Commercial Standing and its Background of the 17th Century Macao
Minoru Asada
(1) Preface
There was no Hongkong and there was no Singapore in the 17th century. But Macao had had its history for several decades in the century. However, in the century the Portuguese seaborne empire was at twilight in the Indian Ocean and East Asia. The Dutch and other Europeans were marching to the East. Moreover in this century the dynasty of Chinese mainland was from Ming to Ch’ing. In these hard rimes ir was difficult for the Portuguese Macao to stand alone. Not withstanding Macao uld be independent through nturies. Why could it stand in the perilous years of the 17 century? In this speech I intend to lighten this theme.
(2) Macao and the Seclusion Act of Japan
Dr. Anthony Disney said, “During the first four decedes of the seventeenth century Portuguese trade in Asia- -with a few exceptions, such as the Macao- Nagasaki trade- -was everywhere declining”
Anyway though the Portuguese in the East had a hardtime, yet the Japan voyage remained highly lucrative for them until the late 1630’s. Usually undertaken before 1618 by a single large carrack that sailed from Goa to Ma□o via Mallaca and thence on to Nagasaki, the voyage was carried out there after by groups of swift pinnaces or galliots, for greater security. Till 1635 the Japan voyage brought the Portuguese crown a net profit of 172,000 xerafins.
One explanation for this prolonged prosperity is that the Dutch found it more diffi lt to harry the Macao - Nagasaki leg of the Japan voyage than the Macao - Goa section. This was probably partly because the Formosa Straits was a more difficult passage for the Dutch to seal than the straits of Singapore or the Straits of Malacca, partly because the Dutch attacks on Macao in 1622 and 1629 were de sively repulsed. Moreover, the Dut could not afford to offend the many influential Japanese, including the shogun, who invested in the cargoes carried by the Portuguese ships for Japan.
The citizens of Macao and its Senate repeatedly provoked the Portuguese Crown to remind that the city of the Name of God in China depended on commerce through its prosperity and standing. The commodities of Macao were dependent upon the commerce through the sea. Ali the city lived a life this way. Nothing had its value without these commodities brought by the tide and wind. And the most valuable things among the commerce were Nagasaki trade and traffic with Japan.
It was from the profits of the Japan trade that Ma o took shape, and this mmerce, in spite of o asional set ba s and the competition later en untered from Spaniards, Hollanders and English, was the mainstay of the pla.
But as everyone knows, in 1639 so called Seclusion Act (the Sakoku EdiCt)of Japan was issued by the Shogunate. That was not only the suppression of trade but the expulsion of the Portuguese from the island Empire. The shock of “Christian” rebellion at Hara was quite severe. A shogun and some rojus earnestly discussed the expulsion of Macao merchants from Japan and moreover argued about the attack on the city of the Name of God in China. Before the fall in 1638 the Portuguese were permitted to trade at Deshima, though it was only under a very severe restriction. But Vasco Palha de Almeida who came to Nagasaki in 1639, was not permitted to trade. Moreover this Capitão - mor was compelled to take a copy of the edict dated 5th July in 1639, that ordered the supression of Macao - Nagasaki trade at once and for ever. The day - register of 6th December in 1640 in the Batavia Castle (Dagh - Register gehouden int Casteel Batavia )said as the following:
“Two pinnaces that had a cargo of 20 tons estimated 2 million guldens and were dispatched to Japan last year, were wrecked. Still the other two pinnaces returned to Macao emptyhanded. And therefore Macao city was strikingly damaged. Chinese heavy creditors could not but be paid the commodities from Japan. But enduring much loss, Chinese received this.”And further it said:
“according to Chinese old custom, the military and civil high officers in Canton expected presents, but Macao merchants could not donate this. Therefore Hambuan and the other Chinese thought that they(Portuguese)should be expelled from the country.”By the Seclusion Act of Japan, Macao was sealed the fate of itself. And then on 6th July in 1640, Macao city dispatched the delegation headed by Louvys Patcheo and the rest of 74 members to Nagassaki. And this delegation brought the petition to be allowed to trade with Japan again. But in Japan, of these 74 persons of this delegation 61 Portuguese’s heads were cut off one after another and Indian soldiers were enforced to return by the Chinese Junk to make a report of this situation. The register said, “Ye wicked men, we prohibited ye entry with death penalty if ye come to Japan again. But ye broke this prohibition. Though ye should have died the year before, we helped you with mercy. And though this time ye were suitable to penalize the most miserable death, we considered ye to come for petition without any commodities. And so we gave ye symapthetic death.”
After such was decapitated, their decapitated heads were pierced with iron needles which separated one head after another with a space of six feet on the stand of six feet high. And Indian soldiers could not help seeing these spectacles. They were seriously afraid that they might also be put to death. And though some of them fell down at the spectacles, they were all sent back anyway. That was the petition of Macao’s Portuguese at the risk of their life. But in spite of that, the measures of the Shogunate were very severe.
The day-register in the Batavia Castle said as the following:
“Dec. 6th in 1640. The business condition of Macao is very hard. By the story of the merchant Hambuan who arrived in Taiwan, Macao’s citizens were much distressed. Most mer-chants could not help selling their jewels, gold and silver works for a bit of trade. Moreover as ali sorts of food became very expensive, common people were difficult to eat. Many Chinese returned to Mainland China from terrible scarcity of money. Though ali sorts of things in Macao had to be brought from Mainland China, their imports were ver/scanty.”
(3) Trade with the Solar and Timor Islands
That time was the transitional one from Ming to Ching period. And so Macao’s standing base was more unstable. In 1641, Malacca was seized by the Dutch, and it became doubtful to connect Macao with Goa and then with the mother country. The Seclusion Act of Japan was issued in these situations. It was a very unfortunate time for Macao. Yet the other important trade of Portguese other than the trade with Japan was the one between Macao and Manila.
At the same time, in their mother country(Spain) a rebellion of Cataluna broke out. The prime minister of Spain, Olivarez wanted to supress it and exercised strict control over his subjects. He exercised strictly the policy which ali of Spanish subjects should be subordinate to Castilia. The Portuguese rose against this strict policy, too. João of the Braganza of Portugal supported by the Portuguese Jesuits and Lisbon citizens ascended the throne as the king Dom João IV in Dec. 1640. In this way Portugal recovered her independence. This Portuguese political independence from Spain was warmly welcomed at Macao. And the Macanese held a highly celebrated event in 1642. But in consequence of that, they could not trade with Manila so smoothly as the time when they belonged to the same king of the Habsbrug with the people of Manila. The trade with Manila became much more important than before because the trade with Nagasaki stopped. But this trade dwindled, too, in this period.
About 1640, Macao was in the mist of tight situations. It is very admirable that the Portguese Macao could survive in spite of these tight situations. Macao was compelled to cut off trade communication with Nagasake, be seized Malacca by Dutch and loose Manila trade, nevertheless it could survive. Although everything went against Macao, one reason why it (she) could survive, seemed that its commercial trading activities with various parts of South - East Asia except Manila and Mallaca, were carried out actively still afterwards. Especially it seemed that voyages to Timor or Solor in the spice islands were considered important just as the voyages to Nagasaki or Manila. By the description of an Italian Marco d’Avalo in 1683 the trade situations of Macao with the various places of South - East Asia were as the following'
“From the sail City of Maccayw there said yearly navetten, junks, frigates and smaller vessels, to Tonquin, Quinam, Chiampa, Cambodia, Makassar, Solor, Timor, and other places where they can trade advantageously. These voyages are free for all and sundry to participate in different Japan or Manila trades. Albeit there is great danger of their being taken by the Hollander’s ships, nevertheless all and sunday can be free to go.”
Still more d’ Avalo said, “In the year 1631, a certain Antonio Lobo( or Agostinhio Lobo), arranged with the Viceroy for the monopoly of these voyages to Makkasar, Solor and Timor whereby he thought to make great profits.”
The Viceroy of India who took part in this scheme of monopoly was Conde de Linhares. He tried to reconstruct Estado da lndia of Portugal and its economic conditions. And for that purpose he also founded the Portuguese East India Company in imitation of Dutch and English Companies. And he thought to put still the voyages around Macao under control as one of such economic reconstruction policies of Portuguese Asia. But against the plan of control and monopoly on Solor and Timor trade the Macao citizens refused to participate, so that plan failed. And so Lobo was forced to make the voyage alone, with very disadvantageous results to himself. This monopoly was therefore never enforced, and the commerce thither remained free and open as formerly, nor did the King levy any tax thereon, either in the outward or homeward voyage.
Among all trade goods which could get by Solor and Timor trade, was the sandalwood that was loved by the Chinese. The sandalwood was yielded on the Malabar coast of India, and it was not yielded only in the Solor and Timor Islands. But in Indonesia it was yielded the places from Eastern Javag to the Lesser Sunda Islands and the good quality of sandalwood was yielded much more in quantity in the eastern part of the Islands. So in China every man knew that the best quality of the sandalwood was yielded in the Timor Island. Formerly Macaenses imported mainly the sandalwood produced in Marabar coast by way of Malacca, Goa and Cochin. On this occasion, they had to pay the customs duties at Malacca and other places and when they sold the sandalwood from Macao to China they had to pay export duties again. Nevertheless they could get pretty great profits.
But in the 17th century owing to the blockade of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore by Hollanders, they could no longer come and go this way. And they went directly from Macao in very well fitted out pinnaces to the Lesser Sunda Islands. First they arrived at the Solor Island and then went to the best producing centre, the Timor Island. By the description of Antonio Boccaro, “On arriving at Solor the pinnaces from Macao take in some native Christian soldiers, most of whom keep themselves out of their pay, with which they go to the island of Timor, thirty leagues distant from Solor, and there lade sandalwood”.
Then they never failed to have frequent skirmishes by land and sea with Hollanders, who likewise went thither to seek the same sandalwood. However the Portuguese always came off best, for the Macaenses were wealthy and not lacking in artillery. And their pinnaces were very well built and ran at high-speed. Moreover the soldiers who were taken captive in Solor were very capable and fought resolutely against the Dutch.
Moreover the voyages from Macao led to seek the spices at Macassar. But probably Macassar did not buy so much of China-root cangas and nonos, porcelain and others. However what they brought form Macassar were very important. These imported comodities were all kinds of Southern spices and so on which they could buy by passing through the Dutch hands. They could buy cloves, pepper, nutmegs and mace and so on.
Other than this the voyage made from Macao to Cochin-China became more and more important trade sector. Cochin-China was prosperous of traffic with Japan. And so this country was convenient for the Macaenses to get some silk piece-good for Japan before the Seclusion edict. In and about 1640 when Macaenses lost the trade with Japan and Manila, they could enjoy only the flourished trade voyage made to Solor and Timor. Anyhow this voyage to Solor and Timor was so important that the Portuguese viceroy to India, Conde de Linhares intended to monopolize this for the Portuguese crown. Therefore it was not so unreasonable that this voyage could be compared to the voyage to Japan and Manila. After 1640 the voyages made from Macao to Timor became more profitable trade sector. Afterwards in the end of 17th century and the beginning of 18th century, this trade of Macao had no way other than sea - borne commerce, but it still depended upon the sea route to Lesser Sunda Islands after the ways to Mallaca, Nagasaki and manila were cut off.
(4) Relations with official and local Chinese.
Other than this trade, what was much more important for Macao was the relations with Chinese government or official Chinese. As the only route of import and export commodities to China under a policy of seclusion, Macao could be a very significant city. But in the confusions and convulsions of transition from Ming to Ch’ing period and moreover in the Dutch and other powerful European marching to the East, it is necessary to keep a good relation with Chinese officials for Macao to be able to survive.
In 1654, the population of Macao was over 40, 000 souls still. Almost ali of China including Macao, 1648 was a famine year. Food supplies to Macao dwindled, and 5000 people starved to death. They say 5000 people were perhaps one eighth of the population. And so in this period it is certain that Macao had at least 40, 000 persons. Despite the calamitous rimes which the city of Macao was enduring in consequence of the loss of trades with Japan and other places the population of Macao was still over 40, 000. In this period it was necessary for the Portuguese in Macao to keep good relation with the Chinese. But no one could be sure what the harsh new rulers in Canton(the Ch’ing General Li Ch’engtung) might make of the thin tissue of Ming precedents for toleration of this alien growth on Chinese soil.
The official rule of Ching dynasty to China began at 1644, and Canton was brought under Ching’s control at 1647. At the same time the Ming loyalist Cheng Cheng-Kung intended to recover the Ming dynasty in Amoy. After he continued to fight with Ching solidiers in 1650’s he defeated the Dutch and conquered Taiwan in 1661. And Ching Government took the coastal evacuation policy was planned to cut off strictly the communication with foreign countries. The Portuguese in Macao thought that they were foreigners and that therefore they were out of the evacuation edict. But on May 14 in 1662, a proclamation was posted in Macao ordering the evacuation of all its Chinese residents within three days. The Chinese hurried to obey. In consequence of this, the city was deprived of all its craftsmen, boatmen and small traders in food and other daily necessities. Maritime trade was prohibited, too. Since Macao grew little or no food, stocks must have been exhausted within a few days. The evacuation edict was withdrawn in the end of 1668, and Macao was able to reopen the trade. But for these 6 years it could no help enduring much trial. Anyway the Macaenses could keep good relations with Chinese local authorities and could endure narrowly in these hard times. Canton’s ruler Shang K’o-hsi intended to get much profit for himself through the broad commercial connection with the Portuguese. And Chinese high officials from Manchu could not disregard its commercial profit, either. The viceregal government in Goa paid little attention to Macao, and the less to Lisbon. The government of the Macao city and the management of its relations with the Chinese and its foreign trade were in the hands of an elected Senate of local Portuguese. And the Portuguese knew that good relations with the Ch’ing authorities were essential to Macao’ s survival. Capitão - mor appointed by viceroy of Goa had no voice in these matters. And the local Senate of Macao was organized by the commercial citizens who kept good relations with the Chinese. In the late 16th century and early 17th century the curious form of municipal administration evolved, which made Macao for centuries a uniquely democratic institution amongst the remaining Portuguese possessions. Among the rest the Dutch merchants knew very well the good relations between these Portuguese in Macao and the Chinese in the Canton. The day - register of the Batavia Castle said as the following:
Dec. 31 in 1640. By the opinion of the chief of Hirado factory the matters are this. The most splendid silk goods (that until now the Portuguese were usually able to get, but we Hollanders could not get) were not taken by the Portuguese efforts and wisdom. And it was not by our idleness that our company(V. O. C.)could not get these. These were taken by the Portuguese who could get by great aid of the influential and clever Chinese (they were usual cooperating to trade with the Macaenses). The Chinese were very cautious in ali their order of the manufactured goods, and Portuguese strove to sell these. In this way these two peoples had kept mutuai aid and could get the success that was impossible by the Portuguese only.
After the expulsion by the seclusion edict from Japan, yet the Portuguese had tried to hinder the Dutch trade with Japan in conspiracy with the Chinese. The aforesaid day - register said as the following:
The Portuguese after their expulsion from Japan had paid a large sum of tribute to the Chinese. And they cooperated to intend a wicked attempt. They intended to make Japanese authorities angry with us (Hollanders). Moreover they prohibited the export of silk - goods from Macao in this year. They tried to hinder Hollanders to get these goods and to bring these to Japan.
This wicked attempt that the Portuguese had done with the Chinese were as the following, for example. They made the Statute of Virgin Mary to slip into the silk - goods which the Hollanders brought to Japan. And they made Japanese authorities angry with the Hollanders. And still the silk goods from Macao to Japan were the very popular sorts in Japan and therefore they would hinder these to be brought into Japan by the Hollanders. Anyway for the Dutch, it was their natural sentiment that the Portuguese should be repulsed from Macao and that the worry of the Company (V. O. C) should be taken off. However, despite Dutch powerful funds and marine transportation Hollanders could not expel the Portuguese from Macao. The afore-said day-register of Batavia said as the following:
“If the Dutch attacked city of Macao, the Chinese would think that it was very dishonourable for them, because the Chinese thought that Macao was Ch’ing territory. And such an attack would turn Ch’ing rulers against us (the Dutch)”
As we can learn from these accounts, the Portuguese in Macao were regarded as the resident in a part of China. And the Chinese in one body with the Portuguese determined to attack their common enemies. Anyway, once the Ch’ing Government had decided to tolerate Macao, they definitely consider it to be of Chinese territory, and so would not permit attacks on it by enemies of Portugal. The Ch’ing officials also strove to keep ir for a major source of income by trade. Thus Macao could survive though it held the ambiguous political position. It could endure in the evacuation act and remain unchanged to this day. Such intimate relations between Macao’s Portuguese and local Chinese were not an isolated instance. In the 17th century, when the Straits of Malacca were in peril by the advance of the Dutch, Macao’s merchants went out of funds to trade with Japan. On this occasion those who lent them funds to trade Chinese silk were Japanese Caimyo and merchants. Though they were oppressed by the policy of Shogunate, the Portuguese could keep the Macao - Nagasaki trade by the funds of Japanese. That is the reason why after the Spanish were prohibited to trade with Japan in 1624, still the prohibition for the Portuguese were protlonged until after Hare rebellion. Thus the Portuguese were not only intimate with local Chinese but also friendly with local Japanese.
Moreover at Macassar that had much importance to buy the spices after the capture of Malacca by the Dutch in 1641, the wealthy Macao merchant Francisco Vieira de Figueiredo became a personal friend of the ruling chief of Macassar, Karaeng Patingallowang. Owing to such friendly relations with local persons, Portuguese commercial and political influence at Macassar increased to such ah extent that it threatened to disrupt the virtual monopoly of the Dutch over the spice trade. After ali by the oppression of the Dutch, Portuguese traders gave up Macassar. But as the boom of Macassar depended chiefly on Macao, this resulted in the painful damage of Macassar itself. Anyway the Portuguese were in cooperation with the Macassar people and thus could support the prosperity of Macao for a while.
At any rate, the late 17th century, especially the years from 1681 to 1693, the Portuguese commerce in Macao was astonishingly flourishing. The tutenag export from Chain to the various places of India and the sandal wood import from Timor were the main dealing commodities.
(5) Conolusions
According to afore-said circumstances, the Portuguese in Macao became utterly intimate with natives in East Asia and in South - East Asia. In the trade with Japan and other places and in the relation with Chinese mainland, they adjusted themselves to the environment of those places and thus they were permitted to remain there. The Portuguese had opened the door of Chinese trade 200 years earlier than the Dutch and English merchants did. In the 17th century the Portuguese were in their twilight of the trade in the Indian Ocean. In spite of that, they could continue to survive in Macao and remain to this day. They could stand economically through obediently depending on the world-economy system of East Asia which China took a leading part. The retreat of their power in their mother country and in the Indian Ocean implied the retreat of military power. We should pay attention to the fact that Macao was able to stand economically and commercially without military power, and it is very interesting for me.
References:
A.R. Disney, Twilight of the Pepper Empire:Portuguese trade in Southwest India in the Early Seventeenth Century, 1978, Harvard U. P.
C. R. Boxer(ed. and trans.) Seventeeth Century Macau in Contemporary Documents and illustrations, 1984, Heinemann.
F. C. Danvers, The Portuguese in India: Being a History of the Rise and Decline of their eastern Empire, Vol. 2. 1966 ed. Frank Cass $ Co. N. Murakami and T. Nakamuira (ed. and Japanese trans.), Dagh - Register gehoulden int Casteel Batavia. (The Day - register in the Batavia Castle), 1972-4 ed., Toyo - Bunko.
J. E Wills, Peper, Guns, & Parleys:The Dutch East India Company and China 1662 - 1681, 1974. Harvard U.P.
J.E. Wills, Emvassies and Illusions: Dutch and Portuguese Fnvoys to K’ang-hsi, 1666 - 1678, 1984. Harvard U. P.
K.N. Chaudhuri, Trade and civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750, 1985, Cambridge U. P.
K. N Chaudhuri, The English East India Company: The Study of an Early Joint - Stock Company 1600 - 1640, 1965.
