StudiesinManagementSeriesICulturalDiversityandManagementThecaseofworkmotivationMACAUFOUNDATION

CULTURALDIVERSITYTHECASEOFWORKMOTIVATIONANDMANAGEMENTPEDROCORREIA

MACAUSTUDIESINMANAGEMENTSERIESEditedbyNelsonJosedosSantosAntonioThisseries,publishedbytheMacauFoundationinassociationwiththeFacultyofBusinessAdministrationattheUniversityofMacau,willmakeavailablebothoriginalresearchandtextbooksonawiderangeofmanagementsubjectswithspecialemphasisonChina,thenearbyAsianregion,andEurope.QualityManagement:100QuestionsandAnswersQualityResearchGroupQuality:TheoryandPracticeNelsonJosedosSantosAntonioConsumerValuesandMarketSegmentationinChinaIssuesandImperativesforMarketingManagers-anExploratoryStudyLeonardoAnthonyNajarroDiokoTheDynamicImpactofCultureonOrganizationsEditedbyTadashiUmezawa,SiewHua!Kong,andCarlosNoronhaQualityManagementandChineseCompaniesinMacauAntonioTeixeiraMacau1960s-1990s:TechnologyUpgradinginaToyManufacturerADynamicandInteractiveSystemofStrategicManagementJorgeR.S.BastoDirectTaxationinMacauCarlosNoronhaReformofLarge-or-MediumScaleStateEnterprisesKeyTransitionfromCentralPlanningtoSocialistMarketEconomyXueliWangTheMarketSystemIntermediateMicroeconomicsRobertHaneyScottCultureandManagementObservationsinAsia,Europe,andAfricaEditedbyHideolnoharaandCarlosNoronhaTheImpactofTechnologyonOrganizationsTheCaseofaGovernmentDevelopmentLamUTongCulturalDiversityandManagementTheCaseofWorkMotivationPedroCorreia

CulturalDiversityandManagementTheCaseofWorkMotivationPedroCorreiaMACAUFOUNDATION

Firstpublished1999byMacauFoundationP.O.Box3052,MacauTel:(853)966777Fax:(853)968658©1999MacauFoundationandtheauthor.PrintedandboundinMacaubyTipografiaWelfareLda.DistributedbyCulturalPlazaMacauLtd.FrontcovercartoonsbyLarryFeign,©1985Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.Price:MOP$80ISBN972-658-111-7

Tomyfamily,especiallymymotherandIsabel,mywifeandmysupport

CONTENTSFiguresTablesINTRODUCTIONCOMPARATIVEMANAGEMENTESSENTIALISSUESOFCOMPARATIVEMANAGEMENTMAJORMODELSOFCOMPARATIVEMANAGEMENTCONCEPTSOFCULTUREHOFSTEDE'SDIMENSIONSOFNATIONALCULTURERECENTDEVELOPMENTSOFTHECULTURECONCEPTWORKMOTIVATIONTHEORIESCONTENTTHEORIESPROCESSORCOGNITIVETHEORIESRECENTDEVELOPMENTSOFWORKMOTIVATIONTHEORIESTHEIMPACTOFCULTUREONWORKMOTIVATIONTHEORIESSOMEFINALCONSIDERATIONSRESULTSANDDISCUSSIONVALUESUNDERLYINGEACHSAMPLECULTUREUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICAPORTUGALMACAUCHINESEWORKMOTIVATIONTHEORIESOVERVIEWOFTHEFINDINGSCONCLUSIONSPROFILEOFTHEMULTICULTURALMANAGERACKNOWLEDGEMENTREFERENCESXIII261218252832485861727375798397113153159163166167

NOTESANNEXESI-HOFSTEDE'SDIMENSIONDIFFERENCESACCORDINGTO:II-HOFSTEDE'SCOUNTRYPOSITIONINGIN4DIMENSIONSIll-FIELDRESEARCHRESULTSIV-THREESOCIETIES'CULTURALVALUESINDEX185203208213216239

FIGURESFigure1-FarmerandRichmanModel7Figure2-NegandhiandPrasadModel9Figure3-XiandJingModel11Figure4-TheInfluenceofCultureonBehaviour13Figure5-ThreeLevelsofUniquenessinHumanMentalProgramming16Figure6-The'OnionDiagram':ManifestationsofCultureatDifferentLevelsofDepth17Figure7-IndividualismversusCollectivism20Figure8-TheTheoreticalDevelopmentofWorkMotivationTheories31Figure9-Maslow'sNeedHierarchyPyramid33Figure1O-GraphicRepresentationofAlderfer'sERGTheory36Figure11-ComparisonofSatisfiersandDissatisfiers38Figure12-Herzberg'sTwoFactorTheory39Figure13-ConditionsthatPromoteHighnAchandSatisfynAffandnPow48Figure14-Vroom'sExpectancyModel50Figure15-EquityComparison53Figure16-GoalSettingTheory55Figure17-TheGoalDifficulty-PerformanceRelationship:ThreeMotivationViews56Figure18-IntegratingContemporaryTheoriesofMotivation58Figure19-PrimaryandSecondaryDimensionsofDiversity62Figure20-Cross-CulturalMotivationalMap71Figure21-PredominantChineseValues99Figure22-ConfucianismKeyRelationshipsanditsAssociatedVirtues101Figure23-FaceSaving110Figure24-PortugueseandMacauChineseSamplesNeedImportanceandFulfilment114

Figure25-PortugueseversusMacauChineseNeedDissatisfaction120Figure26-PortugueseandMacauChineseSamplesNeedImportanceandFulfilment124Figure27-TwoFactorTheory126Figure28-SampleResultsontheAcquiredNeedsTheory130Figure29-ExpectancyTheory137Figure30-EquitySensitivity142Figure31-EquitySensitivityConstruct144Figure32-GoalSettingTheory147TABLESTable1-ValuesAssociatedwithLong/ShortTermOrientation(LTO/STO)23Table2-ERGNeedsandTheirDescription35Table3-EquilibriumPointsforDifferentIndividualsRegardingaComparisonOther54Table4-SummaryoftheResearchCountriesPositioningin5DimensionsofCulture63Table5-Hofstede'sTypesofAchievement70Table6-ComparisonofSampleCultureDimensionsPositioningwhenComparedtoHofstede'sResults76Table7-USValuesandtheirImplicationsforManagerialandOrganisationalBehaviour82Table8-PortugueseValuesandtheirImplicationsforManagerialandOrganisationalBehaviour96Table9-HongKongandMacauChineseValuesandtheirImplicationsforManagerialandOrganisationalBehaviour112Table10-SummaryofthemainresearchfindingsofWMT155Table11-SummaryofMostSignificantCorrelationsBetweenWMTandCulture157

"Bynaturemenareprettymuchalike.Itistheirlearningandpracticesthatdistinguishthem.,,,-Confucius"Veriteen-decadesPyrenees,erreuraude/a"(TherearetruthsonthissideofthePyreneeswhicharefalsehoodsontheother)2-BlaisePascal"Whenenteringacountry,findoutitscustoms"-AncientChineseIdiom

XIIIINTRODUCTIONMacauisamulticulturalsocietywhereatleasttwodifferentculturescometogetherinanuniquewayforanadequatesetting.AsmostpeopleIhadneverbeenexposedtosuchculturaldifferencesuntilIhadtheopportunitytoestablishmyselfinMacau.Indeed,itwasthecultureshockthatmademeawareaboutseveralwaysofdealingwiththeproblemslifeputsusthrough.Theconceptoftruthandbestpracticesareessentiallycircumstantial.Theideaofstudyingsuchinfluenceovermanagementpracticesandtheorieswasonlyasmallstepaway.Afterall,Ibelievethattospeakaboutsomethingitisindispensablethatonehasbeenexposedtoitinsomeway.LivinginMacauistheopportunitytoexploretheseculturaldifferencesinloco.ManagementasthewordispresentlyusedisanAmericaninventionwithitsrootsinEuropetheorising.DiversityinmanagementpracticeshasbeenrecognisedintheUSmanagementtheoryformorethanthirtyyears.However,ithastakenmuchlongerfortheacademiccommunitytoacceptthatnotonlypracticesbutalsothevalidityofthetheoriesmaystopatnationalborders.Eventoday,Ifinditquestionablethatmostpeoplewouldagreewiththediversityexpressedintheopeningstatements.However,moreandmoredailyexamplesaregivingusanideathatapparentsimilaritiescanmaskrealdifferencesinbusinessculturesandpractices.Differenceswhichcouldeventuallyleadtoconflictandeventodisintegration.ThepresentsituationoftheWorldEconomyisbestdescribedbyKenichiOhmaeinhispublicationsasthe"BorderlessWorld".Hepostulatestheinevitableemergenceofaninterlinkedworld3economywherethereisintensecontactandinterchangeofknowledgeandexperiencesallaroundtheworld.OneshouldnotunderestimatethegrowingimportanceoftheTransnationalCorporationphenomenaasthesecorporationsactasglobal4playerschanging

XIVdefinitelythemeaningofNationalEconomyandareevenjeopardisingtheconceptofthetraditionalNation-State.Alongwiththeinescapableglobalisationoftheworld,interculturalencountersandmulticulturalenvironmentshavebecomeextremelycommonandtheforeseeabletrendisforsuchencounterstohappeninascaleneverseenbefore.Asthebusinessworldbecomesincreasinglyglobal,thereisaclearneedfortheoryandresearchthataddressesinternationalorganisationalbehaviour.Understandingdifferencesandsimilaritiesinworkbehaviourincross-culturalsettingswillbeanimportantaspectofmanaginginthenextmillennium.Particularly,thegrowinginterdependenceofnationaleconomieshascreatedademandformanagerssophisticatedininternationalbusinessandskilledinworkingwithpeoplefromothercultures.Nowadays,managersandtheirpracticesarefarfrombeingrestrictedtoacountry.Theymustbepreparedtoactinaglobalscaleanddobusinessallovertheplanet.Mostcertainlytheywillbeincontactwithpeoplethatdoesnotsharetheircultureandseemtobehaveinwaysthatareoftennotunderstoodandareevenconsideredinefficientorunproductive.Insum,theemergenceofanewkindofmanagerthatmustactinaglobalsettingisessential.ThisbookisbasedonmymasterthesispresentedtotheUniversityofMacau.Thethemecameintomymindwhen,inoneofmanytraveltripsthroughoutthePeople'sRepublicofChina,IwasdeeplyimpressedandinfluencedbyanEnglishlanguagetelevisionprogramseeninWuhanprovince.ItwastargetedanddesignedtoChinesemanagersandentrepreneurs,withoutmuchknowledgeoftheEnglishlanguage,withpotentialbusinesscontactswith"Westerners"andparticularlyAmericanmanagers.Thefirstaspectoftheprogramcoveredthebusinesslanguageskillsnecessaryforaskingmaterialdetails,relativecompetitivepositionofthesupplier,pricebargaining,schedulingandsomemore.Thesecondandmostinterestingaspectforthisthesiswastheacknowledgementofculturaldifferencesineitheretiquette5orculturalassumptionsunderlying"Western"managementpractices6.Inasimplewaythis

xvprogramalertedmanagersforculturaldifferences,triedtogivethemtrainingabouthowtointeractwithotherculturesandaboveallwarnedthemnottojudgeothersbyone'sownstandards.Diversityshouldnotberegardedasasuperiority/inferiorityissue.Thiseducationalandunpretentiousapproachmademebelievethatculturaldiversitypresents,nowadays,majoropportunitiesforsynergy.Indeed,Mead(1994)pointsoutthatincreasingpriorityisbeinggiventotheteachingofcross-culturalmanagementskillsatfirst-degreeandMBAlevels.Inofworldchangeanddevelopment,theethnocentricmanagerhasincreasinglyrestrictedcareeropportunities.RecentlyBowenetal.(99)publishedanarticle,intheallmightyHBR,inwhichtheycallthereaders'attentiontorealsynergiesreportedbythemajorUSuniversities,duethemulticulturalenvironmenttheywereabletocreate.Thequalityofeducationdoesdependontheculturaldiversityofaninstitution'sstudentandteachingbodies.Forthefirsttimethereisarecognitionthatdiversityisanobjectiveworthwhilepursuing.IfonepaysattentiontoreportslikethoseofHellriegeletal.(1989),inwhichtheUSAranks121\amongthe13topindustrialisedcountries,intermsofworkerproductivitygrowth7,itmakessensetoquestionthesupremacyandtransferability,atleastofsome,Americanmanagementpractices.AccordingtoanArthurAndersen(1996)report,theneedformanagerstorecogniseandunderstanddifferencesinthewaybusinessisdoneintheEastandintheWest,hasneverbeengreaterduetothefactthateconomicgrowthratesinAsiawereuntilrecentlyout-strippingtherestoftheworld.Theorganisationalareasinwhichculturemighthaveasignificantimpactarealmostunlimited.Cultureistoagreatextentcarriedthroughpeople'spracticesandvalues,consequentlytheareaoforganisationalbehaviourandespeciallymotivationalissuesassumeparticularrelevancetothisstudy.Theresearchwillfocusonmanagersorpeoplewithauniversitydegreethathavethepossibilityofascendingtomanagementpositions.Amanagerdoesnotownabusiness

XVIbutsellsitsskillstoactonbehalfoftheowners.Furthermore,hepersonallydoesnotproducebutitisindispensableformakingothersproduce,throughmotivation.Itismybeliefthatthemanagerandhismotivationfunctionassumeaparamountimportanceintermsoftheorganisation'sefficiencyandeffectiveness.Motivationattheworkplaceisthekeyforunderstandingandinfluencingemployees'efforts,whichinturnmayleadtoabetterorganisationalperformance.Inotherwords,foranorganisationtobeeffective,itmusttacklethemotivationalproblemsinvolvedinstimulatingpeople'sdesiretobemembersoftheorganisationandtobeproductiveworkers.Inmymindthereislittledoubtthatmotivationistheenginethatmakespeoplemove.Nevertheless,quiteafewresearchestrytooversimplify8motivationalissues,itismybeliefthatthisfieldismuchmorecomplexandworthwhileexploringasthereisanenormousscopefordiversitytobevasterandricherthaninotherfieldsofstudy.Therefore,itisindispensablethatmanagershaveaninsightofwhatmotivatesemployeesand,nowadays,thereisalsoaclearneedtoinvestigateifthesamefactorsholdbeyondnationalborders.Itisthemodernmanager,thatvaluesmulticulturaldiversity,whowillbestsucceedinaglobalbusinessenvironment.InlightoftheseargumentsandifoneconsidersthatthemostwidelyacceptedworkmotivationtheoriesweredevelopedintheUS,itisreasonableanduseful9tocontesttheefficiency,universalityandtransferabilityofAmericanmanagementmotivationtechniques.Indeed,Hofstedearguesthatmanagementscientists,theorists,andwritersareonlyhumanandsubjecttoculturalinfluences.Thatis,theygrewupinaparticularsocietyinaparticularperiod,andtheirideascannothelpbutreflecttheconstraintsoftheirownenvironment.TheintroductorysentenceofConfuciusisinstrumentalforunderstandingthispointofview:likeitornot,wearetheproductofourownsociety.

XVI!Purposeandmethodologyoftheresearch'Themainpurposeistoinvestigatetheeffectofcultureuponmanagementtheoriesandpractices,byanalysingspecificallythesubsetofworkmotivation.Consequently,theresearchwillexplorethehypothesisofuniversalityofthesetheoriesorif,instead,theyareculturebounded.AnadditionalobjectivewillbetoexplorehowcertainChineseculturalcharacteristicsmayinfluence"Western"workmotivationtheories.Thisobjective'saimistogivesomeinsightsabouthowoneshouldpayattentiontosomedifferentculturalcharacteristicsthatmayinfluencetheoriginalframework.Itwillbenecessarytoinferiftheexistingandmostrepresentativeworkmotivationtheories,allofwhichweredevelopedfor"Western10"countriesandmorespecificallyfortheUnitedStatesofAmerica,aretransferableandapplicabletootherpartsoftheworld.Basically,thisobjectivedealswithtwocontrastingpoles.Onethatbelievesthatworkmotivationtheoriesareculturallyboundedandthus,notreadilytransferabletoothercultures.Defendersoftheotherpolebelievethesetheoriesrepresentsuchfundamentalhumancharacteristicsthatcaneasilybeconsideredasuniversal.Ifinditindispensabletoevaluatetheexistingworkmotivationtheoriesinthecontextofworldinterdependenceandcross-culturalmanagement.InthissenseItookadvantageofbeingaPortuguese,witha"Western"education,livinginthePearlRiverDeltaregionintheSouthofChina11whichisundoubtedlyoneoftoday'smostactiveandgrowingeconomyofthewholeworld.Motivationandcultureconceptswillbedealtinthecontextofthemanagementfieldasthecentralsubjectofthiswork.Additionally,someelementsofthefieldsofpsychology,anthropologyandsociologywillbesoughtandrelatedtothisresearch.

XVIIIInordertotestthestatedhypothesisthreedifferentculturesfromthemostactiveandimportantregionsoftheworldwillbestudied.Thefollowingsampleswerechosennotonlyfortheiractualimportancebutalsobecauseitisforeseeablethattheywillplayacrucialroleintheworldeconomyinthenextcentury.Obviously,oneculturewouldhavetobetheUnitedStatesofAmericaasthemainexporterofmanagementtheoriesandinparticularthebirthplaceofthemajorworkmotivationtheories.AnotherwillbeMacauChinese,asrepresentativesfromSoutheastAsiaandcarriersoftherichandmillennialChineseculture.MacauChineserepresentasmallbutinterestingportionofthevastChinesepopulation.TheopportunitytodealwithaMacauChinesesampleisparticularlyinspiringsincethisterritoryislocatedinthefastgrowingregionofSouthChinaandhasstrongbondswiththeGuangdongprovince.Lastly,Portugal12asrepresentativeoftheEuropeanUnionanditspeculiarsouthernculture.EUhasbecomeamajorplayerintheinternationalarena.IneconomictermsIjustpermitmyselftorefertheimportanceandtremendousimpactthatthelaunchoftheEurohascausedworldwide.IntermsofculturalsignificanceImustpointoutthattheEUisconsideredtobethegreatestlabincross-culturalresearchwithits,still,15membercountriesandtheirelevenlanguages.Indeed,thefactthatthesecountrieshaveassociatedthemselveshasnoterasedcenturiesofrichhistoryandtheirownuniqueculture.Thefirststepintestingthehypothesiswillbetoinvestigateiftheseculturesreallydiffer.Thisobjectivewillbeaccomplishedbyinferring13therespondents'valuesthroughthevaluesurveymodelinstrumentresearchprovidedbyDutchtheorist,GeertHofstede.Afterwards,itwillbenecessarytostudytheeffectofcultureuponthemotivationtheories.Partialquestionnairesreflectingtheoriginaltheorisingofthesetheorieswillbeusedtoinferthiseffect.Atthispointitisimportanttomentionthattheresearchwasnotdesignedtoquestionthesetheoriesvalidityandthusnotdesignedtoimproveoralterthem.Thekindofresearchthatwhichwouldbegintoanswerthisproblemwouldhavetobemuchmoreextensiveandsubtle.ThemethodologyfollowedforcomparingtheresultswillbebasedonT-testsforequalityofmeansandtheeffectofcultureupon

XIXmotivationwillbeassessedthrough(in)existentcorrelationsandtherelativeresultsobtained.Aftersomepreliminaryresearchaninstrument,basedona5pointLikertscale,wasdevelopedinChineseandEnglishtobeappliedrespectivelyinMacauandPortugal.Themainfieldresearchwasconducted14simultaneouslyinPortugalandMacauthroughthemonthsofMarchtoJune1997.Thisresearchwasmadeunderthebeliefandconcernaboutthecomparabilityofsamples,intermsofcultureoforigin,levelofresponsibilityandexposureto"Western"managementthinking.Exposuretomanagementideasandeconomicstatusshouldberoughlyequal.WiththisperspectiveinmindIchoosepeoplewhowerebornandhavebeenrearedintheirparticularculture.Thesamplesweremadeupofmiddlemanagersorpeoplewithperspectivesofascendingtosuchaposition.Subjectswithauniversitydegreewerechosenbecausetheyeitherconstituteorwillconstitutethebedrockofmiddleanduppermanagementinagivensociety.Itisthereforeoftheutmostinteresttryingtounderstandhowthisgroupofpeoplethinksandbehaves,sincetheywilloccupykeypositionsintheorganisations,withtheinherentneedofdealingwithemployees'motivation.Nevertheless,itisacknowledgedthatthissubgroupishardlyrepresentative15ofaparticularcultureasawhole.Anotherissueconsideredisthefactthatrespondentsshouldbeworkingforaprivatenative16typeofbusiness.Intheend,eachsampleconsistedof100elementsverycloselybalancedbysexandcloselyfollowinganormaldistributionintermsofage.Additionally,severalinterviewsonlytoqualifiedmanagers,wereconductedaftertheresultsweremadeavailableinordertoexploresomeoftheresultsobtainedandgettheircomments,possibleexplanationsandimpressions.Theseinterviewswerecarriedonasanattempttoenrichdataanalysisbypresentingpersonalopinions,weretheyaresuitable,aboutpossibledifferencesbetweencultures.

XXTheSignificanceofContrastingCulturalInfluencesThisbookhasnotbeenwrittenprimarilyforthecasualreaderasitisexpectedfromthemtohavesomekindofmanagementbackgroundandworkexperience.Itisneverthelessundeniablethatthebook'stopichasthepotentialtointerestabroadrangeofsegmentsandtounleashthedesiretolearn,observecarefullyandaboveallrecognise,understandandacceptculturaldiversity.Hopefully,thecontentsofthebookwillgivepeopletheopportunitytobeawareofdiversity,constitutingthebasistofacethisissuewithanopenmindbutalsowithacriticalspirit.Ihopethatitwillalsocontributetotheattenuationof"Western"ethnocentrismregardingmanagementtheoriesandmorespecificallythoseconcerningworkmotivation.Butwhoisinfactthetargetgroup?Toconsidermorecarefullythesignificanceofthecontentsofthisbook,requiressomebreakdownoftheinterestsforwhichsuchsignificancefindsmeaning.Theworldofbusinesscouldbearguedtobeoneofthese,astheinteractionbetweencultureshasattainedascalewithoutparallelintheworldhistory.Investorsandexpatriatemanagersoperatinginthispartoftheworldhavebecomeamotorofdevelopment.However,therearenumerousreportsofunsuccessfulrelationshipsmostofthetimesduetoculturaldiversity,lackofcomprehensionofhowtodealwithdifferentcultures,andlackofadaptability.ChinaandparticularlyMacauandHongKongareclearlyanothergroupofinterest,asitwouldappeartohavemuchtolearnnotonlyfromothercultures,butalsofromtheirowncultureandresultsofpreviousinteraction.Asub-groupisrepresentedbyChinesemanagerswith"Western"education.Nowadays,itisusualforcertainfamiliestosendsomeoftheirmemberstostudyabroadtobringbackknowledgeandperspectivesofenrichingthefamilyitself,arethepeoplewhohappentobeinanexcellentpositiontounderstandbothworlds.Nevertheless,theysometimesfacetheconflictofwhattofollow-theirnativeor

XXItheir"Western"education-assometimesthereareconflictsandcontradictionsbetweenthem.Hopefully,thisworkwilldemonstratethatonecannotblindlyapplylearnedconcepts.Sometimesconceptshavetobemouldedandwhatseemsrationalforsomepeople,inacertaincontext,mayseemcompletelyabsurdforothers.Chinesemanagersandacademicianswithout"Western"educationareanothersub-groupthatshouldalsolearnsomethingfrom"Western"practicesandtheories.However,theymustalwayshaveinmindthatitispossibletogiveamajorcontributetotheexistenttheoriesbyhelpingotherstounderstandandintegratetheirowndiversity;Inquiteadifferentsense,theworldofthosethinkingaboutthenatureoforganisations,theacademiciansandresearchersofmanagementtheory,andthepracticionersofconsultancymightalsobeexpectedtopondercarefullytheimportanceofapowerfulforceforculturalinteraction.Iamparticularlyconfidenttheresultsofthisresearchandexperiencewillencourageandbeavaluablecontributetomanagementuniversitystudentsingeneralandpost-graduatestudentsinparticularasastartingpointforfurtherresearchintothisrecentandextremelyinterestingfieldofmanagement.GeneralLayoutoftheBookThebookbeginswithbypresentingaconceptualframework,introducingthereaderstotheimportanceofstudyingcomparativemanagement,themajorissusesinvolvedandthemainschoolsofthoughtinthisfieldofknowledge.Next,theconceptofcultureisintroducedanditsmostwidelyacceptedframeworkisexplainedallowingabettercomprehensionabouttheconceptualisationofthishardtocatchconceptofculture.ThefourdimensionalmodelofHofstede(1980)isbrieflyexplainedaswellastheupsurgeofafifthdimension.

XXIIThen,chapterstwoandthreeexposetherelationshipbetweencultureandworkmotivationtheories(WMT).Chaptertwopresentsthemainmotivationtheorieswhichisnecessarilyashortintroductionintendingtoclarifycertainissuesrelatedwithcultureinordertobreakexistentmythsthatdonotnecessarilycorrespondtotheoriginaltheorising.ThemostrecenttrendsofWMTarealsocovered,whichwillgivereadersabetterideaofwhereexistingscholarscurrentlystand.ThefollowingchapterexplorestheideaofWMTasadependentvariable.ItisparticularlyusefultopresenttheexpectationofhowadimensionbyitselfissupposedtoinfluenceWMTandalsohowcertaincombinationofvariablesmighthaveaprofoundimpact.Thesubsequentchapterpresentstheresultsofthefieldresearchthatwasthebasisforthemasterthesis.Firstitwillexplore,andcomparewithpreviousresearch,theculturalvaluesofPortugal,USAandMacauChinese.Itwillhelpreadersunderstanddifferentmanagementandphilosophiesuncoveringthereasonswhysuchmajordifferencesoccur.AfterestablishingtheexistenceandexplainingthenatureofculturaldiversityIintendtoexploretheresultsofapplyinganAmericanresearchinstrumentinthesethreesocietiesandusingcultureastheindependentvariable.Thebookconcludeswithanoverviewofthemainresultsspreadthroughoutthework,withtheconclusionsandsomesuggestionsaboutfuturedirections.Thisopeningchaptermustnotendwithoutawarningaboutitsauthor.Heisnomoreculture-neutralthanisanyoneelse!

Howtomotivateindiversity?ThisstudyisaboutMacau,PortugalandtheUnitedStates,anotableblendofculturesthatcanhelpyouunderstandthedifficultiesassociatedwithmoti-vatingemployeeswithdifferentsetsofvalues.ProfessorNelsonSantosAntonioWithintheglobalizationcontextwheredifferencesbecomeprominent,PedroCorreiaoffersinthisbookanimportantcontributiontoabetterunderstandingoftheeffectofculturalvaluesonmotivationalpatterns.ProfessorJorgeCorreiaJesuinoIfamanagerialpracticeworkselsewhere,willitworkhereaswell?Mostbusinessschoolswouldhavebelieveyouthisistrue.Thisbookpokessomeholesinthatpretension.Correiamakesagoodexplorationofwhathappenswhentwostreamsofresearchonmanagementmeet,butdon'tgetalong.Futurebusinessscholarswillhavetopuzzleoutthesecontradictions,whilepracticingmanagersinAsiamightrecognizethecontradictionstheyfaceintheirownsituationon-the-job.Foryourmoney,youalsogetaniceintroductiontoresearchonworkmotivationandcomparativemanagementinAsiatoday.Worthreading...ProfessorDavidS.ShawAbouttheAuthorPedroCorreiaisMasterofScienceinMarketingandStrategicManagementbyMacauUniversity.HegothisBachelorofSciencedegreeinBusinessAdministrationandManagementinthePortugueseCatholicUniversity.HehasbeenlivinginMacausince1994and,currently,isagovernmentofficialintheStatisticsandCensusDepartmentofMacau.Previously,hewasanauditorinArthurAndersen'sLisbonoffice.Hehasalsobeenapart-timelecturerintheInstituteofTourismEducation.PedroCorreiahasbeenengagedinstudyingthepotentialimpactofdifferentculturesuponmanagementpractices.BeingawardedaDoctordegreeinthisareaisagoalhepursues.ISBN972-658-11I-7