers)away.Withasigh,Mengmeimakesacomicanalogy:YourExcellency,theseinsensibleandfootlesstreasurescanreachtheemperorfromthirtythousandliaway,whileacompetentscholarlikemecannotreachtheemperorfromthreethousandliaway.IhavefeetbutI 

  
  
 

43CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHcannotfly!(Wang,trans.2000:313)MengmeicontinuesinthisveinaskingwittilyifthesetreasuresfleworwalkedtoMacau.Miaocannothelplaughingatsucharidiculousquestion.Atthisstage,Mengmeilosesnotimeinproclaimingthathehimselfis“agenuinetreasure”(xianshibao獻世寳),andwillproveattheimperialcourtthatheistheraresttreasureonearth.AlthoughMengmeisoundsboastful,Miaoisimpressedbyhisforthrightandpolemicexpressions.Inadifferentrhetoric,MengmeirevealstoMiaothathehasnowaytofinancethejourneytotaketheimperialexaminationinthecapitalLin’an臨安(today’sHangzhou杭州,Zhejiangprovince).Miaoisfondofthispooryetquick-wittedmanfromthesouth.Justasthegentrygavepiecesofgoldtovaliantmeninpreviousyears,Miaoreadilysponsorshimbygivinghimsomesilverfromtheofficialrevenuetocoverhistravelexpensestothecapital.MiaoaskshisattendanttofetchsomesilverforMengmei,andoffershimacupofwinethatisfermentedfromthelitchifruit.43Offering“acupofwine”insinuatesMiao’scelebrationforsponsoringatalentedman.Theattendantcheerilyrecitesacouplet:TheGuangzhoufolkpreferthelitchiwine;Thenorth-boundscholarmeetsapatronbenign.(Wang,trans.2000:317)TheGuangzhoufolkandlitchiwinearehenceknittedtogethertosuggestakindofethnicityspecifictosouthChina.ThecoupletalsoalludesthatMengmeifulfillshisaspirationsinMacau,fromwherehecanstartajourneytothecapital.Scene21seemsaminorepisodeanddoesnotcontributetothemainstreamoftheaction.Forthisreason,itisoftenomittedinperformanceandinliterarydiscussion.Yet,itisofpivotalsignificanceintestifyingtoanEast-WestencounteramongtheChineseandforeignersinMacau;andinweavingthePortugueseenclavewithimperialChina,thusconstructingan“EastmeetsWest”scenario.43Litchi荔枝(variantspellings:lychee;laichi)isafruittreenativetosouthernChina. 

  
  
 

44TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESTangXianzumadeagreatefforttowritethisscene.HedeftlyincorporatedMacauasthelocaleforthegranddisplayofforeigntreasuresinordertoadvancetheplotinagladdeningmannerafterthesomberportrayalofLiniang’sprematuredeath.IntheIntroductionofthetranslatedThePeonyPavilion(firstedition),CyrilBirchhaspointedouttheimportanceofthisscene,‘Itissometimebeforewerealizethatthejewelsofwhichhe[TangXianzu]pratesatsuchlengthareallanelaboratemetaphorforthe“hiddenjewel”,theasyetunrecognizedscholarlytalentofthehero’(Birch,1980:xiii).Mengmei’stalentisfinallyappraisedbytheImperialEnvoy.Thoughtransitional,Scene21isaprologuetoScene41,“LatefortheExamination”,inaholisticway.TheManinDreamLeavingMacauandpassingafewcities,MengmeiarrivesatNan’aninJiangxiprovince(Scene22).Thenorth-boundrouteisclearlyandaccuratelydescribed.TheaccuracyisreminiscentofTangXianzu’stravellingexperienceinGuangdong,andhisitineraryiswovenintoMengmei’sjourney.Atthisjuncture,theplaypresentsliterallyacrossroadsingeography:MengmeitravelsfromtheEast(China)totheWest(Macau,aWesternenclave),andfromthesouth(Guangzhou)tothenorth(Jiangxi).Mengmei’s“journey”tosuccessisfullofthornsandbrambles.TherearedistinctweatherchangesinGuandongandJiangxiprovinces.ItiswarminthesouthofMeiling,butturnscoldinthenorth.WhenMengmeitakeshisleavefromMacauitisalreadylateautumn.AfterpassingthenorthofMeiling,heexperiencesfreezingwinterweatherinNan’an.Whenhecrossesabrokenbridgewiththehelpofanearbywillowtree,hefallsintotheicyriver.EventhoughheispromptlyrescuedbyChenZuiliang陳最良,apedanticscholarandLiniang’sformertutor,hecatchesacold.ThescenemakesitobviousthatMengmeiisnotjustphysicallytoofrailtowithstandthefrostyweather,butalsoharebrainedenoughcrossingabrokenbridge.Inthisway,thefragilityandstupidityofthesouthernerareridiculed.ChenZuiliangtakesMengmeitothePlumBlossomNunnery(wherethetabletbearingthedeceasedLiniang’snameisenshrined)intheDufamilygarden,andallows 

  
  
 

45CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHhimtostaytheretillspringcomes.Oneday,MengmeigoesouttothegardenandaccidentallyfindsLiniang’sportrait(Scene26).Heisstunnedbythebeautifulmaideninthepainting,andwondersifsheisGuanYin(theBuddhistGoddessofMercy)orChangE(thefairyinthemoon).Hegazesattheportraiteverydayandbecomesinfatuatedwiththeetherealbeauty.Immersedinsexualfantasies,hesings,‘Iseemtodrawacaketoeasemygreed;/Sheseemstolookatplumstoquenchherneed’(Wang,trans.2000:405).Themorehelooksatit,thekeenerhewantstoholdthemaideninhisarms.Hesingsinalanguishedtoneagain:Letmecallout:“Fairlady,fairlady!Mydear,mydear!”Haveyouheardmecallingyou?I’llcallouttillyoucallback.YouseemtomoveyourfeetanewAndwalkoutofthescroll,Butyouarestilloutofview.Well,inmysolitude,I’llcherish,revere,callandpraiseherportraitfrommorningtillnight.(Wang,trans.2000:407)Inhisroomalone,Mengmeibecomesecstaticandseemstosufferfromdelusion,ifnotfromeroticmania,inyearningforthemaideninthepainting.SoonNiniang’shunvisitshimandoffersherselftothemaninherdream(Scene28).Withoutknowingwhothegirlis,Mengmeibeginsanaffairwithherspiritform.Aftermanynocturnaltrysts,Liniangeventuallydisclosesthatsheisthemaideninthepainting.MengmeiisnaïveenoughnotbeingabletoidentifytheportraitwithLiniang.Meanwhile,Liniangentreatshimtobringherbacktolife.Miraculously,Liniangisrestoredtolifeafterbeingentombedforthreeyears.MengmeihastilyurgesLiniangtomarrytohimthatnight,butsheinsiststhatamarriageshouldbeapprovedbyherparentsandarrangedbyago-between(Scene36).Whenhecomplainsthatshehasalreadyvisitedhimmanynightsandhasalreadyhadsexualrelations,sheexplainsthatbeforeshewasinspiritformandcouldignoreethicalcodes,butnow,asalivingmaidenfromagoodfamily,shemustfollowhumantraditions.Liniangjeersathim,‘zhirendijishexiucai’直恁的急色秀才(You’reutterlyalustfulscholar)andtactfully 

  
  
 

46TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESrefuseshim:DuLiniang:What’sthehurry,Scholar?I’vewaiteduponyouformanynights.LiuMengmei:Tonight!whatawonderfulnight!DuLiniang:You’reutterlyalustfulscholar.LiuMengmei:Youarebeingnaughty!DuLiniang:(Smiles)Youarebeingnaughtytoo!NotthatImakeapretentiousshow,LiuMengmei:Butwhat?DuLiniang:(Abashed)ButthatI’mjustbacktolife,Notfittomakelove,youknow.HereIstandbeforeyou,Givemetimetorest;(Aside)OfcourseIloveyoubest.(Wang,trans.2000:575-7,slightlyrevised)Letusrecall,inScene10“TheInterruptedDream”,MengmeiiscarriedawaywithdesireforLinianginthedreamscene:heforciblycarriesherintothePeonyPaviliontoconsummatetheirlove.Likewise,intherealworld,thescholarinherdreamisbesidehimselfwithlustfuldesire.“Themanindream”affirmshisroleasapassionatelover,butforgetsthecareer-orientedexaminationafterLiniang’sreturntolife.WhenChenZuilianggoestomakeofferingstoLiniang’stombontheanniversaryofherdeath,heisshockedtofindthetombempty(Scene37).Inviewoftheexhumation,heexclaims,‘That’sit.LiuMengmeiisfromLingnan,andgrave-robbingmustbesomethingcommonthere.Hemusthavehiddenthecoffininanearbyplaceandcutoffacornerasademandforransommoney…’(Wang,trans.2000:601).ForChen,agraduateoftheConfucianAcademyatNan’an,Ningnanisanuncivilizedplace.Hehastilymakesagenericdiscriminationassumingthatsouthernersmustbevillainswhohabituallyrobgraves. 

  
  
 

47CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHTheOddityofOdditiesAfterarrivingatLin’an,Mengmeiprovestobeunbelievablyabsent-minded.Allhishopesforanofficialcareerarepinedfortheimperialexamination,heldeverythreeyears.However,hearrivestoolatetoattendit:theexaminationpapershavebeensealedbytheImperialAcademy.Hepleadstobeallowedtositfortheexamination,butisrejected.Athispoint,heweepsandbecomesemotional,andeventhreatenstocommitsuicide(Scene41):I’vecomeallthewayfromLingnanwithmyfamily.AsIhavenowayout,I’llbumpmyheadatthestepsanddieinfrontofyouatonce.(Wang,trans.2000:649)AssoonasMengmeimentionsthatheisfromLingnan,MiaoShunbin,nowappointedchiefexaminer,recognizeshim.ItisinMacauthatMiaofirstmethimandsponsoredhimfinanciallytocometothecapital.TheMacauepisodeisthuscrucialtotheunfoldingoftheplot.Inthisinstance,theplayagaindemonstratesacrossroadseffect:MiaotravelsfromtheWest(Macau,aWesternenclave)totheEast(China);andgoesfromthesouth(Macau)tothenorth(Lin’an).MiaoShunbinremembersthatheis“apearlofmanfromtheSouthSea”,andmakesanexceptiontoallowhimtositforthemake-upexamination.Inviewofhisoutstandingresults,Miaograntshimfirstplaceintheimperialexamination.AlthoughMiaoisabenignexaminer,perhapsheepitomizestheincompetenceandnepotismthatprevailedamonghighofficialsinTangXianzu’stime.Whiletheplayexplicitlyridiculestheexaminee,italsoimplicitlymockstheexaminer.Asatwistintheplot,theannouncementoftheresultsisdelayedduetotheurgentandcriticalborderconflict.Atthisjuncture,theplayisintersectedbyanothercomicepisode(Scene49).Linianglearnsthatherfather,DuBao,isunderbesiegeinHuaiyang淮揚,andsheasksMengmeitogosearchingforhim.WhenMengmeireachesYangzhou揚州,hehastostayinaninnbeforecontinuinghisjourney.Theinn-keepereasilysquandersallhisscrapsofsilver,andthenaccuseshimofusingquicksilverwhichvanishesinthefloorcracksliketinydrops.Mengmeithenoffershisbooksandwritingbrushin 

  
  
 

48TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESexchangeforfoodandlodging,butheisthrownoutoftheinn.Thiscomic-tragicscenesimplyillustratesthatthissouthernerisgullibleandnaïve.InLin’an,theEmperorholdsabanquetintheGarnetGrovetocongratulateallscholarswhohavepassedtheimperialexamination.MengmeiisnamedNumber-oneScholar,butheisabsent.Theofficialinchargeoftheceremonyimmediatelysendsouttwosergeantstolookforhimeverywhereinthecapital—alleys,mainstreets,entertainmenthouses,andevenbrothels(Scene52).Oneofthesergeantsindignantlyexclaims:Howfunnyitis!Howfunnyitis!Somethingstrangehashappenedinourcountry.Isn’titunbelievablethattheNumber-oneScholarmakeslightofhiscareer!Isn’titincrediblethattheNumber-oneScholarbringssomuchtrouble!Isn’titunthinkablethattheNumber-oneScholarwalksawaywithoutnotice!Isn’titinconceivablethattheNumber-oneScholardisappearslikeacoilofsmoke!MenfromLingnanaretheoddityofoddities[myemphasis].Justlookattheplacard.Itreads,“Wanted:LiuMengmei,theNumber-oneScholarbyimperialdecree,borninLingnan,agedtwenty-seven,ofmiddleheight,withapaleface.”Thedescriptionsareclear,butthemanisnowheretobefound!Hashegonehome,orpassedaway,orgonetosleep?He’llmissthepalacebanquetforhim.(Wang,trans.2000:867)Thesarcasticderision—tianxiarenguguai,buxiangLingnanren天下人古怪,不像嶺南人(menfromLingnanaretheoddityofoddities)—isintriguinglyembeddedinthesergeant’sexasperatedmonologue.Hesimplymakesthegeneralizationthat,ofalltheweirdpeopleinChina,therearenonetomatchthesouthernersfromGuangdongprovince.Mengmeiisportrayedasadaydreamingparasite,beingpompous,physicallyweak,psychologicallyperverse,letalonelustful,irresolute,gullible,absent-minded,andemotional,thoughbrightinscholarlyachievements.Doesthis“manfromNingnan”deservetobeloved?Thesergeant’scynicalremarkmaywellexpresstheplaywright’sowninductiveimpressionofsoutherners. 

  
  
 

49CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHExogamySanctionedAtthegrandfinale(Scene55),DuBaostillrefusestoacceptMengmeiashisson-in-law,despitehisoutstandingachievementintheimperialexamination.WhenDuBaoiratelydenouncestheirmarriageasanillicitaffair,Mengmeishowshis“southernbarbarian”traitbysquabblingwiththisnorthernmagistrate:DuBao:Whowasyourmatchmaker?DuLiniang:OurmatchmakerwastheFuneralStarabove.DuBao:Whowereyourweddingattendants?DuLiniang:Theywerethenether-worldsprites.DuBao:Sheernonsense!LiuMengmei:It’saperfectmatchofamanandawoman.DuBao:Perfect!Perfectliesfromyourscarletlips!LiuMengmei:Sir,youaremockingatsouthernerschewingbetelnuts,butIwasbornwithscarletlipsandwhiteteeth.DuLiniang:Noarguments!AdaughteraliveandkickingisignoredbyherfatherwhileaghostforthreeyearswasmarriedbyLiuMengmei.Youcannotrevivedaughter;Whyareyourevilingatmyman[forchewingbetelnuts]?(Wang,trans.2000:961,slightlyrevised)Inthisacrimoniousdialogue,theaudiencerealizesthemainreasonforDuBao’srejectionofasouthernertobehisson-in-law.ThebitterquarrelplainlyrevealsthatDuBaodoesnotlikethehabitofbetel-nutchewing.44DuringtheMingandQingperiods,itwasnotunusualforpeopleinFujianandGuangdongprovincestochewbetelnuts.WhenTangXianzuwasinGuangdong,hecametoknowthisculturalpracticeandwroteafive-characterpoementitled“Binlangyuan”〈檳榔園〉(The44Chewingbetelnutshasbeenapopularculturalactivity,whichdatesbackthousandsofyearsinmanyAsiancountries.Betelchewingisaddictiveandincreasesmouthulcersandgumdeterioration. 

  
  
 

50TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESGardenofBetelNuts)(Tang,1999:465-6).Regularbetelchewingcausestheteethandgumstobestainedred.ThatiswhyDuBaojeersatMengmei’s“scarletlips”.Intheplay,thishabitbecomesasourceofdiscriminationagainst,andrevulsiontowards,southerners.45Animperialdecreeeventuallycomestosanctiontheexogamicmarriagebetweenasouthernerandanortherner.Liniangconcludestheplaybysinging,‘kuishaninanzhiainuananbeizhihua’虧殺你南枝挨暖俺北枝花(Owinggreatlytoyou,asoutherntwigforhugginganorthernflowerwarm).ThisutteranceisenigmaticandbringstomindtheovertlysexualdialogueinScene32“SpectralVows”.Inretrospect,whenLiniangtellsMengmeitodisinterthegraveandtobringherbacktolife,theheroasksifsheiscoldinthenetherworldandwhetherhersoulwillbedisturbedinterror.Theheroinerepliesbysinging,‘anlengxianjizaoweidebanre’俺冷香肌早偎的半熱(Mycoldfragrantfleshyouhavealreadycaressedhalfwarm).Theplaywrightrepeatedlyemploysthemetaphorforsexual“warming”inthenetherworld—hecouldbehintingthatthisqueersouthernerisalsoanecrophiliac.PosthumousFameInthehistoryofChinesedrama,TangXianzuhasbeenhailedbyLuTianchen呂天成as“anunprecedentedgeniuswithtopknowledge”(quotedinWang,trans.2000:43).Remarkably,therubric“TangXue”湯學(TangXianzuStudies)cameintobeingduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.ThePeonyPavilionandThePurpleHairpinwereevenrevisedasyueju粵劇(Guangdongopera)byTangDisheng唐滌生(1917—1959).ThesetwooperashaveenjoyedpopularityinMacauandHongKong.In1999,whenthePeople’sRepublicofChinacelebrateditsfiftiethanniversaryofthefoundingofthenewregime,ThePeonyPavilion,inthekunquform,wasperformed.ThechoiceofTang’sdramaforsuchamomentousoccasionspeaksforthe45OnthediscussionoftheGuangdongcharacterinThePeonyPavilion,seeLeiJingxuan雷競璇,“GuandongrenzaiMudangTing”〈廣東人在《牡丹亭》〉,HongKongEconomicJournal《信報》,2June2006.SeealsoLeiJingxuan雷競璇,“Nanbeiweiheshi”〈南北未和時〉,HongKongEconomicJournal《信報》,5June2006. 

  
  
 

51CHAPTER1THEPEONYPAVILION:ACROSSROADSOFEAST-WESTANDSOUTH-NORTHeminenceofhisliterarycreation.In2000,aninternationalsymposiumwasheldinTang’sbirthplace,Linchuan,commemoratinghis450thbirthday.HisoeuvreshavebeentranslatedintoJapanese,German,French,Russian,andEnglish.RegardlessofarockyandunfulfilledroadtohisofficialcareerintheMingcourt,thismanoflettershasbeendeclaredoneofthe100InternationalCulturalCelebritiesbyUNESCO.Posthumously,Tangiscrownedwithnationalandinternationalfame.TangXianzu’sdemotiontoGuangdongenabledhimtovisitembryonicPortugueseMacauthatwasutterlydifferentfromothercitiesinChina.His“southern”experiencebecamehismuseandsourcesforcreativewritings.HisworkscontainimagesofMacauasanearlyforeignsettlementandasthebridgeheadfortheJesuits’proselytizingmissioninAsia.MacauispresentedasanexotictradingportsellingWesternmerchandize,aswellasanewChristiancitythrongedwithEuropeanmissionariesanddottedwithchurches.Theplayprovidesawiderangeofperspectivesforinterpretationandappreciation.Itisnotsimplyalyricalworkoffurtiveromancethatdefiesorthodoxboundaries;itisalsoapaeantotheconfluenceoftheWestandtheEast.AndMacauistheveryconduitforsuchabridgingroleandtherendezvousforChineseandEuropeans.Inaddition,theplayapplaudstheexogamyofasoutherner(fromGuangdong)andanortherner(fromJiangxi).Inaword,ThePeonyPaviliontranscendsgeographicallimitationandconstitutesacrossroadsbetweenEastandWest,southandnorth,inlatesixteenth-centuryChina. 

  
  
 

 

  
  
 

53CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”46NinetyyearslaterafterTangXianzu’svisittoMacau,WuLi吳歷,alsoknownasWuYushan吳漁山(1632—1718),arrivedtherein1681.AsTangperceivedanembryonicPortugueseMacau,WuLiwitnesseditsgoldendaysasthebastionofRomanCatholicismintheEastanditsheydayasaprosperouscommercialcentre.HecreatedarichtapestryofliteraryworksonreligionandonMacau.WuLiwasanaccomplishedpainter,poet,andcalligrapher.Hewashailedbylaterartcriticsandarthistoriansasoneofthe“SixMastersofEarlyQing”oftheOrthodoxSchoolofChinesepainting.47TheOrthodoxSchoolinfactreferredtotheSouthernSchool,48agroupofscholar-officialpainterswhofavouredthegentleandmistysceneryoftheareasaroundLakeTai太湖inJiangsu江蘇province,southofChina.AlmostallliteratipaintersfromtheOrthodoxSchoolfocusedonthestudyoftheclassicalformsandstructuresofancientpaintings.TheypursuedtheworksofgreatmasterswholivedbeforetheMingdynasty(1368—1644)inordertoeludepossiblepoliticalpersecutioninthenewlyestablishedQingdynasty(1644—1911).Thegolden46ThispaperwaspresentedintheInternationalSymposium—Culture,Art,Religion:WuLi(1632—1718)andhisInnerJourney,27-29November2003,organizedbytheMacauRicciInstitute.ItwaspublishedinReviewofCulture,InternationalEditionNo.10,April2004,pp.109-25.AlsoinCulture,Art,Religion:WuLi(1632—1718)andHisInnerJourney(Macau:MacauRicciInstitute,2006),pp.429-57.47Theotherfivewere:WangShimin王時敏(1592—1680),WangJian王鑑(1598—1677),WangHui王翬(1632—1717),WangYuanqi王原祁(1642—1715)andYunShouping惲壽平(1633—1690).WangShiminwasWangYuanqi’sgrandfather.48Inadifferentvein,thestylesandtechniquesofotherformergreatmasters,whowereinclinedtodepicttheaustereandruggedsceneryofnorthernChina,weregroupedastheNorthernSchool. 

  
  
 

54TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESeraoftheOrthodoxSchoolwasinthesecondhalfoftheseventeenthcenturywhenthe“SixMastersofEarlyQing”tooktheleadintheartcircle.Theirdominant“orthodox”statusultimatelyovershadowedthosewhostrovetoattainartisticexcellenceoutsidethemainstream.WuLiwasthirteenyearsoldwhentheManchustookoverthethroneoftheMingcourtin1644.ThefalloftheMingdynastyintothehandsoftheManchuswasfollowedbynefariousmassacresinYangzhou揚州,Jiading嘉定,andJiangyin江陰,nottospeakofhumiliatingculturaloppression.49TheQingEmpiremusthavebeenawareofthehostilefeelingsofthegeneralpublic.Hence,therewasheavy-handedcensorshiponscholars’thoughtsandliteratureofallformsthatcontainedprovocativeideasandsignsofcontemptforthenewrulers.Likemostliterati,WuLidivertedhisexpressivegeniustotheestablishedformatandstyleofpainting.HeemulatedthearchaicstylethatcanbetracedbacktotheTangdynasty(618—906).HewasparticularlynotedforpaintinglandscapesinthemannerofWangMeng王蒙(ca.1308—1385)andNiZan倪瓚(1301—1374)oftheYuandynasty.TheirstylisticinfluenceswereexpressedinWuLi’sdenselytexturedrockymassesandcompactcomposition.HisinterestsevenextendedtothepaintingstylesofboththeNorthernandSouthernSchools,thusenablinghimtoattainadiversityofmodesinhisoeuvres.PaintingwasthesafestformofartisticcreationthatwouldprovoketheleastsurveillanceandsuspicionfromtheManchus.Needlesstosay,thepoliticalandsocialchaoscreatedanimmenseimpactonbothWuLi’sintellectualandspiritualpursuits.Throughouthislife,heearnestlyyearnedforaparadiseonearthandventuredtolookforthetruthoflifeindifferentschoolsofthoughtsinordertoattainspiritualawakening.Inhisyouth,hehadconstantcontactwithBuddhistmonksandDaoistfriends.Itwasnotuntilwhenhewasaroundforty-fiveyearsoldthathedrewclosertotheChristianconvertsandJesuitsinChangshu常熟.Attheageoffifty,WuLicametoMacautostudyWesternDao(Christianity).HisjourneytoMacaunotonlyopenedupanewhorizonforatête-à-têtewithWestern49Forinstance,asameasureofculturalcontrol,aDecreeofHairCuttingwasissuedorderingtheChinesetoadoptahaircutintheManchustyleortobeexecutedasrebels. 

  
  
 

55CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”culture,butalsoprovidedhimwithachancetoexplorereligiousfulfillment.Hesearchedforxideng西燈(Westernlantern)torevivifyhisreligiousvisionandtoilluminatehisinnerself.Thelantern,orthelamp,symbolizesintelligence,learning,immortality,guidance,knowledge,andaboveall,thewordofGod(Olderr,1986:77;Vries,1976:290).WuLilivedinanerawhenreligioussyncretismoftheThreeTeachingsbecameaprevailingforceinChina,andwhentheRitesControversyalmostarrivedatacul-de-sacintheologicalsectarianismonChinesesoil.AfterhehadenteredtheJesuitseminaryinMacauasanoviceandlaterasGod’s“shepherd”inChina,hecomposedaprolificcollectionofpoemsandversesonhisinnerjourneytoenlightenment.Theseliterarytextsgiveusalucidportrayalofhisstruggletoleadanauthenticandmeaningfullife.AshewasonceasyncreticbelieverintheThreeTeachings,washeareligioustraitorwhenhebecameafollowerinChristianity?WhataMacaudidheseeandhowdidMacauserveasareligiouscentreinhistime?Howdidhesurvivethelonelydaysasaruralpriestinhisfinalyears?Couldthe“Westernlantern”hefoundlightuphislifeandfulfillhisaspirationstoattainspiritualtranscendence?AHighlyCivilizedCityWuLiwasborninChangshu,Jiangsuprovince.Changshuwasageographicallyrichplaceandhadalongtraditionofculturalendeavours.ItwasahighlycivilizedcityandbestrepresentedtheConfucianeliteculture.ItshistoricalstatuswasalsoenhancedbyitsbeingthehometownofYanYan言偃,alsoknownasYanZiyou言子游(born506B.C.).YanYanwasanoutstandingdiscipleofConfucius(551—479B.C.)andforty-fiveyearshisjunior.Withhisscholarlyproficiency,YanYanwasgivenanhonourablename,Yanzi言子(MasterYan),whocametobeanenduringiconofthisplace.Inthetowncentre,therewasanancestortempleofYanYan,calledZiyouCi子游祠,andahometemplecalledZiyouJiamiao子游家廟.Ontheoutskirtsofthetown,therewasthetombofYanYan.Mostespecially,neartheWenxueBridge文學橋inZiyouLane子游巷,theoldhouseofYanziwassituatedjustnexttoWuLi’shouse,wheretheWufamilyhadtakenupresidenceforgenerationssincethebeginning 

  
  
 

56TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESoftheYuandynasty(Chen,1937:2b-3a)(Plate6).InsideYanzi’shouse,therewasafamouswell.Asthewaterwassmeltlikeink,withafragrancethatcouldseepintotheheart,itwascalledYanziMojing言子墨井(theInkWellofMasterYan),orShengjing聖井(HolyWell)(Li,1909:7).TheInkWellalludestoasourceofliteraryinspirationandisemblematicoftheliteraticulture.RichlydottedwiththevestigesofYanziandimmersedinConfucianpride,Changshuwasaculturallydynamiccityparexcellence.AttheendoftheMingdynasty,however,Yanzi’shistorichouse—asymbolofConfucianism—waschangedintoaRomanCatholicchurch(Chen,1937:2b).ThetransformationofaConfucianresidenceintoachurchreadilypointedtotheburgeoningpowerandinfluenceofCatholicmissionariesinChangshu.Andsymbolically,theConfucianiconicbastionwaserasedbytheintrudingChristianforces.AchurchintheimmediatevicinityofWuLi’shousemighthaveimprintedonPlate6TownplanofChangshuasrecordedinChangshuXianzhi《常熟縣志》.ImagereproducedfromLaurenceC.S.Tam,SixMastersofEarlyQingandWuLi(HongKong:TheUrbanCouncil,1986),p.67. 

  
  
 

57CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”hismindaforeignreligionandfamiliarizedhimwiththeWesternpresenceinthattraditionalChinesecommunity.Inaletterdated3October1688fromthefirstChineseBishopoftheCatholicChurch,LuoWenzao羅文藻(knowninforeignnameasGregorioLopez),50totheHolyCouncilinRomerevealedthatWuLibecameaCatholicwhenhewasaboy:On1stAugustofthisyear,withGod’sgrace,IwasabletoordainthreeChineseJesuitstothepriesthood….ThesecondpersonisSimon-XavieraCunha,inChineseknownasWuLi,anativeofChangshuoftheProvinceofJiangsu.Hewasbaptizedwhenhewasaboy(myemphasis)…wasmarriedtwice;joinedtheSocietyofJesusattheageof51;receivedordinationtopriesthoodattheageof57.(Tam,1986:66)51NotonlywasWuLiintroducedtoChristianityasaresultofgeographicalaffinity,hewasalsoabletoreceiveagoodeducationfromagroupofprominentscholars,whowereeitherlocalresidentsorfromneighbouringdistricts.Hestudiedpaintingwiththetwoleadinglandscapemasters—WangShimin王時敏(1592—1680)andWangJian王鑑(1598—1677)(twoofthe“SixMastersofEarlyQing”);poetrywithQianQianyi錢謙益(1582—1664);music(zither)withChenMin陳岷(active1643—1654);andNeo-Confucianism(lixue理學)52andliteraturewithChenHu陳瑚(1613—50LuoWenzao(1615—1691),aDominican,wasordainedasthefirstChineseBishopon8April1685.51ForthefirsttimeinthehistoryoftheJesuitmissioninChina,threeChinesepriestswereordained.TheothertwowereLiuYunde劉蘊德(attheageof59,knowninforeignnameasBlaiseVerbiest)andWanQiyuan萬其淵(attheageof53,knowninforeignnameasPaulBanhes).OntheChinesetextoftheletter(translatedfromLatin),seeFangHao方豪,“WuYushanshenfulingxiniandaijinduodidianjiladingwenzaoyikao”〈吳漁山神父領洗年代晉鐸地點及拉丁文造詣考〉,inZhouKangxie周康燮(ed.),WuYushan(Li)yanjiulunji《吳漁山(歷)研究論集》(HongKong:ChongwenShudian崇文書店,1971),p.133.52Neo-ConfucianismwasasynthesisbetweenfundamentalBuddhistideasandthoseoftheclassicalChinesetradition,thoughithadoriginallyrepresentedareactionagainstBuddhismandDaoism.ZhuXi朱熹(1130—1200)wastheavidarchitectofNeo-Confucianism. 

  
  
 

58TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES1675)(Tam,1986:47-58).Alltheseweregreatmastersintheirfieldsatthattime,53underwhichWuLiwaswelltrainedinliteraryandartistictraditions.WuLiexcelledhimselfinscholarlystudies,andhisvirtuosityinartisticachievementswasgreatlypraisedbyhisteachersandpeers.Apartfromhismanyaccomplishments,hewasalsoacalligrapher,emulatingthehandsomecalligraphicstyleofSuShi蘇軾(1036—1101).Hebecameaprofessional,fulltimepainterinthe1640’sand1650’sinChangshu.ChangshuwasindeedacentreofscholarshipwhereyoungWuLiwasnurturedbytheChineseintelligentsiaandimpressedbyChristianmissionaries.ThisancientcityalsoservedasarendezvousforChineseclassicalknowledgeand“nascent”Westernscienceandphilosophy.AJourneytoSpiritualExplorationBeingatraditionalwenren文人(literatus),WuLiwasalsoaspiritualexplorer.Hepossessedaninnovativemindthatincessantlyexplorednewwaysoflookingatthingsandofcogitatinguponvariousreligiousdoctrines.Ashewasentangledinthebitterrealitiesofpoliticalturbulenceandsocialturmoil,heembarkedonaspiritualjourneytofreehimselffromsecularshackles.Despitehisearlybaptism,WuLiwasnotapractisingCatholic,andalienatedfromthechurch.Inhisyouthfuldays,hestrovetowidenhisspiritualityinConfucianism,DaoismandBuddhism.EventhoughhestudiedNeo-ConfucianismunderChenHufrom1659to1675,headoptedaDaoistthemeinoneofhisearlypaintings.In1659,attheageoftwenty-eight,hepainted“GrowthofAuspiciousFungi”〈產芝圖〉(nowintheKyotoNationalMuseum).ThemotifoffungiisapopularDaoistsymbolforlongevity.WuLiusedtocallhimselfMojingDaoren墨井道人(Daoist/BuddhistDiscipleoftheInkWell).54ThepseudonymmayreflecthisrespectandreverencetoYanzi,and53OnthebiographyofWuLi’steachers,seeWuLi,“Sanbaji”〈三巴集〉,inLiDi李杕(ed.),Mojingji《墨井集》(Shanghai:TushanwanYinshuguan土山灣印書館,1909),Vol.3,pp.42b-64a.54Daoren道人literallydenotesthosewhohavepractisedandattainedDao道(theWay).DaorencanbeappliedtoDaoistandBuddhistfollowers.DuringtheJin晉andSong宋periods, 

  
  
 

59CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”itisalsoawaytoassociatetheInkWellwithhisartisticendeavour.Thispseudonym,withwhichsomeofhisworksofartweresigned,embracesanamalgamationofConfucian,DaoistandBuddhistconnotations.WuLihadlongenvisionedaparadiseonearth,ortaoyuan桃源(LandofPeachBlossoms),andoftenemployedthethemeoftaoyuaninhispaintings.Theimaginaryutopiahasadirectreferencetoaprosepiece,“TaohuayuanJi”〈桃花源記〉(RecordoftheLandofPeachBlossoms),writtenbythepastoralpoet,TaoQian陶潛(A.D.372—427),oftheEasternJin東晉dynasty.ItdepictsaforgottenplacewhereagroupofpeopleledasecludedlifeforthesakeofescapingthedespoticruleoftheQin秦dynasty(221—206B.C.).InthisLandofPeachBlossoms,therewasnowarandeveryonelivedhappily,self-sufficientwithdailynecessities.Thepictorialrenditionoftaoyuanillustrateshisfantasyforapeacefulland,andalsoalludestohisdesiretoskirtthehigh-handedruleofthenewregime.Beforehewasthirtyyearsold,hecomposedacollectionofpoems,whichwasgroupedunderthetitle“Taoxiji”〈桃溪集〉(AnthologyofthePeachBlossomStream)(Chen,1937:55a).55Taoxi桃溪wasthenameofastreamattherearofhishouse(Chen,1937:29b-30a).Perhapstaoxicametobeasubstituteforthefairylandforwhichheyearned,sohetookanotherpseudonym,TaoxiJushi桃溪居士(BuddhistdevoteeofthePeachBlossomStream),tosignhisoeuvres.HispreferencefortheimageryoftaoyuanandtaoximayinsinuatehissymbolicescapetoavisionaryShangri-la.In1665,attheageofthirty-four,hetravelledtonearbySuzhou蘇州andbecameagoodfriendwiththeBuddhistAbbot,Morong墨容,oftheXingfuMonastery興福精舍.Hestayedtherefortwomonths,andMorongmighthaveinspiredhiminmetaphysics,philosophy,andthetransienceoflife.In1666hepaintedanalbumofbeautifullandscapesforMorong(nowinthePalaceMuseum,Beijing)asacelebrationoftheirfriendship.Beforetheageofforty-five,hehadclosecontactwithBuddhistBuddhistmonksweregenerallycalledDaoren.SeeCiHai《辭海》(HongKong:ZhonghuaShuju中華書局,1977),p.1326.55Thepoemsin“Taoxiji”arecollectedinWuLi,“Mojingshichao”〈墨井詩鈔〉,inLiDi李杕(ed.),Mojingji《墨井集》(Shanghai:TushanwanYinshuguan土山灣印書館,1909),Vol.2,pp.13a-42a. 

  
  
 

60TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESmonks,andsoughtforan“awakening”inthemundanelife(Fang,1971a:135).Nodoubt,WuLiwaswellacquaintedwithConfucian,DaoistandBuddhistdoctrines,andcrossedthebarriersinordertoseekdivergentviewsfromthesereligioussystems.ThereligioussystemsofConfucianism,BuddhismandDaoismhavebeenknownassanjiao三教(theThreeTeachings),whichdominatedalmosttheentirespectrumoftheChinesereligioushistory.NotlongbeforeWuLiwasborn,MingChinausheredinaperiodofspiritualrenaissance—sanjiaoheyi三教合一(theharmonizationoftheThreeTeachings),whichwasaprocessofreligioussyncretism(itwillbediscussedinChapter4).Alldoctrines,theChinesesyncretistsbelieved,werereconcilable,becauseinthehistoryofhumankindtherewasonlyoneTruth(orDao道),butitevolvedintomanymanifestations.Hence,theThreeTeachingsactuallytaughtthesameTruthbutindifferentapproaches.AlthoughreligioussyncretismwasferventlyadvocatedanddemonstratedinFujian福建province,wheretheavidsyncretistLinZhaoen林兆恩(1517—1598)wasborn,itsoonspreadtotheprovincesofJiangxi,ZhejiangandtheNanjingregion.Manymembersoftheliterateeliteclassatthattime,likeWuLi,upheldreligioussyncretismasaprinciplesoastoderivetheessencefromvaryingdoctrinesandideas.ZhangWenqincontendsthattheliteratiofthelateMingandearlyQingperiodswereproudoftheirsyncreticknowledgeoftheThreeTeachings(Zhang,2002:157).LinZhaoenwasacontemporaryofFrancisXavier(1506—1552);bothdedicatedthemselvestopursuingthespiritualtruth.XavierwastheexemplificationoftheloftyspiritthatmarkedtheinceptionofthePortugueseevangelizationintheEast.HesetoutforAsiain1541butdiedonShangchuanIsland上川島(orinEnglish,StJohn’sIsland)nearMacauin1552.ThiswastheyearthatMatteoRicci(1552—1610)wasborn.RiccifulfilledXavier’sdreamofgoingtoAsiatospreadthewordofGod.In1582RicciarrivedatMacau,andin1601reachedBeijing.NosoonerhadRicciandtheJesuitsbeguntheirevangelizingmissionthantheharmonizationoftheThreeTeachingsbecameaveryfashionablephenomenoninChina.ForChineseintellectuals,ChristianityintroducedbyEuropeanmissionarieswasmerelyoneofthedoctrinesleadingtothesameTruth.JacquesGernethasaptlypointedout:FortheChinese,itwasmoreamatterofdifferentgroupingsof 

  
  
 

61CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”philosophical,moral,religiousand–onoccasion–technologicalteaching.AndtheChineseoftheseventeenthcenturyconsideredtheteachingofthemissionariesfrompreciselythatpointofview,givingittheverygeneralnameoftianxue(heavenlystudies),whichappliedtothesciencesandtechnologyjustasmuchastoethicsandreligion.(Gernet,1985:65)Withthesesyncreticattitudes,thedelineationofspecificreligiousfaithsdidnotusuallydominatethecommonpeople’sconsciousness,buttheyembracedapolytheisticspiritthroughreligiousinclusion,compromiseandsyncretism.Asaresult,mostChineseatthattimewouldtransgressreligiousboundariesratherthanadoptedpermanentreligiousaffiliation.Inthisrespect,JacquesGernetgoesontoargue,‘Whattheacademician,XuGuangqi[徐光啟],Ricci’smostfamousandbesteducateddisciple,wasadvocatingwasnotthepureChristiandoctrine,butanamalgamationofConfucianismandChristianitysimilartothatwhichhademergedinthesixteenthcenturybetweenConfucianismandBuddhism’(Gernet,1985:66).WuLi’sinnerjourneytoreligiousexplorationcouldperhapsreflectthisculturalphenomenon.LikeotherChristianproselytesamongtheliterateelites,hemightexpectakindofsynthesiswithChristianityitself.Inotherwords,hewasnotareligioustraitor;ratherhesoughtreligiousassimilationandreconciliation.A“LostSheep”ReturnedInEurope,thesixteenthcenturywasaneraofreligiousrepercussion.Thereligiousrevolution—theReformation—ledbyMartinLuther(1483—1546)in1517,wassoonfollowedbytheCounter-Reformationmovement.ItschiefexpressionswerethefoundingoftheSocietyofJesusbyIgnatiusLoyolain1534;andtheCouncilofTrent(1545—1563).InlightofthereligiousreshuffleintheWest,Europeanmissionariesbaskedinecclesiasticalpassion,seekingtoturnAsiaintotheWest’s“Easternstage”forreligiousreconfigurationatthedawnoftheseventeenthcentury.ApartfromBeijing,ChangshuwasalsoacentreofmissionaryactivitiesduringthelateMingandearlyQingperiods.ChristianitywasfirstbroughttoChangshubytheChineseconvertQuShigu瞿式穀in1623,nineyearsbeforeWuLiwasborn.Qu 

  
  
 

62TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESShiguintroducedthefirstforeignpriest,anItalianJesuit,JulesAleniS.J.(hisChinesenameisAiRulue艾儒略),tothisancientConfuciancitytolaunchthemissioncivilisatrice.Alenihasbeencalledthe“ConfuciusfromtheWest”byChineseofficial-scholars(Lin,2001:83).InChina(andinMacau),Jesuitmissionariesespousedthe“PolicyofAccommodation”,56andconformedtoChineseetiquette,mannersandcustomsforconvenientproselytization.WuLi’sspiritualjourneyinsearchofenlightenmentandfulfillmentinlifewaslikeafullcirclebacktoCatholicism,towhichhewasintroducedasaboy.HisdeparturefromalayBuddhistoccurredwhenheaccompaniedafriendXuZhijian許之漸(twentyyearsseniortoWuLi)toBeijinginthesummerof1670.Inretrospect,XuZhijian,animperialcensorattheQingcourt,wasfamiliarwiththeGermanJesuit,JohannAdamSchallvonBell(1591—1666)(hisChinesenameisTangRuowang湯若望),whothenservedasthedirectoroftheImperialBureauofAstronomy.AlthoughXuZhijianwasnotaconvert,hehadcontactswithChristianmissionaries,andwroteaprefacetoabook,TianxueZhuangai《天學傳概》(BriefingonCatholicism),whichadvocatedChristianity.Duringtheearly1660’s,YangGuangxian楊光先(1597—1669),anofficialinBeijing,startedtoarraignWesternmissionaries,accusingSchallandhisJesuitcolleaguesofhavingplottedagainsttheChineseimperialstate.Consequently,EmperorKangxi康熙(reigned1662—1723),thegreatestoftheManchumonarchs,issuedanedictforbiddingtheteachingofChristiandoctrinesin1665.AllchurchesinChinawereforcedtocloseandJesuitmissionarieswereexpelledtoMacau.Becauseofhisinvolvement,XuZhijianwasdismissedfromtheimperialcourtandorderedtoleaveBeijing.In1669theaccusationagainstSchallwaseventuallyrescinded.Beingasurvivoroftheevent,XuZhijianwasaskedtogobacktoBeijingin1670.ThetriptoBeijingwasamilestoneforWuLi.Hissojournintheimperialcity(1670—1672)coincidedwithKangxi’s1671edictpermittingJesuitmissionariesto56Ricci’sAccommodationPolicywasmainlyengagedin“permissions”and“omissions”.ThepermissionsweretoallownewproselytestocontinuepractisingtheConfucianritesandtraditionalChinesecustoms.TheomissionsweretoavoidexplainingsomeChristiancentraldogmas,whichwerealientoChinesebeliefs.SeeGeorgeS.J.Minamiki,TheChineseRitesControversyfromItsBeginningtoModernTimes(Chicago:LoyolaUniversityPress,1985). 

  
  
 

63CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”returnandreopenchurches.Itwasaneweraofpeaceandreligioustolerationafteryearsofpoliticalturmoilandsocialupheavals.TheManchuconquestbroughtbackorderandstrengthtoaChinathatthemismanagementoftheMingcourthadledtothebrinkofdisintegration.ThecapitalWuLisawwasacityofprosperityandgrandeur.Moreover,hemusthavewitnessedtheJesuits’passionateeffortsinintroducingscientificknowledgeandChristianity.Especially,BeijinghadanimpressiveskylineofBaroquestylechurches.57WhatheexperiencedandheardinBeijingmighthaveinspiredhimtoseeknewvaluesthatweredistinctfromtraditionalones.WuLileftBeijingandreturnedtoChangshuin1672.HesoonbegantodevelopacloserrelationshipwithChristianfriends,andinparticular,withFrançoisdeRougemont,S.J.(1624—1676),aBelgianJesuit(hisChinesenameisLuRiman魯日滿).LikeRicciandSchall,Rougemontwasextolledbelongingtothe“generationofgiants”intheseventeenthcentury,andhe‘labouredpatientlytoachieveasynthesisofChineseandChristianculture,withrespectfortheunderstandingoftheformerwithoutinjurytothelatter’(Dunne,1962:368).RougemontcametoChina(viaMacau)in1659andwassenttoChangshuin1662toadministerreligiousaffairs.Atthattime,ChangshuwasalreadyaflourishingChristiancitywith20,000Catholicconverts,andRougemontaloneadministeredfourteenchurchesandtwenty-onechapels(Tam,1986:42-69).However,becauseoftheedict(issuedin1665)proscribingthepreachingofChristianity,hehadtoleaveChangshuandwasexiledtoMacau.HereturnedafterSchallwasvindicatedandtookChangshuashisregularresidenceuntilhisdeathinNovember1676.Theyear1676wasaturningpointforWuLi.RougemontbecameWuLi’sspiritualinstructor;the“shepherd”foundthe“lostsheep”.WecantraceanimportantoutinginadatedrecordthatWuLiwentwithRougemonttovisitMrChouhaninLoushuiinthespringof1676.Thisvisitwasinscribedinhiscelebratedlandscapepainting,“SpringSceneofLakeandSky”〈湖天春色圖〉(nowintheShanghaiMuseum)(Plate7).Thebeginningofthecolophon(orinscription)reads:57In1652FatherJohannAdamSchallvonBellbuiltthefirstCatholicchurchinBeijing,whichwascalledNantang(SouthChurch).Later,anotherchurchwasbuiltandcalledBeitang(NorthChurch). 

  
  
 

64TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES幬函有道先生，僑居隱于婁水，予久懷相訪而未遂，於[丙]辰春從遊遠西魯先生，得登君子之堂。(quotedinChen,1937:22b)MrChouhanisamanofwisdom.HeleadsasecludedlifeinLoushui.Ihaveyearnedtopayhimavisitforalongtimebutwasunabletodoso.Itwasnotuntilthespringoftheyear[bing]chen[1676]thatIcouldaccompanyMrLufromtheFarWestonatourtocallatthisgentleman’shouse.Plate7“SpringSceneofLakeandSky”.ImagereproducedfromShanghaiBoWuGuanCangHua《上海博物館藏畫》(AShanghaiMuseumcollectionofpaintings)(Shanghai:ShanghaiRenminMeishuChubanshe上海人民美術出版社,1999),p.77. 

  
  
 

65CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”“MrLufromtheFarWest”isFatherFrançoisdeRougemont.ThevisittotherespectableMrChouhan(aCatholic)withRougemontmusthavebeenanunforgettableoccasion.Thatiswhyhepaintedsuchabeautifulhangingscrollwithaninscriptiontochroniclethisvisit.Hemusthavefeltsolidaritywiththesetwofriends,whorepresentedakindofspiritualemancipation.Increasinglymuddledbyclassicalthoughts,WuLitriedtoexploreadifferingtypeofhumanityandseekthesublimemeaningoflife.Hisperplexitywasinscribedinahangingscroll,“HazyMountainafterRain”〈雨散煙巒圖〉,datedthe8thlunarmonthof1676:予鹿鹿塵坌，每舐筆和墨，輒作世外想。(quotedinChen,1937:23a)Itoilandlabourinthismundaneworld.EverytimewhenIwetmybrushanddilutetheink,Ithinkofthetranscendentworld.Thecolophonplainlysuggeststhathewasenmeshedinspiritualcrisis,andinaninnerstruggleforspiritualexplorationandtranscendenceinlife.ABrokenDreamtoRomeWuLi’syearningforaspiritualbreakthroughbecameintenseafterthedeathofhismother(1662);hisBuddhistfriendMorong(1672);andhismentorsChenHu(1675)andWangShiming(1680);andFatherRougemont(1676).Laterhiswifediedandhedecidedonjoiningthepriesthood(Li,1909:2a).Inlightoftherealityofemptinessanddesolation,helookedforspiritualconsolationthroughtheontologicalandphilosophicalquestforlife’smeaning.ChristianreligionthusservedasWuLi’ssolaceandwasachannelforhimtosearchfortheultimateconditionsofexistence.Havingbeencaughtupinspiritualentanglements,hebeganseeingasilverliningwhenanotherJesuitmissionary,PhilippeCoupletS.J.(1623—1693)(hisChinesenameisBoYingli柏應理),cametoChangshuin1677asRougemont’ssuccessor.Throughzealousevangelization,CoupletattractedmoreChristiansandbuiltmorechurchesthere.In1680hewaselectedProcuroroftheVice-provinceandDeputyto 

  
  
 

66TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESRome.HesoonbecameWuLi’sspiritualmentor.UnderCouplet’smantle,WuLirenderedhisserviceinthechurchasacatechist,similartoasemi-priest.InWuYushanxianshengnianpu《吳漁山先生年譜》,itisstatedthatCouplethadtogotoRomein1681,andthatWuLi,attheageoffifty,intendedtogowithhimtothe“GreatWest”大西(Europe)(Chen,1937:26).WhentheyarrivedatMacau,however,WuLi’splannedjourneywasnotrealized.IneditingWuLi’sMojingji《墨井集》,LiDiwrites,‘TheRectoroftheCollegiateChurchofStPaul’sknewhisintentionbutinvitedhimtostudyandmeditateinMacauinsteadoftrudgingforseveralhundredthousandmilestoRome.HeconsentedandgaveupthetriptotheWest’(Li,1909:2b).ThedreamofgoingtoRomewasbroken;andhewas“stranded”inMacau.Buthispainter-scholarstatus58readilyhelpedpavethewayforhisadmissiontotheSocietyofJesusasanovicein1682attheageoffifty-one.ItmaywellbeablessingindisguisethatWuLiwasaskedtostayinMacau.AtfirstfiveconvertswerechosentogotoRome,amongthemwasWuLi.BythetimeofthedepartureinDecember1681,itwasdecidedthatonlytwo,theyoungest,shouldleavewithCouplet.OnewasMichaelAlphonsusShenFuzong沈福宗,about23yearsold;theidentityoftheotheroneremainsunknown.Unfortunately,theshiponwhichtheyhadleftMacauwaswreckedoffthecoastofJava,andtheywererescuedbytheDutchEastIndiaCompany.Asatwistoffate,theylandedinHolland,notRome,in1683,afterleavingMacaufor21months(Foss,1990:121-42).InEurope,ShenFuzongtravelledthroughFrance,Italy,Rome,England,59andPortugal.InLisbon,heenteredtheJesuitnovitiatein1688.Inthespringof1691hedepartedfromLisbon,withthreeGermanJesuits,byshipforMacau.Intheautumnof1691Shendiedaprematuredeath(about33yearsold)nearlyreachingMozambique.OnlyoneGermanJesuitsurvivedthisseavoyage(Timmermans,2006:173-202).Shen’s58ContrarytotheapproachoftheDominicanandFranciscanfriarswhoenteredChinaasmendicantsandidentifiedthemselveswiththelowersocialclass,theJesuitswereinclinedtoattracttheintelligentsiaandofficials.59ShenFuzongleftanindelibleimageinEngland.JamesII(1633—1701)wassodelightedbythevisitofaChineseChristianin1687thathecommissionedhiscourtpainter,SirGodfreyKneller,tomakeaportraitofShen,whichisentitled“MichaelAlphonsusShenFu-Tsung,TheChineseConvert”(nowintheRoyalCollectionTrustatWindsorCastle). 

  
  
 

67CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”untimelydeathlefthisproselytizingmissionunfulfilled.HadWuLigonewithShen,hetoowouldnothavesurvivedthetreacherousjourneybacktoMacau.ASpectacularChristianWorldWuLi’sphysicaljourneyfromhishometowntoSuzhou,Beijing,andsubsequentlyMacauconstitutesametaphorfortravelinthought.Hismind“travelled”withdiversereligiousdoctrinesashevisiteddifferentplacesandcontemplatedtheWay(Dao道)leadingtospiritualawakening.Eventually,hisphysical/spiritualjourneyreachedadestinationinMacau.60MacauwasaspectacularWesternreligiousstage,whereWuLiwasfascinatedtodiscoveritsvitalityasaferventChristianworld.TheseventeenthcenturywasthegoldenageofMacau.WhatkindofMacaudidWuLiseewhenhearrived?AntónioCardim,anardentPortugueseJesuitandtheRectoroftheCollegiateChurchofStPaul’s,wrotein1644portrayingaMacauthatWuLiperhapssaw:Macauisputtogetherofveryfairbuildingsandisrichbyreasonofthecommerceandtrafficthatgoontherebynightandbyday;ithasNobleandHonourableCitizens,itisheldingreatrenownthroughthewholeOrientinasmuchasitisthestoreofallthosegoodsofgold,silver,silk,pearls,andotherjewels,ofallmannerofdrugs,spices,andperfumesfromChina,Japan,Tonkin,Cochinchina,Siam,Cambodia,Macassa,Solor,andaboveallforthatitistheHeadofChristendomintheEast.(quotedinFrancis,1930:2)Macauwasnotmerelyaprosperouscommercialcentrewithgoodpeople;itwasalsothe“HeadofChristendomintheEast”,aswellasthe“bridgeheadforChristianity”inChina.60OnthechronologyofWuLi’sstayinMacau,seeWangZongyan汪宗衍,“WuYushanwangAomennianfenzhiyanjiuziliaojiqita”〈吳漁山往澳門年份之研究資料及其他〉,inZhouKangxie周康燮(ed.),WuYushan(Li)yanjiulunji《吳漁山(歷)研究論集》(HongKong:ChongwenShudian崇文書店,1971),pp.147-9. 

  
  
 

68TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESInthewakeoftheestablishmentoftheDioceseofMacauin1576,thisPortugueseenclavebecameastrongChristiancommunity,wherevariousreligiousordersfoundedbranchesduringthethirdquarterofthesixteenthcentury.TheJesuits,whowereoftencalled“Paulists”intheEast,firstbuiltasimpleStPaul’sChurchin1565,andtheCollegeofStPaul’sin1572.By1594,newbuildingswereerectedandtheChurchofStPaul’swasrebuilt.Aftertwofiresin1595and1601respectively,theChurchwasre-erectedin1602.PeterMundy(1608—1667),anEnglishtraderandtraveller,recordedin1637thattheexcellentworkmanshipoftheroofofStPaul’sChurchwasthefairestarchthathehadeverseen(Mundy,1919:162).In1640,amagnificentfaçade,todayknownastheRuinsofStPaul’s,wasaddedtotheChurch.TheCollegenexttotheChurchofferedavarietyofsubjects—Latin,Greek,grammar,humanities,arts,theology,rhetoric,philosophy,arithmetic,music,andaboveall,Chinesestudies.ItwasconsideredthefirstEuropean-styleuniversityintheFarEast,asitconferredthedegreesofmasterofartsanddoctorates.AccordingtoLamChee-shing,theJesuitsbroughtwiththem7,000volumesofWesternbookstoMacau,andtheCollegewasdescribedas‘ahouseofknowledge,agardenofsanctityandaschoolofapostles’(Lam,1998:321-2).LuXiyan陸希言(1631—1704),anotherChineseproselyte,whocametoMacauwithCoupletandWuLiin1681,wroteanessayentitled“AomenJi”〈澳門記〉(RecordofMacau).Hereisanexcerpt:進而稍近，則樓閣層層，高者依山巔，低者傍海邊，緣崖屈曲，恍然一幅佳山水。……有文士焉；衣服翩翩，吟哦不輟，從天主堂而出入，讀書談道，習格物、窮理而學超性者。……天主聖堂之不一……三巴堂獨高昂而弘麗，百凡功業，均與他堂不同。(Lu,1988:250-1)Whenoneenters[Macau]andcomescloser,onecanseelayersofarchitecturalstructures.Thehigherbuildingsarelyingnearthehill-top,whiletheloweronesareadjacenttothewaterfront,andarewindingalongthecliff.Thesceneryisjustlikeasuperiorlandscape…Therearescholarswhoareelegantlyattired,andrecitepoetrycontinuously.TheyfrequenttheCatholicchurches,readingbooksanddiscussingtheDao, 

  
  
 

69CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”andpursuingintellectualenrichmentfortranscendence...TherearedifferentCatholicchurches…themostimposingandsplendidoneistheChurchofSanba[theChurchofStPaul’s].Itwasbuiltwithexquisitecraftsmanshipandappearsoutstandingfromallothers.LuXiyan’sdepictionofseventeenth-centuryMacauendorsedakindof“newworld”beauty,andrenderedtheimageofareligiousArcadiaonearth.WhatWuLisawwasaMacauinitsheydaywithbountifulchurchesandGod’s“chosenpeople”.ThesplendourofthisChristiancitymustbefullofcaptivatingcharm.“FromfarawayIcometolearnDaoatSanba”Asthe“dream”ofgoingtoRomewasunrealized,WuListudiedtianxue天學(heavenlylearning)inMacau.TheChinesecalledCatholicismtianxueorxixue西學(Westernlearning).Westernlearning,introducedbytheJesuits,wasamixtureofChristiantheology,Greekphilosophy(especiallyAristotelian),scienceandtechnology.In“Sanbaji”〈三巴集〉(collectedinMojingji,Vol.3),WuLirecordedhisdailylife,hisaspirations,hissentimentality,aswellasWesterncustomsinacollectionofthirtypoems,whichhelabelledas“Aozhongzayong”〈澳中雜詠〉(RamblingSongsonMacau).61HereisthefirstpoemonMacau(Plate8):關頭粵盡下平沙，濠境山形可類花。居客不驚非誤入，遠從學道到三巴。(Wu,1909c:45b)IhavepassedtheBorderGateattheendofGuangdong,andwalkdowntotheflatsandbeach,61In“Sanbaji”,therewereactuallyatotalof110poems.Whilethirtypoemsweregroupedas“Aozhongzayong”〈澳中雜詠〉(firstpublishedin1719),theremainingeightypoemswereaboutthechurchandreligioncalled“Shengxueshi”〈聖學詩〉(PoemsofHolyLearning).TheseeightypoemswerenotpublisheduntilneartheendoftheQingdynasty(1909)byLiDi.SeeFangHao方豪,“WuYushanxianshengSanbajijiaoshi”〈吳漁山先生〈三巴集〉校釋〉,inZhouKangxie周康燮(ed.),WuYushan(Li)yanjiulunji《吳漁山(歷)研究論集》(HongKong:ChongwenShudian崇文書店,1971),pp.103-5. 

  
  
 

70TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESThehillofHaojing[Macau]lookslikeaflower.62Residents,donotbesurprised,Ididnotenterbyfault,FromfarawayIcometolearnDaoatSanba.ThefirsttwolinessuggestWuLi’sphysicalborder-crossingfromancientChinatoPortugueseMacau.ThesetwoplacesreadilyrepresentWuLi’sformerlifeandhisnewlife.Figuratively,hepassesfromhisownspiritualentanglementtoanewspiritual62Macau’scartographicshapeislikenedtoalotusflower.ThehillofMacaumostprobablydenotesColinadeMong-Há望廈山,whereLianFengMiao蓮峰廟(LotusPeakTemple)issituated.ThelotusflowerhasnowbeenadoptedastheflowerofMacau,andisfeaturedintheflagoftheMacauSpecialAdministrativeRegion.Plate8Firstpageof“Sanbaji”inWuLi’sownhandwriting.ImagereproducedfromLaurenceC.S.Tam,SixMastersofEarlyQingandWuLi(HongKong:TheUrbanCouncil,1986),p.27. 

  
  
 

71CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”awakening.Theborder-crossingthussignifieshisclearbreakwiththepast.AndtheBorderGate,firstbuiltin1573servingasthe“borderline”betweenMacauandChina,istheverysymbolofthischange.Inthethirdline,WuLitellstheresidentsnottofeelastonishedtoseehimenteringMacauandthechurch,becauseintheeyeoftheresidents,heisastranger.Inthefourthline,theterm“Sanba”三巴istheChinesetransliterationofSãoPaulo(orinEnglish,SaintPaul).TheJesuitCollege,nexttotheChurchoftheMotherofGod,wascalledStPaul.GiventheproximityoftheCollegeandtheChurch,theChurchwasalsotakenforStPaul’s,andtheChinesecalleditSanbaSi三巴寺(theTempleofSãoPaulo)andDasanba大三巴(BigSãoPaulo).ItwasinStPaul’sCollegethatWuLilearnedDao.TheChineseconceptofDao道(theWay),orthedivineintelligenceoftheUniverse,embracescosmicreason.InDaoism,DaoistheunitaryfirstprincipleandtheeternalorderoftheUniverse.InConfucianism,Daoistherightwayoflife,thepathofvirtuousconduct,andtheuniversalcriterionofrightandwrong.TheearlyBuddhistsalsomadeuseofDaoistterminologytoexpresstheirideas,andtheysawDaoastheWaytoNirvana,63orsalvation(Schuhmacher,1994:356-7).AsWuLiwasalreadyasyncreticthinkerintheThreeTeachings,hecametothePortugueseenclavetolearnWesternDao,thatis,WesternknowledgeandChristianity.In“Sanbaji”poem17,WuLinarratesthathestaysonthesecondstoreyoftheseminary(itwouldbethefirstflooraccordingtotheWesternway):第二層樓三面聽，無風海浪似雷霆。(Wu,1909c:47b)OnthesecondstoreyIcanhearfromthreedirections;Thoughthereisnowind,seawavesstillroarlikethunder.Thereisalsoapassagein“Mojinghuaba”〈墨井畫跋〉inwhichWuLirevealshisinnerconflictintheseminary:63Nirvana,inChinese涅槃,istheultimatestatetoattainBuddhahood. 

  
  
 

72TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES墨井道人年垂五十，學道於三巴，眠食第二層樓上，觀海潮度日已五閱月於茲矣。憶五十年看雲塵世較此物外觀潮，未覺今是昨非，亦不知海與世孰險孰危索，筆圖出具道眼者，必有以教我。(Wu,1995:206)MojingDaoren[WuLihimself]isfiftyyearsofage,andhaslearnedDaoatSanbaforfivemonths.Isleepanddineonthesecondstorey[oftheseminary],andwhileawaythetimeinwatchingthetidesofthesea.AsIwatchthetides,Irecollectthepastfiftyyearsinthismundaneworld.IdonotknowwhetherIwaswronginthepastorifIamrightatpresent.Ialsodon’tknowthedangeroftheseaandtheworld.ThosewhopossessthewisdomofDaoshouldbeabletoenlightenme.Theimageryofwaves,tidesandtheseasuggestsregenerationandpurification.Thesea,inparticular,alludestothelongingforadventureandspiritualexploration(Olderr,1986:95;Vries,1976:406).IntheseminaryneartheSouthChinaSea,WuLicontemplatedhisspiritualjourneybywatchingthetidesofthesea,butwasambivalentandstilldoubtfulwhetherhisdecisiontostayinMacauwasrightornot.WhatdidWuListudyinMacauandwhatdidthecollege/seminarylooklike?AndersLjungstedthasgivenusaclearpicture:Jesuitshad,atanearlyperiod,settledatMacao,forthesakeofteachingreligion.Devoteesfurnishedfundsforthepurchaseofahousecontiguoustotheancientchurch;inthishouseinfidelswereinstructedandyoungvassalsofPortugalwereeducated.Thishad,before1594,beenconvertedintoanextensiveSeminary,where,oftenmorethanninetychildrenoftheinhabitantsweretaughttherudimentsoflearning.A“College”wasafterwardsfounded.IthadtwoclassesforLatin,twochairsfortheology,oneforphilosophy,andone,forbellesletters.ThecircuitoftheSeminarycontainedalargehallforthelibrary,oneforastronomicalpurposes,andanapothecaryshop.MissionariesgoingandcomingwerelodgedintheSeminary,whichcouldaccommodate70or80individuals.(Ljungstedt,1992:32) 

  
  
 

73CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”Ljungstedt’saccountneatlycomplementsWuLi’sdescriptionofhisstudiesin“Sanbaji”poem25:性學難逢海外師，遠來從者盡童兒。何當日課分卯酉，靜聽搖鈴讀二時。(Wu,1909c:49b)Ihavearareopportunitytostudy“naturalphilosophy”64withoverseasteachers;Vassalsfromafarareallchildren.Thedailylessonsaredividedintomorningandafternoon,Listeningtothegentleringingofthebell,wegotoclassatthosetwotimes.WuLicouldhavebeenoneoftheoldestnovicesintheclass,andmusthaveexertedextraeffortstostudyunderforeignmentorsandwithagroupofyoungsters.Hethentellsofthedifficultiesinreceivingamissioneducationin“Sanbaji”poem26:門前鄉語各西東，未解還教筆可通。我寫蠅頭君鳥爪，橫看直視更難窮。(Wu,1909c:49b)Infrontofthedoorpeoplespeakdifferentnativelanguages,Iftheycannotunderstandoneanother,theycommunicateinwriting.IwriteChinesecharacterslikeafly’shead,whiletheywritelikeabird’sclaw,Lookingatthemhorizontallyorvertically,itisdifficulttounderstand.ThecurriculaofWesternDaoincludedthestudyofLatin,whichwasanalien64TheChinesetermxingxue性學usedbytheJesuitswastranslatedas“naturalphilosophy”asopposedtotheology.SeeJonathanChaves,SingingoftheSource:NatureandGodinthePoetryoftheChinesePainterWuLi(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1993),p.152. 

  
  
 

74TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESlanguagetoWuLi.Inwriting,hefoundthecurvylinessohardwhencomparedwiththesquareChinesecharacters.In“Sanbaji”poem28,heexpressesutterfrustrationathisslowprogress:老去誰能補壯時？工夫日用恐遲遲。思將舊習先焚硯，且斷塗鴉並廢詩。(Wu,1909c:50a)Whenonegrowsold,whocanmakeupthelossofyouthfuldays?EverydayIstudyhardforfearmyprogressisslow.Recallingmyoldhabits,Iwouldratherburnmyink-slabfirst;Andthenputanendtopaintingandtocomposingpoems.WuLiscarcelypaintedwhilehewasanovice,butheneverstoppedcomposingpoems.Infact,hisreputationasanorthodoxpainterobscuredhisliteraryachievementasanacclaimedpoet,eveninhisownlifetime.InastudyofWuLi’spoetry,JonathanChavespointsoutthathecreatedsomethingtotallynewinChineseliterature:aChineseChristianpoetry.HiscreativeoriginalityliesintheunprecedentedboldnessofcomposingpoetrybasedonorthodoxChristiantheologyinclassicalChinesepoeticforms(Chaves,1993:xii,47).Inadditiontotheeightypoemsembracingreligiousthemescalled“Shengxueshi”〈聖學詩〉(PoemsofHolyLearning)in“Sanbaji”,WuLi’sotherreligiouspoemsandverseswrittenatdifferenttimeswerecompiledintoananthologycalled“Sanyuji”〈三餘集〉.65Obviously,WuLicouldnotforgetRome,andstillyearnedforthis“dreamland”.Inthepoem“TheWesternLantern”〈西燈〉(in“Sanyuji”),asceneofpathosisunveiled:65Thecalligraphicmanuscriptsof“Sanbaji”and“Sanyuji”byWuLiwerecollectedintheHongKongMuseumofArt.ThesemanuscriptswerepublishedinLaurenceC.S.Tam,SixMastersofEarlyQingandWuLi(HongKong:TheUrbanCouncil,1986),pp.352-61.Ontheannotationofthepoemsin“Sanyuji”,seeFangHao方豪,“WuYushanxianshengSanyujijiaoshi”〈吳漁山先生〈三餘集〉校釋〉,inZhouKangxie周康燮(ed.),WuYushan(Li)yanjiulunji《吳漁山(歷)研究論集》(HongKong:ChongwenShudian崇文書店,1971),pp.85-102. 

  
  
 

75CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”燈自遠方異，火從寒食分。試觀羅瑪景，橫讀辣丁文。蛾繞光難近，鼠窺影不群。驚看西札到，事事聞未聞。(Wu,1971d:90)Thelanterncomingfromafarisdifferent,ThefireaftertheColdFoodFestivalisrekindled.ItrytoimaginethesceneryofRome,AndreadLatinonhorizontallines.Amothhoversaroundthelight,butunabletocomenearer,Aratpeepsfromthedark,butnotinagroup.IamexcitedtoseethearrivaloflettersfromtheWest,66AndlearneverythingIneverheardofbefore.AlthoughhecouldnotgototheFarWesttolookforthe“Westernlantern”,heeventuallyfounditinMacau.SymbolizingthewordofGod,the“Westernlantern”illuminatedhisinnerself,lighteduphislife,andbroughtnewconceptsandhumanitythatwerecompletelydifferentfromthoseofChineseculture.Havingfoundthe“Westernlantern”,washeabletoliveuptohisownexpectationsasan“enlightened”person,andasGod’s“shepherd”?“Forwhomdoesmychurchbelltollnow?”Afterafour-yearnovitiateinMacau,WuLireturnedtoChinain1684.67He66ItissuggestedthatthelettersfromRomecouldwellbewritteninChinese(notLatin)byFatherCouplettoWuLi,sincehewaswelltrainedintheChineselanguage.SeeFangHao方豪,“WuYushanshenfulingxiniandaijinduodidianjiladingwenzaoyikao”〈吳漁山神父領洗年代晉鐸地點及拉丁文造詣考〉,inZhouKangxie周康燮(ed.),WuYushan(Li)yanjiulunji《吳漁山(歷)研究論集》(HongKong:ChongwenShudian崇文書店,1971),p.139.67InLinXiaoping’sstudy,itisbelievedthatWuListayedinMacaufrom1681to1686.Pacethisassumption,hewasthereatmostfouryearsfrom1681to1684.Also,duringhissojourn,hereturnedbrieflytoChinaatleasttwotimes.SeeFangHao方豪,“DuWuYushanyizhuzaji”〈讀吳漁山遺著札記〉,inZhouKangxie周康燮(ed.),WuYushan(Li)yanjiulunji《吳漁山(歷)研究論集》(HongKong:ChongwenShudian崇文書店,1971),pp.120-1. 

  
  
 

76TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESwasordainedasaprieston1August1688attheageof57inNanjing.Inastanzaofthepoem“SongofmySixtiethBirthday”〈六十吟〉(in“Sanyuji”),herecountsanewphaseofhislife:所遇故物亦忘名，偶逢冠蓋無煩見。閉影潛修素願欲，西學日究猶未足。(Wu,1971d:94)Ihavealreadyforgottenthenamesofoldfamiliarthings,BychanceifImeetprominentofficials,Idonotbothertogreetthem.WhenIliveinseclusiontofulfillmydesireonstudying,IstillfindIcannotconcentrateenoughonWesternlearning.WuLiwantedtocutthetiewiththepastandforsakethe“oldself”.Forthelastthirtyyearsuntilhisdeathin1718,hewasfullyengagedinproselytizinginNanjing,Shanghai,andJiading.Asaruralpriestgoingfromoneplacetoanother,hehadtofaceinsurmountabledifficulties.Inaverse(ci詞),“TheShepherd”〈牧羊詞〉(in“Sanyuji”),heemploysaBiblicalmetaphorforhisambivalentfeelings:渡浦去郊牧，紛紛羊若何？肥者能幾群？瘠者何其多！草衰地遠似牧遲，我羊病處惟我知；前引唱歌無倦惰，守棧驅狼常不臥。但願長年能健牧，朝往東南暮西北。(Wu,1971d:86)IcrossthePuRivertotheruralareatopasturesheep,Whatabigflockofsheeptheyare?Thecorpulentsheeparenotmany,Buttheleanonesarenumerous!Thegrasslandispooranddistant,Iseemtohavetendedlate,YetonlyIknowwellthesicknessofmysheep;Singingandleadingthemforwardwithoutfeelingtired,WatchingmyflockinthesheepfoldandprotectingthemfromwolvesIoftendonotsleep, 

  
  
 

77CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”IwishalltheyearsImightremainstrongtoattendtothem,SoIgoeastandsouthinthemorningandwestandnorthintheevening.ThecorpulentsheepalludetothepiousChristiansandtheleansheeparethosewhorefusetoreceivethewordofGod.ThisversesuccinctlyrevealshisdedicationandevangelizingzealduringthearduousreligiousmissionintheabsenceofhisWesterncolleagues.In1695WuLiwroteadishearteningpoem,“SongofaShabbyChurch”〈破堂吟〉(inMojingji,Vol.5),complainingaboutashortageoffundsfortherepairofadilapidatedchurchinJiading.Thebuildingwasoldwithleaks,specksandstainsonthefourwalls;halfoftheroof-cornerhadalreadycrumbled.Insidethechurch,itwascoldanddark;andliverwortshadalreadybeguntogrow.Evenworse,therepairworkwasmerelyanemptytalk.Thelaststanzareads:常年西士曾來往，畏溼陰陰雨多注。我今但能理荒荊，不能使脩不日成。(Wu,1909c:97b)ForyearsWesternmissionarieshavecomeandgone,Theyfearedthedampnessafterthepouringrain.NowIcanonlycutthewildgrass,ButIcannothavethechurchrepairedwithindays.WuLifeltfrustrated,lonelyandevendepressedbeingaruralpreacher.In1698heexpressedhismelancholyinthepoem“TheSoundoftheChimingClock”〈自鳴鐘聲〉(in“Sanyuji”):兩鬢荒荒雪漸盈，十年無計出愁城。鐘聲不管愁難度，日夕迴環只自鳴。(Wu,1971d:88)Thehaironmytemplesisscarceandgraduallygrowsabundantlylikesnow,ForthepasttenyearsIhavenotfoundawayoutofthiscityofdistress. 

  
  
 

78TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESYettheclockcaresnotthedepthsofmydistress,Itchimesdayandnightforitself.Theclockisthesymbolofthepassingoftime(Hall,1995:72).Throughtheimageryofthependulumclock,hedeploredthattimeflittedandhewasgettingold.Heeveninflictedonhimselfself-admonition,sinceaftertenyearsasapriesthestillfeltunfulfilledinevangelizing.Inthepoem“TenYearsinShanghai”〈十年上海〉(in“Sanyuji”),however,hewasimmersedinfulfillmentandcontentmentintheprojectofevangelization.Thesecondstanzareads:道化欣相得，土儂熟便招。十年勞未倦，忘却鬚霜凋。(Wu,1971d:92)Iamdelightedinthemissionofproselytizing,IoftengreetfolksIhaveknown.Fortenyears,Ihaveneverfelttired,ButIforgetmyhairandbeardhavegrownhoary.Intheabovetwopoems,WuLiwasgrievedatthetortureofaging,buthispassionatezealforpreachingChristianitywasunabated.Inanotherpoem,“TheDeplorable”〈可歎〉(in“Sanyuji”),heexclaimedhowshortlifewasandhowtimepassedjustlikeaflyingarrow.Helamentedthatvillagers(mostlyfishermenandfarmers)onlyworriedaboutworldlymattersbutnotthetranscendenttruth.Thelaststanzareads:予今村鐸為誰鳴？十年躑躅無倦行。安得千村與萬落，人人向道為死生。(Wu,1971d:92)Forwhomdoesmychurchbelltollnow?Ihaveworkedalonetirelesslyfortenyears; 

  
  
 

79CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”Inthehopethatinthethousandsuponthousandsofvillages,EveryoneturnstoCatholicismforspiritualenlightenment.Thebellisusedtosymbolizesoundandacalltoworship.Hence,itisintendedtocallheartstotheAwakening(Vries,1976:44).Thequestion“Forwhomdoesmychurchbelltollnow?”poignantlyreferstothescarcityofChristianfollowers.WuLiwasapparentlyupsetbytheunrequitedresponsetohis“civilizingmission”,andwastormentedbylonelinessasanitinerantpriestinruralareas.Althoughthechurchbellcouldnotawakenthe“lostsheep”,hewasstillfullofhopeandshowedimmensestoicism.ASetbacktoChristianProselytizationWuLi’slamentablepoemsdiscussedintheabovesectionwerecomposedafterhestartedtopreachinChina,andreflectedatumultuousepochofChristianproselytization.Underwhatsocio-politicalcontextdidhepouroutatrailofdeplorablesentiments?WuLi’shelplessness,frustration,depression,andaboveall,asenseoffruitlessnesswereallatestimonytoaneraofreligiousclashesbetweentheEastandtheWest.Duringhislastthirtyyears(1688—1718)asaCatholicpriest,itwasatimeofrepressiononChristianfaithinChinacoincidingwiththeRitesControversy.BeforeKangxiissuedthe“EdictofToleration”in1692permittinghissubjects‘togotothechurchesfreelytoworshipGod’(Panikkar,1959:287),theacrimoniousdisputeontheChineseritesalreadybeganshortlyafterRicci’sdeathin1610.Theritesquarrelwasfirstaninternalandinter-missionaryargumentamongdifferentmonasticordersoverconceptsofphilosophy,theology,andeschatology.However,itlaterturnedintoanopenpoliticalandreligiouspowerstrugglebetweentheHolySeeinRomeandimperialChina.TheRitesControversyreachedaboilingpointin1700whentheJesuitssoughttoskirtPapalauthoritybysubmittingapetitiontoKangxi.TheytriedtosolicitanaffirmativeansweroftheirreligiousconceptionsoftheChineserites,whichwereunlikethoseoftheDominicansandFranciscans.TheirpetitionmetwithfullsupportfromKangxi,whoissuedapublicdeclarationupholdingtheJesuitOrder.Ontheotherside 

  
  
 

80TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESoftheworld,theHolySeeaccusedtheJesuitsofviolatingthecentralmissionarytenetofCatholicismthatforbadeanytolerationofheathenfaiths.Atthisjuncture,JesuitmissionariesweretornbetweentheRomanCuriaand“heathen”ChinaoverthecontentionofpropagatingChristianity.In1715PopeClementXIdecreedaPapalBullExIllaDie,whichprohibitedtheChineseconvertsfromhonouringConfucius,andcondemnedancestorworshipasidolatrousandsuperstitious.68FortheQinggovernment,theHolySee’sprohibitionandcondemnationdirectlyunderminedChineseautochthonousspiritualdiscourseandfilialduties,thusshakingthesocio-politicalstructure.WuLimusthavesufferedinagonyasalonelyJesuitpriestinthoserestiveyears,involuntarilycaughtinthevortexofthis-worldlyandother-worldlycollision.Hediedthreeyearslaterin1718.EventhoughChristianityhaddevelopedmonotheisticdoctrinesthatproclaimedtheuniversalandeternalnatureoftheirreligion,theconceptofonetranscendentandimmutabletruthwasalientotheChineseoftheseventeenthcentury(Gernet,1985:65-6).Chinesereligioussentimentsclearlyarticulatedasynthesisofdifferingdoctrinalelementsandembracedapolytheisticspiritinbeliefs.TheEast-Westdifferencesinreligioustraditionsengenderedanunbridgeablegapbetweenthetwomentalcategories.TheQingcourtviewedChristianityasxiejiao邪教(adeviantsect),riddledwithsubversiveintentions.ChristianitywasthusclassifiedinthesamecategoryastheheterodoxBailianjiao白蓮教(theWhiteLotusCult),anundergroundBuddhistsect.69ChristianproselytizationinJapansharedthesamefate.TheJapanesegovernmentbelievedthatWesternmissionarieshadtriedtooverridelocalpoliticalauthority,instigateinternaldissensionanddisruptJapan’straditionalsocialfabric.AsJapantookthefirststeptowardsexpellingmissionariesfromNagasakiin1635,andtheSakokuedictof1638finallyputthefullmeasureofexpulsionintolaw,70theChinese68Afteralapseof224years,itwason8December1939thatPopePiusXIIliftedtheprohibitionoftheChineserites.69Upholdingapocalyptictenets,Bailianjiaowasblamedforprovokingpeasantrevoltsasearlyas1622.70ThesuppressionofChristianityinJapanpromptedmanyJapaneseChristiansfleeingtoMacauduringthefirstquarteroftheseventeenthcenturyandJapanterminateditstradewithMacauin1639. 

  
  
 

81CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”imperialauthoritieslikewisecondemnedCatholicismasathreattopublicstability.EvangelizationwasfullysuppressedsoonafterWuLi’sdeath.71Lastingforoveracentury,theRitesControversyfinallyendedwhenPopeBenedictXIVissuedthedecisiveBullExQuoSingulariin1742.Itwasindeedalongandintriguingstory,buttosumup,itwasonlyareligiousbattlewithinasinglecommonideal—theconversionofChinatoChristianity.Outofanoverwhelmingfervourtointroducethe“true”and“transcendent”religion,WesternmissionariescreatedhavoctotheChineseculturalnorms,nottomentionthattheyalsocametoacul-de-sacintheologicalsectarianism.TheRitesControversyconstitutedpartofthetragichistoryofRomanCatholicismandledtoasetbacktothepropagationofChristianityinMacauandChina,aswellastothedisintegrationoftheSocietyofJesus.72JustastheFaçadeisatestimonytotheheydayanddeclineofMacau,WuLiisawitnesstothegloryandfalloftheJesuitsinMacauandChina.Whilethefire-baptizedFaçadenowseemstoevokeaneeriefeelingofemptinessandlonelinessinitsruins,WuLi’sliteraryworksleaveaplumeofintensedesolationandmelancholy.TheFaçadeandWuLicastamosthauntingallegoryoftheJesuits’missionintheEast:theextentandintensityoftheirevangelicalefforts,andtheirultimatefrustrationoffruitlessnessaftertheRitesControversyandtheproscriptionofCatholicismbytheChineseimperialauthorities.UnyieldingQuestforSpiritualityWuLiwasamanofprofoundaspirations,determination,courage,andperseverance.Attheageoffifty-one,heleftbehindhiscareerasaneminentpainter-scholartostartanewlifeasaJesuitnoviceinMacau.HisdedicationtoChristianity,71In1724EmperorYongzheng雍正(reigned1723—1736)officiallyproscribedthepreachingofChristianreligionandexpelledforeignmissionaries.Likewise,in1784EmperorQianlong乾隆(reigned1736—1796)issuedanImperialEdictforbiddingallmissionariestoenterChinafromMacau,underpainofexecution.72In1762thePortuguesePrimeMinister,theMarquisdePombal,orderedtheJesuitmissionariesoutofMacauaspartoftheworldwidevendettaagainstthisOrder,chargingthemwithdisobedienceandrevoltagainstthePapalauthority. 

  
  
 

82TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESitmightbeargued,wasakindofescapismfromgrislyreality:thehauntingmemoryofanunpleasantchildhoodonaccountofthedespoticManchurulers;moralpressuresasaNeo-Confucianscholar;theintensefeelingofemptinessafterthepassingawayofhismentors,friends,andbelovedones.AnotherdecisivefactorforhimtofollowChristianitycouldbehisspiritualdisappointmentinBuddhismandDaoism,whereasCatholicismofferedanewlyintroducedhumanityinwhichhecouldfindspiritualemancipationandenlightenment.Asaruralpriest,WuLiworkedaloneandencounteredhugeimpedimentsinevangelizing,buthenevergaveuphisfaith.InalettertoWangHui王翬(1632—1717),heshowedhisentireconfidenceinGod.WangHuiandWuLiweregoodfriendsthroughouttheirlives.Theywereborninthesameyear,belongedtothesamenativetown,andtrainedunderthesamemasters—WangShimingandWangJian—intheartofpainting.WhileWangHuireceivedrecognition,honourandgloryasapainterintheQingcourt,WuLidespisedworldlyfamebuttirelesslysoughtatranscendentlife.WangHuiisgenerallyconsideredthemostrenownedofthe“SixMastersofEarlyQing”.Theletter(inkonpaper,andnowintheKyotoNationalMuseum)waswrittenaround1712,inwhichWuLicalledWangHuibanwo半我(myotherhalf)andurgedhimtorepentandcomebacktoGod.Thetoneoftheletterisjustlikethatofabenign“shepherd”toaslackChristian.Hereisanexcerpt:為君計之，朝斯夕斯省察，從稚至老，纖[懺]慝無遺。蓋告解時，心吐露而願改，解後補贖，得當虔領耶穌聖體，兼領聖寵以增神力，即有升天之則。此乃第一要務也。73Letmeplanforyou:reviewyourselffrommorningtoeveningandfromyouthtooldage;repentandhidenothing[fromGod].WhenobservingtheSacramentofPenance,you’dbettermakeasincereconfessionandhaveacontriteheart.Youshoulddopenance,anddevotedlyreceivethe73Punctuationsareaddedforeasyreading.OnWuLi’shandwrittenletter,seeLaurenceC.S.Tam,SixMastersofEarlyQingandWuLi(HongKong:TheUrbanCouncil,1986),p.92. 

  
  
 

83CHAPTER2WULI:INSEARCHOFTHE“WESTERNLANTERN”HolyCommunionofJesusandthegracesofGodinordertoenhancepiety.Inthisway,youwillgotoHeaven[afterdeath].Thisistheforemostdutyforyou.WangHuicouldhavebeenbaptized,likeWuLi,whenhewasaboyinChangshu.WhetherhetookhiscounselandreceivedtheSacramentofPenancebeforehisdeathin1717isnotknown.ButitisobviousthatWuLisincerelywishedhis“otherhalf”tosharewithhimthejoyheenvisionedinthenextworld.Despitetheirdifferentaspirations,achievementsandreligiousbeliefs,theytreasuredtheirfriendshipandrespectedeachother.ContrarytotheCatholicChurch’sbelligerentrighteousnesstonegateanyformofthoughtthatisoutsideitscognitivestructureofbelief,theChinesesyncreticattitudesillustratethedynamicsofreligioustoleration.TheHolySee’snegationofculturalandreligiousrelativityperhapsrevealsitsoverweeningprideandinabilitytoacceptanothersystemofknowledgeandtocompromisewithanotherkindofhumanity.MissionaryhistorywouldhavebeenrewrittenhadnottheculturalrepercussionsoftheRitesControversybeensodeeplyetched.Inanunusualbreakwithpapalinfallibility,ontheoccasionofthe400thanniversarymarkingthearrivalofMatteoRicciinBeijing,PopeJohnPaulII,astheheadoftheCatholicChurch,madeanapologytotheChinesepeopleinaninternationalconventionheldattheGregorianUniversityinRomeon24October2001.Hesaid,‘Ifeeldeepsadnessfortheseerrorsandlimitsofthepast’(InternationalHeraldTribune,26October2001).TheunfathomableimpactoftheRitesControversymaywellbealessonforevangelizerstolearnnowadays.Intheturbulenttransitionofpoliticalpowerinseventeenth-centuryChina,WuLipaintedforusavividpicture,throughhisliteraryworks,ofhisreligiousexperience.EventhoughhewascaughtinthevortexofdoctrinalclashesoftheRitesControversy,hisunyieldingquestforspiritualenlightenmentsetafineexampleofhumansolidarity.Havingachancetostudyunderagroupofremarkableintellectualsinhisyouthfuldays,andlater,underlearnedJesuitmissionaries,hepossessedanacutesensesearchingforameaningfullifeandatrueinnerself.Bythelightofthe“Westernlantern”,hesawthewordofGodandfoundtheLandofPeachBlossomsinhisenlightenedmind. 

  
  
 

 

  
  
 

85CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUCHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAU74AlmostthreehundredyearslaterafterWuLi’sarrivalatMacau,LeungPing-kwan梁秉鈞(1949—2013)firstvisitedMacauin1973.Intheebbandflowofcolonialcurrents,thisPortugueseoverseasprovincehasbecomeahistoricallyanomalous75andculturallydiversifiedplace.ItslatecolonialityhascapturedLeung’screativeimpulseandimagination,andhewroteaseriesofxinshi新詩,ornewpoetry,onwitheringMacau.Popularlyknownbyhispen-nameYesi也斯,LeungwasanativeofXinhui新會,Guangdongprovince,andraisedinHongKong.HereceivedhisdoctorateinComparativeLiteratureandhisdoctoralthesiswasonModernisminChinesepoetry.76ThemultifacetedLeungisawriter,poet,translator,essayist,andcriticoffilmandculture.Amonghisprolificliterarycreations,hehascomposedvolumesofmodernChinesepoetryaboutdifferentplacesandpeople.HehasbeenlaudedasacontemporaryChineselanguagepoetofthefirstrank,andasHongKong’sleadingmanofletters.ModernChinesepoetryisalsocallednewpoetry,soastodifferentiatethisnew74Thispaperwaspublishedunderthetitle“Macao:ThroughtheNewPoetryofLeungPing-kwan”,ReviewofCulture,InternationalEditionNo.23,July2007,pp.76-84.75Onananomalyincolonizationanddecolonization,seeChristinaMiuBingCheng,Macau:ACulturalJanus(HongKong:HongKongUniversityPress,1999),pp.9-45.76OnLeungPing-kwan’sdoctoralthesis,seeAestheticsofopposition:astudyofthemodernistgenerationofChinesepoets,1936—1949(AnnArbor,Michigan:UniversityMicrofilmsInternational,1986). 

  
  
 

86TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESliterarygenrefromclassicalpoetry.77Unlikethetraditionalformsofclassicalpoetrywhicharearrangedinfixedpatternsoflinesandrhymed,newpoetryistypifiedbyusingfreeverse,anddoesnotfollowanyprescribedpatternnorwithrhyme.ThisemergentgenrecameintobeingintheNewLiteratureMovementof1917andflourishedaftertheMayFourthMovementof1919—aperiodthatusheredinthere-valuationandreformoftraditionsandculturalpraxes.Atthattime,someChineseliteratitriedtobreakawayfromtheconventionalformsofclassicalpoetryandadoptedtheuseofthevernacularasthenewpoeticmedium,whichwasclosetospokenlanguage,andmoreeasilyunderstoodthantheclassicalChineseexpressions.HuShi胡適(1891—1962),knownasthe“fatherofmodernChinesepoetry”,calledfor“poeticempiricism”andadvocatedtheuniquenessofindividualexperienceincreativity.ModernChinesepoetryishencecharacterizedbyitsindividualism,self-expression,andtheintenseanalysisoftheself.Inthe1980’s,modernChinesepoetryevolvedfurtherdimensions,notablyMenglongshi朦朧詩(Mistypoetry)andthepoetryofXinshengdai新生代(theNewbornGeneration).Themodernpoetsofthesetwogroupsare,however,accusedofnihilism,pessimism,escapism,andindividualism;andtheirpoeticcreationsaredenouncedastrivialandmeaningless.78InherAnthologyofModernChinesePoetry,MichelleYeharguesthatmodernChinesepoetrycanbeviewedcollectivelyasanoriginalandimaginativereactiontothemarginalizationofpoetryatthedawnofthetwentiethcenturybyvarioushistorical,socio-political,andideologicalforces.Contrarytotheintentionofitspioneeringadvocates,modernChinesepoetryfailedtoattractawideaudience.Itwastornbetweentraditionalsocietyandmodernsociety,withoutreallybelongingtoeither.Andironically,thisliteraryinnovationhasbeenpushedbacktothemarginsandhaslostitsfavourineliteculture(Yeh,1992:xxiii-xxxvii).77Thepopularpatternsofclassicalpoetryarecomposedoflinesofwuyan五言(five-character)andqiyan七言(seven-character).78Menglongshiwastypicalofitsobscurity,ambiguityandillusivemeanings,whereasthepoetryoftheNewbornGenerationemployedamatter-of-facttone,non-figuralandcolloquiallanguageinordertoshowareactionanddeparturetoMenglongshi.Yet,bothgroupsofpoetshavesomethingincommon—theyconsciouslyspeakfromthemarginalspaceagainstthedominantcentre. 

  
  
 

87CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUIndiscussingHongKongasaportcityanditsmaterialeconomicculture,ReyChowhascitedLeung’smodernChinesepoetry.ShepointsoutthathispoemsonHongKongarefullofdescriptionsofthematerialworld,andthereisaricharrayofthings(Chow,1993:191).Moreover,Leung’snewpoetryeulogizesexternalaswellasinternaljourneying:Thisisapoetryofwandering,traveling,observing,talkingwithpeoplefromdifferentplacesandcultures…Evenwhenheisstill,thepoet’seyeisconstantlyonthemove,bringingwithitmultipleperceptionswhichareconstantlychanging(Chow,1993:190).Leung’spoemsonMacaucontinuerevealingthesecharacteristics,andsomeofhispoemsevokeintensenostalgicsentiments.Hisworkscontainvarioussubjects,suchashistoriclandmarks,culturalencountersamongvariousethnicgroups,historicalfigures,andPortuguese/Macanesecuisine.Whilesomeareinterwovenwithhislyricreflectionsonhistory,othersspeakforhissolipsisticpathostowardsthechangeofpowerinMacauattheendofthetwentiethcentury.HispoeticwritingsonMacaucanbedistinctivelydemarcatedintotwophases.Thefollowingpoemsgroupedunder“Landscape”representthefirstphase,andarediscussedinchronologicalandthematicorder.Readerscanlookatthesenescent“visage”ofthisformerPortuguesecolonyalongsidehisroamingjourneyinmind.LandscapeQuitedifferentfromLeung’spoemsonBritishHongKong,whichembracethecommonplace,thefollowingpoetryonPortugueseMacaurecallsitsrenownedlandscapes—SantoAgostinho,PraiaGrande,StPaul’sRuins,theTempleofNezha,andtheBarrierGate.Thesepoems,writtenin1973andtranslatedbyMarthaCheung,werepublishedinLeungPing-kwan’sTravellingwithaBitterMelon:selectedpoems(1973-1998)《帶一枚苦瓜旅行》(ca.2002). 

  
  
 

88TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES“TheSteepAlleyatA.Agostinho”[SantoAgostinho]79AnoldwomaninblackplantsincensesticksintoacreviceonthecobbledstreetBehindthegloomydooroneonlyseesagreenbrazierwithpapermoneyforthedeadWispsofsmokedrifttowardsthosebambooscaffoldsAtwhatlookslikeaconstructionsiteoraheapofrocksknockeddownfromabuildingaboyraisesaslipperdashespaststacksofmossybrickschasingspecksofsomethingdancingintheairInfrontofashabbygarmentfactorysitsanoldmanwordlesslookingpasttheyoungwomanwhileabucketofsoilclimbingupthecobbledstreetthatslopeswaydowntoastripofmuddymurkysea(Cheung,trans.2002:89)KangYouwei康有為(1858—1927),ascholarandreformerofthelateQingdynasty,visitedMacauandbemoanedinapoem,‘Macau—howlikealandscapeatdusk!’濠鏡山川對夕陽80(RenditionNos.29and30,1988:64).ForKang,thegoldenageofMacauisgone.“Alandscapeatdusk”rendersanimageofdesolationandagedness.Inthesamevein,Leung’spoem,“TheSteepAlleyatA.Agostinho”,evokestheimageryofadecayingArcadia.Macauissluggishanddeclining:“thecobbledstreet”;“thegloomydoor”;“stacksofmossybricks”;“ashabbygarmentfactory”;and79Thereisanobvioustranslationerror.Itisnot“A.Agostinho”asitinfactappearsinthetitleofthepublishedtranslation.ItshouldbeCalçadadeSantoAgostinhofortheChinese巴掌圍斜巷.80MacauispoeticallyknownbytheChinesenameHaojing濠鏡(MirrorofthePond). 

  
  
 

89CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAU“astripofmuddymurkysea”.Inaddition,Macauislistlessandsenile:“anoldwomaninblack”;and“anoldmanwordless”.ThestreetscenealsosuggestssuperstitionoftheEast:“incensesticks”and“papermoneyforthedead”.ThedescriptionofthisarrayofthingsisreminiscentofthefamiliarOrientalimagesoftenaccordedtocolonialMacaubyWesterners(Cheng,1999a:129-44).“ShelteringfromRaininaCoffeeShopinPraiaGrande”ElbowsrestingontheredtableIsaid,“Let’staketeaoutsideandsitundertheawning,”buttherainhaddrenchedtherattanchairsthesquarewhitetablesandafragilepottedplantsoweopenedthewindowbesideustofeeltherainandwindThoseatthenexttablepaidtheirbillsandleftwewatchedtheyoungwaitressgouptothedoorandshakeouttheredtable-clothacyclistholdingupanumbrellarodepastleavingusgazingacrossthestreetatsomeelegantwhitechairsfloatingwiththefallenleavesonglassywater“Whentheskyclearswecanpopoverthereforacupofcoffee,”butnowtherewasn’tevenasunshadejustanironrodstickingupfromthemiddleofthetablesupportinggodknowswhatbehinditanoldtreemuchstrongerandtougherrisingstraightasiffromtheyetunfinishedMacau-TaipaBridgefromtheverygapwhereitstwosectionsinfutureshallmeetThecolouroftheseadeepened 

  
  
 

90TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESspreadingfurtherandfurthermergingwithfaroffmountainsshroudedinmistovertheredimandblurrytherewasnotellingifitwasrainorshine(Cheung,trans.2002:91,93)Inacoffeeshop,thedrenchingrainisLeung’ssentimentalmuseforcomposingthepoem.Asoneofthecharacteristicsinhispoetry,Leungisinclinedtowriteindialogue.Inadialogictactic,thepoetinteractswiththereader,andinvitesthereadertoenterintohisworld.Thispoemoffersitselfasapassage,throughwhichthereaderisbroughttoavarietyofvisualperspectives,justlikethosewhicharecreatedbyphotographicandcinematiceffects.Thereaderisdirectedtoseefromclose-upstolong-takes;fromtheneartothefar,thusopeningupahorizontoseefurtherandfurther.Leungclearlydelineatesthesceneryinthedichotomybetweentheinsideandtheoutside:movingfrom“thesquarewhitetablesandafragilepottedplant”insideto“thewindow”.Thenawideperspectiveunveils:“therainandwind”outsidethecoffeeshop.Hisfocusswitchesbacktothequotidiansceneinsidethecoffeeshop.Andthereaderispushedtolookacrossthestreetoutsideagain.Anotherdialoguewiththereadermarksthevisualchangefrom“thetable”tothefaraway“unfinishedMacau-TaipaBridge”andfurtherbeyond.Abridgerepresentsatransitionfromonestateofbeingtoanother;andthedesireforchange(Olderr,1986:17).AsthepoetlamentsthesenilityofMacauinthepreviouspoem,hechroniclesthechangeofMacautowardsmodernitybybuildingitsfirstbridge.81Theconstructionofanewbridgehence81InauguratedinJuly1974,theMacau-TaipaBridgeisalsoknownasPonteGovernadorNobredeCarvalho,namedafterJoséManueldeSousaeFariaNobredeCarvalho,theGovernorofMacaufrom1966to1974.Macau’slandscapewaschangedafterthesecondMacau-TaipaBridge,PontedeAmizade,ortheBridgeofFriendship,wasinauguratedinApril1994,andthethirdMacau-TaipaBridge,SaiVanBridge,wasfinishedinDecember2004.TheMacaupeninsulaandthetwosmallislands—Taipa氹仔andColoane路環—arenowwelllinked.ThereclaimedlandthatconnectsTaipaandColoaneiscalledtheCotaiStrip,wherethegrandVenetianMacauResortHotel&Casinoistodaysituated. 

  
  
 

91CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUsymbolizesthebeginningofMacau’smodernizationintheearly1970’s.Hismelancholicanddisconsolatemoodisexpressedintheseascape:“thecolouroftheseadeepened”.HeemploysthetropeoftheweathertodescribetheunknownfutureofMacau—itis“shroudedinmist”.Thepoemalternatesbetweentheinsideandtheoutside;betweenthenearandthefar;betweentherainyandshinyweather.Thisvacillationmayspeakforthepoet’sroaminginmind.Sittingstillinacoffeeshoponarainyday,thepoet’seyeisonthemove,andatthesametime,heatteststoasolipsisticjourneythinkingthefutureofMacau.ThepoembringsoutrichchangingperspectivesinPraiaGrande.“StPaul’sRuins”HoldingintheirhandssparklerssetalightthechildrenrunupthestonestepsstopbeforethetoweringloftinesstheireyessweepingthecharredwalltorestonthetallhighstatuesTheystepintotheruinsofthiscathedralnosightofthethreeotherwallsnostainedglasswindows,goldenvestments,orcandleswherethepewsandholyaltarwereclumpsofhibiscusbloomriotustheirdensefoliagetougherandstrongerthanexquisitecarvingstheirgreenleavesandredflowersveilingtheexposedfacesofcrumblingwallsabovethemthecloudsdriftinggracefullyinandout 

  
  
 

92TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESNexttothisfaçadeasmalltemplefortheBuddhistgodNalakubala[Nalakubara]82differentstatues,equallydilapidatedinfrontofthedoorapileofrustyironwheelsnotturningbutatastand-stillinsidethedarktemplechokedwithincenseandstrayedobjectsafadingscrollwithonelineofacouplet“ourgodatruegoddoesnotconfuseorconfoundourpeople”outsidethetempleunderthearchedgatewayofagardentwohumbleoldmenintheneighbourhoodpassthedaychit-chatting(Cheung,trans.2002:95,97)AlmostasmuchasymbolofMacauastheEiffelTowerisofParis,StPaul’sRuins(popularlyknownastheFaçade)isoneofitsmostcelebratedlandmarks(Plate9).Itisperhapsthemostfrequentlymentioned“pointofinterest”ofMacau.83LeungdoesnotnarratetheendlessstoryoftheFaçade,butpresentsapassagetoagleefulscenethatisalivewithchildren.Theimageryoffrolickingchildreniscontrastedwiththelifelessruinsoftheoncemagnificentchurch,whichwasdevouredbyafatalfirein1835(WuLiwitnesseditsgrandeurasdiscussedinChapter2).Contrarytothevisualperspectiveemployedinthepoemjustdiscussed,thepoetdevisesawayoflookingup;emulatingthewayofappreciatingclassicalChineselandscapepaintings.Thereaderseemstofollowthefootstepsofthechildrenclimbing82ThespellingofthisHindu-BuddhistdeityshouldbeNalakubara那羅鳩婆,orinPali,Nalakuvara,butnot“Nalakubala”asinthepublishedtranslation.ThetranslationofNezha哪吒asNalakubaraisanarchronistichere,becauseNalakubarawasappropriatedandsinicizedasNezhaduringthemidseventhcenturyinChina.SeeChristinaMiuBingCheng,InSearchofFolkHumour:TheRebelliousCultofNezha(HongKong:GreatMountainCulture;Singapore:AsiapacBooks,2009),pp.14-6.83Ontheanalysisofthishistoricstructure,seeCésarGuillén-Nuñez,Macao’sChurchofSaintPaul:AGlimmeroftheBaroqueinChina(HongKong:HongKongUniversityPress,2009). 

  
  
 

93CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUaflightofstonestairs,enteringintothe“nowhere”ofthechurch,andseeingtheplantsandcarvingsonthecrumblingwallsabove.Thetechniqueofdescribingfromthebottomtothetopenablesthereadertowidentheperceptiontoseetheclouds“driftinggracefully”beyond.Thepoeteventuallypresentsascenarioofemptinessandasenseofvacuityofthisstructure.TurningawayfromtheFaçade,thepoetcontinuestoleadthereadertovisitanearbyChinesetemple.Thistinytempleisdedicatedtotherebelliouschild-godNezha哪吒,whoisdaringenoughtoscoffattraditionalvaluesystems;challengedivineauthorities;andattemptcommittingpatricide(Cheng,2009b:82-8).Thejuxtapositionoftwohumbleoldmenpassingthedaychit-chattingandtherunningchildrenconstitutesadiscordantscenario,whichrenderstheimageryofsenilityandvigor.Inaddition,thecoexistenceofthemonumentalfire-baptizedFaçadeandthediminutive,dilapidatedNezhaTemplereadilypointstoanEast-Westencounterinarchitecture.Notably,thesetwocontrastivestructureswereamongagroupofEast-WestlandmarksthatwasinscribedontheUNESCOWorldHeritageListon15July2005.Theynowenjoythelimelightontheworldstage.Plate9StPaul’sRuins 

  
  
 

94TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES“BarrierGate”ThebusstopsthendrivesoffagainTouristslazilystrollacrossthisnarrowcircleofspacestandstillandwatchforawhilearowoflaughingyoungwomensittingonastonefenceSoftdrinkbottlestricklingwithwaterstandbesideanantiquestallAforeignercomesoverPicksupabuddha“Wantsomejade?”theoldwomanaskseagertosell“Thesearefakes,I’vegotsomethataregenuine…”ButnoonecantellifanythinggreenerandmoretranslucentliesfurtherafieldThefingerofarickshawdriversweepspastarowoftreesEyesturntowatchanemptytruckdrivingthroughthegatepastthismuddygroundofcrisscrossingtrailsthenupanotherroadandoffWindsonanovercastdayrustleandtearatourist’smap(Cheung,trans.2002:99,101)ThepoetportraysyetanotherexternaljourneytotheBarrierGate(orBorderGate),andprovidessomeotherimagesofcolonialMacau.InLeung’seye,thishistoricgateismerelyatouristspotsellingvulgarsouvenirs.Hemobilizesanarrayofthings 

  
  
 

95CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUandpeopletoalludetoMacau’sbackwardnessandsenility:“narrowcircleofspace”;“astonefence”;“anemptytruck”;“muddyground”;“anoldwomanvendor”;and“arickshawdriver”.ThisisasheerpictureofthepooranddejectedEast.LeungagainemploysthetropeoftheweathertoinvokeasenseofuncertaintyofMacau’sfuture.Macauisnotonly“shroudedinmist”,butalsowindy,darkwithclouds.Itsfutureislikenedto“anovercastday”withouttheslightestsignofasilverlining.TheBarrierGatewasfirstbuiltin1573servingasthe“borderline”betweenMacauandChina(Cheng,2010:99-111).Thepresentstructurewasrebuiltin1870andthelatestrenovationwasin1994(Plate10).TheBarrierGatechroniclestwodecisivedates,whichareinscribedverticallyoneachsideofthewall:2225AgostoAgosto18491849Plate10TheBarrierGate(renovatedin1994) 

  
  
 

96TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESOn22August1849JoãoMariaFerreiradoAmaral(1803—1849),the79thGovernorofMacau,waskilledbysevenChinesenotfarawayfromtheBarrierGate.Theassassinationwastriggeredbyaseriesofhigh-handedpoliciesaimedatlesseningtheChineseinfluenceandinterferenceinMacau;andbytheremovalofsomeChinesegravesneartheBarrierGateforurbanization.Inretaliationfortheassassination,on25August1849VicenteNicolaudeMesquita(1818—1880),agunnersubalternoftheartillery,crossedtheBarrierGatewith32soldiers.TheystormedtheChinesegarrisonofabout400men,withpowerfulcannonsandguns,atBaishaling白沙嶺.ThisisknownastheBaishalingIncidentinMacau.InthechapterofthePortuguesecolonialhistory,FerreiradoAmaralwasamartyr,andMesquitawasapatriotichero.OnthelinteloftheBarrierGate,LuísVazdeCamões’(1524?—1580)84famousaphorism:Apátriahonraiqueapátriavoscontempla(Honouryourcountryandyourcountrywilllookafteryou)isupheld.ThisquotationmetonymicallycommemoratesthecontributionandpatriotismofFerreiradoAmaralandMesquita.Inthispoem,theordinaryandunimportantquotidianstealsthetrappingsofthisweightystructure.TheheroiceventsandpeopleoffamearereplacedbytheeverydaylifeofsimplecitizensofMacau.Thepoetsupportsthehumblecauseoftrivialeverydaylife,andturnshiseyeawayfromthestrugglesofpoliticalpowersonbothsides.EastandWestThefollowingpoems,writtenin1998and1999,belongtothesecondphase.Theyarecollectedunderthesubjectof“Macau:EastandWest”inYesi’s(LeungPing-kwan)Dongxi《東西》(2000).Inthisgroupofpoems,LeungillustratesathematicchangeandwritesaboutnotedpersonageswhooncelivedinMacau.Hispoems,ontheonehand,bringouttheambivalentculturalcontactsbetweentheOccidentalsandtheOrientals;andontheother,revealhisowndisquietandnostalgiaatthejunctureofaparticularmomentinpre-postcolonialMacau.84LuísVazdeCamõesisoneofPortugal’smostillustriouspoets,whocomposedthecelebratedOsLusíadas(TheSonsofPortugal),firstpublishedinLisbonin1572. 

  
  
 

97CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAU“GeorgeChinnerypaintingthefisherwomanofMacau”Sniffingatasnuffbottle,laughingoutloudagainandagainStrange,thisugliestofmenhasthebiggestofappetiteshecanshoveeverythingintohismouthandchewuponthemandstillhishungrystomachremainsempty:cupsandplatesfrombreakfastacathedralcompletedandthenburntdown,leavingjustafaçadeupperclassBritonswhogossipaboutoneanother,andeventheirludicrousscarves?Hechewedonthevanityofaforeignlandthelongrobes,loosesleeves,bygoneprosperitybuttonedwithtrivialitiesSittinginacircleonthebalcony,thosemerchantsgrownrichfromopiumarehisclosefriends,andhearegularguestattheirdiningtables,butperhapshe’dliketoquietlyremovehiscollarstiff,likeanex-wifeuglyfierceandimpossibletobreakawayfromdebtorsfromIndia,orcourtcasesthatdrayonforever,itmakeshimyearntoforgettheover-elaborateage-oldEuropeanattiretoresthiseyesonthenaturalgraceinthefishingboat?PerhapsheknowstoothereisnoforgettingthegulfspanningtheswayingvesselsButdrivenbyaninnerhunger,hewouldwillinglyabandonhistablemanners,yetthelocalspicesprovetoomuchforhisforeignconstitutionstrongashisstomachis,theradiantbeautydrapedincrimsonbelongstotheothershoreforeverunreachable,elicitingglancesfromafaryearnings,itsshimmeringreflectionsonthewaveseasilymakeonedrownOntheembankmentwhereheavenlyfeetsolithelytread,doeshedareventure?It’sclearawarwillbreakout—flashingswords,darksmoke,perilsperilous—stillheloathestokeepwarmbehindthewallsandsighhestillwantstogoupanddownthestreetsandalleyways,toforgethisbackground,hisupbringing,andliveanewthelivesofothers 

  
  
 

98TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESandfromtheheartylaughters,thegentleembraceofseabreezetopaintafreshthestoryofhislifeandfate(trans.byMarthaCheung)Macauwashome,andrestingplace,totheEnglishpainterGeorgeChinnery(1774—1852),85whowasactiveinMacaubetween1825—1852.Chinneryleftaninvaluablevisualchronicleofnineteenth-centuryMacau,whichwasacharmingfishingvillageaboundingwithbeautifulchurches.ThepoemisLeung’simaginingsofascenethatGeorgeChinnerysocializeswith“hisclosefriends”.Attheoutset,thepoetevokestheimageryofeating,andtheinsatiableappetitesseemtoinsinuatethecolonialplunder.Chinnery’sfriendsare“upperclassBritons”and“merchantsgrownrichfromopium”,whoarecolonistshavingreapedatremendousprofitinMacau.Theyareconsumersofthetriumphofcolonialism,enjoyingtheleisureandpleasureinsouthChina.Chinnery’sstrongdesiretoventureintheEastislikenedto“aninnerhunger”.ThepoetsuggeststhatChinnerywishestoforgetthepast,buthecannotsituatehimselfcomfortablyinMacau.Chinnery’sbreakwiththepastishinted:“toquietlyremovehiscollarstiff”;“toforgettheover-elaborateage-oldEuropeanattire”;“wouldwillinglyabandonhistablemanners”;and“forgethisbackground,hisupbringing”.HisslashfromthepastsignifiesthatheisenmeshedinanidentitycrisisatthecrossroadsoftheEastandtheWest.HispenetrationintotheEastishamperedbythealienexperiences,andthemetaphorforlocalspicescreatesambivalence.ThepoemimpliesincongruouscolonialpresencethroughthejuxtapositionofEuropeanclothingandAsianspices.Despitethethreatofwar,Chinneryhasnowishtoleavethishavenforfugitives.MacauisChinnery’sasylumwhereheseeksrefugefromdoubleembarrassments—hisestrangedwifeandfinancialproblems:“anex-wifeuglyfierce”and“debtorsfromIndia”.InthewordsofWilliamHunter,Macauis“theparadiseofdebtorsandofTankas”86(Hunter,1911:272).85OnGeorgeChinnery’sartisticcreation,seeGeorgeChinnery,GeorgeChinnery:HisPupilsandInfluence(HongKong:TheUrbanCouncil,1985).OnhischronicleoftheimagesofMacau,seePatrickConner,GeorgeChinnery:ArtistofIndiaandtheChinaCoast(Suffolk:AntiqueCollectors’Club,1993).86TheTankas蜑家areasmallethnicgroupofboatpeopleinsouthChina.TheyareoftenmarginalizedasaraceinferiortotheChineseandpejorativelyputatthelowestsocialstratum. 

  
  
 

99CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUChinnerywantstostartanewlifeinMacaubypainting.ThefisherwomanofMacau(referringtotheTanka),stillretainingthenaturalandgenuinedisposition,ishisfavouritesubjectmatter.“Theheartylaughters”and“thegentleembraceofseabreeze”arehismeresolaceinthisforeignland,asherealizestheunbridgeablegapbetweenthetwoworlds.ThepoemisembeddedinaparadoxicaldualityofChinnery’sinnerstruggle.AshecrossestheboundaryoftheEast,andprojectshisowndreamsontoMacau,hisaspirationsofleadingahappylifecannotberealized.ThepoemalsosuggeststhatthiscolonialspacebecomesthereceptacleforafleeingWesterner,andthe“EastmeetsWest”expressionislesslyricallyrevealed.“ATapestry,givenbytheKingofPortugaltotheEmperorofChina”1fromthePaçodaRibeiratotheYonghePalacefromthemightyDomJoãoVwassentamessengerbearingothergiftstobegiventotheYongzhengEmperorandaloftydiplomaticmissiontoreturnafavourbetweenthenationstocommemoratetheYongzhengEmperor’saccessiontoeasetheseverityofrecentdiplomaticpolicytoguaranteethesafetyandtheprofitsofthePortugueseinMacauitboardedtotheexaltedsoundoftrumpetscrossedanendlessroaringoceanredsilkbackingcriss-crossedwithgoldandsilverthreadsweavingoutheroicdeedsofofficersofstatetobepresentedbyonepalacetoanothereacharesidenceprotectingaSonofHeaven,fromonemightymonarchtoanother,ontheadmiringeyeimprinting 

  
  
 

100TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESheroicachievements,dailyaffirmingeternalglory2everyoneknowsinninepiecespackedintwowoodencheststhetapestrywasstuckinthebottomoftheship’sholdandfirsthadtowaitforthe[proper]winddirectionbeforeitcouldsetoutonitsvoyagetheninRio,inBrazilitsufferedahardwinterwaitedtilltheweatherturnedwarmthensailedoutforBataviastayedamonthwaitingforprovisionsmeanwhileDomJoãoV,KingofPortugalatelegsoflambdrankwinearrestedcommonerserectedmagnificentbuildingscelebratedhisbirthdaysdispatchedarmadaswentashoreonallkindsofislandsandgaveordersfortheweavingoftapestrieswaitingfortherecordingofthesethingsandatthisstageofwaitingtheYongzhengEmperoralsodidthingshehadpeopleputtodeathhadpeopleputinprisoncarriedoutaLiteraryInquisition 

  
  
 

101CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUandthepeoplehedislikedhehadthemdugupfromtheirgravestomakethemtodieagainhesentarmieseverywhereonpunitiveexpeditionsandkilledagoodmanypeoplewhilehewaswaitinghedidthingslikethatwhatwashewaitingfor?no-oneknowsbutmaybeitincludedthefar-voyagingnarrativeofimmortaleventstheheroictapestry?3theheroictapestryasitwassailingtowardhimonitslongvoyagewasitasifithadcrossedeternity?no,itwasmerelythatavoyageofoneyearandtwomonthswasnothingexceptthesunrisingandsettingtheweatherchangingexceptforlifeandmothsinthewetandtheemptinesscomingeverydaytoeatmouthfulbymouthfulforbreakfastlunchafternoonteaatmidnight 

  
  
 

102TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESbitbybitenjoyingitsotherewasnothingleftforHisMajestytheEmperor(trans.byBrianHolton)ThepoemisagainLeung’simaginingsoftheattemptedcontactoftwocontemporaneousrulersfromfarapart—DomJoãoV(reigned1706—1750)ofPortugalandEmperorYongzheng雍正(reigned1723—1735)ofChina—throughsendingatapestry.MacauishintedasabridgelinkingPortugalandChinaformutualbenefitsandthe“heroictapestry”isagift(ortribute)tofulfillthis“loftydiplomaticmission”.Inananti-climacticrhetoric,however,themagnificenttapestryneverreachesthe“SonofHeaven”.SuchironicimaginingsrenderacynicalcommentonsendinganinappropriategifttothetropicalEast,andalsoimplythattheWestlacksanunderstandingoftheclimaticconditionsofthesearoute.Theimageryofeatingisagainemployed—thetapestrybecomesthefoodthatisdevouredbymoths.Themothsaretheveryviolatorsnullifyingtheregalintention.Metaphorically,theEastnevermeetstheWest.UnlikeLeung’spoemsonHongKong,whichareaboutthecommonplaceandquotidianactivities,thispoemrevealsthesanguinaryhistoricalrealityunderthereignofthetworulersfromtheEastandWest.WhileEmperorYongzheng“hadpeopleputinprison/carriedoutaLiteraryInquisition”,DomJoãoV“arrestedcommoners/erectedmagnificentbuildings”.87ThepoetweldstogethertheEast-Westtyrannicalruleinordertoflagellatetheoverwhelminglyauthoritarianpower.The“magnificentbuildings”commissionedbyDomJoãoVinMafra(northofLisbon)arethebackdropoftheaward-winningnovel,BaltasarandBlimunda,byJosé87DomJoãoV’smostambitiousprojectwastheconstructionofthegrandioseBasilica,theConventfortheFranciscans,andtheadjacentBaroqueRoyalPalaceinMafra.ThefoundationstoneoftheBasilicawaslaidin1717andittooksevenyearstocomplete.ThecolossalPalacewasinauguratedin1730withalavishcelebrationthatlastedforeightdays. 

  
  
 

103CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUSaramago(1922—2010),Portugal’slaureateofthe1998NobelPrizeforLiterature.Saramagopensbittercommentsonroyaltyandonreligionineighteenth-centuryPortugal.Thenovelleavesanunrelievedcatharsisofthetragicfateofthecommonpeople,whowereforcedtohelpbuildingtheMafraproject.Coincidentally,thetwowritersfromtheEastandWestrespectivelystillraisetheireyebrowsonthe“magnificentbuildings”evenafteralapseofsometwohundredyears.“ThePoetCamiloPessanhasleepscurleduponaMacaubed”88thisisyourworldstinkingredhangings,enclosingtheironbedonthePersianrug,thecolouredblanketsenwrappingyouwhosleepcurledupinlayeruponlayeroftheexoticscentsofjoss-sticksandopiumfaithfulpekinesecrawlingclosetoyoulickingyourbeardyourkneesbelowyourchinasthoughyouweremumblingnewwordsonlytheparrotrepeatswhatyouhavesaidyouhaveabandonedallthehousesontheothershoreandcomeherefaracrosstheoceansroamedalltheearthtofindabednomatterwhatturbidriverflowsoutsideorwhereintheworlditsconfluencebishopsandviceroysconstantlychangingyoureternityisabead-rollofrosestearupontearweptbyanunluckymotheryousaidfarewelltoeverytreasureinyourpasthomenavigatingbetweentheseChineserelicsinthemirroryourdestinationneverreached,thescroll’sflowersunwitheredtoo88ThewordplayofthisformatisbasedontheChineseversion. 

  
  
 

104TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESyouleanedontheweatheredblueandwhiteporcelaintheBodhisattvawoundwithspiderwebsescapedtheoriginalorderanddriftedhereforeveratrest,afossillifethepeelingmirrorreflectsabedofoldblanketsfoldedintodesires,carryingcursestoputsomeoneforeverintodeepsleepinthiswarm,narrow,humidcaveyourwomanoftheEastlityouropiumpipeyousleptintoawomb,youareapupasunkinsleepyousawthedemonthatoverfliesrealityohsleep,sleepwellthingsindreamsaremorerealinthosedreamsyouownthewholeworld(trans.byBrianHolton)Inthesamestreamofimaginingthoughtsoftheabovetwopoems,LeungpresentsadishearteningpictureofCamiloPessanha’s(1867—1926)miserablesojourninMacau.PessanhaisconsideredthechiefprecursorofModernistpoetry.HisworkistherepresentativeofPortuguesepoetryofSymbolisminitspurestandmostgenuineform.89Hewasborntheillegitimatesonofalawstudentandamaid.HegraduatedinlawfromtheUniversityofCoimbrain1891,andcametoMacauin1894afterafailedlove-affair.HetookupateachingpostatthenewlyformedMacauLyceum.JustasChinneryseeksrefugeinMacau,PessanhaalsoprojectshisdreamsontoMacau.LeungengagesinadialogicstyleandpointsouthisdeterminationtoventureintheEast:“youhaveabandonedallthehousesontheothershore”and“yousaidfarewelltoeverytreasureinyourpasthome”.Pessanha’srelinquishmentofallpossessionsinPortugalinsinuatesaslashofthetieofPortuguesenationality,and89Onhispoems,seeCamiloPessanha,Clépsidra:poemasdeCamiloPessanha(Lisboa:EdiçõesÁtica,1956). 

  
  
 

105CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUultimatelyheisenmeshedinanidentitycrisis.DepartingfromtheWest,Pessanhahopestofindaconsolingbed“faracrosstheoceans”,butironicallytheEastisnothisdreamland:heisenvelopedby“stinkingredhangings”,andsleepsonthe“ironbed”ina“warm,narrow,humidcave”.Heleads“afossillife”andbecomesaddictedtoopium,accompaniedonlybyafaithfuldog.Itisonlyafterheisintoxicatedbyopiumthathecansleepwellinadreamworld,andforget“thedemonthatoverfliesreality”.HistransgressionintotheEastdriveshimtoadeadlock.Opiumseemshisonlysolace.Infact,hediedduetohischronicuse.BeneaththeveneerofdescribingPessanha’sopiatedexistenceinMacau,Leunginvokesthenatureofambivalence.Pessanha’sdeterminedventureintheEastendsupinanimperiledArcadiaandallhisdreamsarebroken.Cynically,Leungemploysthemetaphorforinefficaciousness:“theBodhisattvawoundwithspiderwebs”,whichindicatesthattheBuddhistGoddessofMercyfailstoblesshiminMacau.While“thelocalspices”fractureChinnery’saspirations,“theexoticscentsofjoss-sticks”puncturePessanha’sselfishdreamsprojectedontoMacau.Thepoetsuggeststhatthese“things”—spicesandjoss-sticks—areincompatiblewithWesternsensations.MacauisagainportrayedasareceptacleforanunhappyWesterner.Pessanha’sagony,desolation,anddeathsymbolicallypayforhistransgressionintotheinscrutableEast.ThepoemagainspeaksfortheWest’sabsenceofunderstandingoftheEast,andthe“EastmeetsWest”scenarioissadlyillustrated.“InfrontoftheA-MaTemple”thetempleisclosedevenA-Mahastimetorestwe’lljusthavetositbytheseaandrunourownmaritimemattersdrinking,wefacetherollinggreywavesonthebottlegoldcharacterscelebrateMacau’sreturntoChinatoday’sweatherisunsettled:cloudyorclearwhenduskcomesit’salittlestifling 

  
  
 

106TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESthebeeriscoldenoughbutcan’tslakeourthirstwhyarethedistanthillssplitinhalf?thoseplantsdriftingonthewatercantheybeleavesinself-banishment?when,throughlayeredclouds,willbreakbrightstarlight?(trans.byBrianHolton)ThispoemwaswrittensixmonthsbeforethereturnofMacautoChina(Yesi,2000:45).TheA-MaTemple(betterknownasMageMiao媽閣廟,orMazuGe媽祖閣)(Plate11)isdedicatedtoA-Ma,theDaoistGoddessoftheSea.ThisdeityisalsoknownasMazu媽祖,orTianHou天后(EmpressofHeaven)(shewillbediscussedinChapter4).LikeStPaul’sRuins,thistempleenjoysgreatpopularity.WhileStPaul’sRuinsstandforthePortugueselegacy,theA-MaTemplerepresentstheindigenousheritage.TheChineseinMacauarealwaysproudofthisstructure,becauseitpredatedthearrivalofthePortuguesenavigators,andthename“Macau”isbelievedtohavederivedfromA-Ma-Gau亞媽港,ortheBayofA-Ma.Inthepoem,therenownedA-MaTempleisrelegatedtoanunwelcomingplace,andservessimplyasabackdropforthepoettoevoketheimageryofabandonment—theA-MaTempleisclosed,andthegoddesshastorest.Metaphorically,thepoetisshutoutofthetempleandthegoddessdoesnotlistentohisprayer.Metonymically,thesenseofabandonmentresonateswiththefateofMacau.Thepoet’sgazethendissolvesintothefarawayseascape.Sittingbytheseaandfacingtherollinggreywavesalludetohisspiritualexplorationandhisponderingonthefluxandrefluxoflife.HeexperiencestheordealsofsolitudeandcontemplatesthedubiousfutureofMacauinfrontoftheclosedtemple.PostcolonialMacauishismainconcern.LeungrepeatedlyemploystheweatherasametaphorforuncertaintyaboutthefutureofMacau:“today’sweatherisunsettled:cloudyorclear”and“throughlayeredclouds/willbreakbrightstarlight?”Moreover,heusesbotanicalexpressionstodelineatehisperplexity,andwonderswhetherpeopleinMacauwould“float”awaylike 

  
  
 

107CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUduckweeds:“thoseplantsdriftingonthewater/cantheybeleavesinself-banishment?”Heseemstoask,‘WillMacaubeabandoned?’“ShelteringfromtheRainintheCaféCaravela”therainbeganduringourchatunavoidableasourchatthePortugueseintheshopweredrinkingwinebehindthem,theboatthathadsailedeveryoceanhaditreallybeenatreasureship?nowithascongealedintoashopsignsittingbytheshopweidlywatchedtheday-longrainpouringandpouringdownandunavoidablytiredbythedarkgreenreflectionfromthepuddleofthelittleharbourPlate11TheA-MaTemple 

  
  
 

108TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESupturnedchairsandtableswaitedforclosingtime,dogsallgonetoo,caféfeastsdrawnneartotheircodasthey’dallgonetoXinkoudian’sgrocersmaybetalkingpolitics,maybekowtowingtoanewGuanYinwefewnostalgicincorrigibleslingeredonbytheoldshopyousaidnotlongbeforetherehadbeenagun-battlehereitallseemedideal,butevenherehadnotescapedevenyouwhotookthelongroadfromthetropicshadburiedyourgrudgesyourkindnessalwaysfeelingtherewasnowaytochangeanice-coldworldyouwantedtogo,butthePortuguesephotographersaidtostayunavoidablethatmyfriendswantedtogotoosomanyboatscrossingtheworld’soceanshopingeveryonecouldfindtheirownrainandsnoworsunshineunavoidablethatsomanytallblock-printedbuildingsweregoingupthesorrylittleharbourwatchingeachclosedshopweknewtoothatthevulgarlittleharbourhadn’tdevelopedintoapeacefulplace,butwecouldrememberwehadgatheredheretotakeadrinktryingtohelpeachotherrelievelife’ssorrows(trans.byBrianHolton)Thesubjectmatterof“shelteringfromtheraininacoffeeshop”isrecurrentinLeung’spoetry.Towardsthedemiseofthecolonialrule,hisfeelingsareruffledonarainyday.NotonlydoeshedrinkbytheseainfrontoftheA-MaTemple,thinkingwhetherpeoplewouldabandonMacau;healsodrinksinCaféCaravela(caravel),ponderingthefutureofthesepeople.Hewhilesthetimeawaybywatching“theday-longrainpouringandpouringdown”.Thepouringrainsymbolizespunishmentanddivinevengeance(Olderr,1986:109),andinthisinstance,thepoetusestheimageryoftorrentialraintoimplythesufferingsofhisfriends. 

  
  
 

109CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUThepoet’sgazetravelstotheharbourandthenreturnstothechairsandtables.Thisactoflookingisineffectaspectaclecreatedbythepoet,beforehedescribesaformofsolitude,ifnotennui.TheChinesetempleandthePortuguesecaféarelugareswhereLeungiswrappedinsentimentalthoughts,loneliness,andempathy.HepertinentlychroniclesadeplorablecontemporarypictureofMacaujustbeforeitsreturntoChina:“therehadbeenagun-battlehere”;90“somanytallblock-printedbuildingsweregoingup”.91Atthisjunctureofmoment,herelentlesslyunveilshisinhibitednostalgiaforpeacefuloldMacau.Inasorrowfulmood,hehopesthattheemigrantscansettledownwiththeirneedsmet.“Therain”,“snow”,and“sunshine”,arefigurativelyusedtohinttheunclearfutureforthosewhohaveleftMacau.“WuLiPaintingbythebay”fromanancientexhausteddynastyyouwereaskingHonoluluaboutthesailingdateinvain92youaremaroonedonthelittleisland,hearingtheseabreezesaythenewboathassteamedoffonanevenvastervoyageyourfriend93shouldalreadyhavecrossedtheequatorontheroadyoulookedforlocalaccentsandthecustomsofspringploughing90Duetospirallingcrimeratesnearthehistorichandover,Macauwasdubbedthe“EasternChicago”(thecrimecity).91Therewasanover-developmentinrealestatesinMacausincethe1980’s,butwhenChina’sausteritymeasureswereannouncedin1993thepropertymarketsharplydeclined.In1996itwasestimatedthattherewereabout40,000to50,000vacantflats.92ThesamepoemwasalsotranslatedbyMarthaCheung,andthislinereads,“Honoluluisyourdestinationbutthereisyetnosailingschedule”.BothBrianHoltonandMarthaCheungwronglytranslated香山asHonolulu.HonoluluinChineseisTanXiangshan檀香山.Infact,WuLiplannedtogotoRomebutnotHonolulu,andtheChineseversionofthepoemindicatesthatheaskedthesailingdateinXiangshan香山.InWuLi’stime,MacauwaspartofXiangshanprovince(nowZhongshan中山province).93“Yourfriend”referstotheJesuitmissionary,PhilippeCouplet(1623—1693)(hisChinesenameis柏應理BoYingli).CoupletandWuLiarrivedatMacauin1681.WhileCoupletwenttoRome,WuListayedinMacauandwasadmittedtotheSocietyofJesusasanovice. 

  
  
 

110TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESbutonlyfoundwomenindownjacketsontheflower-spreadstreetyouliftyourbrush,tosingle-mindedlysurpasswhat’sbeforeyoureyesspecificcitysoundscomebacktomiraculouslandscapesbeyondyourtinyflyheadsarebirdclaws—brushstrokesfromanexoticlandsleeplesseveningslikehearingtheshiphasputtoseabutmorningsbringonlytheboatscarryinghomefreshfishforlunchthestepsoftheRuinasdeSãoPaoloareallheapedwithredandyellowfruitblackpeopledancingonthestreet,andstrangecustomsfollownewcoloursandslowlythey’llenteryourdailylifeatranquilidleafternoon,youstealamomentunrollacanvas,wantingtopaintourancientcountry’shillsandriverssinuosityofbrightanddark,frontandback,who’dhavethoughtashortvisitwouldturnintoalong-termstay!andmanystormsonthehomewardjourneytooyourmountaintreesarestainedwithnewlightsandshades(trans.byBrianHolton)InLeung’spoetryonMacau,distinguishedpersonagesofdifferenttimesandnationalitiesbecomethesubjectmatter.HestitchesthesecharacterstogethersoastopresentafacetofMacauastherendezvousfortheEastandWest.UnlikeGeorgeChinneryandCamiloPessanhawhocametoMacautoescapebleakandgrislyreality,WuLi(1632—1718)arrivedatMacauwithaloftyaimatexploringtranscendenceinlife.CrossingtheChineseborderintoPortugueseMacau,WuLiprojectshisdreamontothisWesternenclaveasasteppingstonefromwherehecangotoRome.Muchtohischagrin,hisdreamisunfulfilled,andheisstrandedinMacauassuggestedbythelines“thenewboathassteamedoffonanevenvastervoyage/yourfriendshouldalreadyhavecrossedtheequator”. 

  
  
 

111CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUTherearerichresonancesofthispoemwithWuLi’spoetryasdiscussedinthepreviouschapter.LeungcapturesWuLi’sambivalentfeelingsandutterfrustrationduringhissojourninMacau—waitingforavoyage,havingsleeplessevenings,experiencingstrangecustoms,andstudyingaforeignlanguage.AsaJesuitnovice,WuLihadtostudyLatinwhichwasoneofthesubjectsofWesternlearning.Theline“beyondyourtinyflyheadsarebirdclaws—brushstrokesfromanexoticland”referstoLatinasbirdclawswhichisdistinctfromtheChinesecharacters—tinyflyheads.ThislineisinfactpredicatedonWuLi’spoem26in“Sanbaji”〈三巴集〉.DidWuLieverpaintbythebayinMacau?WithhisdevotiontoWesternknowledgeandChristianity,WuLiputmoreemphasisonsalvationthanontheartofpainting.Inpoem28in“Sanbaji”,hedenouncespaintingas“anoldhabit”,towhichhewantstoputanend.Itisbelievedthathestartedre-collectinganddestroyinghisownpaintings,sinceheregardedthemasanexpressionofsuperstition(Kubin,2006:332).HeneverthelesscontinuedwritingChristianhymnsandcomposingpoetry(intraditionalclassicalstyle).Unprecedentedly,hecreatedsomethingtotallyinnovativeinChineseliterature:aChineseChristianpoetry(Chaves,1993:47).LeungisoftheopinionthatWuLi’spaintingsareinfluencedbyWesterntechnique:“yourmountaintreesarestainedwithnewlightsandshades”.“Lightsandshades”inpaintingsareknownaschiaroscuro94intheWest.InaninterviewbyRégisPouleton6November2006,Leungreiterated,‘TheChinesepainterWuLicametoMacautostudyreligionandbecameCatholicandhispaintingalsoreceivedinfluencesfromWesternpaintings’.TheissueofWesterninfluence(thetechniqueofchiaroscuro)onWuLi’spaintingalreadyarousedcontroversialdebatesbycontemporaryChineseartistsandartcriticsduringthesymposiumonWuLi,heldinMacauin2003.SomescholarsstronglydeniedanyWesterninfluence,chieflybecausehewastrainedtolookforhismodelsamongtheestablishedmastersoftheSong(960—1279)andYuan(1271—1368)dynasties.InhisfamoushistoryofChinesepainting,JamesCahillassertsthatWuLi’sconversioninnowayaffectedhispaintingwhichshowsnottheslightesttraceofWesterninfluence(Cahill,1960:165).94Theterm“chiaroscuro”referstostrongcontrastsoflightandshadeinapainting.Caravaggio(1573—1610),anItalianpainter,wasoneofthefirstartiststousethistechniqueextensively. 

  
  
 

112TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESFoodscapeLeunghaspursuedaprojectexploringgastronomyaboutvariouscitiesinpoemsandinphotographicillustrations.Helabelsthepoeticandphotographicworksas“foodscape”.Thefollowingtwopoemsonfoodculture,writtenin1997and1998respectively,arecollectedinLeungPing-kwan’sTravellingwithaBitterMelon:selectedpoems(1973-1998).“SaltedShrimpPaste”Dearfriend,howdoIexplainwhysomeofusherekeepsayingthispaltrythingisbetterputoutofsightBackalleycultureitis—afewhawkshoveringintheskytheoddtreesforshelter,apond—Hasanythinggoodeverbeenbredhere?Thenatyourinsistentquestions,theyhangtheirheadsinsilenceTheyseemashamedoftheirhandsandfeetworriedthey’dberejectedbypeoplefromtheoutsidetheymakeacleanbreakwiththeirpoorrelativesseekoutanobjectofcontempt,ascapegoat:Saltedshrimppaste!Theyhavesuccessfullyconcealedtheirownbackgrounds.Everyoneissowell-manneredtheyfeelobligedtoofferuptheirmade-upselvesasseasoningswaituponanapprovingeye,anencouragingsmileAndyet,myfriend,youprobablynoticetoo,intheemptyspaceofthefourwallswhereyouspeak,theechoesofacquiescencearesometimesstrong,sometimesweak,wonderwhosefaultitisthedelicatehandsthatserveyouaregiventoneuroticjerks 

  
  
 

113CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUToomuchisconcealedinthoseshiftyeyes,tooquickthesmilestoomuchis“understood”,speculationssourintoviciousrumoursrumoursferment,soakingeverythinginapurplishpasteGotitnow:everyoneismarinatedinthesamewretchedsordidnessTheypushthedishaway,frowning,denying,protestingStill,theyarejustsomeofthesaucesbeforetheeyes(Cheung,trans.2002:237,239)Thepoembeginsbyinvitingadialoguewiththereaderaboutthesaltedshrimppaste.Itisperhapsatactictoimposeanewkindofvalueontheshrimppastethroughadialoguewiththereader.“Thispaltrything”,knownasblachaninMalaysia;terasiinIndonesia;gapiinThailand;andbagoonginthePhilippines,isanessentialseasoninginmanySouthEastAsiandishes,anditgoeswellwithporkforitspungentaromaandflavour.TheshrimppasteiscalledobalichãoinPortuguese,anditisbelievedthatthePortuguesetradersbroughtitfromMalaysiatoMacau.Theshrimppasteismadefromverytinyshrimps,salted,sun-dried,poundedintoapasteandfermentedinthehumidheat.MakingshrimppastewasonceaminorindustryinMacau;andthestonegrindersforshrimppastearepresentlyexhibitedattheHistoricalMuseumofColoaneandTaipainMacau.ThesaltedshrimppasteisapopularseasoningforthecommonpeopleinoldMacau.Whilethepoetevokesanostalgicmoodthroughitsaroma,heshowscompassionforthepoorshrimppastemakers.Heimmortalizes“thispaltrything”inhispoemandintendstoexonerateitsinferiorstatus.Nowadays,itiscertainlynota“backalleyculture”todineondishesmarinatedwithshrimppaste,whichareboostedasuniqueMacanesecuisineintravelbooks.“AtBelaVista”Ilookatthetrafficonthebridge,aglassofwineinhandnextyeartoday,afterthehand-overhomeofthePortugueseConsulthishotelwillbecome 

  
  
 

114TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESnomorepartiesontheverandaforustheflavourofAfricanChickenwilltoobelost?AnelderfriendacrossthetablereminiscesaboutthefiftiesthedaysthebridgelinkinguptheislandswasnotyetbuiltscenesofTaipaIslandhalf-hidinmorningmistthedayswhenhotelwaitersinuniformsneatlystarchedservedlanguidguestsfromabroadSomeoneremembersitusedtobearefugeecampduringthewarprovidingshelterfromcatastrophes.Likeinadisasterfilm?menandwomensplendidlydressedargueaboutthisseason’sbox-officehitIturnroundtolookattheelegantcolonnades,renovatedmanytimesLet’snot[forget]theghostofhistoryWhoplaystheleadinthisscene?theimposingwallsoftheseventeenthcenturyfortresshadcrumbledatthedesertedwellinthecourtyardservantshadgatheredtowashclothesbeforemenowpeopleembraceandapplaudinfrontofabirthday-cakeAsalwaysweplaywalk-onsinhistoricscenesSittingatthislongtabletonight,wesailasifonaluxuriouslinertowardsthetwenty-firstcenturyWillthesestairsvanish?Willtherestaurant,forsaken,sinkdeepintotheoceanofoblivion?Istillheredrinkinginsilence,listeningtobutnothearinganydramaticexplosionsBehindthebelavistaoneseesaretheboavistas[goodviews]9595The“boavistas”shouldbe“boasvistas”.BelaVistawasfirstconvertedtoahotelin1890,changingthenametoBoaVista. 

  
  
 

115CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUeveryoneimaginesforhimself.Candlelightdinnersnevermatchone’simagination.Beyondthemusiconehears,anothermusicplaysonThisplacehadseenthenightsofouryouth,thetimewefirstexploredtirelesslythosenarrowalleys,watchingpeoplemaketheirhumblelivingalongthestreets,andatnightwecheckedin—ameregrottyhotelthenAndnowI’vebroughtmytravel-weariedfriendsalong,amidstflowersandgloriouspropswechat,tossingupideasabouthowtowriteatransnationalspystory.MymelancholicfriendyouhavethemelancholiclookofaPortuguesepoetwatchingtheseaMywine-lovingfriend,let’shaveonemoreglassofchampagneInthislittletownsouthofChinawith[southern]EuropeanambiencewetryMacaneseandCantonesefood,whichchangewithtimeLocalwisdomwillnoteasilydisappearBuildingstheBritishandtheFrenchhadfoughttopurchase96bearwitnesstotheriseandfallofdifferentmasters,andnowonthisstretchoflandnewlyreclaimed,pagodasandtowersmayrisetoattracttourists.Whoplaystheleadinthisscene?TherearenomorewaitersinuniformsneatlystarchedonlynewdishesofhotchpotchstewsmadefromoldrecipesbeanstewBrazilianstyle,squidsMozambiqueincoconutjuiceIntheenditistheythatremain.Keepingthemcompanyonthetableasimpledrinkmadefromsugarcane(Cheung,trans.2002:261,263,265)96TheFrenchgovernmenttriedtobuythispropertyin1901,andplannedtouseitasasanatoriumforitscitizensinIndochina.TheBritish,fearingthehotelcouldbecomeabastionofFrenchcolonialinfluenceinthePearlRiverregion,askedthePortuguesetorejectFrance’soffer. 

  
  
 

116TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESBelaVistawasbuiltbyanEnglishcoupleasaprivatemansionontheslopesofPenhaHillin1870.Sincethen,ithasundergonedramatictransformations.Itwasfirstconvertedintoahotel,andthenbecameanalmshouse,ahighschool,ahotelagain,andarefugeecentreduringWorldWarII(AndradedeSá,1994:11-28).Itwasrenovatedin1990atacostofnearly50millionpatacasandreopenedasaresplendentfive-starhotelin1992.Letusrecall,inacoffeeshopinPraiaGrandeLeungsawthefirst“unfinishedMacau-TaipaBridge”in1973.AttheBelaVistaHotelhelookedat“thetrafficonthebridge”in1998.ThisisthesecondMacau-TaipaBridge,whichwasinauguratedin1994.Thetwobridgesreadilypointtothechangeoflandscape.Moreover,“thetrafficonthebridge”suggestsMacau’stransformationfromasleepybackwaterintoabusycityaftertwo-decademodernization.Inthe1990’s,MacauwasinfullswingwithanumberofweightyprojectsinordertotransformitselfintoaneconomicforceinthePearlRiverDeltaareaatthedawnofthethirdmillennium.Regardlessofmeticulousprocessesofmodernization,Leungyearnsfortheambienceofpre-postcolonialMacau.Hesits“drinkinginsilence”—amomentheisabsorbedinsolipsism.“Drinkingwine”and“sippingcoffee/tea”arerecurrentmotifsinhispoetry.Beveragesareconcomitantwithhisramblingthoughts.Inasolipsisticmood,hefeelsnostalgicforthisexquisitehotel,whichhasbeendescribedas‘thesingle-mostcompellingreasontovisitMacau’(Jackson,1998:13),and‘themostelegantofMacau’smanyexcellentrestaurants’(Bruning,1998:1).Helamentsthathecannotdrinkagainontheverandaafterthehotelistobeclosedon31March1999,asitistobecometheresidenceofthePortugueseConsul-GeneraltotheMacauSpecialAdministrativeRegionafterthereversionofpoliticalpower.Towardstheimminentchange,LeungencapsulateshisnostalgicsentimentsforoldMacauintheBelaVistaHotel.Theexpressionsalludingtohismelancholicfeelingsare:“nomorepartiesontheverandaforus”and“nomorewaitersinuniformsneatlystarched”.Thepoetlyricallycravesforthecolonialambienceofthisarchitectureandshowshispassionforthehybridfood.Thechangeofpoweristhechangeofnationalanthem:“Beyondthemusiconehears,anothermusicplayson”.Eventhoughthecolonialchapteristobeturned,heforeseesthatsomedishes—“beanstewBrazilianstyle,squidsMozambiqueincoconut 

  
  
 

117CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUjuice”—arestilltobeserved.Also,“asimpledrinkmadefromsugarcane”,properlyknowninitsindigenousnameacachaça,97istokeepthemcompanyonthetable.Despitethegriefofchanges,thepoetisoptimisticthatMacanesecuisineistostayon.Foodbecomesaperennialculturalregisteramidchanginghistoricalcurrents.Thefollowingpoem,writtenin2003,waspublishedasprefaceinAnnabelJackson’sTasteofMacau:PortuguesecuisineontheChinacoast(ca.2003).“SecretFamilyRecipes”theswirlingflickerbeginsfromalampanalwaysunsustainableaccidentatyourearsomesayyou’rehot-temperedbutyou’realreadynolongerthat;peoplefromlateronboiledthatdishdry,forgottheoriginaltheme,aswestirredweslowlylostourselvestoovague,tooweak,toocompromisedimpossibletoarriveattheshapeofdawn-to-duskthoughtfrombeyondamediocrecuisinewekeeponwantingtorecoverthoselostnotesnomatterwherewegowealwayscarrywithusfromouryouththearomasthatdriftedthroughlanesandalleysfrombigcolonialhousesafterschoolfromthefarawaytown,renewingourdesiresthecomfortingembracewerepeatedlylosegrownup,thesubtlysweetandbittersournessdisclosedinunavoidabledepression97AcachaçaisanationaldrinkofBrazil.BrazilbecameaPortuguesecolonyin1500butdeclaredindependencein1822. 

  
  
 

118TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESthesecretescaperoutewhosedirectionisunknowneternalsecret,stuckbetweentheteethlikeGranny’sparadoxicalfishcakes:anundifferentiableblendofsweetandsaltyifyouhavethebestbacalhau,ifyouhavePortugueseoliveoil,strongenoughandmellowenoughcaneverythingthenbemagicallyreproduced?thedinnersourgodmotherscookedforusonSundaysineveryattic,behindeveryclosedcurtainandshutterinsidesouthernEuropean-stylewindowsinthesedustyyesterdays,whatwassosubtlyshining?sistersrecordedit,kithandkinnoteditdownandthepaperslowlyandgraduallyfadedimpossibletoholdontothesemysteriousritesperformedwithsuchwizardlyperfectionremembertheflavoursofaniseedandnutmegthosebalichãostir-friesreallymouth-wateringrememberGrannyusedtocookamysteriousdish(neighboursallknewinthekitchenshe’ddoherstuff)thearomawasalingeringone,butaftershewasgonetherewasno-onewhocouldblendthesameflavoursagainournicknamewasmuchi-muchi,andafterschoolwhoeverlostabetinvitedtheotherstoeatcha-chasweetbeansoupwegrewupbetweenmeals,faintlyrememberinggrown-upshadshownusamysteriousalbumwejustmixfoodinthepan,notknowingifwecanreclaimthoseriches(trans.byBrianHolton)Itisasheernostalgicpoemon“amysteriousalbum”thatcontainsspecialrecipes.Thepoet’sdismayofthedisappearingrecipesresonateswithhismelancholicfeelings 

  
  
 

119CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUinthepoem“AtBelaVista”,inwhichhedoubtswhether“theflavourofAfricanChickenwilltoobelost?”Thepoetdoesnotonlybemoanthefadingcolonialpresence,butalsoprojectsthelossof“amysteriousdish”.Theyearningforgastronomicdelightsprovokesnostalgiaforthegoodolddays.Theverynostalgictone,ineffect,revealsasenseofloss,despair,anddisconsolationbecauseofthepassingawayofhisGrannyandthevanishingsecretfamilyrecipes.Inthepoemsgroupedunder“Foodscape”,Leungshowsintensenostalgicpathosforpre-postcolonialMacauthroughtheimageryoffood.Hisunforgettableexoticfoodandflavoursare“fishcakes:anindifferentiableblendofsweetandsalty”;“bacalhau”(driedcodfish);“aniseedandnutmeg”;“balichão”(shrimppaste);and“cha-chasweetbeansoup”.BacalhauandbalichãoarePortuguese/Macanesecomidas.Macanesefoodhasbeen“invented”bytheMacanese,whoarethehybridPortugueseinMacauaftercenturiesofinter-racialbreeding.Thisdistinctiveculturalinventioninfoodisgivenastatusascuisine.Macanesecuisineisinfactthepioneeroffusionfood.ItmainlycombinesthespicesandflavoursofGoanandMalaycooking,andhassomeinfluencesfromthePortuguese,Chinese,BrazilianandAfricanculinarypractices.Macanesecuisinerepresentsanowindigenousculinaryculture.Ontheimportanceofculinaryculture,AnneGoldmanpointsout,‘Theinvocationofaspecificfoodspeaksonbehalfofculturalnationalism...Theelaborationofcookingtechniquesmayalsoprovideameansofarticulatinganethnicsubject’(Goldman,1992:173).ThroughtheintroductionofMacanesefood,theMacanesecanencodeanaffirmationofethnicspecificityandidentity.Moreover,theseculinarydelightsmayprovidetheMacanesecommunitywithameansofself-definitionandpride.APoetryofNostalgiaPredicatedonMicheldeCerteau’snotionofconsumptioninThePracticeofEverydayLife,ReyChowarguesthatLeung’spoetryonHongKongisapoetryofconsumption(Chow,1993:193).AccordingtodeCerteau,consumptionistheingeniouswaysinwhichtheweakmakeuseofthestrongineverydaypractices;andtheweakcontinuallyturntotheirownendsforcesalientothem(deCerteau,1984:xvii-xix).ChowisoftheopinionthatabricolageofsensationandpracticesinLeung’s 

  
  
 

120TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESpoetryconstitutesconsumptioninthesenseoftheuseofobjectsbythosewhoarenottheproducers,inspacesthatwerenotintendedforthem.Sheelucidatesthatinhispoetrytherearerich“thing-images”,andLeungtendstocapturetheworldintheformofthings.Thistacticrepresentsamodeofconsumptionwhichconsistsininventingusesoftheworldthatclearlyfalloutsidethedesignandpurposeofthespacethatisthe“Britishcolony”(Chow,1993:193).Inadifferentvein,IwouldcallLeung’spoetryonMacauapoetryofnostalgia,inthesenseoftheuseofnotableEast-Westlandmarks,historicalpersonages,uncertainfuture,andgastronomytoevokethecolonialambienceofPortugueseMacau.Heisinterestedincapturingthecolonialmoodofthelandscapes(suchasthesteepalleyatSantoAgostinho,StPaul’sRuins,theNezhaTemple,PraiaGrande,andtheBarrierGate),andhispoemsunveilanoverwhelmingpassionforpre-postcolonialMacaubeforeitis“cleanedup”tobecomeaWorldHeritageCity.Hisphysicalwanderingthroughthiscolonialspaceresonateswithhismentalroamingoverpre-postcolonialityandpostcoloniality.AllLeung’smodernChinesepoetryonMacauwascomposedbefore1999(except“SecretFamilyRecipes”).Inthepoemsgroupedunder“Landscape”,hepresentsanunenviableMacau,whichisasleepybackwater.Itsheydayisgoneanditissenescentanddilapidated.Heabstainsfromnarratingtheexistentialsignificanceofsomehistoricplaces,butinsteadheintroducesadifferentperspectivelookingatcommonplace/quotidianactivities.Suchactivitiesaresetagainstthebackdropsofuncommonsites,thusconsumingtheirmonumentalityinanunremarkableway.Thefamouslandmarkssimplybecomecommonplacesinhisnewpoetry.HisportrayalofMacauisembeddedinarangeoffamiliarstereotypeimagesoftheEast.TheseOriental“visages”areoftenconstructedand“re-presented”bytheWestinthecolonialistsignifyingsystem.Thepoemslabelledunder“EastandWest”focusontherendezvousforpeopleoffamewiththiscolonialspace.MacauisanunfulfilledsteppingstoneforWuLi;animperiledparadiseforGeorgeChinnery;andanintoxicatedShangri-laforCamiloPessanha.Throughthepoet’simaginings,thesethreepeopleprojecttheirowndreamsontoMacau,buttheirdreamsareshatteredbyreality.Inthisway,Macauisdelineatedasa“cityofbrokendreams”,echoingAustinCoates’CityofBrokenPromises.Thisgroupofpoemsisalsoreflectiveofthenatureofambivalenceandidentitycrisis;not 

  
  
 

121CHAPTER3LEUNGPING-KWAN’SNEWPOETRYONOLDMACAUleasttheeuphemismof“EastmeetsWest”isdeconstructedduetotheabsenceofunderstandingbetweenChineseandWesternersinMacau.Thepoemsin“Foodscape”notonlyrevealLeung’slongingforthe“goodoldfood”,butalsospeakforhiswistfulmemoriesofthebygonegloryofMacau.Inlightoftheforeseeablepoliticalandlegalchanges,hecastsdoubtsonpostcolonialMacau,andisgrievedatitsvicissitude,hencelendingapoliticaldimensioninhispoeticexpressions.ItisperhapsoutofLeung’sconjecturethat,atthedawnofthethirdmillennium,Macau’sinternationalprofilehasrisentonewheights.MacaualsorealisticallyvindicatesthehastyandpessimisticpredictionbyaWesternwriterwhoforetellsthatMacauwouldbecomean“abandonedcity”after1999(Porter,1996:193). 

  
  
 

 

  
  
 

123CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOCHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAO98VacillatingbetweentwopoliticalsystemsandtwodominantculturesattheperipheryofsouthChina,Macau’sdistinctSino-Lusoidentityhasgivenrisetoaninterfaceofvariousreligiousbeliefs.SincethearrivalofthePortugueseinMacausomefourhundredyearsago,theyhadardentlylaunchedthe“civilizingmission”byintroducingChristianity,yettheyfailedtoeraseandreplacetheBuddhist/Daoistfaiths.ApartfrombeingaChristian“HolyCity”,MacauisalsoaChinesereligiousbastionwheremultitudinousdeitiesproliferate.ThepolymorphismofBuddhismandDaoismallowsavarietyofreligiousexperiencesandliturgicaltraditionsamongtheelitesandthemasses.ThereseemstobenoinvariablesectarianrulegoverningtheChinesetemplesinMacau,ordistinguishingthereligiousattachmentofonefromanother.TheChinese,atleastintheinstanceofthelivedexperienceofMacau,apparentlyadvocateapolytheisticspiritthroughreligiousinclusion,compromise,andsyncretism.99SyncretismandtolerationofdisparatebeliefshavebeencommoninthereligiouslifeoftheChinese.DuringtheMingdynasty(1368—1644)theharmonizationofthe98ThispaperwaspresentedintheInternationalConference—MacauontheThresholdoftheThirdMillennium,14-15December2001,organizedbytheMacauRicciInstitute.Itwaspublishedunderthetitle“ReligiousSyncretism:TheHarmonizationofBuddhismandDaoisminMacao’sLianFengMiao蓮峰廟(TheLotusPeakTemple)”,ReviewofCulture,InternationalEditionNo.5,January2003,pp.27-43.99Theterm“syn-cret-ism”isderivedfromahistoricincidentinwhichthecitizensofCreteovercameinternaldisputesandunitedagainstacommonenemy.Hence,syncretismdenotesthereconciliationorfusionofconflictingreligiousbeliefsorprinciples.SeeWebster’sThirdNewInternationalDictionary(Massachusetts:G&CMerriamCompany,1975),p.2319. 

  
  
 

124TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESThreeTeachings(sanjiaoheyi三教合一),orreligioussyncretism,flourishedtoanunprecedenteddegree.InMacau,thesyncreticpracticesarefullyexhibitedinLianFengMiao蓮峰廟(LotusPeakTemple),whichisoneoftheoldesttemples,andwhichexemplifiestheunityofforminconventionaltemplestructure(Plate12).ThenameLianFengMiaohasbeenevolvedfromotherpreviousnames.Throughnamingandre-naming,howdoesthetemplebluritsdedicationandidentification?Asthistempletransgressesreligiousboundariesbyenshriningawholegamutofdivinitiesregardlessofdoctrinaldifferences,howdoesitsspiritualdimensionlieforBuddhismandDaoism?Plate12LianFengMiaoThefocusthenshiftstoexaminemythologicalbeingsandhistoricalcharactershonouredinLianFengMiao.Theyhavebeensystematicallyand“euhemeristically”100100Theterm“euhemerism”isderivedfromEuhemerus,aGreekmythographerandphilosopherofthe4thcenturyB.C.Headvocatedatheorythatthegodsofmythologywerebutdeifiedmortals.SeeWebster’sThirdNewInternationalDictionary(Massachusetts:G&CMerriamCompany,1975),p.783. 

  
  
 

125CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOrepresentedovertimesoastobecomeimmortals.OnemaywonderhowDaoismincorporatesandappropriates,ifnotspeculateson,ancientChinesebeliefs.HowdoclassicalChineseliterarytextsplayaroleinmyth-making;andserveasavehicleforDaoismtoconsolidateitsstatusastheChineseautochthonousreligion?ReligiousSyncretismLianFengMiaoisthesacredabodeofabundantgodsandgoddesses,andlavishlyexhibitsasyncreticpantheoninitsfullcomplexity.NoChinesetempleinMacauhaseverdedicatedtosuchamélangeofdivinitiesfromBuddhism,Daoism,andfolkreligion101inordertomeettheneedsofworshippers.ThistemplewelldemonstratesreligioussyncretismandthepolytheistictraditionoftheChinesebeliefsystemsamidthemonotheisticChristianideologythatprevailsinMacau.ThereligioussystemsofConfucianism,BuddhismandDaoismhavelongbeenknownassanjiao三教(theThreeTeachings,ortheThreeGreatReligions,ortheThreeDoctrines),whichdominatedalmosttheentirespectrumofreligioushistory.DespitethefactthatDaoismispurelyofChineseorigin,ithasbeenmuchinfluencedbyIndianBuddhism.DaoismborrowedtheBuddhistsystemoforganization,anddrewuponancientanimismandnature-worship,thusshapingthephenomenaofpantheismandpolytheism.KeithCrimhaspointedoutthatDaoism,byemphasizingspontaneity,intuitionalunderstanding,andtheacceptanceofthenaturalworld,wasactuallyabletobringBuddhismclosertothematrixofChinesethought(Crim,1989:741).Amongthethreereligioussystems,DaoismhasbeencalledthereligionofthemassessincetheTangdynasty(618—907),andisdescribedbyHolmesWelchas‘themostpopularreligiousworkinChina’(Welch,1957:140).Daoismusedtospeculateonancientmyths/beliefsandupholdmythicalstoriessoastocreateimmortalitylegends.Quiteonthecontrary,mythologicalnarratives101FolkreligiondesignatestheunwrittenreligiousbeliefsandpracticesofaveragepeoplewithintraditionalChinesesociety.SeeRobertRedfield,PeasantSocietyandCulture:AnAnthropologicalApproachtoCivilization(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1956),pp.5-6. 

  
  
 

126TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESwereusuallyprejudicedagainstbyConfucianliterati.Confucianismrejectedancientmythsandlegends,whereasDaoismthoroughlyhomogenizedmythologicalloreandrealhistory,andallowedmyriadsofsupernaturaltalestoenterintoitsbeliefsystem.ItisinDaoismthatmostofthemythological/legendarycharactersofearlyChinawereincorporatedandappropriated.EventhoughConfucianismisoneoftheThreeTeachings,C.K.Yanghasarguedthatitisnotafull-fledgedreligioninthetheisticsense,sinceitsetupnogodasthepremiseofitsteachings,anditsbasicprinciplesweredevelopedmainlyfrompragmaticconsiderations.Confucianismcanonlybeseenasasocio-politicaldoctrinehavingreligiousqualities(Yang,1970:26-7).102WhiletheThreeTeachingsformedthemainstreamofwhatanthropologistswouldrefertoasChineseculture’s“greattradition”,folkreligionconstituteda“littletradition”(Redfield,1956:67-104).These“traditions”almostrepresentthewholenessofChinesereligion.TheMingdynastysawaperiodofnotablespiritualbreakthrough,andsyncreticforcesinreligionsflourishedinfullswing.TheharmonizationoftheThreeTeachingsattemptedtoreconcileandincorporatediverseelementsselectivelyfromavarietyofreligiouspraxesintoanacceptabletradition.JudithA.Berlinghasdefinedreligioussyncretismas‘theborrowing,affirmation,orintegrationofconcepts,symbols,orpracticesofonereligioustraditionintoanotherbyaprocessofselectionandreconciliation’(Berling,1980:9).Shepointsoutthatthepatternofselectivitywasmuchmoreimportantthanthemerefactofborrowing(Berling,1980:10).Syncretistswerecautiousenoughnottostepoutsidetheboundaryofestablishedtradition,butconformedtoreligiouspracticesandbeliefsthatwereconsidered“orthodox”.Inthisway,theytendedtoreform,illuminate,orrevivifytheirownreligiousvisionwithintherulesandframeworkoforthodoxtradition.Itcouldbearguedthatsyncretismisneitherreligioustreasonnordoesitshattertraditions,becausebelieverstriedtoadvocatesyncretismasaprincipletoattaintheessenceamongdifferentdoctrinesandideas.Thedynamicsofsyncretismembodiedareformulationandsubstitutionof102RegardingtheargumentonConfucianismnotasareligion,seealsoYaoXinzhong,“ChineseReligions”,inJeanHolm(ed.),MythandHistory(London:PinterPublishersLtd.,1994),pp.170-81. 

  
  
 

127CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOtraditionsinreligiousexperience.ThemostdistinguishedsyncretistwasLinZhaoen林兆恩(1517—1598),whowasborninPutian莆田,Meizhou湄州,Fujian福建province.HavingattainedtheenlightenedmindofthesageandgainedinsightintotheunderstandingoftheThreeTeachings,LinZhaoenferventlypromotedandmanifestedreligioussyncretismtoitsfullestextent.Hepursuedanewstyleofthoughtanddevelopedawell-definedsystemofstudyandpracticeforspiritualcultivationthroughaprocessoftoleration,interaction,andchangeinordertouniteandharmonizetheThreeTeachings.LiuTs’un-yanhasmaintainedthatLinZhaoenwas‘thefirsttopromulgateformallytheprincipleoftheamalgamationoftheThreeTeachingsasasinglephilosophicalentityinwhichthethreeofthemcouldstillexist’(Liu,1967:260-1).Furthermore,BerlingstatesthatLin‘wasalsothefirsttoestablishasinglereligiousorganizationforpeoplefromallreligionsandallwalksoflifebasedontheunityoftheThreeTeachingsandtheirshareddoctrinesofmind-cultivation’(Berling,1980:60).LinZhaoen’smaincontributionwasthere-mouldingofreligiousideasintheclearestandmostdetailedform.Hewasnotmerelyasyncreticthinker(integratingtheideasanddoctrinesoftheThreeTeachingstoformhisownphilosophy),hewasalsoasyncreticteacher(combiningbelieversintheThreeTeachingsintoasingleWay).HisdiscipleswereoftheopinionthathewastheequalofthesagesoftheThreeTeachings(i.e.Confucius,Laozi,andSkayamuni)(Berling,1980:237-8),andtheyrespectfullyaddressedhimasLinzi林子(MasterLin)(Berling,1980:196).TheChinesesyncreticoutlookperhapsputstoshamethehostilehistoryofreligiouswarsandpersecutionsintheWest,nottomentionthecalamitousRitesControversywagedonChinesesoilintheseventeenthcentury.ContrarytotheChristianhostilitytowards“paganbeliefs”(asevidencedintheCrusadesandtheInquisition),Chinesereligionsclearlyarticulateasynthesisofdifferingdoctrinalelementsandembraceabricolageofbeliefs.AsWesternChristianitylaysastrongemphasisonitstranscendent,exclusive,andeternalnature,Chinesereligionsespousesyncreticsentimentsandrespectamongoneanother’sbeliefsystems.CentraltothereligiouslifeoftheChinese,syncretism(moregenerallybetweenBuddhismandDaoism)hasfosteredanewreligioustradition.Thesyncreticphenomenon,aspointedoutbyChristianJochim,isbuttressedbyanumberof 

  
  
 

128TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESsociologicalfactors.First,theChinesetendtoemphasizepracticeoverdoctrine.Second,thetraditionalfamiliesalwaysremainthefundamentalsocialunitwithinChinesereligion,thuskeepingotherformsofreligiousgroupsfromevolvingtoahighdegree.Third,theChinesestate,headedbytheemperor(before1911),constitutedanotherbasicunitofreligiousorganizationinChina,outshiningtherelativelyminorroleplayedbyotherreligions,whetherindigenousorforeign(Jochim,1986:21).Withthesedecisivefactors,thedelineationoftheboundaryofreligiousfaithsdoesnotdominatetheordinarypeople’sconsciousness,butafunctionallyorientedreligiousviewprevails.Thequestionofreligiousidentityisoftenrelegatedtoanunimportantissue,andthecommonpeoplewouldusewhicheverformbestrespondstotherequirementoftheoccasionforwhichtheyusereligion.ThefollowingsectionturnstoexaminethevicissitudesofLianFengMiao,whichhasevolvedfromaDaoisttempletoanall-embracing“divineabode”enshriningdeitiesfromBuddhismandfolkreligion.TianFeiMiaoLianFengMiaowasoriginallycalledTianFeiMiao天妃廟(theTempleoftheCelestialConcubine),andmainlydedicatedtotheDaoistGoddessoftheSea—TianFei天妃(CelestialConcubine).Byitsname,itwasunmistakablyaDaoisttemple,whichwasbelievedtohavebeenbuiltin1592.Sinceitsexpansionandreconstructioninthelatenineteenthcentury,thepresentstructurewasrenovatedin1980.ThetempleislocatedneartheBorderGateleaningagainstLotusPeakHill(alsoknownasLotusFlowerHill)atnorthernMongHá望廈.ThePortugueseusedtocallitoTemplodasPortasdoCerco,ortheTempleoftheBorderGate.ItstrategicallysitsonthenarrowisthmusthatconnectstheMacaupeninsulatoZhongshan中山county,Guandongprovince.Justlikemosttemplesdedicatedtoseadeitieswhoareheldresponsibleforcalmingtheroaringseas,thistempleoncecommandedanexcellentseaviewbeforemassivereclamation.TianFeihasbeenlookeduponasasymbolofcoastalpacificationandisthepatrongoddessoffishermen,sailorsandmaritimemerchants.ThiswaterdeityiswidelyknownasMazu媽祖(alternativespelling:Matsu)inTaiwanandinFujianprovince. 

  
  
 

129CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOSheisalsocalledA-MainMacau,andenshrinedintheA-MaTemple.ThisnotablelandmarkhasbeenevokedinLeungPing-kwan’spoetryasdiscussedinChapter3.TraditionholdsthatMazuwasthespiritualrepresentationofalivingmaiden,LinMo林默(960—987),whowasanativeofPutian,inMeizhou,Fujianprovince.103Whenshewas16yearsold,shefellintoadeeptranceonedayandexercisedhermagicalpowerbysavingherfatherandelderbrotherfromshipwreck.Assherefusedtogetmarried,shecommittedsuicideanddiedaprematuredeath.Meanwhile,fishermenalongtheFujiancoastbegantoreportthattheyhadbeenaidedbytheapparitionofherimagetosafety.LinMowassoonrecognizedasashamanormediumcapableofsupernaturalfeats.Shefirstemergedasaminorandregionalspiritduringtheeleventhcentury.IntheSongdynasty,shewasofficiallyacceptedasaseadeityin1123(Li,1995:146).Meanwhile,shewasgivenanumberofappellations,suchasShengNu聖女(HolyMaid)andFuRen夫人(Madame).IntheensuingYuandynasty,shewasennobledasTianFeiin1278(Li,1995:104).WithregardtotheappellationofTianFei,itisbelievedthat‘HeavenisregardedastheEmperor,becauseheisthegreatestandnoblest;afterHeavencomestheEarth,andtheSpiritoftheEarthistheEmpress,whoranksimmediatelyaftertheEmperor.ThethirddignityisreservedfortheSpiritorSpiritsoftheWaters,andthesefemaleSpiritsaretheconcubinesoftheEmperor,orofHeaven’(Werner,1932:503).Giventhisdivinehierarchy,TianFei—beingaseadeity—wasraisedtoacelestialpositionandconsideredaconsortofHeaven.DuringtheQingdynasty,EmperorKangxi康熙grantedheranillustrioustitleTianShangShengMu天上聖母(HeavenlySaintlyMother)in1680.Shewasfurtherelevatedtoaprominentpositionand“canonized”asTianHou天后(EmpressofHeaven)in1684(Eberhard,1968:402;Li,1995:136).Throughaseriesofsystematicapotheoses,LinMowastransmutedfromamortaltoacelestialconsort;andclimbedtheimperialhierarchicladderfromconcubinetoempress.ThemythofTianHouwaseventuallyintegratedasanofficialcultandincorporatedintotheDaoistpantheonof103LinMoandthesyncretistLinZhaoenhadthesamesurnameandwerefromthesamebirthplace.UnlikeLinMowhowasdeifiedasTianHouin1684,LinZhaoendidnotbecomeafigureofnationalimportanceinhisowntimeorafterhisdeath. 

  
  
 

130TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESthestatereligion.TianHouhasbeenreveredasaleadingseagoddessofnationalimportanceeversince.CiHuGongLinMo’scanonizationasTianHou,however,wasnotcelebratedinTianFeiMiao,andthenameofthetempleremainedfixatedonherconcubinestatus.Thetempleshouldhavebeenre-namedasTianHouMiao(theTempleoftheEmpressofHeaven)inrecognitionofhernewlyacquiredappellation.In1723TianFeiMiaowasexpandedandahalldedicatedtoGuanYin觀音104—theBuddhistGoddessofMercy—wasbuiltattherearofthetemple.Inlightoftheexpansion,thetemplewasre-namedasCiHuGong慈護宮(thePalaceofMercyandProtection).Withthisre-naming,thetempletransgressedreligiousboundarytoconsecratebothTianHouandGuanYin.ThenameCiHuGonghadadirectreferencetoGuanYin’sci慈(mercy)andTianHou’shu護(protection).WhileciistheattributeofGuanYin’scompassionateprovidence—dacidabei大慈大悲(GreatCompassion,GreatMercy),hustandsforthehonorificepithetgiventoTianHou—huguobimin護國庇民(GuardingtheCountryandProtectingCitizens).Asaresult,CiHuGongstraddledBuddhismandDaoism,andexemplifiedasyncretismofbothbeliefsystems.GuanYin(literally,onewhoperceivesthecriesoftheworld)isconsideredaBodhisattva,105andanincarnationofAvalokites´vara.106Thismuch-adoreddeityhaslongbeenveneratedinconnectionwithsafetyatsea.Theepithet“cihangpudu”慈航普渡(Benignlysailingacrosstheseastothecoast)appliedtoherisinpraiseofhercompassionandmercytoguidepeopletosafetyfromthedangerousseas;andmetaphorically,toguidepeoplefromaseaofsufferings.104BeforetheTangdynasty(618—906)GuanYinwashonouredasamalefigure.SomeimagesattheDunhuangGrottoesinGansuprovince,however,areandrogynouslyportrayed.105InSanskrit,Bodhimeans“enlightenment”,andsattva“ofessence”.Bodhisattvaembracestheidealofperfectcompassionandperfectknowledge.Bodhisattvacanbeseenasan“apprenticeBuddha”or“Buddha-in-the-making”.106InSanskrit,Avalokitameans“lookingon”,andsvara“sound”.Avalokites´varaisthe“allseeingoneandallhearingone”. 

  
  
 

131CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOLegendclaimsthatPrincessMiaoShan妙善wasthehumanmanifestationofGuanYin.MiaoShanwasthethirddaughterofMiaoZhuangWang妙莊王,arulerofthenorthernkingdominancientChina.Whenshewasyoung,shedeterminedtodevoteherselftoreligiouslife,andrefusedtogetmarried.Itappearsthattherefusaltoengageinsexualrelationshipistheparagonofvirtuethateventuallyleadstothe“sainthood”ofGuanYinandTianHou(andtheVirginMaryinCatholicism).Itwasagainstherfather’swishthatMiaoShanenteredintoanunnerywhereshewasputtoperformdegradingduties.Herfatherlaterorderedhertobeexecuted,butshewasmiraculouslytransportedbacktolifeonalotusflower.Thisepisodedenoteshertranscendencefrommortality,andthelotusflowerbecomesthesymbolofBuddhism.InastudyofthecultofGuanYin,GlenDudbridgehasstatedthattheyear1100wasthestartingpointintimeforthelegendofMiaoShan,andtheXiangshanMonastery香山寺inHenan河南provincewastheverysitewherethecultofMiaoShan(GuanYin’smanifestation)emerged(Dudbridge,1978:11-9).Coincidentally,thecultofGuanYinandthecultofTianHoubeganalmostinthesameperiod.TheearliestappearanceofLinMo’sapparitionwasreportedbyfishermenalongtheFujiancoastin1086(Li,1995:144),andshewasofficiallyrecognizedasaseadeityin1123.SinceTianHouandGuanYinarecommonlyhonouredasthesavioursofshipwrecksandquellersofdisorderontheseas,somecommentatorsarguethatTianHouhasbeenconsciouslycreatedto“offset”GuanYin(Watson,1985:298).Perhapsduetoincreasedseatransportandmaritimeactivities,theywereconstructedtosharesimilarsupernaturalpower,andbecamemoreorlessidenticalcounterparts.TheportrayalsofTianHouandGuanYinsharecertainsimilarities.ThereisapopularimageofGuanYinrepresentedasabeautifulyoungwomancarryingachildinherarms(similartotheportrayalofthe“VirginMaryandChild”inWesternvisualarts).Thisrepresentation,knownasGuanYinsongzi觀音送子(GuanYinsendsachild),suggeststhatsheisthegiverofchildren;andgoddessoffertility.Muchinthesamevein,inastudyofthecultofTianHouintheregionofFujian,itisobservedthatthereisalsoaritualisticperformancecalledTianFeisongzi天妃送子(TianFeisendsachild)(Dean,1993:222).107Moreover,TianHouis107Ithasbeenargued,however,thattheeffigiesofGuanYinshownwithachildonthekneesareprobablytheBuddhisttranspositionoftheDaoist“child-giving”image,Tainxinsongzi 

  
  
 

132TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESendowedwithanintercedingroleforgynaecologicalandchildbearingproblems.Althoughthesetwosupernaturalsareconstructedasvirgingoddesses,theyareperceivedaschild-givingdeitiesapartfromtheirdivinerolesassociatedwiththesea.TheChinesereligioussystemshavedevelopedasyncreticmatrixallowingdifferencesinbeliefs(andrites)tocomplementoneanother.Actually,religioussimilarityisexpressedasifitwerereligiousdifferenceasexemplifiedintherolesofTianHouandGuanYin.ThismayexplainwhytheyareenshrinedinLianFengMiaowithoutreligiousfrictionorscruple.FinalNomenclatureAfteralapseofthirtyyears,CiHuGongwascompletelyrenovatedin1752.Inlightofitsnewfacelift,thenameofthetemplewaschangedtoXinMiao新廟(NewTemple).Ahundredyearslater,theNewTemplebecamesomewhatshabby.In1875thetemplecomplexwasextensivelyrefurbishedandexpanded.Oncompletionoftherenovation,thestructurewasagaingivenanewname.In1876agiltwoodentabletinscribedwiththreewell-writtenChinesecharacters,LianFengMiao蓮峰廟(LotusPeakTemple),wasputuponthelintelofthemainentranceasitsfinalnomenclature.Thewordslianfeng蓮峰(lotuspeak)refertoMacau’scartographicshapeanditslocation,asMacauislikenedtoalotusflower;thepeninsulaitselfresemblesthebudorflowerandtheisthmusthestem.ThesummitofthehilljustbehindthetempleiscalledLotusPeak.Inviewofthenamingandre-naming,itisnoteasyforthegeneralpublictodistinguishwhetheritisaBuddhistoraDaoisttemple.ThenameLianFengMiaoisoftenmistakenforaBuddhisttemple,becausethelotusflower—denotingserenityandtranscendencefrommortality—isasalientidentificationofBuddhism.Infact,thetempleislargelydedicatedtotheBuddhistGoddessofMercyandtheDaoistGoddessoftheSea.Inthisspirit,thedemarcationofBuddhismandDaoismisblurred;notleastthetemple’sdedicationandidentificationbecomeblurryduetoreligious天仙送子(CelestialFairysendsachild).SeeLouisFrédéric,Buddhism:IconographicGuides(Paris:Flammarion,1995),pp.178-9. 

  
  
 

133CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOsyncretism.Withthesyncreticsentiments,mostoftheChineseinMacauwouldnotinsistontheirspecificreligiousidentity,buttheypatronizethis“sacredspace”whereawholeassortmentofdeitiesisreadytolendtheirears.InMemoryofLinZexuLianFengMiaospeciallyhonoursLinZexu林則徐(1785—1850),anImperialCommissioneroftheQingdynasty.AppointedbythefalteringQinggovernmenttocurbthelucrativeopiumtrade,LinvisitedMacauon3September1839seekingcooperationfromthePortugueseofficials.Givenhistoughmeasuresandzealousdrive,heantagonizedtheBritishandawarbrokeout.ThefirstOpiumWar(1839—1842)betweenBritainandChinaledtothecessionofHongKongtotheUnionJack.TheTreatyofNanjing,signedbetweenBritainandChinain1842,wasthefirstinaseriesofunequaltreatiesthatforciblyopenedChinatotheWest.DespiteLin’sconcertedefforttostopthehugeinfluxofopium,hefelloutofimperialfavourandwassentofftoalessimportantpostinXinjiang新疆province(themostaridterritoryinnorthwestChina).LianFengMiaowastheveryplaceofthehistoricconferenceamongLinZexuandhisentouragewiththePortugueseofficials.Thechoiceofthistempleasthevenueforaformalencounterbetweentwonationstateswas,ontheonehand,duetoitsauraofsanctity.Ontheotherhand,itmightspeakfortheimportanceofdivineblessingsandsurveillanceofthediscussionsoncriticaleconomicturmoilandpoliticalcrisis.TheproximityofthistempletotheBorderGatewasperhapsanotherreason,sincetheChineseentouragecouldenterintoMacauwithouttravellingtoofartoanotherdignifiedtemple.Thehistoryofthetempleisproudofbeingtheconferencevenueofthisofficialvisit,andLinbecomesalmostaquasi-divinefiguresharingaspacewiththedeitiesinLianFengMiao.Standinginthecourtyardofthetemple,thestonestatueofLinwasinauguratedon10December1989,incommemorationofthe150thanniversaryofhisvisittoMacau.Inaddition,theLinZexuMemorialHall,builtnearthestatue,wasopenedon5November1997commemoratingthereturnofHongKongtoChinainJuly1997(Plate13).TheHallexhibitsphotographsandmemorabiliarelatingtoopiumtrafficking 

  
  
 

134TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESduringthepeakeraofWesternimperialismandcolonialism.WhilethethirteenFriendshipMonumentsbuiltbytheMacauGovernmentduringthelastsevenyearsofPortugueserulearetostaketheirculturallegacies(Cheng,2001:48-58),Lin’sstatueandtheMemorialHallareintendedtoarousecollectivememoriesoftheshamefulforeignhumiliation,andtoensuresolidarityoftheChinesepeople.Plate13ThestatueofLinZexuandtheLinZexuMemorialHallInthecourtyardnearthestatueofLinZexu,thereisaslightlyelevatedredaltarhonouringLianFengSheJiZhishen蓮峰社稷之神(theGodoftheSoilandtheGodoftheFiveGrainsofLianFeng)inananiconicform(aformwithoutfiguralimage).108She社andJi稷aretwominorDaoistsupernaturalbeings,109servingtodriveawayevilspirits,andinthiscontext,theyprotectparticularlytheneighbourhoodofLianFeng.Adjacenttothisredaltarisaguardianstone,TaiShanShiGanDang泰山石敢當(theStonethatDarestoUndertakeofMountTai).Asanantidotetomalign108SeeeditorialnotesinthePreface.109OnvariousDaoistdeitieshonouredinMacau,seeWongShiuHonandChengWaiMing,TaoistReligioninHongKongandMacau(HongKong:CalvardenLtd.,1993). 

  
  
 

135CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOandinauspiciousinfluences,ShiGanDangplaysasimilarrolelikethatofastonelion,110whichisadoptedwidelyasamotiftoguardagainstevilforces.CentralMainBuildingLianFengMiaoisamongthebestoftheextantmodelsofformaltemple-architectureinMacau.Thetemplecomplexconsistsofthreeblocksofinter-connectedbuildings.Eachentranceofthethreebuildingsisguardedbytwostonelions.Itsfaçadeisresplendentwithintricatebas-reliefs,depictingfamiliarstoriesfromChinesehistoryandmythology.Theseclaybas-reliefsweretypicalartworksinnineteenth-centurysouthChina.Thecentralmainbuildingofthetemplecomprisesapavilionandtwosuccessivehalls.Thepavilionisenhancedbyaraisedstoneplatform(likeanatrium),knownasFour-corneredPavilion.Itissurroundedbytallpillarswithstonerailings,wherethereareatotalofeighteendecorativelionsservingtowardoffmalignantspirits.ItwasonthisstoneplatformthatLinZexuandhisentouragemetwiththePortugueseofficialsforthesakeofcurbingrampantopiumtrafficking(Plate14).NeartheFour-corneredPavilion,twostatuesareputonelevatedsmallshrinesatoppositesides.OntheleftisTuDi土地(theEarthGod),andheisrepresentedasanoldmanwithwhitebeard.OntherightistheGodofWealth,wholooksscholarly.Thefirsthallisspaciousandmagnificent,enshriningtheimageofTianHou.Herseatedgoldenstatueisputonanelaboratealtar,anddecoratedwithahalo-likemandalaattheback.Sheholdsaceremonialblade,whichiscalledgui圭,anauspiciousobject.Twoattendants—QianLiYan千里眼(ThousandMileEye)andShunFengEr順風耳(FairWindEar)—areflankingthealtar.Thesetwofolkdeities‘arecreditedwiththepossessionofabnormallysensitiveocularandauricularperceptions’(Williams,1988:338).Theyareportrayedinfierceformsandeachofthemhasanadditionaleyeontheforehead.InBuddhism,thethirdeyesymbolizesknowledge.Astheirattributes,110ThelionisthesymbolofstrengthandcouragethroughoutAsia.InBuddhism,thelionisregardedastheguardianoftheLawanditsroarrepresentsthe“voiceoftheLaw”.InChina,itisconsideredabeneficialanimalandcalledthe“Buddha’sdog”.SeeLouisFrédéric,Buddhism:IconographicGuides(Paris:Flammarion,1995),p.249. 

  
  
 

136TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESThousandMileEyeholdsanaxe,andFairWindEarcarriesathunderbolt.ThesecondhallisdedicatedtoGuanYin.Hergoldenstatueisseatedonalotusflowerwithagoldenphoenixoneachside.Sheisbedeckedwith3-strandpearls.Ahalotoppedbyalotusflowerismeanttoindicatehersainthood.TwoBuddhistdeitiesareflankingthealtar:DizangWang地藏王ontheleftandWeiTuo韋陀ontheright.DizangWangistheChineseexpressionofKsitigarbha(alternativespelling:Kshitigarbha),theBodhisattvaofNetherRegions.WeiTuoistheChineseexpressionoftheBodhisattvaSkanda(orVeda,originallyaHindudeityofwar).WeiTuoisregularlyinvokedbytheChineseasthedefenderofBuddhistfaithandtheprotectorofmonasteries.IntheBuddhistworld,WeiTuoisthePrimeMinisterofDizangWangandthis“political”relationshipmayexplaintheirco-presenceasguardiandeitiesflankingGuanYin.Moreover,thejuxtapositionofthefearfulandterrifyingWeiTuowiththepacificandcalmingformsofGuanYinandDizangWangreadilypointstoacounteractingprinciple—harshjusticetemperedbymercyandcompassion.Thereisasmall“safe”nearthealtar.Legendhasitthatonceeveryyearonthe26thdayofthefirstlunarmonth,GuanYinopensthesafelendingmoneytoPlate14TheFour-corneredPavilion 

  
  
 

137CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOsupplicants.ThisdayisknownasGuanYinkaiku觀音開庫(GuanYinopeningthetreasury).Assoonasdaybreak,worshipperswouldenterthetemplewithjosssticksinorderto“borrowmoney”fromGuanYin.However,norealmoneyishandedout,onlyanotewithanumbersignifyingtheamountofmoneythatGuanYinis“lending”them.Ifborrowerscanmakeaprofitduringtheyear,theywouldcomebackand“repay”herbymakingofferings.GuanYin’sroleasthe“money-lender”isconsolidatedintheCityofGambling.HallofWuDiOnbothsidesofthecentralmainbuilding,therearesemi-detachedwings.TheleftwingisWuDiDian武帝殿(theHalloftheMilitaryEmperor),whichisnamedafterGuanYu’s關羽(A.D.162—220)upwardmobilitytoWuDi武帝(MilitaryEmperor)in1813.ThiswingischieflydedicatedtotheapotheosizedGuanYu.Twostatuesareputonanelevatedshrineflankingtheentrance.OntheleftisTuDi,whichisidenticaltotheoneinthecentralmainbuilding.OntherightistheGeneraloftheFrontwithaHorse馬前將軍.Thisstatue,portrayedasawarriorleashingahorse,actuallyrepresentsGuanYu.Inthehistoricalnovel,SanguoYanyi《三國演義》(ThreeKingdoms),CaoCao曹操generouslygaveGuanYuthefamoussteed“RedHare”赤兔馬(Chapter25).AfterLiuBei劉備proclaimedhimselfKingofHanzhong,GuanYuwasappointedGeneraloftheFront前將軍(Chapter73).Sothenameofthestatuehasadirectreferencetothesetwoepisodes(whichwillbediscussedinChapter6).InsideWuDiDian,thereisahonorifictabletonthelintelbearinganothername—GuanShengDiJunDian關聖帝君殿(theHallofSaintlyEmperorGuan).ThishallisnamedafterGuanYu’sennoblementasGuanShengDiJun關聖帝君(SaintlyEmperorGuan)in1594.PopularlyknownasGuanGong關公(“Gong”isaducaltitlegrantedtohimin1102),orGuanDi關帝(ashortenedversionofGuanShengDiJun),GuanYu’sstatueisenshrinedonthealtar.Twoflankingstatues—LiuBei(left)andZhangFei張飛(right)—areputoutsidethealtar.111GuanYu,LiuBei111GuanYuisoftenrepresentedinagroupofthree,sometimesflankedby周倉ZhouCang,hisbodyguard,and關平GuanPing,hisadoptedson. 

  
  
 

138TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESandZhangFeiarehistoricalpersonagesoftheThreeKingdomsperiod(A.D.220—265),andhavebeenelevatedtogodhood.TheyarealsoleadingcharactersinSanguoYanyi(theywillbediscussedinChapter6).ThereisahallbehindWuDiDian,whichhousesthespirittabletsofthedeceased,arrangedalongthewallsintiers.Thename,dateofbirthanddeathofthedeceasedareinscribedonthetablets.ItisawayfortheChinesetoreveretheirancestorsbyputtingthetabletsinatemple.Onlythosewhopayacertainsumofmoneycanacquireaplaceforthedeceasedthere.HallofRenShouTherightwing,RenShouDian仁壽殿(theHallofBenevolenceandLongevity),comprisesthreesuccessivehalls.ThefirsthalliscalledYiLingShenNongDian醫靈神農殿(theHalloftheSpiritofHealingandtheGodofApothecaries).YiLing醫靈(right)issimplyacollectivenamehonouredtodispelepidemics,andthestatueofYiLingisdepictedhavinglongbeard.ShenNong神農(2838—2698B.C.)(left)isoneoftheGodsofApothecariesasheiscreditedtohavediscoveredthecurativepropertiesofherbsformedication(Werner,1932:419).LegendholdsthatShenNong(literally,divinefarmer)hadthebodyofamansurmountedbytheheadofabull(renshenniushou人身牛首)(Yuan,1979:79).ThismayexplainwhythestatueofShenNongisportrayedwithtwohornsprotrudingfromtheforehead.TheseatedgoldenstatuesofYingLingandShenNong,eachwithahaloattheback,areputsidebysideonthealtar.Theyareflankedbytwodivineattendants—CaiyaoTongzi採藥童子(Herb-pickingLads).ItisclaimedthattherewereSanHuang三皇(theThreeEmperors)inancientChina,whowerethelegendaryfoundersofChinesecivilization.Fuxi伏羲(2953—2838B.C.)isthefirstlegendaryemperor,andveneratedastheGodofHunting(hewillbediscussedinChapter5).ShenNong,alsoknownasYanDi炎帝(EmperorYan),isthesecondlegendaryemperor.Heissaidtohaveinventedthecartandvariouskindsofagriculturaltools,andestablishedmarketsfortheexchangeofcommodities.Herepresentedtheageofagriculturalpursuitsduringwhichpermanentsettlementswereestablished.Withthesecontributions,ShenNongisalsoveneratedastheGodofAgriculture. 

  
  
 

139CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOHuangDi黃帝(YellowEmperor)(2698—2598B.C.),alsocalledXuanYuanHuangDi軒轅黃帝,isthethirdlegendaryemperor,andhonouredastheGodofArchitecture(Werner,1932:186).ItisbelievedthattheChinesepeoplearethedescendantsofYanDiandHuangDiassuggestedinthesaying:YanHuangZisun炎黃子孫(sonsandgrandsonsofEmperorYanandEmperorHuang).Thishallisexclusivelydedicatedtohealingimmortals;hencethefirstandthethirdlegendaryemperorsarenothonoured.ThesecondhallisWenChangDian文昌殿(theHalloftheGodofLiterature).112However,thereisnostatueofWenChangonthealtar.WenChang文昌,alsoknownasWenDi文帝,orWenChangDiJun文昌帝君,isbynomeansapersonalitygod,butaconstellationofsixstars(WenChangStars文昌星)inthevicinityoftheGreatBear,governingscholarsandliteraryachievements.Itissaidthatwhenthesestarsarebright,literatureflourishes.DuringtheTangdynasty,abrilliantscholarZhangYazi張亞子(A.D.755—805),borninSichuanprovince,wasbelievedtobethereincarnatedWenChang,andwashonouredintheDaoistpantheonastheGodofLiterature(Werner,1932:554-5).Heisespeciallyveneratedbypeoplewhoseekhelpinexaminationsforanofficialcareer.Hisbirthdayiscelebratedonthethirddayofsecondlunarmonth.Kuixing魁星,aconstellationoffourstarsinthebowloftheBigDipper,isalsoreveredastheGodofLiterature.Inaddition,threeotherhistoricalpersonagesareascribedasGodsofLiterature,namely,ZhuYishen朱衣神(ZhuXi朱熹A.D.1130—1200),LuZu呂祖(LuTongbin呂洞賓A.D.755—805);GuanShengDiJun關聖帝君(GuanYu關羽A.D.162—220).Theyaregenerallyknownas“FiveWenChang”「五文昌」(fivegodsofliterature),andcommonlyreveredbystudents.InWenChangDian,thegoldenstatuesofCangJie倉頡andJuYong沮誦arehonouredonthealtar.ThesetwopersonagesaredeifiedastheGodsofWriting.TraditionmaintainsthattheyinventedtheartofformingancientChinesecharactersbyimitatingthefootprintsofbirds,whichwereknownas“birdfootprintswriting”.Fromearlypictographicsymbols,Chinesewrittencharactersevolvedtohighlyabstract112Formerly,WenChangGarret文昌閣wasatthebackofthehallofGuanYin,butitwasdemolishedforurbandevelopment. 

  
  
 

140TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESideographicwriting.CangJiewasappointedbyHuangDiasthepresidentofacommissionoflearnedmentocontinueandcompletethelaboursofShenNongonnaturalhistoryandthemedicinalpropertiesofplants(Werner,1932:518).CangJiewasgiventhetitleShihHuang史皇(PrinceofScribes).ThestatueofCangJie(withtwoadditionaleyes)isputonthelefthandsideofthealtar,whileJuYongisontheright.ThisplacementindicatesthatCangJieisthe“LeftOfficial”ofHuangDi,andassumesamoreimportantrolethanJuYong—the“RightOfficial”.113TheyareamongthelegendaryfoundersofChinesecivilization.DaoismusedtoappropriateancientmythologicalloreinordertomaintainitselfastheChineseautochthonousreligion.DaoismhasevenclaimeditsoriginalinspirationfromHuangDi.ThisthirdlegendarysovereignistakenastheinitiationofallmiraculousandfabulousnationaleventsandasourceoftheearlymythsofChina.BeingthelastmythicalcharacteratthedawnofthehistoricalperiodinChina,HuangDistandsforthecentralpointofdeparturefrommythologicalfancy.Inhimthereisasemblanceofhumanindividualityassociatedwithgreatachievements,whichbroughtaboutthebeginningofChinesecivilization.SinceHuangDihasbeenappropriatedandupheldastheprimordialfounderofDaoism,hecomestorepresentthestartingpointofDaoism.Assuch,theoriginofDaoismgoesfarbackbeyondLaozi老子(c.604—531B.C.)inpointoftimeandprestige.ThethirdhallisJinHuaDouMuDian金花痘母殿(theHallofJinHuaandDouMu),whichisdedicatedtotwoDaoistminordeities:JinHua金花—theGoddessofChildbearingandFecundity(left),andDouMu痘母—theGoddessofSmallpoxandChild-disease(right).Onthealtar,thetwoseatedgoldenstatuesareputsidebyside,andthestatueofJinHuaholdsachildonherlap.JinHua(literally,goldenflower)isaffectionatelycalledJinHuaNiangNiang113Thedescriptionoftheplacementofwingsandimagesintemplesisfromtheperspectiveonthealtar,ratherthanfromthespectator’sview.InChinesetradition,thelefthandsideistheplaceofimportance.Onthecontrary,inWesterntradition,therighthandsidesymbolizespower,honour,andstrength.Forinstance,theBiblestatesthatafterJesusChristwasraisedfromdeath,hewasseatedattherighthandofGod.HeisGod’srighthandman.SeeeditorialnotesinthePreface. 

  
  
 

141CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAO金花娘娘.114Folklorehasitthatshewasthespiritualrepresentationofalivingmaiden,JinHua.ShewasregionallypopularinGuangzhou廣州area(nearMacau).LikeTianHou’s“saintlycomposites”,shewasunmarried,becameashamaninherteenage,anddiedyoung.Itissaidshewasdrowninalake,andnearhercorpseafragrantwoodenstatuewasfound.ThestatuewasthentakenasJinHua’smanifestationandshewasveneratedbyvillagers.Anotheraccountrelatesthatanofficial’swifewasinlabourforafewdaysbutcouldnotdeliverababy.Whenshenearlydied,adivinitytoldherinadreamtoinviteJinHuaforassistance.WhenJinHuajustarrived,shesafelygavebirthtoason(Lin,1997:123).Givenherabilitytohelpchild-delivery,thisvirgindeitywaselevatedtoawomanlystatusasJinHuaFuren金花夫人(MadameGoldenFlower).Sheisreveredasgiverofchildrenandassumesadivineintercedingroleforgynaecologicalandchildbearingmatters.JinHuaisusuallyflankedbytwelvemidwives,sixoneachside(sometimestwenty,tenoneachside).Themidwivesareportrayedindifferentposturestakingcareofbabies,forexample,nursingababy;puttingababyonherlap;andplayingwithababyatherknees,etc.Thereare,however,twoposturesdepictedwithoutbabies:whileonemidwifeholdsamirrorandcombsherhair,theotherisengagedinsewing.WomenwhoaredesirousofbabieswouldpraytoJinHuaandusetheirhoursanddatesofbirth(asabaseforcalculation)tocountonthesetwelvemidwivesinordertoaugurwhethertheycanhaveoffspringornot.Ifthecountstopsatoneofthelasttwopostures,itmaysuggestamerechance.Itisbecausethesetwomidwivesaresimply“idling”withouttakingcareofbabies.115DouMu(literally,motherofsmallpox)isalsoknownasDouShen痘神orDouMuNiangNiang痘母娘娘.Legendrelatesthatshehadfoursons;allwerecontractedwithsmallpox.Shewasthengrantedwiththepowertoprotecthumankindagainstthisscourge.SheisbelievedtobeacontemporaryofJiangZiya姜子牙(hewillbediscussedinthefollowingsection)andisoneofthespecialistsappointedby114NiangNiangisafeminizingsuffixthatcarriesmaternalconnotations.Itisarespectfulexpressiontoamotherfigure.115AsasupplementtothescarcewrittensourceonJinHuaFuren,Iseekhelpfromaknowledgeableinformant,mymother. 

  
  
 

142TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESHuangDiinTianYiYuan天醫院(theCelestialMinistryofMedicine).Sheissometimesrepresentedwearingalargeshawltoprotectherfromcold(Werner,1932:512-3).Onthealtar,thereisababyonherlap,animagesimilartotheChristian“MadonnaandChild”inpaintingsandsculptures.Herroleisgenerallyextendedastheprotectressofallkindsofchilddiseases,suchaspolio,diphtheria,measles,tetanus,etc.Sheis,however,rarelyconsideredanimportantdeity.Theglamourandpopularityofthesupernaturalbeingsmaybetarnishedbytime,andaresusceptibletochanges.JinHuaandDouMucannotenjoytheirformerglorynow.Manydecadesago,womenwouldpraytoJinHuaformoreoffspring,anditwasacommonphenomenonforaChinesecoupletobearsixtotenchildren.Towardstheendofthetwentiethcentury,however,parentspreferredminimizingchildbearingeventhoughtherewasnostatepolicy(i.e.theone-family-one-childpolicylaunchedin1979inmainlandChina)togovernthebirthrateinMacau.DespitethefactthattheauraoftheGoddessofChildbearingandFecundityiseclipsed,sheisstillworshippedbywomenwhoseektosolvegynecologicalproblems,orbythosewhowishtohaveamaleheirforthecontinuityofthefamilytree.TheGoddessofSmallpoxandChild-diseasesharesthesamefate,asadvancedtechnologiesinmedicineandimprovedhygienehavealmoststrippedthedeity’sluster.Inparticular,smallpoxisnolongerthemostfataldiseasetochildren.Ineveryhall,thereisabronzebellandawoodendrum.InHinduism,thedrumindicatesthefirstsacredsound“Om”,hencethedrumalludestothebeginningoflife.InBuddhism,thebellsymbolizessound,andisintendedtocallheartstotheAwakening.Sincethesoundofthebellisgenerallyverybrief,thebellrepresentseverythingisofshortduration,andthatallisfleeting(Frédéric,1995:65).Thebellandthedrumusedtoberitualinstruments,buttheynowbecomemerelydecorativemotifs.ABricolageofPopularDeitiesLianFengMiaoenshrinesaplethoraofmythological,legendary,andfolkimmortals,aswellasdeifiedhistoricalcharacters.Someoftheirnamesarejustwrittenontablets,whilesomediminutiveimagesareplacedenmasseasadjunctsnearthe 

  
  
 

143CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOaltarsofdifferenthalls.Inspiteoftheirunimportantplacement,theyneverfailtoattractworshippers.ThesupernaturalbeingsenshrinedaremostlydrawnfromtheclassicalChinesetexts,i.e.FengshenYanyi《封神演義》(CreationoftheGods),116SanguoYanyi《三國演義》(ThreeKingdoms),117andXiyouJi《西遊記》(JourneytotheWest).118Thesefictionalworksprovideabundantinspirationsformyth-makingandforcreatingpopularcults.Wenowturntotracetheoriginsofthesedivinities.JiangZiya(1210—1120B.C.)isbetterknownasJiangTaigong姜太公,forhewasgivenanhonorifictitleTaiGongWang太公望in1129B.C.JiangZiyaisthepivotofChinesemythologyandoneofthemostfascinatingcharactersinFengshenYanyi.119Inthismythologicalnovel,JiangisappointedPrimeMinisterbythesageKingWu武王attheageof80.JiangassistsKingWutooverthrowthetyrannicalKingZhou紂王(1154—1121B.C.)oftheShang商dynasty(ca.1600—1100B.C.)andestablishtheZhou周dynasty(ca.1100—256B.C.).InthedenouementofFengshenYanyi,JiangZiyaisassignedtheInvestitureRostertoeuhemerizeatotalofthreehundredandsixty-fivegoodandevilspirits(correspondingtothedaysofayear)intotheDaoistpantheon.Thiscelestial,bureaucraticsystemconsistsofeightdepartmentsbeinginchargeofthemundaneworldaffairs.Heeliminatesthepolarityofgoodandevilandcreatesthemythicthemeofultimateharmonybetweenheaven,earthandman.JiangZiyaisdefactotheGodofChinesegods(Werner,1932:59).JiangZiyaisalsoworshippedastheGodofFishermen(Werner,1932:65),sinceheusedtoanglewithastraighthookandagrainofriceforbait,thussuggesting116FengshenYanyiisamixtureofmyths,legendarysourcesandhistoricalaccounts.OntheEnglishtranslation,seeGuZhizhong(trans.),CreationoftheGods(Beijing:NewWorldPress,1992).117SanguoYanyiwascompiledbyLuoGuanzhong羅貫中andfirstpublishedin1522.OntheEnglishtranslation,seeMossRoberts(trans.),ThreeKingdoms:AHistoricalNovel(Beijing:ForeignLanguagesPress,1994).118XiyouJibyWuChengen吳承恩wasfirstpublishedin1592.OntheEnglishtranslations,seeW.J.F.Jenner(trans.),JourneytotheWest(HongKong:CommercialPress,1994).119ThereisasupplementaryshortstoryextollingJiangZiya’svirtueasamagistrate.SeeGanBao干寶,SoushenJi《搜神記》,annotatedbyWangShaoying汪紹楹(Beijing:ZhonghuaShuju中華書局,1979),p.44. 

  
  
 

144TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESthathewouldachievesuccesswithstraightnessbutnotcrookedness.Hispicture,holdingaflagandasword,isoftenpastedonthewallsofhousessoastowardoffinauspiciousspirits.TaiSui太歲(theMinistryofTime,ortheGodoftheAnnualCycle)isactuallyastellargod,governingfortuneandmisfortuneofthepeopleonearth(Werner,1932:482-3).InFengshenYanyi,YinJiao殷郊,theeldersonofKingZhou,isdeifiedbyJiangZiyaasTaiSui,becauseheshowsbraveryinabattleagainstdemons.HisyoungerbrotherYinHong殷洪ismadeWuGuShen五穀神(theGodofFiveGrains)inchargeofagriculturalaffairs.CaiShen財神,orCaiBoXingJun財帛星君(theGodofWealth),isamuch-adoreddeity,whooftenholdsaningotashisattribute.AlmostnogodinChinesecultureismoreworshippedthanthegiverofwealth.Hispresenceisubiquitousandhisimageorportraitistobefoundinnearlyeveryhouseholdandtemple.JustlikemanyotherChinesegods,theproto-beingoftheGodofWealthhasbeenascribedtoseveralpersons(Werner,1932:515-7).TheoriginaloneisconsideredthedeifiedBiGan比干,whoistheuncleandPrimeMinisterofKingZhouinFengshenYanyi.ZhaoGongMing趙公明oftheThreeKingdomsperiodisanotherGodofWealth.InSanguoYanyi,heistheyoungerbrotherofthewarriorheroZhaoZilong趙子龍.Inaddition,LiuHai劉海,achubbychild,isalsoreveredasamoney-giver.Heoftencarrieswithamysticthree-leggedtoad,andhasastringofcoinshangingaroundhisneck.XuantianShangdi玄天上帝(theLordoftheBlackPavilionsofHeaven)ispopularlyknownasBeiDi北帝(theLordoftheNorth)andZhenjun真君(TrueMaster).HeisbelievedtohavebeenactiveinthetimeofKingZhou,andwasareincarnationofYuanshiTianzun元始天尊(theCelestialHonouredPrimogenitor).LegendhasitthatXuantianShangdiwasbornonarayoflight.Whenhewas15yearsold,helefthisparentsandwenttotheTaiHeMountain太和山inpursuitofmagicalcharms.Onanelevatedpeakofthismountain,hepractisedsomewonderfulexercisesforforty-twoyearsandacquiredtheabilitytofloatintheair(Werner,1932:177-8).Heisusuallyportrayedseatedonathrone,andathisfeetatortoiseandaserpentareplaced.Hisimageistypifiedbytheredface,bulgingeyes,andlongflowingblackbeards.Hisbirthdayiscelebratedonthethirddayofthirdlunarmonth. 

  
  
 

145CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOHuaTuo華陀(diedA.D.220)isthemostcelebratedmemberoftheChineseapotheosizedmedicalprofession.120InSoushenJi《搜神記》(InSearchoftheSupernatural),hishealingskillsareexaggeratedlydramatizedbypullingoutasnakeoutofasickgirl’sbody(Gan,1979:41).InSanguoYanyi,hecuresGuanGong’sarm,poisonedbyanarrow-wound,byopeningthefleshandscrapingthebone(Chapter75).HuaTuoistheChinesesurgeonspecialistparexcellence,andthepatrondeityofsurgeonsandphysicians(Werner,1932:180).PaoCheng包拯(999—1062),generallycalledPaoGong包公(LordPao),isanacclaimedscholarandpoliticalcriticofdocumentedhistory.IntheSongdynasty,hewasappointedMagistrateinthecapitalatpresent-dayKaifeng開封,Henan河南province.Inhislifetime,hewasdedicatedtopublicserviceandbecameknownasachampionofjustice.Hestoodoutasanhonest,sternanduprightofficial.Hewasrespectedforadministeringthelawwithoutpartiality.PaoChengistheembodimentofimpartiality,courage,severity,sympathy,sincerity,generosity,andgoodfaith.Hence,heisgiventhenicknamePaoQingTian包青天(Pao,theBlueSky),whichalludestohisuncorruptandhonourablecharacter.Hehaseventuallyassumedlegendaryandevenmythicproportions,andisveneratedastheGodofJustice.StoriesonMagistratePaobeingthecourtroomjudgearefavouritetopicsofstorytellers,chanteurs,andactors.121HuaguangTaiDi華光大帝(GreatRulerofGloryandLight)isoneoftheprincipaldisciplesofSakyamuni.ItissaidthathediedwithSakyamunibutistobedestinedtoreturnunderthenameofHuaguangBuddha華光佛.HeisoftenreferredtoastheSheliBuddha舍利佛(Padmaprabha).Asaguardiandeityoftemples,heisalsohonouredasoneofthepatronsofgoldsmithsandsilversmiths(Werner,1932:180).Xuanzang玄奘(A.D.602—664)isasaintlyBuddhistmonk.Heiscommonly120OtherfamousgodsofmedicinesorremediesareBianQue扁鵲(activeduringthefirstquarterofthe6thcenturyB.C.)andSunXimao孫思邈(diedA.D.682).121MostChineseprobablyknowofPaoCheng,notastheministerandpoliticalcriticofdocumentedhistory,butasthecourtroomjudgeofpopulardramaandfiction.OnJudgePaoplays,seeGeorgeA.Hayden,CrimeandPunishmentinMedievalChineseDrama(Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1978). 

  
  
 

146TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESknownasTangSanzang唐三藏(SanzangistheChineseexpressionofTripitaka,thatis,theTripartiteBuddhistCanons,orthethreebasketsofscripturesofBuddhism).DuringthereignofEmperorTaiZong太宗(A.D.627—650)oftheTangdynasty,hetravelledinA.D.629fromXian,ChinatoNalanda,India,wherehespent16years(A.D.629—645)studyingBuddhism.Onhisreturnfromthe“HolyLand”tothe“MiddleKingdom”,hebroughtbacksixhundredandfifty-sevensacredbooks,innumerableimagesandiconsinpreciousmetals,andonehundredandfiftyBuddhistrelics(Ghoseetal.,1998:5).HetranslatedvoluminousSanskritsutras(scriptures)intoChinese,andlaidthefoundationsofare-interpretedConfucianism.HehasbeenregardedasagreatBuddhistfashi法師(MasterofDharma).122HisadventurousaccounttoIndiawasfictitiouslynovelizedinXiyouJi.TheMonkeyKing,adivinecreatureinXiyouJi,isalsohonouredinthistemple.HuShi胡適hasmaintainedthattheprototypeoftheMonkeyKingismostprobablyderivedfromthemonkeychief—Hanuman,123asportrayedintheIndianepicRamayana(Hu,1961:370).TheMonkeyKing’sdharmanameisSunWukong孫悟空,andhisself-proclaimedgrandtitleisQitianDasheng齊天大聖(theGreatSageEquallingHeaven).124Hepossessestranscendentalpowersofseventy-twometamorphosesintohumanoranimalforms,andisfun-lovingandrebelliousenoughtoscoffatdivineauthorities.TogetherwithShaSeng沙僧(theRiverGenie)andZhuBajie豬八戒(thePigFairy),theMonkeyKingisassignedbytheBodhisattvaGuanYintoprotectXuanzangagainsttheeighty-oneordealsduringthewestwardmissionlookingforBuddhistscriptures.122InSanskrit,thetermdharmaisusedtoimply“thelawsofnature”or“thatwhichsustainstheuniverse”,orsimplymeans“law,ortruth”.InBuddhismandHinduism,dharmaformsthebasisforphilosophies,beliefsandpractices.Dharma(whencapitalized)isthewayofthehigherTruths,ortheteachingsoftheBuddha.123InRamayana,Hanumancanflyamongthecloudsandmakefantasticchangesinshapeandsize,andleapinoneboundfromIndiaacrosstheseatoCeylon(nowSriLanka).Hanumanisnotedforhisincrediblespeedandagility.Heisheldupasthesymboloffaithfulnessandastheidealofaperfectservant.124Onthediscussionofthebirth,naming,andsubmissionoftheMonkeyKing,seeChristinaMiuBingCheng,InSearchofFolkHumour:TheRebelliousCultofNezha(HongKong:GreatMountainCulture;Singapore:AsiapacBooks,2009),pp.102-20. 

  
  
 

147CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAOTheMonkeyKingisreveredforhisunchallengedmagicalpowersandabilitiesinavertingundesirablesituations,andinovercomingallkindsofhardshipinthejourneyofhumanlife.Thisanimaliandeityhasbeenappropriatedasaniconoclasticfighteragainsthypocrisyandpomposity.Whencomparedwiththemore“serious”high-rankingdeitieswhoareenshrinedinmagnificenttemples,theMonkeyKingisoftenplacedinhouseholdnichesandservesasanalternativeoutletforthecommonfolktoseekhelpfromthesupernaturalworld.AnAll-embracingTempleUnderPortugueseadministration,MacauwasunscathedinreligiousassaultswhichsweptthroughChinaduringthetraumaticCulturalRevolution(1966—1976).Theanti-traditionalistonslaughtonreligiousbeliefsincludedthedestructionorconversionoftemples,shrines,andancestralhalls.Asaresult,numeroushistoricalmonumentsandreligiousstructureswereferociouslysmashedanddestroyed.InMacau,alltheextanttempleshavesurvivedthedisasterandbecomevaluablerelicsandculturalheritage.QuitedifferentfromMacau’srenownedA-MaTemple,whichdisplaysamishmashofscatteredsmalltemplesandshrinesallovertheslopesofBarraHill(Cheng,1999a:106),LianFengMiaoconformstoanarchitecturalsymmetryofhallsandwingsintemplestructure.GodsandgoddessesenshrinedinLianFengMiaoareall-embracing.Ontheonehand,thetemplesuccinctlyillustratesthecomplexityofChinesereligiousculture,whichespousesmythology,legendarytradition,history,folklore,andideology.Ontheotherhand,thetempletransgressesreligiousboundaries,anditsspiritualdimensionliesbothforBuddhismandDaoism.ItisaBuddhist/DaoisttempleexemplifyingthesyncreticidiomsadvocatedbyLinZhaoensincetheMingdynasty.Thedynamicsofsyncretismhaseffectivelyreconcileddiversereligiouselements,andplaysanimportantpartoftheordinarypeople’sreligiouslife.LianFengMiaoexhibitsarichrepertoireofChinesemythsandreligioussymbols.AnthonyD.Smitharguesthatmythsandsymbolsarehardworkingculturalforcesthatinspireandsustaincollectiveexperiencesofasenseofdignity,solidarity,andidentityforhumanpopulations;hencethe“myth-symbol”complexisvitalinsocial 

  
  
 

148TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESandculturalprocesses(Smith,1986:13-4).BronislawMalinowskihasalsomaintainedthatmythdoesnotrootinignorance;itisneitheranidlerhapsodynoranaimlessoutpouringofvainimaginings,butanindispensableingredientofhumancivilization(Malinowski,1954:97-101).Hecontends,‘Thefunctionofmyth,briefly,istostrengthentraditionandendowitwithagreatervalueandprestigebytracingitbacktoahigher,better,moresupernaturalrealityofinitialevents’(Malinowski,1954:146).Themythic/religiousmemoriesarecrcuialforthecontinuingholdofnationalculture.Beingthesecondlegendaryemperor,ShenNongisclaimedtohavelivedinthethirdmillenniumB.C.andheldtobeoneofthefoundersofancientChina.HisenshrinementinLianFengMiaomayspeakforaperiodof“primordial”nobilityandpristinepurity.Moreover,thetempleuniquelytracesCangJieandJuYongbacktotheinitialChinesecivilizationastheywerecreditedtohaveinventedthe“birdfootprintswriting”duringthetimeofHuangDi,thethirdlegendaryemperor.LianFengMiaotellinglyreflectsanostalgiclongingfornationalmythsandsupernaturalrealityinthedistantpast.Indiscussingacollectionofmythologicalstories,ClaudeLévi-Strausspointsoutthatinsomesocietieshistoryhasreplacedmythology,whilehistoricalfactswereoftenusedandtransformedintomythologicaltellingofastory.Historiescanthenbeconceivedasnotatallseparatedfrombutasacontinuationofmythology(Lévi-Strauss,1978:34-43).InthehistoryofearlyChina,therewereprolificsourcematerialsaboutheroes,sages,fairies,anddevils.ThesemythologicalandhistoricalaccountsareacentralcomponentinthedevelopmentofpopularcultsinChina.Moreover,theclassicalChineseliteraryworksareinclinedtoconfoundwithrealhistory;andatthesametimehistorizemythology.Historicaleventsandmythical/legendarymaterialsareknittedtogether,fromwhichmyriadsofsupernaturalbeingsarecreated.Inthisway,classicaltextsandmythologicallorehelpshapingthereligiouslandscape;notleastserveasavehicleforDaoismtoclaimitsstatusastheChineseautochthonousreligion.SimilartotheGreco-Romanmyth-making,Daoismhascreatedadivinehierarchyforacomplicatedsystemofgodsandgoddesses.TheseDaoistdivinitiesnotonlyplayedtheroleofintermediariesbetweenmanandheaven,buttheyalsoconstitutedasystemofbureaucratichierarchyofthesupernaturalworld(whichwillbediscussedinChapter 

  
  
 

149CHAPTER4THEHARMONIZATIONOFBUDDHISMANDDAOISMINLIANFENGMIAO6).Inaddition,justliketheGreciannotionofeuhemerism,themultitudinousDaoistdivinitiesarealmosthistoricalpersonageswhohavebeenraisedtogodhood.125TheinterpretationofChinesemythsthereforecannotignoretraditionalaccountsofhistoricalpersonagesandevents.IncontrasttoConfucianism’shostilitytowardsthefantasiesandoccultismofmythology,BuddhismandDaoismgohandinhandwithpopularbeliefsandfolklore,andincorporatehistoricalandmythologicalcharactersintotheirpantheons.Theideaofbelongingexclusivelytooneparticularspiritualorganization,orreligion,isnotcommonamongthemajorityoftheChineseinMacau.Mostworshippersarepolytheistic.Buddhist/Daoistbelievers,andeventhosewithoutaclearideaofwhatreligiontheybelongto,wouldgototemplestosupplicateforblessingsfromcertaindeitiesaccordingtosituationalneedratherthanpermanentreligiousaffiliation.Whileearthlyvalues,suchaswealth,happiness,righteousness,longevity,andloyalty,areprojectedtoparticulardeities,economicprosperityandhealthcareareascribedwithspecializingpatrons.Thewholeassortmentofdeitiesthusoffersapotpourriofbeliefsandprovidespeoplefromdifferentsocialstratawithchancestoselectandadoptwhatbestsuitstheirfancy,ormeetstheirrequirementsinthemundanelife.Allinall,LianFengMiaoisthelocusproperfortheconfluenceofavarietyofreligiousbeliefs.125Thedeification,dependingontherecommendationoffolkpeople,takesplaceinChengHuangMiao城隍廟(theTempleoftheCityGod).ChengHuang城隍wasclaimedtobeofDaoistcreation,butthisdeitywasalreadymentionedintheZhou周dynasty(1100—256B.C.),longbeforeDaoismbecameareligion.SeeC.K.Yang,ReligioninChineseSociety:AStudyofContemporarySocialFunctionsofReligionandsomeoftheirHistoricalFactors(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1970),p.25. 

  
  
 

 

  
  
 

151CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWACHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWA126ThemythologicalrepertoiresofearlyChinesecultureandcivilizationarecontainedinanumberofclassicaltexts.Thesetextsareinvaluablesourcestounderstandthepowerofmythologicalnarratives,whichre-enactandconfoundwiththehistoryofChina,andwhichcruciallyfosterculturalcohesionandasenseofcollectiveidentity.Themythologicalnarratives,asAnneBirrellargues,aresacrednarratives,chieflybecause‘theyrelateactsofthedeitiesinadditiontootherepisodes,andtheyembodythemostdeeplyfeltspiritualvaluesofanation’(Birrell,2000:7).Thewere-snakebeing,Nuwa女媧,hasbeenaninfluentialdeitysinceantiquity,andplayedapivotalroleinChinesemythicalhistory.127SherepresentsChineseculture’scosmogony,128orcreationmyth.AttheedgeofsouthChina,MacauhasfollowedtheChinesereligiouspracticetohonourNuwa,whoiscommonlyandrespectfullyaddressedasNuwaNiangNiang女媧娘娘.MostancientChinesemythshadbeenpasseddownthroughoraltransmissionandwererecordedindisjointedandbrieffragments.Likewise,the“mythemes”126Thepaperwaspresentedinthe17thTriennialCongressoftheInternationalComparativeLiteratureAssociation,8-15August2004,inHongKong.Itwaspublishedunderthetitle“MatriarchyattheEdge:theMythicCultofNuwainMacao”,ReviewofCulture,InternationalEditionNo.13,January2005,pp.127-42.127Ahistoryforgedbythelogicofmythsisdefinedas“mythicalhistory”.SeeYaoXinzhong,“ChineseReligions”,inJeanHolm(ed.),MythandHistory(London:PinterPublishersLtd.,1994),p.174.128Theterm“cosmogony”isderivedfromtheGreekwordkosmos,meaningorder,genesis,andbirth. 

  
  
 

152TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESconstitutiveofthemythofNuwaarestrewnaroundvarioustextsofdifferenttimes.BitsandpiecesofNuwa’sportrayalastheprimevalcreatrixandsaviourofhumanlifearenarratedintime-honouredclassics,inwhichhermatriarchalimageasMotherGoddess(mushen母神)129isconsolidated.Astimegoesby,Nuwa’sdivinemonumentalitywassomewhattarnishedbyscribalprejudice.Sheisdepictedasacharming,yetwrathful,goddessinFengshenYanyi《封神演義》(CreationoftheGods),aMing-dynasty(1368—1644)mythologicalnarrative.IntheQingdynasty,CaoXueqin曹雪芹(ca.1717—1763)beginshisremarkableprosefiction,HonglouMeng《紅樓夢》(DreamoftheRedChamber),withadecisivereferencetoNuwaastherepairerofheaven.AmidanassortmentofdivinitiesinMacau,thismythicalbeingdoesnotofferthemorepopular“mainstream”servicesassociatedwiththesea.Instead,sherepresentsanotherlayerinthespiritworldbyproviding“subsidiary”divineassistance.GiventhatthecultofNuwastillretainsitshold,eventoday,thepertinentquestionsnoware:whyisNuwahonouredattheperipheryofsouthChina,andhowisthepolytheisticspiritexemplifiedinher“divineabode”?WhatisthesignificanceoftheNuwamythandherevolvingstatusinthesupernaturalhierarchy?Howdomythological/fictionaltextsconfoundwithrealhistory,andserveasameansformyth-making?AndwhatarethedifferencesandsimilaritiesbetweenthecreationmythsoftheEastandtheWest?ThediscussionoftheNuwamythemploysan“etiological”approachtotracingitsorigins,andcombinesthedisciplinesoftheclassics,history,literature,religion,art,folklore,anthropology,andpsychologyforbroaderexegeses.NuwaMiaoDaoismistheChineseautochthonousreligion.ItisinDaoismthatmostofthemythologicalcharactersofancientChinawereincorporated.ThemythicalgreatgoddessNuwahasbeenappropriatedasthesupremedeityintheDaoistdivinehierarchy.The129Theterm“MotherGoddess”denotesagreatgoddessassociatedwithmotherhood,fertility,andcreation.Sheisthegiverandsustaineroflife.SuchagoddessissometimesreferredtoasMotherEarth(orEarthMother),orMotherNature. 

  
  
 

153CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAcultofNuwaispopularincentral-northernprovincesinmainlandChina.InMacau,NuwaisalsopatronizedandconsecratedinNuwaMiao女媧廟(theTempleofNuwa)(Plate15).Plate15NuwaMiaoAsthegrandLianFengMiaoexemplifiesthespiritofpolytheismthroughreligiousinclusion,compromise,andsyncretism,thishumbletemplefollowssuitandhonourspopulardeitiesfromDaoism,Buddhismandfolkreligion.QuitedifferentfromthearchitecturalsymmetryofLianFengMiao,thelayoutofNuwaMiaoisasymmetrical,andbreakstheunityofforminChinesetemple-architecture.Thistinyandsimplestructureisbynomeansadecenttempleforsuchaprominentdivinity.NuwaMiaoislocatedatthejunctionoftwostreets—RuadasEstalagens草堆街andTravessadosAlgibebes高尾街.Itwasbuiltin1888anditsmainentranceoncefacedRuadeS.Paulo,whichledtotheimpressiveRuinsofStPaul’s.Givenitsexcellent 

  
  
 

154TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESlocationinthetowncentre,thetemple’scourtyardisalmostalwaysoccupiedbyvendorswhoaresellingfoodandclothes.Passers-bymayeasilymissthisuniquepieceofMacau’sheritage.JustasafiredestroyedtheChurchoftheMotherofGodin1835andleftthestructureastheRuinsofStPaul’s,afirebrokeoutinacloth-shopadjacenttotheTempleofNuwainthewinterof1914.Thefireburneddownitsmainhallandtherearhalltorubble.Onlythesidehallwasnarrowlyunscathed.Afterthedisaster,thedestroyedareaofthetemplewasnotre-built;rather,thegovernmentmadeuseofthelandtowidenRuadasEstalagens.Onlythesidehallwasrestoredandanewentranceadded.Thisisthetwo-storeystructure,inmellowyellowcolour,whichstandstoday.Thepresent“public”courtyardwasoriginallythesiteofthemainhall(Tang,1994:208).NuwaMiaowasmuchsmallerafterrenovation,buttheimageofLuZu呂祖(PatriarchLu)wasenshrined.InthewakeofenshriningLuZu,asubordinatenameofthetemple,LingYanGuan靈巖觀(theTempleoftheMagicalRock),wasaddedonthelinteljustabovetheentrance.PatriarchLuisanhonorificappellationgiventothehistoricalfigureLuDongbin呂洞賓(A.D.755—805).HeispopularlyknownasLuChunyang呂純陽(meaningthepureessenceofthemasculineforce).LegendclaimsthatLuZuattainedimmortalityattheageof50andwasdeifiedasoneoftheDaoistEightImmortals.130Itissaidthatheacquiredthemysteriesofalchemyandthemagicformulaoftheelixiroflife.Hegenerallycarriesaswordacrosshisback,andholdsaflywhiskashisattribute.Theflywhisksignifiesthatheisabletoflyatwillthroughtheairandtowalkontheclouds.131Heishonouredbyscholarsas130The“EightImmortals”arelegendarybeingsoftheDaoistsect.Theyrepresentallkindsofpeople—young,old,female,male,civil,military,poor,rich,afflicted,culturedandnoble.Onlythreeofthemwerehistoricalpersonages;theothersarementionedonlyinfablesorromances.Theyaresaidtohavelivedatvarioustimesandattainedimmortalitythroughtheirstudiesofnature’ssecrets.Havingbeendeified,theydwellinmountainsandhills;towhomnotemplesareconsecrated.SeeC.A.S.Williams,ChineseSymbolismandArtMotifs(Rutland:CharlesE.TuttleCo.,1988),p.151.131TheflywhiskrepresentsobediencetotheBuddhistlawandasymbolofthecompassionofAvalokites´varatowardsallbeings.However,ittransgressesreligiousboundariesandbecomesthetypicalaccessoryofLuZu. 

  
  
 

155CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAtheGodofInk-makersandconsideredoneoftheGodsofLiterature(Werner,1932:298,348).Folklorehasitthathehasaflyingphallus;henceheisalsoworshippedasafertilitydeity.BothLuZuandNuwaareassociatedwithfertility,andperhapsduetothissimilaritytheyarereveredinthesametemple.InMacau,therearecelebrationsonNuwa’sbirthday,whichfallsonthe15thdayofthethirdlunarmonth,andLuZu’sbirthdayiscelebratedonthe14thdayofthefourthlunarmonth.OnthewalltotheleftsideofNuwaMiao,fourbigChinesecharactersYuechengLungmu悅城龍母(YuechengDragonMother)areverticallywritten.ItisclearthatthetempleisalsodedicatedtotheDragonMotherofYuecheng.ThecultoftheDragonMotherisbelievedtohavebeguninYuecheng(present-dayDeqing德慶county,Guangdongprovince)aroundthefirstcenturyA.D.LegendmaintainsthatalivingmaidenwiththesurnameWan溫emergedasashamanintheQin秦dynasty(221—206B.C.)andwaslaterveneratedasadeityassociatedwiththeseaandfertility.Inthisway,Nuwahastoshareher“divineabode”withPatriarchLuandtheDragonMotherofYuecheng.OnthegroundfloorofNuwaMiao,thereisacirculararchfromwhereastaircaseleadstothefirstfloor(Plate16).TherearetwogoldenstatuesofNuwaenshrinedonthemainaltar.OnedepictsherastheRepairerofHeaven;andtheotherasMotherGoddess,thusindicatingherunsurpassedmatriarchalimportanceintheDaoistdivinehierarchy.Ontheleftoutsidethealtar,moreover,thereisarelativelybiggerstatueofNuwarepresentedinelaborateclassicalChinesedressandaheadgearresemblingthatofanempress(Plate17).ThemainaltaralsoprovidesspacesfortheDragonMotherofYuecheng,LuZu,GuanYin觀音(theBuddhistBodhisattvaofMercy),GuanGong關公(LordGuan),ZhongKui鍾馗(theSlayerofDevils),ZhengYin鄭隱andGeHong葛洪(bothareDaoistHealingImmortals).132Inaddition,scatteredaroundonthisfloorareseveralsmallaltarsdedicatedtotheBuddhistdeities:WeiTuo韋陀(theDefenderoftheBuddhistfaithandProtectorofmonasteries)andDizangWang地藏王(theBodhisattva132ZhengYin(?—A.D.302)andGeHong(A.D.284—363)arehistoricalcharactersoftheJin晉dynasty.Whiletheformerwasthemaster,thelatterwashisdisciple.Legendhasitthattheyattainedimmortalityafterpractisingalchemyandtheformulaoftheelixiroflife. 

  
  
 

156TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESofNetherRegions),aswellastheBuddhistictrinity:Past,PresentandFuture.133Themultitudinousdeitieshonouredinthetempleinclude:JiangZiya姜子牙(theGodofChinesegods),PaoGong包公(theGodofJustice),TianHou天后(theDaoistGoddessoftheSea),BeiDi北帝(alsoknownasXuantianShangdi玄天上帝,theLordoftheBlackPavilionofHeaven),CaiBoXingJun財帛星君(theGodofWealth),WenChang文昌(theGodofLiterature),JinHuaFuren金花夫人(thePlate16Thecirculararchonthegroundfloor133TheBuddhistictrinityareinfactthemanifestationsofLordBuddha.TheBuddhaofthePastisAmitabha.TheBuddhaofthePresentisthehistoricalBuddha,GautamaSiddhartha(ca.563—483B.C.),betterknownasSakyamuni.TheBuddhaoftheFutureisMaitreya. 

  
  
 

157CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAPatronessofChildbearingandFecundity),andTaiSui太歲(theGodoftheAnnualCycle).Inaddition,Nezha哪吒(achild-god),SunWukong孫悟空(theMonkeyKing),ZhuBajie豬八戒(thePigFairy),andatriadicgroup134ofFuLuShou福祿壽(Fortune,Affluence,andLongevity)arevenerated.ManydeitiesenshrinedinLianFengMiaoandNuwaMiaoaresimilar,butthehealingimmortalsaredifferent.TheformerhonoursYiLing醫靈(theSpiritofHealing),ShenNong神農(theGodofApothecaries),DouMu痘母(theGoddessofSmallpoxandChild-disease),andHuaTuo華陀(themostfamousChinesemedicalPlate17ThestatueofNuwa134Atriadicgroupisdifferentfromatrinitariangroup.Theformerconsistsofheterogeneouselementsandlackstheessentialhomogenouselementofatrinity(e.g.theGreekmythologicaltriadofZeus,Poseidon,Hades).Thelatterappearsinthreedistinctmanifestationsbutembodiesonespiritualpower(e.g.theChristianFather,Son,andtheHolyGhost—threepersonsinonesubstance). 

  
  
 

158TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESsurgeon).Thelatterhonoursthelesswell-knownhealersZhengYinandGeHong.Theenshrinementofthesehealingdeitiesmaypointtothemedicalneedforpeopletoseekprotectionagainstdiseases.EventhoughthereisasmalltemplededicatedtothemythicalNezhanearby(locatedatthewestwalloftheRuinsofStPaul’s),NuwaMiaoalsoenshrinesthisrebelliouschild-god,aswellashistoricalpersonageswhohavebeendeified.Witharichassortmentofgodsandgoddesses,thetempleoffersapotpourriofbeliefstomeetworshippers’variousquotidianrequirements.WhatisspecialofNuwaMiaoisthatitisconsecratedtotheChinesemythicalprimogenitrix,andtracesherbacktotheinitialcreationofthecosmosandtheChinesepeople.Moreover,thetemplehonoursherasthematriarchalMotherGoddess,withnomentionofherbeingtheconsortofFuxi伏羲,thefirstlegendarysovereign(hewillsoonbediscussed).NuwathusgoesfarbackbeyondthethreepatriarchallegendaryfoundersofancientChinainpointoftime(theothertwo—ShenNongandHuangDi—arediscussedinChapter4).Thefollowingsectionturnstoexaminethe“etiology”oftheNuwamythandherdivinemonumentality.Were-snakeNuwaandIncestuousMarriageInChinesemythology,NuwahasbeenlookeduponasMotherGoddessinmatriarchalsocietysinceantiquity.ShepersonifiesMotherEarthandMotherNature;andrepresentsthesourceofallhumanlife.Thereareavarietyof“mythemes”constitutiveoftheembodiedmeaningoftheNuwamyth.InShanhaiJing《山海經》(CollectionoftheMountainsandSeas),135aclassictextofatleast2,200yearsold,thenameNuwaisbrieflymentionedinChapter16“DahuangxiJing”〈大荒西經〉(ClassicoftheGreatWilderness:West),‘TherearetenspiritsevolvedfromNuwa’s135ShanhaiJing《山海經》waswrittenbydifferentpeoplefromtheperiodoftheWarringStates戰國tothebeginningoftheHan漢dynasty(from475to206B.C.).ItislargelyafabledgeographicalandculturalaccountofancientChina,aswellasacollectionofmythology.Itisabout31,000wordslong,anddescribesover550mountainsand300channels. 

  
  
 

159CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAintestines.TheybecamedeitiesanddwelledontheoutskirtsofLiguang’「有神十人，名曰女媧之腸，化為神，處栗廣之野」.Therearenoteselucidating,‘Nuwawasanancientfemaledivinityandsovereign.Shehadahumanfaceandasnakebody.Shecouldmakeseventychangesinaday’「女媧古神女而帝者，人面蛇身，一日中七十變」(ShanhaiJing,1986:224).Inanotherroughlycontemporaneousclassictext,ChuCi.TianWen《楚辭‧天問》(ElegiesofChu-HeavenlyQuestions),thenameNuwaalsoappears.QuYuan屈原(ca.343—277B.C.),ascholaroftheWarringStatesperiod,askedhermeneutically,‘Nuwahasabody,whohasmadeherabody?’「女媧有體，孰制匠之？」(Qu,1998:93).QuYuanponderedwhotheultimatesupernaturalthathadfatheredNuwawas.LegendrelatesthatNuwa’sfatherwasShuiJingzi水精子,theSpiritofWater.NuwabelongedtoatribeinnorthernChina,andhersurnamewasYing嬴,meaning“snail”.Shewasformedlikeahumanbeingexceptthat,insteadofhavinglegs,shehadatailandglidedovertheearth.Shehadalongheadwithtwofleshyhorns,herbodyresemblingthatofasnail(wa蝸),henceshewascalledNuwa,meaning“snail-maid”,andreveredasasnailgoddess(woniushen蝸牛神)(Werner,1932:334;Wang,1987:400).Invisualarts,Nuwahaslongbeenportrayedwiththeheadofahumanandthebodyofasnake,andiscommonlyconsideredawere-snakedeity.Thesnake-likeNuwareadilybringstomindCoatlicue,theAztecGoddessoftheEarth;andMotherofGodsandhumankind.Coatlicueisoftenshownwearinghercharacteristicskirtofwrithingsnakes.AccordingtoJamesHall,thesnakeisaphallicsymbolassociatedwiththeearthgoddessinthefertilityritesofprimitiveman,andistheattributeofEarthpersonified(Hall,1995:285).Thetwomothergoddessesfromdifferentculturesareinseparablylinkedwiththesnake.ItissaidthatNuwawasbornthreemonthsafterherbrotherFuxi.However,inYuchuanziShiji《玉川子詩集》(CollectionofPoemsbyYuchuanzi),compiledbyLuTong盧仝(died835)duringtheTangdynasty,itrecounts,‘NuwawasactuallyFuxi’swife,butlegendgenerallygoesthatshewashissister’「女媧本是伏羲婦，風俗通曰女媧伏羲妹」(Lu,1995:133).AfragmenttellingoftheincestuousmarriagebetweenNuwaandFuxicanbefoundinDuyiZhi《獨異志》(AccountofUniqueHappenings),compiledbyLiRong 

  
  
 

160TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES李冗(9thcentury):昔宇宙初開之時，只有女媧兄妹二人在崑崙山，而天下未有人民。議以為夫妻，又自羞恥。兄即與其妹上崑崙山，咒曰：天若遣我兄妹二人為夫妻而煙悉合，若不使煙散。於煙即合，其妹即來，就兄乃給草為扇，以障其面。今時人取婦執扇象其事也。(Li,1995:464)136Inancienttimes,whentheworldjusttookshape,therewereonlyNuwaandherbrotherontheKunlunMountain,butnootherhumanbeings.Theyhadinmindtogetmarriedbutwereashamedofdoingso.TheythenwenttotheKunlunMountainandthebrotherprayed,‘IfHeavenapprovesustobehusbandandwife,pleaseletthehazegatherbeforeus.Ifnot,letthehazedisperse.’Asthehazegatheredaround,thesistercameclose.Sheaskedherbrothertomakeafanoutofthestrawandhideherface.Nowadays,thebridehasfollowedthistraditionandholdsafantohideherface.Inthisfragmentarynarrative,NuwaandFuxiarecollagedassisterandbrother;andtheybecamethefirstdivinemarriedcouple.ButthenameofNuwa’sbrother,Fuxi,istotallyabsent;heisonlyreferredtoas“brother”.ItcouldbesuggestingthatFuxiwasinferiortoNuwainmatriarchalsocietyinancienttimes.Fuxi(2953—2838B.C.),alegendarycharacteroftheHuntingAge,isthefirstsovereignofearlyChinaandcreditedwithmanyculturalinventions.TogetherwithShenNong(literally,divinefarmer)andHuangDi(literally,yellowemperor),theyareknownasSanHuang三皇(theThreeEmperors).FuxiisveneratedastheGodofHunting,ShenNongastheGodofAgriculture(apartfromhisdivineroleastheGodofApothecariesasdiscussedinChapter4),andHuangDiastheGodofArchitecture.TheyhavebeenarrangedinsuchawaysoastoexplainthedevelopmentofearlyChinesecivilization(MacCulloch,1964:27-32).ThisancestraltriadmayrightlybeginanaccountoftheprimordialmythsofChina.136Punctuationsareaddedforeasyreading. 

  
  
 

161CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAInastudyofclassicChinesemyths,WangXuanisoftheopinionthatFuxiwasfromanearlynomadictribewhosettledincentralChina.HissurnamewasFeng風,meaning“wind”,andthetribaltattoowasalargedragon(Wang,1987:398-9).TheliteralmeaningofthenameFuxiindicatesthathehadaprostrateandcurvybody,likethatofasnake.Obviously,bothNuwaandFuxihadserpentinebodies,andperhapsbecauseoftheirphysicalresemblance,solegendgoesthatNuwawasthesisterandwifeofFuxi.Thetabooofsiblingincestuousmarriagecannotfailtorecallsimilarstoriesontheotherpartoftheworld.InearlyPersianmythology,Yima,thesolardeityandgodoffertility,marriedhissister(Leeming,1994:225).IntheBible,AdamandEve’soffspring,whomChristiansbelieve,procreatedthewholehumanrace.Incest,beingaviolationofexogamy,wasamongthetaboosoftribalsocieties,andremainsamajorcrimeinpresent-daycommunities.AccordingtoMichaelGrant,however,outoffiftyrepresentativemythologiesoftheworldnolessthanthirty-nineincludeincestamongtheirsubjectmatter(Grant,1963:230).InlinewithGrant’sobservation,CarlJunghasmaintained:Whenever[the]driveforwholenessappears,itbeginsbydisguisingitselfunderthesymbolismofincest,for,unlessheseeksitinhimself,aman’snearestfemininecounterpartistobefoundinhismother,sister,ordaughter.(Jung,1966:471)ForJung,incestinitselfsymbolizesthelongingforunionwiththeessenceofone’sownself,or,inotherwords,forindividuation.Thishypothesismayexplainwhythegodsofantiquityveryfrequentlyengenderedoffspringthroughincestuousrelations.TheepicofNuwa/Fuxirelationshipthussharesthethemeofincestwithotherancientmythologiesoftheworld.Regardlessoftheirownsiblingincestuousmarriage,NuwacalledforthFuxi’sattentiontotheneedofprohibitingmarriagebetweenmembersofthesamefamilyandbetweenpeoplewiththesamesurname.Fuxiinstitutedthelawsofmarriage,providingfirstforbetrothalthroughgo-betweens;makingrulesforpresentsandceremony;andforbiddingpre-maritalrelations.Withthesenewinstitutions,Fuxi 

  
  
 

162TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESbestoweduponNuwathetitleGoddessofGo-betweens(Werner,1932:334).BothNuwaandFuxiarecommonlyveneratedastheGodandGoddessofMarriage.NuwaandFuxiareoftenrepresentedaspartlyhumanandpartlysupernatural;thelowerpartsoftheirbodiesareshownintheformofentwinedserpents’tails.Thisrepresentationsymbolizesmating.InthetombsoftheHandynasty(206B.C.—A.D.220),therearearchaeologicalfindingsshowingNuwaandFuxiwithhumanheadsandinterlacingsnaketails,suchastheimagebelow(Plate18).Thepenchantforthesnake-likeportrayalisreadilyreminiscentofthecultoftheNaga(inSanskrit,Nagaisamalesnakeorserpent,andNaginiafemale).InTheravadaBuddhism137practisedinSoutheastAsia,thesnakeisalmostasaintlymotif.Plate18AnEasternHandynastystonecarving(unearthedinBiXian郫縣,inSichuanprovince).ImagereproducedfromZhangDaoyi張道一,HanHuaGuShi《漢畫故事》(Chongqing:ChongqingDaxueChubanshe重慶大學出版社,2006),p.165.137Theravada(literally,theDoctrine/TeachingoftheElders)istheschoolofBuddhismfoundedinIndia.ItisrelativelyconservativeandscholarsgenerallyagreethatTheravadacontainstheearliestsurvivingrecordoftheBuddha’steachings.Formanycenturies,TheravadaBuddhismhasbeenthepredominantreligionofSoutheastAsiancountries,namely,Thailand,Burma(Myanmar),Cambodia,Vietnam,Laos,andSriLanka,etc. 

  
  
 

163CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAInBuddhistbelief,whentheSakyamuniBuddhawasinthesixthweekofmeditationafterhisspiritualEnlightenment(orAwakening),theskydarkenedandtorrentialrainspoureddown.Mucilinda(variantspellings:Mucalinda,Muchalinda),themightyKingoftheNagas(theSerpentKing),camefrombeneaththeearthandshelteredhimfromheavyrainstormsthatlastedforsevendays.Mucilindasurroundedhimwiththecoilsofhisserpentinebodyandoutspreadhissevenheadstoformaprotectivehood,likeanumbrella.ThisnotableepisodeisafavouritesubjectmatterinBuddhistarts.Likewise,theNagacultispopularinChina,andthesnakeisworshippedasaformofdivinespirit.Thesnakecomestorepresentimmortalitybecauseofitsabilitytosheditsoldskinandemergerenewed,regeneratedandreborn.Inworldmythology,thesnakecontrolsthesourcesofwaterandishenceaformofwatergod.Itisveneratedamongthefertilitygodsinthehopeofassuringasuccessfulgrowingseasonforcrops(Rosenberg,1999:330).Apartfromembodyingknowledge,wisdom,138andthepowertoheal,thesnakeisregardedasabenevolent“genieoftheground”andafriendofhumanbeings(Frédéric,1995:91,277).InMesoamericancivilization,thesnakeisperhapsthemostenduringicon.TheMayasreveredthemythicalplumed-serpent(orfeathered-snake)god,Kukulcan,knowntothelaterToltecsandAztecsasQuetzalcoatl.Especially,theimageofasnake,togetherwithaneagleperchingonacactus,isrepresentedonthepresent-dayMexicanflag,thusshowingthepositiveiconographyofthesnake.Bycontrast,thesnakeisademonicrepresentationinChristianculture.IntheBible,thesnakeisthecraftiestofallGod’screatures,andisthechiefagentinthesceneoftheTemptation(Genesis3:1-7).ItisbelievedthatthesnakepersuadedEvetoeatthefruitof“thetreeoftheknowledgeofgoodandevil”.EveatetheforbiddenfruitandgavesometoAdamwhoateittoo.Hence,thesnakewascondemned,‘….thegreatdragonwascastout,thatoldserpent,calltheDevil,andSatanwhichdeceiveththewholeworld….’(Revelation12:9).Inthiscontext,thewordsdragon,serpent,Devil,andSatanareinterchangeableinChristianculture;andthesesemanticentanglementsvirtuallyblurtheexactdistinctionsamongthesewords.Afterall,the138ThesnakeistheattributeofMinerva,theGreekGoddessofWisdom. 

  
  
 

164TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESsnakeisasymbolofevilandabiblicalsynonymforSatan.Theiconographicmeaningofthesnakevividlyreflectsirreconcilableinterpretationsindifferenttraditions,andthesameanimalindiverseculturalcontextsisendowedwithcontrastedsemiotics.DivineCosmicGiantPanGuAcreationmythisacosmogony;anarrativethatdescribestheoriginalorderingoftheuniverseandrevealsthegreatstruggletosurviveinchaos.Almostallcultureshavecosmogonicmyths,ashumanbeingsarepreoccupiedwiththeiroriginsandthoseoftheworldinwhichtheylive.InChinesemythicalhistory,thereweretwoauthoritativeversionsofcreation,139namely,themythsofPanGu盤古(literally,coiledantiquity)andofNuwa.WhilePanGuwasworshippedaszushen祖神(AncestorGod)amongsomeethnicminoritiesinthesouthwesternpartofChina,Nuwawasreveredasmushen母神(MotherGoddess)inthenorthernregions,mainlybytheHanChinese(Wang,1987:583-4).Eventoday,thecultofNuwaenjoyshugepopularityincentral-northernprovinces,suchasHenan河南,Hebei河北andShaanxi陝西(Yang,1997:144-62).TheChinesecreationmythholdsthatPanGuwasadivinecosmicgiant(Wang,1987:485-527).For18,000yearshecreatedorderoutofahugeeggcontainingchaosbyseparatingtheskyandtheearth.Everydayhegrewtenfeettallerandwentthroughninechanges.Another18,000yearspassed,PanGubecameextremelytall.Whenhewasdying,heunderwentbodilytransformationtogiveshapeandsubstancetotheuniverse.Hislefteyebecamethesunandrighteyethemoon;hisarmsandlegsthefourpolesoftheearth;andthefivepartsofhisbodythefivemountains.Hisbloodformedtherivers;hishairandmoustachethestars.Theparasites(ormites)onhisbody,impregnatedbythewind,hadbeengeneratedbyhisbreath,turnedintomenandwomen(Ding,1988:3-5;Leeming,1994:49-50).ThePanGucreationmyth,whichrepresentsthecosmologicalhumanbody,is139ThereisalesspopularcreationmythofYin陰andYang陽,whoaretwosupernaturalsthatemergedoutofchaosandrepresentedcomplementaryessencesintheuniverse.ThismythfirstappearsinHuaiNanZi《淮南子》(MasterHuaiNan),compiledbyLiuAn劉安in139B.C. 

  
  
 

165CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAstunninglysimilartothatofotherancientmythologies.Forinstance,inthemythologyofnorthernEurope,thesea,theearthandtheskywerecreatedfrompartsoftheScandinavianprimevalgiantYmir’sbodyafterhewasslainbyOdin,theScandinaviangodofwar(Shapiro,1979:214).InVedictradition,the“PrimalMan”Purusha(alternativespelling:Purusa)wasacosmicgiantwhocreatedtheuniverse.Hisheadbecamethesky,hisfeettheearth,hisnaveltheair,andhislimbsproducedmortals(CoulterandTurner,2000:392).TheresemblanceofthePanGumythtothesecreationmythsrevealssomesortofintertextualityandsuggeststhatitwasprobablyIndo-Europeaninorigin.ItmighthavebeencollectedfromCentralAsiansources,duetoincreasedcross-culturalcontactsamongpeoplefromsouthwesternChinaandCentralAsiainthethirdcenturyA.D.140CreatrixoftheCosmosandHumanBeingsUnlikethesomewhatunappealingmale-dominatedmythofPanGu,thefemale-dominatedcreationstoryofNuwa141clearlyindicatesthathumanbeingsarenotonalevelwithparasites.AfragmentoftheNuwamythbrieflyappearsinShuowenJiezi《說文解字》(TalkingaboutTextandExplainingWords),anEastern-Handynasty(A.D.25—220)text,compiledbyXuShen許慎(diedca.A.D.120).ItstatesthatNuwawas‘adivineholymaideninantiquity,whocreatedandimpregnatedeverything’「古之神聖女，化萬物者也」(Xu,1997:623).Thesetenwordsneatlyencapsulatetheideathatthecosmoswasestablishedandalllivingthingstookshapethrough140TwopiecesofthePanGumythwereoriginallycompiledbyXuZheng徐整,wholivedinsouthwesternChinaaroundA.D.222—280.TheywerecollectedinSanWuLiJi《三五曆記》(HistoricalRecordsoftheThreeSovereignDivinitiesandtheFiveGods)andWuYunLinienJi《五運歷年紀》(AChronicleoftheFiveCyclesofTime).141AlthoughWangXuanmaintainsthatthemythofNuwaprecededthatofPanGu,DonnaRosenbergarguesthatbythetimeofthecreationstoryofNuwaemerged,themythofPanGualreadyexisted,atleastinanoralform.SeeWangXuan王璇(WangXiaolian王孝廉),ZhongguodeShenhuaShijie《中國的神話世界》(Taibei:ShibaoChubanGongsi時報出版公司,1987),pp.486,677.SeealsoDonnaRosenberg,WorldMythology:AnAnthologyoftheGreatMythsandEpics(ThirdEdition)(Illinois:NTCPublishingGroup,1999),p.324. 

  
  
 

166TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESNuwa’screation.142Sheisthematriarchalprimogenitrixparexcellence.InFengsuTongyi《風俗通義》(ComprehensiveInterpretationofCustoms),anotherEastern-Handynastytext,compiledbyYingShao應劭(ca.A.D.140—206),thereisacomparativelymoredetaileddescription,whichrecountsthatNuwacreatedhumanbeingssoastoenrichandbeautifytheworld.Sheisspecificallyportrayedasdimu地母(EarthMother),ortheCreatrixofhumankind:俗說天地開闢，未有人民，女媧摶黃土為人，劇務，力不暇供，乃引繩絚泥中，舉以為人。故富貴者黃土人也，貧賤凡庸者絚人也。(Ying,1980:449)Legendhasitthatattheverybeginningwhentheskyandearthfirsttookshape,therewerenohumanbeings.Nuwapattedandmodelledyellowclayinordertocreatehumanbeings.Thetaskwasverytediousandherstrengthcouldnottoleratetheburden.Soshepulledaropethroughthemud,lifteditupandeachdropofclaythatfelloffbecameahumanbeing.Therefore,therichandthenoblewerethosemadeofyellowclay,whereasthepoorandtheordinarywerethosemadeofpullingtheropethroughthemud.Thisfragmentexplainsnotonlytheprimevalcreationofhumankind;itisalsoriddledwithotherconnotations.First,ittellsoftheoriginofsocialhierarchy.Theyellowclayhumansbecametherulingclassofrichandnoblepeople,whilethemudproducedtheunderclassofpoorandservilepeople.Second,ittacitlyembracestheChineseconceptofpredeterminism,thatis,thefateofhumanbeingswaspredestinedfromthemomenttheywerecreated.Inthe142ThecultofNuwaenjoyedpopularityincentralChinaduringtheHandynasty.Apartfromtheclassicalliterarysources,therearealsoabundantfragmentaryepisodesderivedlaterinpopularcultureandfolkloreamongsomeethnicgroupsindifferentpartsofChina.Despitevariantdegreesofstorytelling,theuniformityofherrolesisemphasized.SeeYangLihui楊利慧,NuwadeShenhuayuXinyang《女媧的神話與信仰》(TheCultofNuwa:MythsandBeliefsinChina)(Beijing:ZhongguoShehuiKexueChubanshe中國社會科學出版社,1997). 

  
  
 

167CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAChristiancreationmyth,however,thefirstmanandwoman,AdamandEve,betrayedGodbyeatingtheforbiddenfruit,andwereexpelledfromtheGardenofEden.Theepisodeperhapssuggeststhebiblicalfirstcouple’suncompromisingchallengetopredestinedfate.Third,thereferencetotheyellowclayonthebankoftheYellowRiveriscentraltotheChinesecreationmyth.TheYellowRiver,onwhichlifeandculturehavedepended,wasthecradleofChinesecivilization.ThemythicalstoryofNuwabringstomindRolandBarthes’words,‘Mythhasthetaskofgivingahistoricalintentionanaturaljustification,andmakingcontingencyappeareternal’(Barthes,1983:130-1).TheassociationoftheNuwamythwiththeYellowRiverthusenhancesthenationalisticspirit(inamodernsense)oftheChinese;andstrengthenscollectivesolidarity.Creationstoriesinvolvingtheideathatthefirstmanwasformedfromdust,soilorclay,arefoundinotherreligions,notablyBabylonian.Likewise,Ovid(43B.C.—A.D.17or18),retellsaGreekmythandnarratestheTitanPrometheusfashioningthefirstfigureofamanfromclayintheimageofthegodsinMetamorphoses(1:76-88):Thenmanwasmade,perhapsfromseeddivineFormedbythegreatCreator,sotofoundAbetterworld,perhapsthenew-madeearth,Solatelypartedfromtheetherealheavens,Keptstillsomeessenceofthekindredsky—EarththatPrometheusmoulded,mixedwithwater,Inlikenessofthegodsthatgoverntheworld—AndwhiletheothercreaturesonallfoursLookdownwards,manwasmadetoholdhisheadErectinmajestyandseethesky,Andraisehiseyestothebrightstarsabove.Thusearth,oncecrudeandfeatureless,nowchangedPutontheunknownformofhumankind.(Ovid,1987:3)Inthesamevein,theBiblerelates,‘TheLordGodtooksomesoilfromtheground 

  
  
 

168TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESandformedamanoutofit;hebreathedlife-givingbreathintohisnostrilsandthemanbegantolive’(Genesis2:7).Apartfromthesimilaritythatmanismadefromclay,theChinesecreationmythappearstoembodydifferentelementsfromthatoftheChristiancreationmyth.IntheBible:Godcreatedhumanbeings,makingthemtobelikehimself.Hecreatedthemmaleandfemale,blessedthemandsaid,“Havemanychildren,sothatyourdescendantswillliveallovertheearthandbringitundertheircontrol”.(Genesis1:27-28)InChristianity,therewasonlyonesinglecreator,butinChinesemythologythereweretwocosmiccreators—PanGuandNuwa.TheChristiancreationmythconformstothepatriarchalideaofGodtheFather,whereastheChinesecreationmythespousesthematriarchalconceptofMotherGoddess,inadditiontothedivinecosmicgiant.WhiletheChristiangodcreatedonlyamanandawoman,Nuwacreatedhumanbeingsingroups—noblesandcommoners.ContrarytotheGreekGodandtheChristianGodwhomademanintheirimages,Nuwadidnotcreatehumanityinherlikeness.UnlikeAdamandEve’sdisgracefulFall,whichpredestinedtheirdescendentstoaconditionoforiginalsin,thepeoplemadebyNuwadidnotfallfromhergraceandwerenotpunished.Mostspecially,NuwacreatedonlytheChinesepeople,buttheGreekandtheChristiancreationmythsseemedtoapplytoallhumanity.IntheBible,Evewasthemotherofallhumanbeings(Genesis3:20),butitwasshewhobroughtforththeFallofhumankind.Quiteinadifferentvein,NuwawasMotherGoddessandtheGuardianGoddessoftheChinesepeople,andagreatmatriarchintheepicsofChineseculture.RepairerofHeavenandPreserverofHumanLifeChinesemythicalhistoryholdsthatinantiquitytheskyandtheearthwereinutterchaos.Thereweretorrentialrainsandinfernalfires,andhumanbeingswereingreatdanger.Nuwathencametotherescue.Shetamedtheunbridlednature,restored 

  
  
 

169CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAthecosmicorder,andeffectedstabilityonearth.ThisepisodecanbetracedinHuaiNanZi《淮南子》(MasterHuaiNan),aWestern-Handynastytext,compiledbyLiuAn劉安(ca.170—122B.C.)in139B.C.:往古之時，四極廢，九州裂，天不兼覆，地不周載，火爁焱而不滅，水浩洋而不息，猛獸食顓民，鷙鳥攫老弱，於是女媧鍊五色石以補蒼天，斷鰲足以立四極，殺黑龍以濟冀州，積蘆灰以止淫水。(Liu,1926:39)Inantiquity,thefourextremities(thefourcornersoftheearth)wereindecline,theninecontinentswerecracked,theskydidnotcovertheentireearthandtheearthdidnotfullysupportthesky,thefireswereablazebutnotextinguished,thewaterswerefloodingwidelybutnotstopped,fiercebeastsatethepeople,preyingbirdsseizedtheoldandtheweak.Nuwathereforemeltedstonesoffivecolourstorepairtheazuresky,cutthecelestialtortoise’sfeettosetuprightthefourextremities,slaughteredtheblackdragontorescuethepeopleinJiprovince,gatheredashestofillupthefloodingwaters,andrescuedtheland.ThenarrativeundoubtedlyconsolidatesNuwa’sroleastherepairerofheavenandpreserverofhumanlife.Meanwhile,afterherbrother/husband’sdeath,NuwareignedassovereignofthekingdomunderthetitleNuHuang女皇(Empress).Towardstheendofherreign,however,GongGong共工becamearebelandfoughtwithZhuanXu顓頊tobecomeking.143DemonicandambitiousasGongGongwas,heviolentlyshooktheBuzhouMountain不周山(literally,imperfectmountain)andseizedoneofthenineheavenlycolumnsandbrokeit,thuscausinganenormousblackholeinthecelestialvault,fromwhererelentlessrainspoureddownandtheearthwasflooded.143GongGongwasaprimevalmythicalwatergod;havingahumanface,thebodyofasnake,andredhair.Herodeontwodragons.ZhuanXuwasatribalchiefinantiquity. 

  
  
 

170TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESAftercommittingthecrime,GongGongfledbutwascaughtandkilledbyNuwa.Inordertosavehumankindfromdestruction,Nuwabuiltascaffoldtosupportthesky.ConsiderthisexcerptfromLieZi《列子》(MasterLie),aDaoistclassic,compiledbyLieYukou列禦寇duringtheWarringStatesPeriod(475—221B.C.):144昔者女媧氏練五色石以補其闕；斷鰲之足以立四極。其後共工氏與顓頊爭為帝，怒而觸不周之山，折天柱，絕地維；故天傾西北，日月辰星就焉；地不滿東南，故百川水潦歸焉。(Lie,1987:115)Informertimes,Nuwameltedfive-colouredstonestorepairtheholeofthesky;andcutoffthefeetofthecelestialtortoisetosetuprightthefourextremitiesoftheearth.LaterGongGongandZhuanXufoughttobecomeking.GongGongwrathfullyshooktheBuzhouMountain,brokethepillarinthesky,andtorethestringsthattiedtheearth;sotheskyleanedtowardsnorthwest,wherethesun,themoonandthestarspositioned;thewatercouldnotflowtothesoutheasternpartoftheearth,thereforeallstagnantwatersflooded.Theepisodeplainlysuggeststhatthecosmicorderwasdisruptedbymaleviolence,andthatdisorderwasrestoredbyfemalebenevolence.Hence,Nuwa’smatriarchalimportanceisemphasized.TheabovetwofragmentselucidatethatNuwawasthearchetypalsaviourfigureinthecatastrophemyth.Moreover,theysimultaneouslynarratethatprehistoricChinasufferedfromseverefloods.Thechaosofthedelugeformspartofmanycreationmyths.Thoughdestructive,waterisalsothesourcefornewbirth,andrepresentsthedesire144LieZiwashighlyfavouredbyEmperorXuanSong玄宗oftheTangdynasty,whoincludedthistextintheimperialexaminationinA.D.742.However,itsoonbecamecontroversialwhetherornotitwasanauthentictextbyLieYukou.SinceitembodiedphilosophicalthoughtstypicalofWei魏(A.D.220—265)andJin晉(A.D.265—316)periods,somearguethatitcouldwellhavebeenwrittenbetweenthethirdandfourthcenturyA.D.SeeLieYukou,LieZi《列子》,annotatedbyYanJie嚴捷andYanBeiming嚴北溟,LieZiYiZhu《列子譯注》(AnnotationsonLieZi)(HongKong:ZhonghuaShuju中華書局,1987). 

  
  
 

171CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAforanewbeginning.Accountsofagreatfloodappearcommonfeaturesinthemythologyandfolk-historyofpeoplesthroughouttheworld.ThefloodstorybringstomindtheGreekmythofPrometheus’son,Deucalion,whoescapedthefloodbybuildinganarkinwhichhefloatedforninedayswithhiswifePyrrha(Metamorphoses1:348-415).Similarly,Noahbuiltanarktoescapethedeluge,whichlastedforonehundredandfiftydays(Genesis7,8:1-19).Moreover,intheabovetwopassagesNuwa’sroleasthedivinesmithwasunderlined,sinceshemeltedthecosmicfive-colouredstonesandrestoredthesky.Onemaywonderhowmanymagicstoneswererequiredtorepairthesky;andhowbigtheywere.InHonglouMeng《紅樓夢》(DreamoftheRedChamber),145theauthorCaoXueqin曹雪芹(1717—1763)appropriatedtheNuwamythandprovidedanimaginarymathematicalhermeneuticsattheverybeginningofthenovel:卻說那女媧皇煉石補天之時，於大荒山無稽崖煉成高十二丈，見方二十四丈大的頑石三萬六千五百零一塊；那媧皇只用了三萬六千五百塊，單單剩下一塊未用，棄在青埂峰下。(Cao,2001:1)Longago,whenthegoddessNuwawasrepairingthesky,shemelteddownagreatquantityofrockand,ontheIncredibleCragsoftheGreatFableMountains,mouldedtheamalgamintothreehundredandsixthousand,fivehundredandonelargebuildingblocks,eachmeasuringseventy-twofeetbyahundredandforty-fourfeetsquare.Sheusedthreehundredandsixthousandfivehundredoftheseblocksinthecourseofherbuildingoperations,leavingasingleoddblockunused,whichlay,allonitsown,atthefootofGreensicknessPeakintheaforementionedmountains.(Hawkes,trans.1973:47)Inthisexcerpt,thecultofNuwaandthecultofthestonearecloselyinterwoven.145ThefirstprintededitionofHonglouMengwasinJanuary1792. 

  
  
 

172TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESThenarrativenotonlypinpointsthesizeandnumberofstonesNuwaused,146italsoreflectstheChinesepassionforstone(andmetonymicallyforjade).Thestonehaslongbeenregardedaspossessingsupernaturalpower,eveninananiconicform,towardoffharmfulinfluences.That“singleoddblockunused”leftbyNuwaisthemythicalstonethatconstitutesthestorylineofHonglouMeng,whichisalsoknownasShiTouJi《石頭記》(TheStoryoftheStone).NuwainFengshenYanyiNuwawasre-inventedinanothermythologicalrepertoireandincorporatedasoneofthemostfascinatingcharactersinFengshenYanyi《封神演義》(CreationoftheGods).147Thisclassicalnovelhadbeendevelopedovercenturiesfromfolktalesandstorytellers’promptbooks,andfirstappearedinbookforminthelateMingdynasty(1368—1644).148Inthenovel,therealworldandthefantasticworldarepresentedinaharmoniousandholisticmanner.ItcombinesfictionalizedhistoricalromancesandpopularmythologicaltalesbasedonthefalloftheShang商dynasty(ca.1600—1100B.C.)andtheriseoftheZhou周dynasty(ca.1100—256B.C.).Duringthefictitiousbattlesbetweenevilspiritsanddivinebeingsthatareinvolvedinthetransitionofpower,Nuwaappearsthreetimestointervene.Thenovelcomesto146OnemaymissthecosmicimplicationsofthesenumbersintheEnglishtranslation.AccordingtoWangXuan,thenumbersintheChineseversion12,24,365symbolize12months,24seasonalchanges,and365daysinayear.SeeWangXuan王璇(WangXiaolian王孝廉),ZhongguodeShenhuaShijie《中國的神話世界》(Taibei:ShibaoChubanGongsi時報出版公司,1987),p.696.147TheChinesetextisbasedonFengshenYanyi《封神演義》(HongKong:YuleiChubanshe玉壘出版社,1987).OnEnglishtranslation,seeGuZhizhong(trans.),CreationoftheGods(Beijing:NewWorldPress,1992).148InastudyofFengshenYanyi,WanPin-pinisoftheopinionthatitwasfirstpublishedbetween1567and1619,andcertainlynolaterthan1623.SeeWanPin-pin,InvestitureoftheGods(“FengshenYanyi”):Sources,narrativestructure,andmythicalsignificance(AnnArbor:UMI,1987),pp.2-3.Withregardtothecontroversialauthorship,LiuTs’un-yan柳存仁hasconductedadoctoraldissertationandcontendsthataDaoistnamedLuXixing陸西星wasthemostplausibleauthor.SeeLiuTs’un-yan,BuddhistandTaoistinfluencesonChinesenovels(Wiesbaden:KommissionsverlagOttoHarrassowitz,1962),p.290. 

  
  
 

173CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAtheendwithJiangZiya’s姜子牙canonizationofthreehundredandsixty-fivemortals(areferenceto365daysinayear)intheDaoistpantheonunderacelestialhierarchy,andwithKingWu’s武王confirmationoftheofficialtitlestohissubordinatefeudallords.Attheoutsetofthisfictionalnarrative,Nuwa’ssupremestatusasthesovereignofthecosmoswasrecapitulatedbyShangRong商容,thePrimeMinisterofKingZhou紂王(1154—1121B.C.)oftheShangdynasty:GoddessNuwa’sbeenagreatgoddesssinceancienttimesandpossessessaintlyvirtues.WhentheenrageddemonGongGongknockedhisheadagainsttheBuzhouMountain,thenorthwestsectionofHeavencollapsedandtheearthsunkdowninthesoutheast.Atthiscriticalmoment,NuwacametotherescueandmendedHeavenwithmulti-coloredstonesshehadobtainedandrefinedfromamountain.(Gu,trans.1992:3)AlthoughNuwa’sgreatnesswasemphasized,shewas“demoted”totheguardianangelforZhaoge朝歌(presentdayAnyang安陽,Henanprovince),thecapitaloftheShangdynasty,andhonouredmerelyaszhengshen正神(propergoddess).UndertheadviceofthePrimeMinister,KingZhoumadeapilgrimagetoworshipNuwaandheldaceremonyathertempleonherbirthday.Suddenlyawhirlwindblewup,‘rollingbackthecurtainandexposingtheimageofthegoddesstoall.Shewasdazzlinglybeautiful,muchmorethanflowers,morethanthefairyinthemoonpalace,andcertainlymorethananywomanintheworld.Shelookedquitealive,smilingsweetlyatthekingandstaringathimwithjoyinhereyes’(Gu,trans.1992:4).Inthisscene,theprototypeofthesnake-likeNuwawasportrayedasanetherealbeautywithenticingcharm.Asnoneofhisconcubineswasasattractiveasthegoddess’image,thelicentiousKingZhouwasbesidehimselfwithlustfuldesire.Heexpressedhisinfatuatedloveforherunsurpassedpulchritudebywritingthefollowingpoemonthewallnearherimage:鳳鸞寶帳景非常盡是泥金巧樣粧 

  
  
 

174TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES曲曲遠山飛翠色翩翩舞袖映霞裳梨花帶雨爭嬌艷芍藥籠煙騁媚粧但得妖嬈能舉動取回長樂侍君王Thesceneoftheexquisitecurtainissplendidwithphoenixesanddragons,Andallaredeftlyappliedwithgolddust.Curvingbrowslikewindinghillsinjadegreen,Dancingsleevesaflutter,clothedinradiantdew.Aspearblossomssoakedwithraindropstocompetewithbeauty,Charmingaspeoniesenvelopedinhaze.Ifthisheavenlybeautycaneverwalkingracefulmovements,I’llbringherbacktoChangLePalacetoserveme.Thisflirtatiouspoemconstitutestheperipeteia149andthemaincauseofthefalloftheShangdynasty.ItalsoforegroundsnumerousbattlesbetweentheevilandthedivineinFengshenYanyi.OnNuwa’sbirthday,beforeKingZhouarrived,shehadalreadylefthertempletopayrespectstotheThreeEmperors—Fuxi,ShenNong,andHuangDi.Beingthearchetypalcreatrixandthesaviourofhumankindasrecountedinclassictexts,Nuwanowbecameafigureinferiortothesethreepatriarchaldeities,andwas“degraded”byscribalprejudice.AfterNuwareturned,shefoundthepoemandwasfurious.Shefelthugelyinsulted,sincetheprovocativepoemblatantlyshowedtheKing’ssexualdesiretowardsher.Andbyexpressingsuchdesire,hecommittedthesinofblasphemy.Theblasphemy149Theterm“peripeteia”denotesasuddenchangeoffortune,ordownfall,inaplayorstory. 

  
  
 

175CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAonthepartofamortaltowardsthe“propergoddess”canbeseenassymbolicrape,whichsymbolicallyviolateshervirginityanddefileshersaintlyimage.KingZhou’svisittotheNuwaTempleisakernelepisode,whichgivesrisetothethemeofsin-and-punishment.AvengingGoddessSimilartotheHinduGodShiva(alternativespelling:Siva)andhisconsortParvati,whocanappearineithergentleorterrifyingimages,150Nuwamanifestsherangryformasanavenginggoddessastheplotunfolds.InordertopunishKingZhou’slicentiousness,Nuwausedthemagic“Demon-summonBanner”,callingoutthreespritesfromagoldengourd.Shecommandedthemtotransformthemselvesintohuman-formbeauties,enterthepalaceanddistractKingZhoufromstateaffairs.IftheysuccessfullyhelpeddestroytheShangdynasty,shepromisedtorewardthemwithastateofimmortality,makingthem“legitimateimmortals”.Thethreespritesgladlyacceptedthe“mission”andflewaway.Meanwhile,thebeautifulDaji妲己151wassentbyherfathertoserveKingZhou.Onherwaytothecapital,theThousand-yearVixen(oneofthethreesprites),killedherandtransformedintoherphysicalshape.Withherbewitchingcharm,thevixen-Dajibecamethemostpatronizedconcubine.ThethreespritesfulfilledtheirdutytoannihilatethecontinuityoftheShangdynastywithexceptionallycold-heartedcraftiness.ThehistoricalDajiwasappropriatedintheNuwamyth,andincorporatedasthemediumthroughwhichNuwacouldwreakvengeanceonKingZhou.Metaphorically,Dajirepresentedthemanifestationofthedestructive,wrathfuland150InHinduism,ShivaandhisconsortParvatiembraceadualityintheirmanifestations.Asafearfuldestroyeroflifeandangryavenger,Shivarepresentsadestructiveforce,butheisalsothere-creatorandabenignherdsmanofsouls.Parvati(theMountainGoddess)ishissakti(femaleenergyorenergizingpower)andhiscalmandbenevolentwife.SheisanaspectofthegreatMotherGoddess—Devi,butcanmanifestademonicformasDurgaorKali,whobecomesthefiercegoddessofwarandpersonifiesthedestructiveaspectofdivinepower.151Daji,thehistoricalconcubineofKingZhou,isbelievedtohavecausedthedownfalloftheShangdynasty. 

  
  
 

176TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESdemonicaspectofNuwa.Atthedenouement,thecapitalZhaogewasbesiegedandKingZhouwasdefeated.Nuwasteppedintofulfillherroleastheultimatesaviourbyshowingpoeticjustice.Yet,shebrokeherpromisetograntthethreewickedspritesastateoflegitimateimmortals,andkilledthemall.Inthisway,thespriteswere“victimized”toillustrateNuwa’savengingwrath.Aftershehadinitiatedawholesequenceofdestructiveepisodesforherrevenge,throughDaji,shealsocausedhavoctomanyinnocents.Nuwa’skillingofthethreespriteswasanacttorestorethedivineorder;agesturetogetridoftheviciousmanifestationofherownself;andameanstoregainhersaintlystatusaspropergoddess.TheFunctionsofMythsMythscanbedefinedasnarrativeprojectionsofagivenculturalgroup’ssenseofitssacredpastanditsrelationshipwiththesurroundingworldanduniverse.Anthropologistsusedtoemphasizetheculturalformsofsentiments,attitudesandperceptions,astheseareexpressedandcodifiedinethnicmyths,religioussymbols,traditionalvalues,andsharedmemoriesofcommonhistory.AccordingtoAnthonyD.Smith,thequartetof“myths,memories,values,andsymbols”canbesummarizedasthe“myth-symbol”complex,whichcontributestowardsgoverningpeople’sbeliefsandlife-style,andwhichisindispensableforthecontinuingholdofacollectiveculturalidentityandsolidarity(Smith,1986:13-6).Inotherwords,humanbehaviourandexperienceareguidedbythesystemsofthe“myth-symbol”complex.Smithgoesontosaythatmythsandsymbolsareculturalattributes,whichinturnhavebeeninterwovenintoethno-history.Theenduringroleofethno-history,astheargumentsrun,doesnotonlysustainasenseofindividualmeaningfulness,italsoassurescollectivedignity,appealstocollectiveposterity,andensurescollectiveimmortality(Smith,1990:182).InperipheralMacau,themythicalNuwahelpsinspireacollectiveculturalidentity,andthecultofNuwarevealsculturalresponsestotheissuesthatunitetheChineseatthe“edge”withthe“centre”.Thefunctionsofmythsaretoilluminateheroismofthehumancondition;andtodispensewithrealisticdetailandexperimentswiththesupernatural.ClaudeLévi- 

  
  
 

177CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAStrausssays,‘Mythgivesman,veryimportantly,theillusionthathecanunderstandtheuniverseandthathedoesunderstandtheuniverse’(Lévi-Strauss,1978:17).Forhim,mythfailstogivehumankindmaterialpowerovertheenvironment,butonlyprovidesanillusion.WhencomparingwiththestoriesoffamousmythsandFreud’sdream-symbols,MichaelGrantcontendsthatmythology,likedreams,seemedaroyalroadtoourunderstandingoftheunconsciousprocesses.Itisbecausemythscontainthinlydisguisedrepresentationsofcertainfundamentalunconsciousfantasiescommontohumankind(Grant,1963:230).Grantisoftheopinionthatthemyth-symbolanddream-symbolarethekeystoourcomprehensionoftheunconscious.QuitedifferentfromtheideaofanunconsciousinterpretationofmythinFreudianism,RolandBartheshaspointedoutthatmythicalspeechismadeofamaterialwhichhasalreadybeenworkedonsoastomakeitsuitableforcommunication:itisbecauseallthematerialsofmythpresupposeasignifyingconsciousness,thatonecanreasonaboutthemwhilediscountingtheirsubstance(Barthes,1983:95).Indiscussingthemythicalsignificationofmyth,152Barthesargues,‘Mythhidesnothing:itsfunctionistodistort,nottomakedisappear.Thereisnolatencyoftheconceptinrelationtotheform:thereisnoneedforanunconsciousinordertoexplainmyth’(Barthes,1983:107).ThemythofNuwawasseeminglycreatedasanentertainingseriesofstories,butitsunderlyingstructuresembodiedaseriouspurposeandsignification.Thesestructuresinvariablyespousedabroadappeal,whichhasenabledthemythtosurviveforthousandsofyears.AsLévi-Straussmaintainsthatmythologyemphasizesthemeaningaspect(Lévi-Strauss,1978:53),andBarthescontendsthatmythisatypeofspeechdefinedbyitsintention(Barthes,1983:110),themeaningandintentionoftheNuwamytharetosatisfythehumanneedforroots,thatis,toexplaintheorigins,growthanddestinyoftheChinesepeople.152FerdinanddeSaussurehasdefinedthelanguage(orlangue)asatri-dimensionalpattern:thesignifier(theacousticimage),thesignified(theconcept),andthesign(therelationbetweenimageandconcept).BasedontheSaussureansemiologicalsystem,RolandBartheshasdescribedinmyththistri-dimensionalpatternastheform(signifier),theconcept(signified),andthesignification(sign). 

  
  
 

178TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESWhileNuwabindstheagestogetherandupholdsa“primordial”valueintothepopularconsciousness,shealsocomestoreflectanostalgiclongingformythsandmemoriesinthedistantpast.Notably,sherepresentsanimportantmythictheme:matriarchaldominance,whichisperhapstheintendedreactiontothepatriarchyofChinesesociety.MatriarchalGreatnessManyclassicChinesemythsandlegendswereneitherarrangedinanorganizedandsystematicmanner,norweretheircontentsandstylesextrapolatedintomonumentalworks,liketheGreekepics.Mythologicalwritingswereoftenviewedwithadeepprejudice,particularlybyConfucianliterati,whousedtodiscardthetalesofthesupernatural.Asaresult,storiesincorporatingtheunrealisticelementsandbizarremodeofexpressionswererelegatedtofrivolousnarratives.Theywereoutcastin“official”writtenrecords;andonlyexistedinanamorphousandincoherentstate.Justlikeotheroldmythologicaltales,theNuwamythpasseddowninapiecemealfashion.Itembraced“mythemes”fromnon-orthodoxhistory,legend,folkloreandfiction,nottomentionthatitconfoundedwithrealhistory.Eventhoughthemythicstoriesinfragmentsweredisjointedandshort,theywere,inthewordsofAnneBirrell,‘araresurvivalofprimitiveauthenticity’(Birrell,2000:14).ForBirrell,ChinadidnothaveaHomer,oraHesiod,oranOvid,whocollected,rewrote,andtransformedthescatteredfragmentsintoanIliad,anOdyssey,oraMetamorphoses.ThefragmentarystateofChinesemythsthusremainedinamorepristinecondition;andretainedameasureofauthenticitywhencomparedwithGreco-Romanmythologicaltexts(Birrell,1993:17-8).Regardlessofbeingfragmentarypieces,theseancientwritingsenabletheNuwamythtoenterandestablishitselfintraditionalcurrency.Assuch,literarytextsserveasavehicleforDaoismtoconsolidatetheChineseautochthonousmyth-symbolcomplex,whichconstitutesapartofthecommonpeople’sreligiousbelief.Nuwahasbeenconstructedasthearchetypalfigureinthesupernaturalrealityofinitialevents,andherstoryisinkeepingwiththeconsistentpatternofthe“creationmyth”.Assheissaidtohaverescuedtheworldfromthecatastrophesofragingfires 

  
  
 

179CHAPTER5MATRIARCHYATTHEEDGE:THEMYTHICALMOTHERGODDESSNUWAandfloodingwaters,sheisthesaviourandheroineinthe“catastrophemyth”.Apartfrombeingtheinauguratorofthesocialinstitutionsofmarriage,shealsoembodiesthe“fertilitymyth”,whichisaresponsetotheneedforhumanproliferation,socialstabilityandeconomiccultivation.ThemythicelementsofNuwa,ontheonehand,illustrateprehistoricChina’srelationshipwiththeprimalcosmos,andontheotherhand,conveyaprocessofcontinuitytohelpassertacollectiveidentityfortheChinesepeople.The“degrading”transformationofNuwafromthesupremegoddessinantiquitytotheconsortofFuximayspeakforthegradualsocialchangefrommatriarchytopatriarchythatoccurredinancientChina.InMacau’sNuwaMiao,however,thereisnomentionofNuwa’s“inferior”statusasFuxi’swife.AndthereisnotevenanicheforhonouringFuxi.NuwaisstilllookeduponastheRepairerofHeavenandMotherGoddess,thusretaininghermatriarchalgreatnessinthisdiminutivetemple.IntheheydayofMacau,Nuwawaspopularlyveneratedandthetemplewellpatronized.Whatthenwasherdivineintervention?FormerlythereweremanyprostitutesinMacau,especiallyinRuadaFelicidade福隆新街—Macau’sredlightdistrictnotfarawayfromNuwaMiao.ItisgatheredthatprostitutesusedtogotothetempleandpraytoNuwaforprotectionfromvenerealdiseasesandgynaecologicalproblems(Tang,1994:208).Theywouldnaturallypraytoreturntoa“normal”life,andtofinda“proper”husband.Hence,Nuwahascometobeaquasi-patronessofprostitutesinMacau.Inthisrespect,herroleissimilartothatofIshtar,thegreatBabyloniangoddessoflove,sex,andfertility.153Beingthegoddessoffertilityandbestowerofchildren,Nuwaismostlyreveredbybarrenwomenwhowouldprayforoffspring,andinparticular,formaleheirstocontinuethefamilyline.AstheNuwamythholdsthatsherepairedtheheaven,broken-heartedworshippersmaybeseechhertorepairtheirqingtian情天(literally,loveheaven),thatis,torestoretheirdeterioratingnuptialrelations(Tang,1994:208).Inthisway,Nuwa’sdivineroleshavebeenre-shapedandmodifiedinresponsetotheinterestsandpreoccupationsofthepeople.Byandlarge,sheismainlyworshippedas153Ishtar(herAkkadianname)wascalledInannabytheSumerians,andreveredastheMotherGoddess.However,shewasalsoawargoddess,oftenreferredtoasthe“LadyofBattles”. 

  
  
 

180TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLEStheGoddessofMarriageandGoddessofMatch-making(meishen媒神)inMacau.Afteragloriousbeginning,NuwaMiaohasfallenintoastateofneglect.ThecultofNuwahasalsoseenadeclineandlostitslusteramidsocio-culturalchanges.Thedeclineofacult,asC.K.Yanghasnoted,ispartlyduetoitsfailuretocontinuedevelopingmagicalandmythologicalloreinordertosustainitsexistence.Also,whentheethico-politicalvaluesgraduallylosetheirurgencyandimportance,acultmayenteracrisisandmightfinallybereplacedbyother,newer,cults(Yang,1970:172-3).InMacau,Nuwaisgreatlyovershadowedbythedominantdivinevirgintrio—theVirginMary(theChristianGodMother),TianHou(theDaoistGoddessoftheSea)andGuanYin(theBuddhistGoddessofMercy).JustasTianHouisthepatronessoffishermen,sailorsandmaritimemerchants,GuanYinistheprotectressofmarinersfromshipwreck.Bothgoddesses,moreover,sharesimilaritieswiththeVirginMarywhoishailedasthe“StaroftheSea”(Hall,1995:330).Thisdivinetriooffersthemoreurgentandmuchneeded“mainstream”servicesassociatedwithsafetyatseainpeninsularMacau,whereasNuwaonlyprovides“subsidiary”assistanceinconnectionwithgynaecologicalmattersandmarriage.MacauobviouslyneedsemergingcultstoguarditsseascapeandtoprotectitspositionattheestuaryofthePearlRiver.DespitethedeclineofthecultinMacau,Nuwastillpossessestheelementalgrandeurofmythsandepics.WhileNuwaMiaoshowsthepolytheisticChinesebeliefsystemsandrepresentstheculturalheritageofMacau,thismythicalsupernaturalistimelesslylookeduponasMotherGoddessandsustainshermatriarchalsignificance.Inaword,Nuwafostersculturalcohesion;nourishesacollectiveculturalidentity;andconstitutestheepicsofChinesecultureattheedgeofsouthChina. 

  
  
 

181CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDICHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDI154Macauwasexaltedasa“WorldHeritageCity”byUNESCOin2005.AlmosthiddenamongthegrandioseandmagnificentWesternedificesinthehistoriczone,anexquisiteChinesebuilding—SanjieHuiguan三街會館,literally,theGuildhallofThreeStreets—wasascribedasaheritagesite(Plate19).IntheEnglishversionofthe“DescriptionoftheHistoricCentreofMacau”(MacauWorldHeritage,2008:2,3),itappearsinalternativespellingsanddifferentdesignationasSamKaiVuiKunTemple.Onemayfeelbaffledandsomewhatconfusedbythenameforthisstructure:isitaguildhalloratemple?SanjieHuiguanbearsanothername—GuanDiGumiao關帝古廟(theOldTempleofGuanDi),whichisatemplemainlydedicatedtothehistoricalcharacterGuanYu關羽(variantspelling:KuanYu).155GuanYu(A.D.162—220),isalsocalledGuanYunchang關雲長(anothercourtesyname,Changsheng長生).Heiscommonlyknownbydifferentsobriquets:GuanErye關二爺(GuantheSecondMaster);MeiranGong美髯公(LordoftheMagnificentBeard);GuanGong關公(LordGuan);andGuanDi關帝(EmperorGuan).GivenGuanYu’supwardmobilitytogodhood,hecomestorepresentoneofthemostpopulardeitiesintheChinesepolytheisticpantheon.Thequestionstobeasked154Thispaper,underthetitle“Macao’sSanjieHuiguan:TheMythandtheCultofGuanDi”,waspublishedinReviewofCulture,InternationalEditionNo.32,October2009,pp.123-38.155Foruniformity,thevariantspellinginthequotationsisstandardizedinpinyinromanizationasGuanYu. 

  
  
 

182TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESare:whyhasatradingguildhallfunctonedasa“sacredspace”whereGuanYuishonouredbymerchantsasthe“guildgod”?WhyisGuanYualsoreveredasthe“wealthgod”inaculturethathasalreadymanydeifiedgiversofwealth?Whatisthecrucialrelationshipbetweenaguildhallandatemple?GuanYuisportrayedasaheroicwarriorinthehistoricalnovel,SanguoYanyi《三國演義》(ThreeKingdoms).156Onemaywonderhowheisdramatizedandmagnifiedtohavetranscendedhisownrealpersonageaspresentedintheofficialhistory.WhyhasthismortalbeenritualizedandglorifiedbytheChineseimperialauthoritiesfromtimetotime?WhyhasthepopularityofGuanYuenduredforoverathousandPlate19SanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiao156TherearetwoEnglishtranslationsofSanguoYanyi《三國演義》.InC.H.Brewitt-Taylor’stranslationin1925,thetitlewasRomanceoftheThreeKingdoms.InMossRoberts’translationin1994,hesimplyusedThreeKingdoms.Hedroppedtheword“romance”forYanyibecauseromance“denotesaworldremovedfromreality”.SeeMossRoberts(trans.),ThreeKingdoms:AHistoricalNovel(Beijing:ForeignLanguagesPress,1994),p.1463.TheEnglishtextsquotedherearebasedonMossRoberts’translation. 

  
  
 

183CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDIyears,yetuntarnishedbytime?SanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiaoSanjieHuiguanwasformerlytheguildheadquartersfortradeandcommerce.ItwasbuiltbythelocalChinesecommunityfromthreestreets,namely,RuadosErvanários關前街,RuadasEstalagens草堆街,andRuadosMercadores營地街.ThesethreestreetswereoncethecentreoftheoldChinesecommercialdistrict.Beingpartof“TheHistoricCentreofMacau”,SanjieHuiguanissituatedinthevicinityofSenadoSquare,andneartherenownedLealSenadoBuilding;theHolyHouseofMercy;andtheSpanishStDominic’sChurch.ItsurbanlocationisalsoadjacenttotheChinesebazaararea,todayknownasStDominic’sMarketattheheartofthecity.Thishistoriczonewaspreviouslycalledthe“ChristianCity”(MacauWorldHeritage,2008:2)Onthelintelofthisstructure,thenameSanjieHuiguan三街會館(theGuildhallofThreeStreets)appearshorizontally,whileasubordinatenameGuanDiGumiao關帝古廟(theOldTempleofGuanDi)isjustaboveit.ThissuggeststhatthepatrondeityoftheguildisGuanDi—thedeifiedGuanYu.Thedualdesignationreadilypointstothecombiningfunctionsofaguildhallandatemple.Assuch,thisbuildingemergesasaguildhall-temple,andcomesforthasbothasecularandasacredvenue.Inaddition,thenamesoftwodeitiesCaiBoXingjun財帛星君(theGodofWealth)andTaiSuiXingjun太歲星君(theGodoftheAnnualCycle)appearvertically.Thisguildhall-templeisplainlydedicatedtothesethreeDaoistdivinities.TracingtheexactyearinwhichSanjieHuiguancameintoexistenceisnoteasy,butthestructurecertainlyhasahistoryofmorethantwohundredyears.Itisbelievedthatitwasbuiltaroundthe1750’s.Theoldestextantstonesteleinsidethebuildingcommemoratingitsfirstrenovationbearsthedateofthefifty-seventhyearofEmperorQianlong乾隆(reigned1736—1795),thatis,1792.Amajorexpansionandrenovationswerecarriedoutafewdecadeslater,whichwereagaincommemoratedbyanotherstonesteledatingthefifteenthyearofEmperorDaoguang道光(reigned1821—1850),thatis,1835.AccordingtoWongTakHong,SanjieHuiguanoriginatedsimplyasameeting 

  
  
 

184TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESplaceforChinesetradersandmerchants.Morethantwohundredyearsago,Macau’sbusinessactivitieswereexpandedtotheneighbourhoodofthesethreecomparativelysmallstreets.Abuildingwassoonconstructedforliaisingwithoneanother;promotingtransactions;andsolvingproblemsarisingfrombusinessdealings.Gradually,thebuildingbecametheguildheadquarters,aswellasafavouriterendezvousforlocalbusinessmen.Moreover,SanjieHuiguanwastheonlyinstitutionthroughwhichthePortuguesecouldcommunicatewiththeChineseinrelationtocommercialandbusinessmatters(Wong,1997:111).Thisguildhallwasonceassociatedwithlong-standingChinesebusinessorganizations,whichwereprecursorstotheChineseChamberofCommerceinMacau,establishedin1912.Beingtheguildheadquartersforthreestreets,SanjieHuiguanwasoriginallynotopentothegeneralpublicinworship(Wong,1997:111).Intheebbandflowoftime,however,theguildlostitsglitteranddeclined.Itsheadquartersgraduallyattractedworshippers,whocametosupplicateforblessings,eventhoughtherewerealreadyaplethoraoftemplesofferingvariousdivineservicesinMacau.SanjieHuiguanisnowonlyareminderoftheactiveparticipationoftheChinesecommunityingeneralcivicaffairsinsidethe“ChristianCity”.Indiscussingthefunctionsofoccupationalguilds,C.K.Yanghaspointedoutthattheguildheadquartersplayedaprominentreligiousrole.Thereligiousritesandthesolidarityoftheguildwereinseparable.Theguildhallwasanimportantarenawherethesacredaltarfortheguild’spatrongodwasplaced.Theannualmeetingofaguildwasanoccasiononwhichtheguildmemberswerebroughttogether.Theywouldfirstregisterandpaytheirdues,andthengostraighttothealtar,eithersinglyoringroups,wheretheykneltandbowedtothestatueoftheguildgod.Itwasalsothemeetingplacewheregroupbusinesswasdiscussedandtransactedunderthedivinesurveillanceoftheguildgod.Infrontoftheimage,standardsacrificialriteswereperformed,suchasburningincenseandcandles;andofferingfoodanddrink(Yang,1970:74).Intheguildhall,trialsandpunishmentsofguiltymemberswhohadcommittedtransgressionswereconductedbeforethealtar.Fineswereannouncedandthenamesofoffenderswerereadaloud.Thosewhohadviolatedtherulesweresummonedfortrialinthepresenceoftheguildgod.Theoffenderswererequiredtokneelbeforethe 

  
  
 

185CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDIimageasasignofcontritionfortheirwrong-doings.Suchprocedurewas,ineffect,intendedtocallforsupernaturalinterventioninordertometeoutjusticeandtopunishtheguilty,whoseactionsthreatenedtheguild’ssolidarity.157Individualisticinterestswereoftenaleadingcauseofinterpersonaldisputes,andthusbecameapotentiallydysfunctionalfactoringroupunity.Inthisrespect,C.K.Yanghasputitthus:Thedifficulttaskofconstrainingaggressiveindividualisttendenciesincompetitiveoccupationalfieldscalledfortheuseofsacredsymbolsofaweandrespectforthecollectiveinterestofthegroupasameansofelevatingthemembers’viewsabovethelevelofimmediateindividualadvantage.(Yang,1970:75)Religiousrites(includingprocessionsandpageantry)wereoccasionallyperformedasameansofseekingsupernaturalblessings,onwhichoccupationalguildsintrinsicallydepended.Guildmemberswouldprayfordivinesupervisiontogovernthereliabilityandjusticeofcontractualrelationships.Basedontheintegrationofreligiousforcesandsecularfunctions,occupationalheadquartersnaturallyemergedasaguildhall-temple.Theintegratingfunctionsofaguildhall-templewereimportanttothecohesionofthegroupmembers’materialisticinterests.Again,C.K.Yangmaintainsthattheguildhall-templeandthereligiouspageantryweresacredcollectivesymbolsofthegroup.Thesesacredcollectivesymbolsservedtoenhancethesolidarityoftheorganizationandtoimpressuponthecommunitytheirdistinctivegroupexistence,thusstrengtheningtheprideandloyaltyofthememberstowardthegroup(Yang,1970:76).InSanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiao,GuanDiwasappropriatedastheguardiandeityoftradersandmerchants,apartfromhisothernumerousdivineroles.ThecultofGuanDi,inthiscontext,wasanoccupationalcultoftradeandcommerce.ByadoptingGuanDiasthepatrongod,memberswereconsciousofthevitalreligiousnatureoftheguild.157Thesereligiousriteswerealsoobservedbyfraternitiesandsecretsocieties. 

  
  
 

186TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESThroughouttheages,thehistoricalmortalGuanYuhasbeenpromotedastheincarnationof“yi義”.Theconceptyiwidelycomprisestheideasofhonour,righteousness,loyalty,faithfulness,honesty,andfriendship.Hence,thecultofGuanDididnotsimplyfunctionasanintegratingforcefortradersandmerchants;italsohelpedbolsteruptheiryiinbusinessdealings.Inthisspirit,theoccupationalcultofGuanDidisplayedsignificantsacredelementstojustifythepurelyutilitarianactivitiesofsecularbusiness.Onthespecialrelationshipbetweenaguildhallandatemple,C.K.Yanghascitedanexample.OntheoutskirtsinShanghai,theguildheadquartersofmasonsandcarpenterswerecalledLuBanMiao魯班廟(theTempleofLuBan),wherethepatronLuBan魯班(507—440B.C.)158washonoured(Yang,1970:75).Theintegratingfunctionsoftheguildhall-templearealsoexemplifiedinHongKong.LocatedatChingLinTerrace青蓮臺inKennedyTown,LuBanXianshiMiao魯班先師廟(theTempleofMasterLuBan)wasbuiltbytheContractor’sGuildin1884withdonationsfrompeopleconnectedwiththetrade.LuBanisreveredasthepatronofbuildersandcontractors.ThisistheonlyurbantemplededicatedtotheoccupationalcultofLuBaninHongKong.TheinseparablelinkbetweenaguildhallandatemplemaywellexplainwhytheGuildhallofThreeStreetswasintegratedwiththeOldTempleofGuanDiinMacau.ThreePatronDeitiesThelayoutofSanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiaoissimpleandsymmetrical,consistingofonlyoneblockofbuilding,whichisdividedintothreehalls,withasmallcourtyardinside(forreceivingnaturallight).Threepatrondeities,GuanDi關帝,TaiSui太歲,andCaiShen財神areenshrinedinthesehallsrespectively.ThemainhallisGuanDiShengJunBaodian關帝聖君寶殿(thePreciousHallofSaintlyEmperorGuan),whichisdedicatedtothepatrondeity—GuanYu.Ingeneral158LuBanwasbornintheStateofLu魯duringtheSpringandAutumnPeriod.HisoriginalnamewasKungshuYichi公輸依智andisrespectfullyaddressedasKungshuzi公輸子(MasterKungshu).Hisbirthdaycelebrationfallsonthethirteenthdayofthesixthlunarmonth. 

  
  
 

187CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDIworship,GuanYuiswidelyreferredtoasGuanDi(EmperorGuan),anabbreviatedversionofhisnobletitleGuanShengDiJun關聖帝君(SaintlyEmperorGuan).AlargegoldenstatuerepresentsGuanYuseatedonthethroneinsideanexquisitelycarvedaltar.JustlikeintheHallofWuDiinLianFengMiao(asdiscussedinChapter4),GuanYuisflankedbytwosmallerstatuesofhisswornbrothers—LiuBei劉備(A.D.162—223)(left)andZhangFei張飛(A.D.191—223)(right)(Plate20).ThehistoricalGuanYuandZhangFeiweregeneralsinthecourtofLiuBei(rulerofShu蜀),buthereLiuBeiandZhangFeiassumeaguardingrolelikeGuanYu’sacolytesorattendants,andarenottreatedwiththesamebrotherlyequality.SuchplacementofthetrioimmediatelydemonstratesthefactthatthepopulaceviewsGuanYuassuperiortoLiuBeiandZhangFei.Plate20ThestatuesofLiuBei,GuanYu,andZhangFeiAcoupletofidenticalwordsishungonbothsidesofthealtar,extollingGuanYu’sConfucianvirtues: 

  
  
 

188TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLES忠義仁勇關聖帝君Loyal,righteous,benevolent,braveSaintlyEmperorGuanOntheleftsideofthemainhall,thereisasmallerhalldedicatedtoTaiSuiYe太歲爺,alsoaddressedasTaiSuiXingjun太歲星君,orsimplyTaiSui太歲(theMinistryofTime,ortheGodoftheAnnualCycle).TaiSuiactuallyreferstothestarsoppositeJupitar,andisastellargod.IntheChinesezodiac,TaiSuicomprisessixtydeities(normallyknownastheMilitaryGenerals,ortheGodsoftheAnnualCycle)takingturneachyeartodeterminetheannualfortuneandmisfortuneofthemortals.YinJiao殷郊,theeldersonofKingZhou紂王(1154—1121B.C.)oftheShang商dynasty,wasdeifiedasTaiSui.HeishenceknownasYinJiaoTaiSui殷郊太歲,orYinJiaoYuanshuai殷郊元帥(CommanderYinJiao).YinJiaocanbetakenasthe“chief”oftheMinistryofTime,commandingalltheotherfifty-nineGodsoftheAnnualCycle.TheworshipofTaiSuiwasfirstnotedduringthereignofShenZong神宗(1068—1086)intheSongdynasty(Werner,1932:483).FolkreligionhasitthatTaiSuiisafiercedeity(xiongshen凶神),andwhoever“clasheswithTaiSui”(fanTaiSui犯太歲)159islikelytogetintotroubleandtohavemisfortune.Inordertoappeasehimandtoavoidcalamities,TaiSuimustbepacifiedwithofferings.Also,talismansarehungasprecautionsagainsthiscurse.ThereligiouspracticeofpacifyingTaiSuiiscalled“anTaiSui安太歲”.Theotherhall,totherightsideofthemainhall,isdedicatedtoCaiBoXingjun財帛星君,orsimplyCaiShen財神(theGodofWealth).AsdiscussedinChapter4,theGodofWealthhasbeenascribedtoseveralhistoricalpersonages.ThecultoftheWealthGodsispopularamongallChineseclasses,andapairofmoneygiverscalledHeheErxin和合二仙(TwoImmortalsofHarmony)isespeciallywell-likedbythemercantileclass.Theywereinfacttwohistoricalfigures,HanShan寒山andShiDe拾得,activearoundthemid-seventhcentury.Astheirattributes,oneholdsalotusflowerandtheotherabox.ThetwoChinesecharactershe荷(lotusflower)andhe盒(box)arethehomophoneoftheirnameshe和andhe合,whichcarrytherebusof159Ifone’szodiachappenstobethesameastheZodiacoftheYear(TaiSuiyear),itissaidto“clashwithTaiSui”. 

  
  
 

189CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDI“HarmonyandUnionbearingWealth”.Thesetwodeitiesaremostlyveneratedbymerchantsbecausethey‘understandthevalueofunionandpeacefulharmonyinbusiness,andthedependenceofwealthuponhappypartnership’(Alexéiev,1928:5).InadditiontomanyGodsofWealth,GuanYuhasbeendeifiedasWuCaiShen武財神(theMilitaryGodofWealth).ThedeificationhasadirectreferencetohisportrayalinSanguoYanyi.SinceGuanYurejectsCaoCao’sextravagantgifts(whichwillbediscussedbelow),heisregardedasanuprightpersonwhocanresistthetemptationsofinappropriaterewardsandtheimmoralacquisitionofwealth.C.K.YangpointsoutthatGuanYuisworshippedasoneoftheWealthGodsnotsimplyforhissupernaturalmagicalpowertobringwealth,butalsoforhisjusticeandgenerositytodistributewealth.Withregardtothesignificanceofthecultofwealth,YanggoesontoarguethatinChinesereligionthereexistsvirtuallynoprominentcultagainstavariceorthedeviousacquisitionofwealth.ThedeificationandworshipoftheWealthGodsitselfentailethicalinjunctions—toacquirewealthjustlythroughproperchannels;and,onceprosperityachieved,todispensewealthwiththespiritofrighteousnessandbenevolence(Yang,1970:79).InChinesesociety,growingrichbytradewasconsideredethicallyincompatiblewiththeConfucianteachingsofvirtues.Themercantileclasswasoftenmorallydespised,sociallydegraded,andonsomeoccasions,evenpoliticallysuppressed,sincetheyengagedintheacquisitionofwealthasaprofession.Asareactiontothetensionbetweenvirtueandwealth,theprevalenceoftheworshipoftheWealthGodsmaywellreflectthebeliefamongmerchantsandtradersthattheirwealthwastheresultofsupernaturalblessings,aswellasoftheirownefforts.Bearingthisbeliefinmind,theywouldfeelconstrainedtoabidebythemoraltenetsofthewealthcult.FollowingtheChinesesyncreticandpolytheistictraditioninreligiouspraxes,thisguildhall-templealsoenshrinestheBuddhistdeity,DizangWang地藏王(theBodhisattvaofNetherRegions).Likeanicheinachurch,thestatueofDizangWangisplacedonanaltarjustnexttotheGodofWealth.InChinesebelief,mountainsareupheldassacredabodesofimmortals.MountJiuhua九華山inAnhuiprovinceissacredtoDizangWang.InalmosteveryChinesetemple,thereisashrineforhim.HeisknownforhisvowtovisitHellonerrandsofloveandmercyandhasanimmensecompassionforsufferingsouls.HeisseniortoYanLoWang閻羅王(Yama),theGod 

  
  
 

190TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESofHell.DizangWang’sbirthdayiscelebratedonthe30thdayoftheseventhlunarmonth(Werner,1932:497-9).DeitiesoutsidetheGuildhall-templeAdjacenttotheentranceoftheguildhall-temple,thereisanelevatedstonestructureintheformofadiminutiveshrine.Toppedbyapointedroofandsupportedbyfourpillars,itlooksmorelikeapavilionthanashrine(Plate21).ItisdedicatedtoSheJiFushen社稷福神(theFortuneGodsofSheJi).SheJi社稷aretwominorDaoistdeities.SheJiarerepresentedinananiconicform;onlytheirnamesareputonthetablet.Infrontofitstandsabigincense-burner,usedfortheritualofworship.Thistinyshrineisanintegralpartoftheguildhall-temple.Plate21TheshrinededicatedtoSheJiFushen 

  
  
 

191CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDIShe社istheGodoftheSoil,whotakeschargeoffivedirections—east,south,west,north,andcentre.ThissupernaturalbeingisalsoworshippedasacollectivedeityrepresentingthefiveTerrestrialSpirits—SpiritsoftheMountainsandForests,RiversandLakes,TablelandsandHills,MoundsandDikes,andSpringsandMarshes(Werner,1932:412).Ji稷istheGodoftheFiveGrains(alsotranslatedastheGodofHarvests,orGodofAgriculture).SheJiwereworshippedinancienttimesinChina.OnlytheemperorcouldworshipTianxiaShe天下社(SovereignEarth),asthewholeearthwasallhiscareandunderhiscontrol,thesubjectpeoplecouldonlyworshiptheirterritorialShe,whoprotectedtheirneighbourhood(Werner,1932:413).ThreeChinesecharacters,YongningShe榮寧社(theGodoftheSoilforProsperityandSerenity),areinscribedinfrontoftheshrine.ThisparticularGodoftheSoilservestowardoffmalignandinauspiciousinfluences,andtooverseetheneighbourhoodofthisarea,whichwasformerlyknownasYongningFang榮寧坊(PlaceofProsperityandSerenity).Theshrineisflankedbytheinscriptionsofanelegantcouplet,inwhichthetwoChinesewordsyongning榮寧areembedded:榮居康樂境寧享太平年ProsperouslyresidinginthehealthyandblissfulenvironmentSerenelyenjoyingthepeacefulyearJustneartheaniconicrepresentationofSheJi,thereisapairofporcelainstatuesofTuDiGong土地公andhiswifeTuDiPo土地婆.TuDi土地(literally,soil-earth),istheEarthGod,ortheProtectingSpiritofRuralPlaces.HeisverylowinrankinthehierarchyoftheDaoistspiritworldandhissupernaturalpowerislimited.TheEarthGodisoftenenshrinedinaminiaturenicheclosetotheground.Inpopularthought,theEarthGodissupposedtocontrolasmalldistrictwithdistinctlyparochialjurisdictions.AseverydistricthasitsownEarthGod,thedeityofoneplacecannottransgresstocontrolanotherdomain.Whenonegoestoanewplace,onemustworshipattheshrine,orniche,ofthelocalEarthGodinordertoseekhisprotectionandblessings(Werner,1932:414-5). 

  
  
 

192TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESSheJiareseniorthanTuDi.WhileSheJicontrolabiggerarea,orevenaprovince,TuDiisonlyconfinedtoasmallsectionofterritory.SheJiandTuDitogetherhavecometoberesponsibletoChenghuang城隍,theCityGod(ortheGuardianDivinityoftheWallsandDitches).ChenghuangisequivalenttotheCelestialMandarinofacityortowninhumanlifeandheldresponsibleformaintainingpeaceandorderintheterritoryhegoverns.Needlesstosay,Chenghuanghasmorepowersofjurisdiction,thoughtheworshipofSheJibeganmuchearlierthantheworshipofChenghuang(Werner,1932:49).ChenghuanghasinturntoreporttotheGodofHell.Daoismhasestablishedadivinehierarchyinvolvingavastandcomplexsystemofgodsandgoddesses(asmentionedinChapter4).LikeGreco-Romanmythologicaldeities,theDaoistsupernaturalbeingshaveresponsibilityforeveryconceivableaspectofhumanlife,andeachlocalityhasitsownparticular“official”deity.HolmesWelchstatesthatthespiritualhierarchyofgodsandgoddessesfromthelowesttothehighestisananalogueofthebureaucratichierarchyofsecularsociety—itisakindofspiritualbureaucracythatmirrorsthecivilone,sothatinasensetwoparallelbureaucraciesgovernpeople’slives(Welch,1957:137-9).Apparently,thesystemofthebureaucratichierarchythathasbeencreatedinthespiritualworldis,infact,modelledonthisworld.StraddlingHistoryandFictionTheworshipofGuanYuisnation-wideinChinaandintheChinesecommunitiesaroundtheworld.Hiswidespreadpopularityispartlyduetothewidecirculationofthehistoricalnovel,SanguoYanyi《三國演義》(ThreeKingdoms),inwhichGuanYuisdramaticallyportrayed.ThisliteraryworkwascompiledbyLuoGuanzhong羅貫中(ca.1330—ca.1400),andfirstpublishedin1522withaprefacedated1494.Thenovel,coveringatimespanfromA.D.168to280,tellsofthestoryofheroicwarriorsandstrategicbattlesinthewakeofthedivisionoftheChineseEmpireintothreerivalstatesafterthefalloftheHan漢dynasty(206B.C.—A.D.220).ItisconsideredoneofthefourmasterworksoftheMingnovel.160160Theotherthreemasterworksare:JinPingMei《金瓶梅》(ThePlumintheGoldenVase), 

  
  
 

193CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDITheThreeKingdomscompetingfordominancewereWei魏(A.D.220—265),Shu蜀(A.D.221—263),andWu吳(A.D.222—280).WeiwasruledbyCaoCao曹操,ShubyLiuBei劉備,andWubySunQuan孫權.However,noneofthethreerulerscouldtakethelead;instead,thethreewar-tornkingdomswerereunitedbytheSima司馬clan,andanewrulingdynastyJin晉(A.D.265—420)wasfoundedafteralmostacenturyofcivilstrife.Folkstories,legends,andmythicelementsabouttheThreeKingdomsperiodexistedinoraltraditionlongbeforethewrittencompilationbyLuoGuangzong.Luoskillfullyreworked,reshaped,andtransformedavarietyofsourcematerialsintoamasterpieceinitsownright.161ThehistoricalsourcesofthenovelweremainlydrawnfromSanguoZhi《三國志》(RecordsoftheThreeKingdoms)compiledbyChenShou陳壽(A.D.233—297).162OthermaterialsweretakenfromLiuYiqing’s劉一清(A.D.403—444)ShishuoXinyu《世說新語》(ANewAccountofTalesoftheWorld);SimaGuang’s司馬光(1019—1086)ZizhiTongjian《資治通鑑》(ComprehensiveMirrortoAidinGovernment);andSanguozhiPinghua《三國志評話》(StoryofSanguozhi,publishedsometimebetween1321and1323).ThecompilerofSanguoYanyicombinedhisprofoundhistoricalknowledgewithagiftforstorytellingincreatingarichtapestryoflivelycharactersandfascinatingepisodes.Stylisticallyknownaszhanghuixiaoshuo章回小說(thenovel-in-chapters),XiyouJi《西遊記》(JourneytotheWest),andShuihuZhuan《水滸傳》(TheWaterMargin,orThe108Heroes).Theexpressionsidaqishu四大奇書(fourmasterworks)wascoinedatleastasearlyastheseventeenthcentury,probablybyFengMenglong馮夢龍(1574—1646).SeeAndrewH.Plaks,TheFourMasterworksoftheMingNovel(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1987),p.5.161HuShi胡適(1891—1962),aleadingcriticandanalystoftraditionalChineseculture,blatantlydeniestheprominenceofSanguoYanyi,claimingbunengsuanshiyebuyouwenxiejiazhideshu不能算是一部有文學價值的書(thebookcannotbecountedashavinganyliteraryvalue).SeeHuShi,“SanguoZhiYanyiXu”〈三國志演義序〉,collectedinHuShiWencun《胡適文存》(Taibei:YuandongTushuGongsi遠東圖書公司,1961),Juan2,Vol.2,pp.470-3.HiscommentsaremeticulouslyrefutedbyDongMeikan董每戡inSanguoYanyiShilun《三國演義試論》(Shanghai:ShanghaiGudianWenxueChubanshe上海古典文學出版社1956),pp.1-13.162SanguoZhi《三國志》wasannotatedbyPeiSongzhi裴松之(A.D.372—451),whoaddedhisowncommentary. 

  
  
 

194TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESthisemergingnovelicgenrebecametheprecedentforothergreatnovelsoftheMingdynasty.Thevoluminouswork(twenty-fourvolumes)waslatereditedbyMaoLun毛綸andhissonMaoZonggong毛宗崗duringthereignofEmperorKangxiinthemid-1660’s.Thewholetextwasreducedtoonehundredandtwentychaptersforasmootherandmoreeffectiveflowinthenarrative.TheMaoeditionhassinceexclusivelycirculatedinChina,andeclipsedthe1522version.163Inthetranslatedversionofthisliterarywork,MossRobertsmaintainsthatSanguoYanyispansthreegenres:epic,drama,andnovel.Itisbecausethisliteraryworkhasthescaleandmythicatmosphereoftheepic;theactionanddialogueofthedrama;andthetextureanddesignofthenovel(Roberts,1994:1462).Thenarrativeisacollageofhistoricalfactandfictitiousaccounts.Itdeftlymingleswithrealhistoryandatthesametimehistorizesmythicalandlegendarymaterialsinstorytelling.Aneighteenth-centuryscholar,ZhangXuecheng章學誠,hasremarkedthatSanguoYanyicontainsonlyseven-tenthsfactbutthree-tenthsfictitiousfabrication(quotedinPlaks,1987:374).Morerecently,C.T.Hsia夏志清(born1921)haslaudedthis“fictionalization”astheprimaryachievementofthework(Hsia,1968:35ff).Thenarrativemode—bothhistoricalandfictional—offersastarkexampleoftheliterarytraditiontypicaloftheMingdynasty.GuanYuinSanguoYanyiBythetimeofLuoGuangzong’scompilationofSanguoYanyi,GuanYuhadalreadyattainedaniconicstatusinpopulartradition,andassumedanimportantroleinfolkreligion.NotwithstandingGuanYu’sexistingimage,LuoGuangzongadoptedextensiveliteraryexaggerationinpresentinghimasthearchetypalmilitaryherointhenovel.Inacastofhundredsofcharacters,GuanYuisoneofthemostalteredandaggrandizedpersonages.Attheoutsetofthenovel,readersareonlygivenaperfunctoryportrayalofGuan163LuoGuanzhong’s1522versionhadfallenintooblivionandremainedundiscovereduntilearlyinthetwentiethcentury.SeeMossRoberts(trans.),ThreeKingdoms:AHistoricalNovel(Beijing:ForeignLanguagesPress,1994),p.1463. 

  
  
 

195CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDIYu(Chapter1).HewasfromJieliang解良inHedong河東.Hehadtoflee‘afterkillingalocalbullywhowaspersecutinghisneighborsandhavebeenonthemovethesefiveorsixyears’(Roberts,trans.1994:12).Hehadanextraordinarystatureandphysiognomy,whichtellinglysuggestedhisphysicalprowessandmanliness:Amanofenormousheight,ninespanstall,withatwo-foot-longbeardflowingfromhisrich,ruddycheeks.Hehadglisteninglips,eyessweepingsharplybacklikethoseofthecrimson-facedphoenix,andbrowslikenestlingsilkworms.Hisstaturewasimposing,hisbearingawesome.(Roberts,trans.1994:12)Hisimageistypifiedbythetwo-foot-longbeard,soheisalsoknownbythenicknameMeiranGong美髯公(LordoftheMagnificentBeard).His“ruddycheeks”alludestohisredface.ThisfacialtraitispredicatedonalegendoftheSongdynasty(960—1279).LegendholdsthatGuanYukilledacorruptmagistratewhowantedtotakebyforceabeautifulgirlashisconcubine.HehadtofleeandtookrefugeinaDaoisttemple.Asorceressatthetemplehadhimwashhisfaceinamountainstream.Thewaterturnedhisfacered,sothathecouldnotbeidentifiedbytheofficerswhocametoarresthim(Qiu,1983:47).164Fromthattimeon,theredfacebecamehistrademark.KamLouiehasarguedthathisunusualheight,longbeard,andredfacereadilysignifyastrongmaleessence,andthesecharacteristicsaretheconspicuoussymbolsofmasculinity(Louie,2002:27-8).LiuBei—adescendantoftheHanclan,spontaneouslyformedabrotherhoodwithGuanYu—afugitive,andZhangFei—abutcher.Theysworetotreatoneanotherasbrothers,andpledgedinfaithandhonour(jieyi結義)toliveanddieasone.Theyconsecratedthecelebratedbrotherhoodceremonyinapeachgarden,andthesceneispopularlyknownas“OathinthePeachGarden”(Chapter1).165SinceGuanYuisthe164OntheEnglishversionofthestory,seeJonathanChamberlain,ChineseGods(Malaysia:PelandukPublications,1987),pp.49-50.165Theexpression“OathinthePeachGarden”oftenreferstoformingbrotherhoods,butitisalsoimplicitlyriddledwithconnotationsofhomosexuality.SeeWolframEberhard,Dictionaryof 

  
  
 

196TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESsecondoathbrother,heisoftenaddressedasGuanErye關二爺(GuantheSecondMaster).Theemphasesonbrotherhoodandontheobservationoftheoathconstitutetheskeletonstorylineastheplotunfolds.LiuBeithenhadthefinestsmithforgeforGuanYuaweapon,qinlongyanyuedao青龍偃月刀(GreenDragonCrescent-moonBlade),weighing82jin斤(catties).Thisweaponresemblesahalberd,andisalsocalleddadao大刀(bigblade).Itismorecommonlyknownasguandao關刀(thebladeofGuan),namedafterGuanYu,astraditionhasitthattheweaponwasdesignedbyhim.ThatiswhyGuanYuisoftendepictedholdingabladeashisattribute.InGuanYu’sfirstdebutinSanguoYanyi,hismarvellousmartialartsandboundlessself-confidenceareportrayedintheepisodeof“killingHuaXiong華雄beforehiswinehastimetocool”(Chapter5).TheotherpivotalepisodesofheroicexploitsassignedtoGuanYuarenarratedin“beheadingYanLiang顏良”(Chapter25)andin“slayingWenChou文醜”(Chapter26),bothYanLiangandWenChouareCaoCao’senemies.Asamaverickwarrior,heisdescribedin“ridingaloneforathousandleagues”(Chapter27)andin“theloneswordsmanattendingabanquet”(Chapter66).Nodoubt,allthesescenesconsolidatetheimageofGuanYuasasupremewarriorpossessingextraordinaryphysicalstrengthandmilitaryprowess.WhatmakesGuanYuanenduringcultfigureishisunswervingloyaltytoLiuBei.HisexceptionalintegrityandmoralrectitudearenarratedduringhisbriefsojourninCaoCao’scamp(Chapters25to28).CaoCaogreatlyadmiredhimandpraisedhim,‘Truly,amanofhonour’(Roberts,trans.1994:305).GuanYuistheonlypersonwhomCaoCaoholdsinthehighestregard.InordertowinGuanYu’sheartathisservice,CaoCaoshowedexceptionalgenerosity.HegaveGuanYuthefamoussteed“RedHare”赤兔馬andtenbeautifulmaidenstoservehim.ButGuanYuinturnsentthemtowaitonLiuBei’stwowives,LadyGan甘andLadyMi糜,whowerealsostrandedinCaoCao’scamp.Despitetheselavishtreatments,hedeflectedCaoCaoforLiuBei.GuanYu’ssteadfastrefusalChineseSymbols(Singapore:FederalPublications,1990),pp.227-8.Ontheimpliedsexualrelationshipamongmeninthenovel,seeKamLouie,TheorisingChineseMasculinity:SocietyandGenderinChina(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2002),pp.22-41. 

  
  
 

197CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDIofCaoCao’sblandishmentandbenevolencewasplainlyguidedbyabsoluteloyaltytohisswornbrother.Significantly,thisepisodecontributeddecisivefactorsforthedeificationofGuanYuastheMilitaryGodofWealth,sincehestaunchlyrejectedunsuitablegifts,orinappropriatewealth.OnthejourneybacktoXuchang許昌(thecapital),CaoCaocameupwithaplantodisrupttheproprietiesbetweenlordandliegeman:onenight,heassignedGuanYuandthetwowivesofLiuBeitoasinglechamber.GuanYuneverenteredthechamber;heremainedatattentionoutsidethedoor,holdingacandlethatburnedthroughthenightuntildawn(Chapter25).HethuseludedCaoCao’sintriguingstratagem,anddisplayedthevirtuesofabstinenceanddecorum.FirminhisdecisiontojoinLiuBei,GuanYukilledCaoCao’ssixgenerals,whotriedtopreventhimfromleaving,atthefivepasses(Chapter27).Onthesurface,theepisodeofslayingsixgeneralsandbreachingfivepassesillustrateshismilitaryprowessanddeterminationtoleaveCaoCao,butitisalsoabrutalwaytofulfillhispersonalbondtoLiuBei.ThesegeneralsfallvictimstoGuanYu’soverwhelmingsenseofpersonalhonour,orrighteousness.Afterahazardousjourneyofthousandsofleagues,GuanYumanagedtoescortthetwoladiesbacktoGucheng古城,wheretheywerereunitedwithLiuBei(Chapter28).Thetwoepisodes—“holdingacandleuntildawn”and“escortingthesisters-in-lawforthousandsofleagues”maywellintendtocommendGuanYu’sproprietyandsexualabstemiousness.GuanYu’sabilitytowithstandfemininecharmsmakeshimthegreatherointhenovel.Aboveall,GuanYu’sexcessivesenseofpersonalhonourwasmanifestinhis“honourablereleaseofCaoCao”(Chapter50)attheHuarongTrail華容道aftertheBattleoftheRedCliffs.Inthisdecisiveepisode,ChengYu程昱advisedCaoCao,‘GuanYuisarroganttowardhissuperiorsbutdisplayssentimentalweaknesstowardthoseinaninferiorpositiontohim’傲上而不忍下，欺強而不凌弱(Plaks,trans.1987:409note163).Meanwhile,ChengYuprovidedyetanotherfacetofGuanYu’spersonalityandsaid,‘Heknowsclearlythedifferencebetweenobligationandenmity,andhehaseverdemonstratedgoodfaithandhonour’(Roberts,trans.1994:593).CaoCaothenmadeaneloquentpetition.StillgratefulasGuanYuwasforCaoCao’spastgenerosity,heagreedtoreleaseCaoCaoandhisarmy. 

  
  
 

198TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESWithhisbreachofmartiallaw,GuanYucommittedthecapitalcrime.ZhugeLiang諸葛亮(chiefadvisortoLiuBei,alsoconfirmedasdirectorgeneralafterLiuBei’sascensionasKingofHanzhonginChapter65)wasenraged,andorderedtheguardstoexecutehim.Inthenickoftime,GuanYuwassavedbyLiuBei,whohonouredtheirformercovenant“toliveanddie—asone”.Inpopulartradition,theassociationbetweenGuanYuandtheconceptofhonour,orrighteousness,constitutesanintegralpartofthevenerationofGuanDi.ButinthewordsofAndrewPlaks,‘GuanYu’soverblownsenseofpersonalhonourraisesoneofthemostagonizedissuesoftheentirework:theconflictbetweenprivateandpublicstandardsofmorality,orthatbetweenself-imageandresponsibilitytoothers’(Plaks,1987:413).GuanYusacrificestheinterestsofLiuBei’scourtforhisownpersonalhonour.Infact,hetotallybetraysLiuBeibysettingCaoCaofree.ThereleaseofCaoCaoeventuallyspellsatragicfallofthestrategicJingzhou荊州.Intheepisodeof“HuaTuoscrapingthepoisonfromLordGuan’sbone”(Chapter75),GuanYushowedanincredibleforceofwill.Hisrightarmwaswoundedbyapoisonousarrowheadinabattle.ThesurgeonHuaTuo華佗scrapedhisarmopentothebonewithaknife,withoutusinganaesthetic.Wheneveryonepresentblanchedandcoveredtheface,GuanYucontinuedeatinganddrinking,laughingandtalkingasheplayedchess,showingnosignofpain.ThissceneoffersthemostimpressiveimageofGuanYu’sstoicforbearance.GuanYu’sHumanFlawsInspiteofthefactthatthedivineimageofGuanYuhadbeennourishedinpopularconsciousoverthecenturiesbeforethepublicationofSanguoYanyi,LuoGuangzongprobedbeneaththeheroicsurfaceofGuanYu.HedidnottotallybrushasideGuanYu’smortalweaknessesasdescribedbyChenShouintheofficialhistory(Chen,1959:939-42).GuanYu’sstaunchpride,arrogance,andhaughtinesswerecovertlynarrated.WhenGuanYuwaschargedtodefendJingzhou(Chapter63),heplannedtodividehisarmyandrepelCaoCao’sandSunQuan’sattack.ZhugeLiangwasawareofGuanYu’sover-confidenceandoverweeningpride,andadvisedhimtorepelCao 

  
  
 

199CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDICaointhenorth,buttoconciliateSunQuanintheeast.ZhugeLiangwasdispleasedwithhislackofstrategicskillincombatingthetwointrudingforcesbydividinghisarmy.GuanYuprovedtobejealousandnaïveintheepisodewhenMaChao馬超washonouredwiththetitle“GeneralinchargeofPacificationoftheWest”平西將軍(Chapter65).HefelthurtandwantedtochallengeMaChaoinacontestinordertodifferentiatewhowouldbethebetterwarrior.ZhugeLiang,havingaclearunderstandingofhisnarrow-mindedpersonality,senthimaletterinJingzhouassuringhimthathismartialabilitywasincomparablysuperiortothatofMaChao.Onlythenwashisfoolhardytempertamed;onlythendidheloseanurgeinchallengingMaChaotoatrialofskill.AfterLiuBeiproclaimedhimselfKingofHanzhong漢中王(A.D.219),ZhugeJin諸葛瑾(thebrotherofZhugeLiang)advisedSunQuantoplanajointactionagainstCaoCaobyarrangingamarriagebetweenSunQuan’ssonandGuanYu’sdaughter(Chapter73).BindingthetwohousestogetherwoulddestroyCaoCao’scamp.However,GuanYuproudlyignoredZhugeJin’ssuggestionandbristledwithrage.HisrejectionofSunQuan’sofferofamarriagebond,ontheonehand,wasdetrimentaltoLiuBei’sinterestsinforminganallywithSunQuanagainstCaoCao,andontheother,itwasoneofthereasonsleadingtohisbeheadingatSunQuan’shand.GuanYu’sunmitigatedarrogancewasevidentinhisburstofwoundedpridein“therankingofthefivegenerals”(Chapter73).Inthisepisode,LiuBeihonouredGuanYu,ZhangFei張飛,ZhaoZilong趙子龍,MaChao,andHuangZhong黃忠asthe“FiveTigerGenerals”.AlthoughGuanYuwasappointedthechiefofthesegenerals,heneverthelessreactedviolentlyagainstbeinginthesameleaguewiththeoldwarrior,HuangZhong.FeiShi費詩,acaptainintheforwardunit,tactfullysoothedhisragebyremindinghimofthebondofbrotherhoodwithLiuBei.Hewasflatteredandinstantlyreceivedthesealofofficewithduereference.GuanYu’signorance,vanity,andhostilitytowardshisownpeerwerehencerevealed.GuanYu’sultimatedownfalllayinhisstubbornrefusaltolistentoWangFu王甫,whotoldhimtoescapeSunQuan’sambushbytakingthemainroad,butinsteadheinsistedonpassingthroughsmallpaths.Hewasthuscaughtanddecapitatedatthe 

  
  
 

200TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESageof58(Chapter77).Hisdeathismainlyduetohisstupidityandhaughtiness.Inaddition,therearetwodecisiveinstancesinwhichGuanYuwreaksirreparablehavoctoLiuBei’scourt.HadhenotreleasedCaoCaoattheHuarongTrail,andhadhenotrefusedSunQuan’sofferofamarriagebond,LiuBeiwouldnothavebeentorturedbetweentwopowerfulenemies.Inaposthumouscomment,thecompilerputsintoZhugeLiang’smouththehistorian’sevaluationofGuanYuasgangerzijin剛而自矜(unyieldingandself-important)(Chapter78).166IndiscussingGuanYu’stragicdelusionsofgrandeur,AndrewPlakspointsout,‘IneachofthemajorscenesfocusingonGuanYuasanindividual,wewitnesswhatmightbecalledanoverplayingoftheroleofthenoblehero.Thisisbroughtoutatseveralpointsinthenarrativewherehisinsistenceoncleavingtohisownself-imageasanhonorablemanleadstoseriousmoralquandariesorelsetocostlydefeats’(Plaks,1987:411).GuanYu’ssurfeitofvalour,willfularroganceandtoweringhaughtinessarehisdetrimentalshortcomingsthatultimatelyleadtohisowndestruction.Regardlessofthehero’shumanflaws,hisimagehasneverceasedtobeadmiredandthecultofGuanDienjoyssurgingpopularity.UpwardMobilitytoGodhoodInhislifetime,GuanYuwasnotgrantedanyimposingtitles.DuringhisbriefserviceinCaoCao’scamp,EmperorXian獻(apuppetruleroftheHandynastyunderCaoCao’scontrol)conferredonhimthetitleAdjutantGeneral偏將軍(Chapter25).SoonEmperorXianraisedhimtothetitleMarquisofHanshouPrecinct漢壽亭侯(Chapter26).WhenLiuBeiassumedtheprotectorshipofYizhou益州,GuanYuwas166Intheofficialhistory,ChenShousumsupGuanYu’scharacterasgangerzijin剛而自矜(unyieldingandself-important).SeeChenShou陳壽,SanguoZhi《三國志》Juan36,annotatedbyPeiSongzhi裴松之(Beijing:ZhonghuaShuju中華書局,1959),Vol.4,p.951.Incommentingonthetragichero,HuShiseemstorepeatChenShou’sremarksthatGuanYuisyigejiaoaowumoudewufu一個驕傲無謀的武夫(anarrogantwarriorwithnosenseofstrategy).SeeHuShi,“SanguoZhiYanyiXu”〈三國志演義序〉,collectedinHuShiWencun《胡適文存》(Taibei:YuandongTushuGongsi遠東圖書公司,1961),Juan2,Vol.2,p.473. 

  
  
 

201CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDIpromotedtotherankofGeneralWhoEliminatestheRebels蕩寇將軍(Chapter65).AfterLiuBeiproclaimedhimselfKingofHanzhong,GuanYuwasappointedChiefoftheFiveTigerGenerals五虎大將之首,andGeneraloftheFront前將軍(Chapter73).Letusrecall,inLianFengMiaooneimageofGuanYuisdepictedleashingahorse,knownasGeneraloftheFrontwithaHorse馬前將軍.TheportrayalcombinestwoinstancesthatreflectCaoCao’sgiftofthesteed“RedHare”andLiuBei’sbestowalofthetitleGeneraloftheFronttoGuanYu.GuanYu’sdivineupwardmobilitystartedsoonafterhisdeathinA.D.220.Overthecenturies,hehasbeensystematicallymythicizedandforgedasasymbolofloyaltyandguardianshipbytheChineseimperialstate,andvarioushonorifictitleshavebeenconferredonhim.167HisposthumouscareerfirstdevelopedinA.D.260whenhewasgiventhetitleBraveandFaithfulMarquis壯繆侯.168ItisbelievedthattheYuquanTemple玉泉寺(builtinA.D.713)inDangyang當陽county,Hubei湖北province(wherehediedandhistomblies)wastheoldesttemplededicatedtohim,anditwastheplacewheretheworshipofGuanYuoriginated(Duara,1988:781).DuringthelateTangdynasty(A.D.618—907),hewasmagnifiedintoadeityofmythicalproportions,andbecameafavouritecharacterinthegenresoforalstorytellingandoperaticdrama.IntheSongdynasty,hewasgivenaducaltitlegong公(Duke)in1102,andwascalledtheLoyalandBenevolentDuke忠惠公.Eversince,hehasbeencommonlyknownasGuanGong關公(LordGuan).In1108hewasfirstennobledaswang王(king)andgainedthetitleMilitaryandProtectiveKing武安王.Thistitlewasextendedin1187andahigherprincelystatuswasconferredonhim—Brave,Faithful,Righteous,Courageous,Military,Protective,Heroic,andSupportiveKing壯繆義勇武安英濟王.TheennoblementofGuanYuwiththesetitleswascontingentuponpolitics.It167OnGuanYu’sposthumoustitlesoverthecenturies,seeLuZhan盧湛(compiled),GuanShengDiJunShengjiTuzhiQuanji《關聖帝君聖蹟圖誌全集》(HongKong:GuangxinYinwuGongsi廣信印務公司,1961),Juan1.SeealsoQiuZhensheng丘振聲,SanguoYanyiZonghengtan《三國演義縱橫談》(Nanning:LijiangRenminChubanshe灕江人民出版社,1983),pp.42-3.168TheChinesecharacter繆and穆wereusedinterchangeablyinoldentimes,embracingtheconceptyi義. 

  
  
 

202TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESreadilypointedtotheneedfordivineassistancetodefendtheweakeningSongcourtagainsttheincreasingpressureofattacksfromtheintrudingMongolsinnorthernChina.UndertheMongolianruleintheYuandynasty(1271—1368),moreover,GuanYucontinuedenjoyingimperialfavour.In1335hewasgiventhetitle—Apparitioned,Righteous,Courageous,Military,Protective,Heroic,andSupportiveKing顯靈義勇武安英濟王.DuringtheMingdynasty(1368—1644),hewasofficiallyelevatedtogodhoodin1594,andgrandlyennobledastheSaintlyEmperorGuan關聖帝君,anappellationwhichhonouredhimastheSupporterofHeavenandProtectoroftheEmpire.Sincethen,hehasbeenwidelyreferredtoasGuanDi.In1614thistitlewaslavishlyextended—CelestialHonoured,SaintlyEmperorGuan,theGreatGodwhoSubduesDemonsoftheThreeWorldsandwhoseDivinePowerisFormidable三界伏魔大帝神威遠震天尊關聖帝君.IntheQingdynasty(1644—1911),GuanYu’sdivinestatuswasfurtherelevated.In1652anhonorifictitlewasconferredonhim—Loyal,Righteous,Divine,Military,SaintlyGreatEmperorGuan忠義神武關聖大帝.Especially,ahagiographyofGuanYu,entitledGuanShengDiJunShengjiTuzhiQuanji《關聖帝君聖蹟圖誌全集》(ACompleteCollectionoftheWritingsandIllustrationsconcerningtheHolyDeedsoftheSaintlyEmperorGuan)wascompiledbyLuZhan盧湛andpublishedin1693.169ThehagiographyidealizesGuanYuasamanofgreatfilialpietyandgoodknowledgeoftheConfucianclassics.LegendhasitthatGuanYumadeanindustriousstudyoftheConfucianclassicChunqiuZuozhuan《春秋左傳》(TheSpringandAutumnAnnals).170InSanguoYanyi,GuanYu’sassociationwiththisConfucianclassicwasputinthewordsofCaoCao.WhenCaoCaobeggedGuanYu’smercytosethimfreeattheHuarongTrail,he169ThecompilationofGuanYu’shagiographywaspromptedbytheallegeddiscoveryofhisgenealogyamongsomebricksinawellinhisbirthplaceinXiezhou.SeePrasenjitDuara,“SuperscribingSymbols:TheMythofGuandi,ChineseGodofWar”,inTheJournalofAsianStudies,Vol.47,No.4,1988,p.784.170ChunqiuZuozhuan《春秋左傳》,coveringatimespanfrom722to468B.C.,waswrittenbyanumberofwriters. 

  
  
 

203CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDIflatteredhimbysayingthatasaresultofhisfamiliaritywiththisliterarywork,hemusthaveasenseofhonourassolidasamountain(Chapter50).Becauseofthislegend,GuanYuhasbeenwell-likedforhiserudition,andishonouredasoneofthepatrondeitiesofliterature.AccordingtoKamLouie,however,GuanYuwasprobablyilliterate(Louie,2002:24).Heisveneratedbytheliterati,chieflybecausetraditionallyhehasbeencreditedwiththeabilitytorecitethewholetextofTheSpringandAutumnAnnalsfrombeginningtoend(Werner,1932:229).WhenheisdepictedastheGodofLiterature,heholdsabookasanattribute.In1813GuanYuwasgrandiloquentlycanonizedasWuDi武帝(MilitaryEmperor)171inrecognitionofhismilitaryprowessdefendingtheQingcourtfromexternalthreats.In1856,duringtheinternaldisturbancesoftheTaiping太平Rebellion(1851—1864),hewasgivenaprestigioustitle—GuanTafuzi關大夫子(GuantheGreatSageandTeacher).ItisanhonourequallingtothatbestoweduponConfucius,andheisreveredinConfucianculture.Nowadays,GuanYuisjuxtaposedwithConfuciusinWenwuMiao文武廟(theTempleofLiteratureandtheMilitary).WhileConfuciusislookeduponasthepersonificationofwen文(literary)qualitiesandhonouredastheiconofscholarlyattainment,GuanYuisseenasthecarrierofwu武(military)essenceandreveredastheiconofmartialvalour.ThatthepropertiesofwenandwuareemphasizedinChinesecultureputthecombatantwarriorinthesameleaguewiththeliteraryimmortalinthereligiouspantheon.KamLouieisoftheopinionthatChinesemasculinitycanbetheorizedascomprisingbothwenandwu,andthiswen-wuparadigmisperceivedtobeessentialformenofsubstance(Louie,2002:11).WhenGuanYugainedtheposthumoustitles—MilitaryEmperorandtheGodofLiterature,hewasraisedtoexcelinbothwenandwu.HebecameanidealmanembracingabalanceofwenandwuintheConfucian171WuDi武帝isoftentranslatedasGodofWarbyforeignwriters.However,GuanYuisnobellicosewar-mongeringgod.IthasbeenarguedthatthetranslationofWuDishouldbe“Godwhodefendsthestate,civilizationandmorality”.SeeJonathanChamberlain,ChineseGods(Malaysia:PelandukPublications,1987),p.55. 

  
  
 

204TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLEStradition,thusepitomizingtheconstructionofChinesemasculinity.InlinewiththepracticeandtraditionofreligioussyncretismofdiversebeliefsthathadflourishedinthehistoryofChinesereligion,GuanYugainedrecognitionfromBuddhism,DaoismandConfucianism.InBuddhism,GuanYuisveneratedasamanifestationoftheBodhisattvaSangharama172伽藍菩薩,whoguardsandprotectsmonasteries.IntheSongdynasty,EmperorHuizong徽宗,whoreignedduringtheeraofChongning崇寧,bestoweduponhimthetitleTrueMasterofChongning崇寧真君in1104,andhewasformallyhonouredasaDaoistimmortal.IntheDaoistpantheon,heisregardedasaleadingsubduerofdemons.Aboveall,heisconstructedastheembodimentofallChinesevirtues(de德)173intheConfucianideal.Inaword,thishistoricalmortalhasattainedfullstatureasasupernaturalbeing,andisoneofChina’smostadoreddeities.PrasenjitDuaracontendsthatnogodismoreidentifiedasarepresentativeofChineseculturethanGuanDi(Duara,1988:786).AnAll-encompassingIconMostChinesetemplesinMacauareinclinedtotransgressreligiousboundariesbyenshriningmyriadsofBuddhistdivinities,Daoistimmortalsandfolkdeities.Inthepolytheistictradition,worshipperspraytoawholeassortmentofsupernaturalbeingsfordifferentpurposes.LianFengMiaoandNuwaMiaoarecasesinpoint.Contrarytotheprevailingsyncreticphenomena,SanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiaodoesnothonourfemaledivinities,butexclusivelyenshrinesthreemainDaoistgods—GuanDi,TaiSui,andCaiShen,aswellastheBodhisattvaofNetherRegions—DizangWang.SanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiaowasnotableforbeingtheguildheadquartersfortradersandmerchantsfromthreestreetsinMacau.Theguild’ssecularfunctions172TheSangharamareferstoagroupofdevasandspiritswhoguardmonasteriesandBuddhistdharma(law).173TheChinesede德(virtues)denotewuchang五常(thefiveprinciples),whicharetheconstituentsofhumanity.Theseare:ren,yi,li,zhi,xin仁、義、禮、智、信(benevolence,righteousness,propriety,knowledge,andfidelity). 

  
  
 

205CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDIweretightlyinterwovenwithreligiouselementsforgoverningthecontractualrelationshipinbusinessdealings.Thecrucialconnectionbetweenaguildhallandatemplepointstothebusinessactivitiesintegratingwithreligioussupervisionandsanction.Theintegratingfunctionsoftheguildhall-templethusencouragetheguildmemberstoupholdhonestyandfairnessinbusinesstransactions,andtoobservereliabilityandfidelitytotradecontractsunderdivinesurveillance.AsGuanDihaslongbeentakenasthesignifierofprobityandjustice,hewasconsecratedastheguildgodinSanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiao,andassignedthedutyofoverseeingproperbusinessdiscussionsandconclusions.Theincorruptibilityandtrustworthinessaretherequisitesthatwouldplayavitalpartintradeandcommerce,andtradersandmerchantsareexpectedtobeuprightandfairintheChinesecommunity.ApartfromGuanDi’sroleastheguildgodinthisguildhall-temple,heisalsohonouredasoneofthewealthgods.Thisattributedoesnotonlyextolhisspiritofrighteousness;butalsopalpablyspeaksforthevirtuousprincipleofacquiringwealththroughrightfulandlawfulchannels;andtodispensewealthunderlegalandmoraltenets.Sincetheguildhasbeentarnishedbytimeandgraduallydeclined,theformerguildhallnowopenstothegeneralpublictosupplicatefordivineblessings.TheportrayalofGuanYuinSanguoYanyihastranscendedhisownrealpersonageaspresentedbyChenShouintheofficialhistory.InC.H.Brewitt-Tayor’stranslationofRomanceoftheThreeKingdoms,RoyAndrewMillerpointsoutintheIntroduction,‘ThefictionalGuanYuhascompletelyreplacedthehistoricaloneintheChineseimagination’(Miller,1959:x).InthedivinerealmGuanYualsostarklysurpasseshistwoswornbrothers.LiuBeiwasonlydeifiedastheGodofBasket-makers(Werner,1932:34),sincehisearlyvocationwasmakingstrawshoesandstrawbaskets.ZhangFeiwasonceanitinerantpork-seller,andwashonouredasoneoftheGodsofButchers(Werner,1932:34).Incontrasttothescantcelebrationsofhistwoswornbrothers,therearemajorfestivalsofthecultofGuanDi,whichfallonthe15thdayofthesecondlunarmonth,andonhisbirthday—the13thdayofthefifthlunarmonth.DespiteGuanYu’sexaggeratedsenseofhisownimportanceasportrayedinSanguoYanyi,hismortalflawshaveneitheraffectedthedevelopmentofthemythofGuanDi,norinvalidatedthesustainedvenerationbyallclassesofpeople.ThereareanumberofreasonsthatthecultofGuanDicansurvivetimelessly. 

  
  
 

206TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESFirst,theChinesestateauthoritiesplayedapivotalroleinthestandardizationofreligiousculture.Throughouttheages,theGuanDimythhadbeenexpanded,reconfigured,andupheldbytheimperialstate.Theethico-politicalconceptsofloyalty(totherulingclass)andbravery(indefendingthecountry)providedthebasicmotivationfortheimperialsanctionofthecultofGuanDi.Inthewakeofscrupulousprocessesofglorificationandcanonization,GuanYuwasgroomedtobeadivine-humanandraisedtogodhood.TheofficialbestowalofvaryinggrandappellationstoGuanYuenabledtheculttoflourishinthemainstreamofChineseculture.Thecultwashenceincorporatedintothepantheonofthestatereligion.JustlikethecultofTianHou(asdiscussedinChapter4),174thecultofGuanDiillustratesyetanothertypicalexampleoftheprocessofapotheosiscommoninChina.Second,thecultespousestime-honouredsocio-ethicalvalues,suchasjustice,courage,patriotism,andself-sacrifice.Thesevaluesarerequiredtopandertothecommoninterestsandneedsofthegeneralpublicforobservingthevirtuesofrighteousnessandbenevolenceinbrotherhood.Third,theculthasbeenperiodicallyrevivedbymythicallegendsandmythologicallore(e.g.thealleged“discovery”ofGuanYu’sgenealogyinawellinhisbirthplace).Fourth,thewidecirculationofSanguoYanyi,inaway,helpskeepingtheimageofGuanYualive.ThatthecultofGuanDihasenjoyedtheauraofglamourforoverathousandyearsappearstohavedependedontheseindispensableelements.Similartomanymythicstories,themythofGuanDiisnotfixedbutsusceptibletochangesastimegoesby.ThedevelopmentoftheGuanDicultis,inessence,an“inventedtradition”oftherepertoiresofmemory,symbolandmythforfosteringideologyandbeliefssoastoservetheimperialstateandethnicinterests.Theinventionoftradition,asEricHobsbawmhasputforward,‘inculcate[s]certainvaluesandnormsofbehaviourbyrepetition,whichautomaticallyimpliescontinuitywiththepast’174ThecultofTianHouhasbeensystematicallyritualized,standardizedandadvocatedbytheintelligentsiaandtheimperialstateinordertogenerateareligiousstructureforassuringcollectivedignity,nationalidentityandethnicsolidarity.SeeChristinaMiuBingCheng,“BeyondaCulturalRegister:TheCharmofTianHou”,ChinaPerspectives,No.26,November-December1999b,pp.72-81. 

  
  
 

207CHAPTER6SANJIEHUIGUAN:THEMYTHANDTHECULTOFGUANDI(HobsbawmandRanger,1983:1).Insomewayoranother,thepopularityoftheGuanDicultreflectstheever-elevatedstatusheenjoyedasaresultofrepeatedimperialhonouringsinthepast.GuanYuhasbeenincessantlyconstructedasavaliantwarriorwithscholarlyacumen,andcomestorepresenttheidealofChinesemaleness,whichembodiesthewen-wuqualities.Heisconsideredtheverypersonificationofintegrity,andastheparagonofrighteousness,loyalty,courage,benevolence,fidelity,bravery,generosity,andmartialvaliancyandchivalry.ApartfromnumerousdeifiedtitlesgiventoGuanYu,hewouldaptlybecalledtheGodofRighteousness.GuanDisymbolizesanall-encompassingicontoallwalksoflife.Heistakenastheprotectoroftemples;patronofmerchants,actors;andtutelaryguardianofallbrotherhoods,thepoliceforce,andevensecretsocieties.Hisimage,orstatue,isoftenplacedfacingtheentranceofhousesasatalismantodriveawaydemonsandghosts.Itisbelievedthatnomalevolentspiritswoulddareenterintohispresence.InthepantheonofChinesereligion,theworshipofGuanDiisbeyondtheconfinesofsectarianbeliefs,andheisalmostanunsurpassediconicfigure.GuanYu’sposthumousupwardmobilityindicatesapersonaltriumphunparalleledbyanyhistoricalpersonage.Hisapotheosistogodhoodhastranscendedaparticularterritorialidentity,andheisworshippedbytheChineseworld-wide.Tosumup,GuanDistandsforasignificantreligioussymbolofChinesenationalcultureparexcellence. 

  
  
 

 

  
  
 

209CONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONInthehistoryofcolonization,MacauwasmarkedlydifferentfromsomeotherAsiancountries,whichwereoccupiedbyWesterncolonizingpowersduringtheso-calledhighageofimperialismandcolonialisminthenineteenthcentury.ThePortuguesepenetrationintotheEastpredatedthatofanyotherEuropeancountries.TheeastwardexpansionofthePortugueseEmpireinthemidsixteenthcenturywaslargelyfosteredbythefervourforpropagatingChristianityandthedemandforAsianproducts.AfterbecomingaPortuguesesettlement,MacauwastransformedintoanewChristianworldandaprosperoustradingcentreduringthefollowingcentury.PortugueseMacauhaseversinceattractedattentionfromWesterners,anditsimagesaredelineatedinmissionaryjournals,novels,poems,travelmemoirs,andtravellers’tales.ThesevarioustypesofforeignliteraryproductiongiverisetoamultiplicityofvoicesspeakingforthemultifariousaspectsofMacauatdifferenttimes.LiteraryworksbyChinesewritersarelikewiseprolific.Macau’scolonialpastisnotablytextualizedinTangXianzu’soperaticdrama,WuLi’srhymedclassicalpoems,andLeungPing-kwan’sfreeversenewpoetry.Theirworksrespectivelypresentthreeperiods:anembryonicPortugueseMacau,aMacauinitsheyday,andawould-bedecolonizedMacau.Ontheonehand,thesedistinctliteraryformscomplementwritingsbyWesterners,andwidentheperceptionofMacauandChinaasawhole.Ontheotherhand,theyreflectthecultural,socialandhistoricalprocessesofMacauapartfromthe“official”recordswrittenbythePortugueseandChinesestateauthorities.TangXianzu,themostgiftedplaywrightofMing-dynastyChina,wasoneofthefirstChinesewriterstodescribeMacauinhisliterarycreation.Tang’sentirebodyofworkonMacaurevealedan“early”ChineseviewofthepresenceofWesternersonChinesesoil,andheheraldedMacauasanenviableplace.Tang’sdemotedpostingtosouthChinain1591wasperhapsablessingindisguise. 

  
  
 

210TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESHethushadachancetotravelto“exotic”Macau,andperceiveditsformativeyearsasaPortugueseenclave,wherethepatternofcolonialismwasnotyetdeveloped.InMacauhewasamazedattheimportedglitteringjewelsandexquisitemerchandisethathehadneverseeninChina.Hewasalsofascinatedbythewell-dressedWesterntradersandacharmingforeignlady.HisdescriptionofforeignerswasutterlydifferentfromthederogatoryportrayalsasrecapitulatedbyHaoZhidong(Hao,2011:86-9).Tang’sfascinationforMacauwasparticularlyreflectedinhismostfamousdrama,MudanTing(ThePeonyPavilion).HeincorporatedMacauasthemise-en-scèneandtraversedthegeography,bridgingtheEast(China)withtheWest(PortugueseMacau)andplottinganexogamicmarriagebetweenasouthernerandanorthernerinChina.ForTangXianzu,Macauwasalandofwonders;acrossroadsofeast-westandsouth-north;aplaceofhopeandchance;andaportcitythrongedwithforeigntraders.WhileTangcametoMacauinhisbitterexperienceasademotedclerk,WuLi,anestablishedscholar-painter,arrivedatMacauin1681insearchofspiritualemancipation.FailingtojoinanongoingjourneytoRome,WuLibecameaJesuitnovicewithinacommunityofWesternersinMacau.HewitnessedMacau’sgoldenageasthebastionofChristendomintheEast,nottomentionitsheydayasathrivingmercantilehub.WuLi’simpressionofMacauwaschronicledinacollectionofthirtyclassicalpoems,whichhelabelledas“Aozhongzayong”(RamblingSongsonMacau).Inanothereightyreligiouspoemscalled“Shengxueshi”(PoemsofHolyLearning),hecreatedsomethingtotallynewinChineseliterature:aChineseChristianpoetry,thatis,hecomposedpoetrybasedonorthodoxChristiantheologyinclassicalChinesepoeticforms.ForWuLi,MacauwasareligiousArcadiaonearth,andabridgeheadforthepropagationofChristianityinChina.Inaddition,Macauwasawindowforhimtoperceivetheworldoutside,aswellasastepping-stoneforhimtoproceedtoRome,thoughinvain.ThewritingsofTangXianzuandWuLionMacaurenderedtheimageofa“virgin”land,anditsArcadianpuritywasnotyetdefiedbyhumanfoolishness.Atthattime,MacauwasingreatcontrasttowhatC.A.MontaltodeJesuscalledita“denofvice”anda“gamblinghell”(MontaltodeJesus,1984:496);andW.H.Audendescribeditasa“cityofindulgence”(Auden,1958:59)somethreecenturieslater. 

  
  
 

211CONCLUSIONInapoem,TangXianzunarratedhisencounterwithtwoWesternmissionaries—MatteoRicciandFrancescodePetris—inZhaoqingwheretheyarguedagainstBuddhism,andwheretheywerelaterexpelledin1589.AsTangsensedtheearlystageoftheEast-WestreligiousrepercussionsinGuangdongpriortotheRitesControversyinBeijing,WuLiactuallysufferedthisacrimoniousreligiousquarrelbetweenChinaandtheHolySeeinRome.Inthewakeofafour-yearnovitiateinMacau,WuLiwasengagedinproselytizingasaruralpriestinChinaintheabsenceofhisWesterncolleagues.Helivedthroughutterfrustrationandloneliness,andinapoemhelamentedthedifficultiesinevangelizationandthelackoffundtorepairadilapidatedchurchinJiading.TheprolongedRitesControversybegansoonafterRicci’sdeathin1610,reachedaboilingpointin1700,andendedin1742.WuLisurvivedthelonelyyearsthatleduptotheproscriptionofCatholicismbytheChineseimperialauthorities,anddiedin1718.Gonewasthe“virgin”landfortreasuredcommoditiesandhandsomelyattiredforeigntraders;andgonewasthebastionofRomanCatholicismintheEast.AlmostthreehundredyearslaterafterWuLi’sarrivalatflourishingMacau,LeungPing-kwan,HongKong’sleadingmanofletters,visitedMacauin1973.Byemployingthenovelliterarygenre—newpoetry,Leungmobilizedanarrayofthing-imagestonarrateasenescentandlistlessMacauinitscoloniality.InLeung’spoems,colonialMacauwasaccordedwithfamiliarOrientalimageswhichhintedthedejectedandshackledEast.Leungwasinterestedinrecountingcommonplace/quotidianactivitiesagainstthebackdropsofhistoriclandmarks.Hewasspeciallycaptivatedbytheambienceofpre-postcolonialMacau,whichwasatthedawnofmodernization(bybuildingitsfirstMacau-TaipaBridge),andwhichwasnotyettrimmedtobeaWorldHeritageCity.Atthefindesiècleofthesecondmillennium,therewerewavesofdecolonizationaroundtheworld.ThePeople’sRepublicofChinasuccessfullynegotiatedtheclosureofacolonialchapterofHongKongandMacau.AsMacauwastoreturntoChinain1999,Leungwroteaseriesofpoemsexpressinghisdisconsolationandwistfulmemoriesforthegoodolddays;nottospeakofhissentimentalpathostowardsthemomentouschange.Inanothervein,hecynicallypresentedMacauasadreamland,inwhichChineseandWesternersalikepinnedtheirhopesandaspirations.Asatwistoffate,their 

  
  
 

212TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESdreamswerebrokenduetoamisunderstandingbetweentheEastandtheWest.ForLeung,Macauwasanunenviableplace;itwasalandofunfulfilleddreamsandbroken-heartedness.Theeuphemisticscenarioof“EastmeetsWest”wasdeconstructedmerelyasacliché.Inalessdishearteningtone,however,MacauwasportrayedasagourmetparadiseofferingpalatableMacanesecuisine.JustasthepastofMacauisrevealedintheliterarytextsofthesethreeauthors,sometime-honouredfictionalnarrativesalsoprovideinsightsfortheunderstandingofthecomplexityofChinesereligiouscultureinMacau.AmélangeofgodsandgoddessenshrinedinLianFengMiao,NuwaMiaoandSanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiaocanbetracedintwomythologicalnovels,FengshenYanyi(CreationoftheGods)andXiyouJi(JourneytotheWest),aswellasinthehistoricalnovelSanguoYanyi(ThreeKingdoms).175Theseclassicaltextsserveasavehiclefortheconsolidationofmyth-making;andfortheeuhemerizationofhistoricalfiguresintosupernaturalbeings.Moreover,theyareimportantsourcesrevealingthepowerofmythologicalnarratives,whichre-enactandconfoundwiththehistoryofChina.Confucianism,Buddhism,andDaoismhavebeencalledtheThreeTeachings,whichformedthemainstreamofChineseculture’s“greattradition”.SyncretismamongtheThreeTeachingsand,moregenerally,betweenBuddhismandDaoism,wasafaddishtrendsincetheendoftheMingdynasty.Inlinewiththesyncreticoutlookandtolerationofdisparatebeliefs,thethreetemplesdiscussedinthisbookarefineexamplesoftheharmonizationofBuddhismandDaoism.BeingoneoftheoldesttemplesinMacau,LianFengMiaograndlyexemplifiestheformaltemplelayoutandconformstoanarchitecturalsymmetryofhallsandwings.Apartfromenshriningtwovirgindeities—TianFei(theDaoistGoddessoftheSea,betterknownasTianHou)andGuanYin(theBuddhistGoddessofMercy),itisanall-embracingtempledisplayingaplethoraofmythologicaldeities,folkimmortalsandapotheosizedpersonages.Especially,ithonoursthelegendaryfoundersofChinesecivilization(ShenNong,CangJie,andJuYong),hencetracingthembacktothedawnofChinesehistoryinthedistantpast.Aconstellationofdivinitieshonouredinthe175AlmostallthenotablecharactersinFengshenYanyi,XiyouJi,andSanguoYanyiarecoveredinE.T.C.Werner,ADictionaryofChineseMythology(Shanghai:KellyandWalsh,1932). 

  
  
 

213CONCLUSIONtempleoffersdiversebeliefsandgivesthegeneralpublicchancestoselectandadoptwhatbestsuitstheirsupplication.WhenMacauisdubbeda“MarianCity”,itisalsojustifiabletocallit“CityofGuanYin”and“CityofTianHou”.WhileGuanYinisreveredasthesaviourofshipwrecksandthequellerofdisorderontheseas,TianHouishonouredasthepatronessoffishermenandtheseagoddessofcoastalstability.Similarly,theVirginMaryislaudedasthe“StaroftheSea”andthe“PortoftheShipwrecked”.Thesethreevirgindivinities,sharingtheseaborneduties,almostdominatethereligiouscultureinpeninsularMacau.Theyenjoyequivalentpopularityandnonecaneclipsetheother.Thetête-à-têteofthevirgintrioconvergesintoEast-WestreligiousforcesinMacau.Thisvirgintrioistheverypersonificationofthereligiousideologyofextremecompassionandmercy.SuchloftyideologyhasprobablyfosteredasensibilityforthePortugueseandtheChinesetotoleratecross-culturalattributesanddifferentreligiousbeliefs.Andthesespecificreligiousexperiencesprovideanoverallframeworkofmeaningsandvaluesforvariousethniccommunities;notleasthelpnourishgroupcohesion,solidarity,andasenseofcollectiveidentity.AsLianFengMiaowasexpandedtobecomeanexaltedtemple,NuwaMiaodiminishedafterafire.Amidsocio-culturalchanges,NuwaMiaoandthecultofNuwahavelostsomeauraofglamour.ThedivinedutiesofNuwaaregraduallyreplacedbythemoreurgentandmuchneeded“mainstream”servicesassociatedwithsafetyatsea.InChinesemythicalhistory,thewere-snakeNuwaisthearchetypalcreatrixandsaviourofhumankind.Sheis,nevertheless,recountedastheconsortofherbrotherFuxi,thefirstlegendarysovereignofearlyChina.TheNuwa/Fuxirelationshipbringsoutthetabooofsiblingincestuousmarriage,andechoesthethemeofincestinsomerepresentativemythologiesoftheworld.InFengshenYanyi,Nuwaisportrayedethereallybeautiful.Yetherdivinemonumentalityis“degraded”byscribalprejudicebecauseshehastopayrespectstoFuxionherownbirthday.Thisepisodeinsinuatesthatshebecomesalessimportantgoddessinthepatriarchalhierarchy.Furthermore,herdivinebenevolenceis“tarnished”whenshemanifestsherdemonicaspectasawrathfulgoddesstopunishKingZhou’sblasphemybydestroyingtheShangdynasty.Nuwa’snewroleshavebeenre-shapedand“invented”inMacau.Sheislargely 

  
  
 

214TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESveneratedastheGoddessofMarriage,GoddessofMatch-making,andGoddessofFertility.SharingasimilarrolewithGuanYinandTianHou,Nuwahasbeenlookeduponasthebestowerofchildren.SinceNuwaMiaoissituatedinthevicinityofMacau’sformerredlightdistrict,sexworkerswouldsupplicateblessingsfromher.Withthissituationalneed,Nuwahascometobeaquasi-patronessofprostitutes.InNuwaMiao,hersubordinatestatusastheconsortofFuxiisneithermentioned,northereisa“divinespace”forhonouringFuxi.Nuwaisreveredinherownrightasthesupremegoddess—theRepairerofHeavenandMotherEarth,thusretainingheroverwhelminggreatnessandmatriarchalgrandeurattheedgeofsouthChina.ThetempletracesNuwabacktotheprimordialcreationofthecosmosandhumanbeings,whereasLianFengMiaotraceslegendaryfoundersofChinesecivilization.Inthisrespect,NuwaMiaogoesfarbackbeyondLianFengMiaoinpointoftimeandprestige.FemaledeitiesarealmostdominantinreligiouscultureandoutshinemostmaledivinitiesinMacau.GuanDi(EmperorGuan),however,canstandoutfromtheinfluentialgoddessesandenjoyssurgingpopularityamongallclassesoftheChinesepopulace.BeingahistoricalwarrioroftheThreeKingdomperiod,GuanYuhasbeendeifiedandiscommonlyaddressedasGuanDi.GuanYuisnotonlyenshrinedasGuanDiandWuDi(MilitaryEmperor)inLianFengMiao,butalsoveneratedastheguildgodandwealthgodinSanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiao.WhenMacauwaslistedasaWorldHeritageCitybyUNESCOin2005,SanjieHuiguan-GuanDiGumiaowasincludedasoneofthepatrimonialsitesin“TheHistoricCentreofMacau”.Quitedifferentfromthetwotemplesdiscussed,whicheclecticallyenshrinegodsandgoddesses,thisstructureisexclusivelydedicatedtomaledeities.ThebuildingwasoncetheheadquartersoftradeandcommerceintheChinesecommercialdistrict.Ithasbeeninvestedwithadualdesignationasaguildhallandatemple.Theintegratingfunctionsoftheguildhall-templereadilypointtobusinessactivitiesrelyingonreligioussupervisionanddivinesurveillance.ThecultofGuanDiembracestwocrucialconnotations—evokingsacredelementstojustifysecularbusiness,andupholdingethicalprinciplesthatgovernthedecentacquisitionandproperdispensationofwealth.GiventhatGuanYuisdescribedastheverypersonificationofrighteousnessinSanguoYanyi,hehasbeenconstructedastheepitomeofConfucianvirtues.Throughout 

  
  
 

215CONCLUSIONtheages,GuanYuhasbeenglorifiedbytheChineseimperialauthorities.HisupwardmobilitytogodhoodoffersagoodexampleoftheprocessofapotheosiscommoninChina.GuanDiisoneofthemostwell-likeddeitiesandcomestorepresentanall-encompassingiconinChinesenationalculture.Religioustraditionsarenetworksofmyths,symbolsandrituals,whicharenotfixedbutsusceptibletochanges.Thesethreetemplesillustratetheevolutionofreligiouspraxes,whichtransformovertimebyadaptingtochangingcircumstancesandbypanderingtotheneeds,interests,andfancyofthegeneralpublic.RegardlessofbeinglocatedattheperipheryofsouthChina,MacaubecametheWest’s“Easternstage”parexcellencefortheprojectofevangelizationduringthethirdquarterofthesixteenthcentury.Variousreligiousorders(i.e.theJesuits,Franciscans,Augustinians,andDominicans)cametoMacauandfoundedbranchesconsecutively.MacauwastransformedintoasolidChristiancommunityandbecametheDioceseforothernearbyplaces.Seventeenth-centuryMacauwasaspectacularChristiancity,andCatholicismwasthedominantreligiousdiscourse.Underthe“monopolized”Christianreligiousideology,however,ChinesereligionshavesurvivedandprosperedinMacau.WhydidChristianityfailtoeradicateandreplacetheBuddhist/Daoistfaiths?JacquesGernetisoftheopinionthatinChinatherewasahierarchyofdeitiesandcultsfixedbythestate,andasaresultthereemergedadominanttraditionthatintegratedreligionwithpoliticalorder,butChristianityfelloutsidethistradition.Moreover,Christianmissionarieslaidastrongemphasisupononetruth;andthetranscendentanduniversalnatureoftheirreligion,butdespisedallworldlyvaluesandpaganbeliefs(Gernet,1985:115-6).ForGernet,theemphasisofasacrosanctdogmawasquitealientotheChineseoftheseventeenthcentury.TheChristianconceptofthedistinctionsbetweenthespiritualandthetemporalastwocompletelydistinctdomainswasalsoinapplicabletotheChinesemindset(Gernet,1985:65-6).ThedifferencesinmentalcategoriesandmodesofthoughtbetweenmonotheisticChristianityandpolytheisticChineseattitudesnecessarilymadeitdifficultformissionariestogainfollowersamongthemajorityChineseinMacauandinChina.Despiteextensiveevangelicalefforts,saysGernet,‘ChristianitywasimpossibletointegratewithinthesystemofChinesereligions’(Gernet,1985:115).InlightofthepolytheisticspiritofChinesereligions,theexclusiverighteousnessofChristianitycould 

  
  
 

216TRACINGMACAUTHROUGHCHINESEWRITERSANDBUDDHIST/DAOISTTEMPLESnotexpungeChineseculture’s“greattradition”.InMacau,theexistenceofabundanttemplesdemonstratesthedefianceagainsttheintroductionofChristianity,whilemyriadsofgodsandgoddessesbestexemplifythepolytheistictraditionoftheChinesebeliefsystems.MacauhasarichlegacyofChinesetemplesandChristianchurches.This“religiouscity”isalsodottedwitheclecticmonumentsandstatues,nottomentionaboundingcasinosandbrothels.WhenHongKongishailedastheCityofLifeandAsia’sWorldCity,Macauhasalreadyacquiredanovelidentity—CityofCulture.ThedesignationofMacauastheCityofCultureisintendedtopromoteculturaltourism,andtoeraseitsinfamousimageastheCityofSin(Hao,2011:207).Aboveall,thecoinageofCityofCulturemayservetoremoveallthosenegativecolonialimagesofMacaubeingattheboundaryofcivilization,andbeingtheWest’s“shackledother”.Asoneaspectoftouristattractions,anumberofnewmuseumswereinauguratedinthe1990’s—theGrandPrixMuseum(1993),theWineMuseum(1995),theMuseumofSacredArtandCrypt(1996),theMacauMuseum(1998),andtheMuseumofArt(1999).Bythetimeofthehandoverin1999,therewerenofewerthantenofficialmuseumsinMacau(includingthosebuiltbefore1990).Inaddition,theMacauScienceCentrewascompletedin2009.Themuseumprojectsarecentraltothedevelopmentofculturaltourism,whichhasbecomealucrativeindustrysinceMacauwasascribedasaWorldHeritageCity.Thesemuseums,ontheonehand,helppreservethememoryofanearliereraofMacau’shistoryandculture;andontheotherhand,theyhelpinstilasenseofbelongingtothecity.Atthesametime,museumsareimportantsitesforthecreationandconsolidationofacollectiveidentity,notleasttheyenableMacautoprideitselfastheCityofMuseums(Clayton,2003:118-21).Macauhasalsobeencreatedasafavouriteplaceforconferences,corporatemeetings,galadinnersandbanquets;andforspectacularannualeventsandexhibitions.Notablevenuesare:theMacauCulturalCentre(1999),theMacauForum(reconstructed1999),theMacauTowerConventionandEntertainmentCentre(2001)(Plate22),andMacauFisherman’sWharf(2005).Theselandmarksconstituteavibrantattraction,addingtoMacau’srepertoireastheCityofSpectacularEventsandCityofCelebration. 

  
  
 

217CONCLUSIONPlate22The338-metrehighMacauTowerThisisthefascinationofMacau.ItsmetamorphosesfromanearlyPortuguesesettlementtoaWorldHeritageCityarefullofcaptivatingwonders.Intheebbandflowofhistoricalcurrents,Macauhashadmanifold“visages”onparade,showingantitheticalimageswithenthrallingcharm.ItsmesmerizinggamblingattractionsanditsdistinctiveculturalendeavoursareincomparabletothoseofotherAsiancities.TheSino-LusitanianinfluenceshavegroomedMacautoenjoyinternationalfameontheworldstagesincethedawnofthethirdmillennium. 

  
  
 

 

  
  
 

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